SCOG Vol. 35 Number 3 Desember 2012

Cover
Tools Name: Research location of shale gas reservoir

in North Sumatra
ANNOUNCEMENT
LEMIGAS
SCIENTIFIC CONTRIBUTIONS
TO PETROLEUM SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY
Volume 34, Number 1, May 2011
Has changed its name since volume 34, number 2, September 2011, to be
SCIENTIFIC CONTRIBUTIONS
OIL & GAS

i
Chief Editor : Dra. Yanni Kussuryani, M.Si. (Chemist)
Managing Editor : Ir. Daru Siswanto (Chemical Engineering)
Ass. Managing Editor : Drs. Heribertus J oko Kristadi, M.Si. (Geophysic)
Senior Editors : 1. Prof. Dr. Maizar Rahman (Chemical Engineering)
2. Ir. E. J asj, M.Sc., APU. (Chemical Engineering)
3. Prof. Dr. Suprajitno Munadi (Geophysics)
4. Prof. M. Udiharto (Biology)
5. Prof. Dr. E. Suhardono (Industrial Chemistry)
6. Dr. Ir. Bambang Widarsono, M.Sc. (Petroleum Engineering)
Editors : 1. Dr. Ir. Usman, M.Eng. (Petroleum Engineering)
2. Ir. Sugeng Riyono, M.Phil. (Chemical Engineering)
3. Dr. Ir. Eko Budi Lelono (Palynologist)
4. Abdul Haris, S.Si., M.Si. (Chemistry and Environment)
5. Ir. Bambang Wicaksono T.M., M.Sc. (Petroleum Geology)
Peer Group : 1. Prof. Dr. Ir. Septoratno Siregar (Petroleum Engineering)
2. Prof. Dr. R.P. Koesoemadinata (Geological Engineering)
3. Prof. Dr. Wahjudi Wisaksono (Energy and Environment)
4. Dr. Ir. M. Kholil, M.Kom. (Management of Environment)
5. Ferry Imanuddin Sadikin, S.T., M.E. (Electrical Engineering)
Secretariat : Publications Affairs
Publisher : LEMIGAS Research and Development Centre for Oil and Gas Techno logy
Alliation and Publication Division
Printed by : Graka LEMIGAS
Volume 35, No. 3, December 2012
SCIENTIFIC CONTRIBUTIONS OIL & GAS is a printing media to promote research and development
activities which have been done by LEMIGAS Research and Development Centre for Oil and Gas Technology.
Address
LEMIGAS Research and Development Division for Alliation and Publication, J l. Ciledug Raya, Kav. 109, Cipulir,
Kebayoran Lama, P.O. Box 1089/J KT, J akarta Selatan 12230 INDONESIA, STT: No. 348/SK/DITJ EN PPG/
STT/1987/May 12, 1977, Phone: 7394422 - Ext. 1222, 1223, Fax : 62 - 21 - 7246150,
e-mail: management@lemigas.esdm.go.id
LEMIGAS Scientic Contributions (LSC) published since 1977 which has been renamed Scientic Contributions
Oil & Gas published 3 times a year. The editor receives scientic articles about research results, related to the
oil and gas research.
Scientic Contributions Oil & Gas is published by LEMIGAS Research and Development Centre for Oil and Gas
Techno logy. Chief Editor : Dra. Yanni Kussuryani, M.Si. Managing Editor: Ir. Daru Siswanto
ISSN : 2089-3361
ii
Volume 35, Number 3, December 2012
Page
CONTENTS ii
INTRODUCTION iii
ABSTRACTS iv
CHOICE OF WATER SATURATION MODEL IN LOG ANALYSIS
AND ITS IMPLICATION TO WATER SATURATION
ESTIMATES A FURTHER INVESTIGATION
Bambang Widarsono 99 - 107
SPECTRAL FILTERING FOR REMOVING COAL BRIGHT SPOT
EFFECT IN SEISMIC INTERPRETATION
Saputro, R.A., Suprajitno Munadi and Humbang Purba 109 - 114
AUSTRALIAN PALINOMORPHS FROM THE BUYA FORMATION
OF THE SULA ISLAND
Eko Budi Lelono and Nugrahaningsih 115 - 127
THE EFFECT OF ADDITIONAL COMPRESSIVE STRESS ON
THE SEAL OF BOTTLE VALVE TO REDUCE THE LEAKAGE
RATES OF LPG SUPPLY SYSTEM
I Made Kartika Dhiputra, I Nym Guni Ridhanta, and Dimitri R. 129 - 137
GAMBIR EXTRACT AS A CORROSION INHIBITOR FOR MILD
STEEL IN ACIDIC SOLUTION
Nofrizal 139 - 145
.
.
.
.
.
ISSN : 2089-3361

iii
INTRODUCTION
Dear Readers,
Scientic Contributions Oil & Gas has a very signicant role in Indonesia science community
and oil and gas industry for information dissemination in oil and gas research and studies.
Scientic Contributions Oil & Gas December 2012, Volume 35, Number 3 presents some
selected results of studies and research in LEMIGAS:
1. Choice of Water Saturation Model in Log Analysis and its Implication to Water Saturation
Estimates A Further Investigation; 2. Spectral Filtering for Removing Coal Bright Spot Effect
in Seismic Interpretation; 3. Australian Palinomorphs from the Buya Formation of the Sula
Island; 4. The Effect of Additional Compressive Stress on the Seal of Bottle Valve to Reduce
the Leakage Rates of LPG Supply System; 5. Gambir Extract As A Corrosion Inhibitor for
Mild Steel in Acidic Solution .
December 2012 edition Scientic Contributions Oil & Gas Editorial Team hope that
Scientic Contributions Oil & Gas can be a reference for the authors/researchers. Reader
feedbacks and inputs for development are strongly suggested and will be highly appreciated
to improve next edition of Scientic Contributions Oil & Gas.
Editorial board, Publisher and Manajemen extend highly gratitude for authors, reviewers
and editors who have worked very hard to making this edition of Scientic Contributions Oil
& Gas is possible to succesfull published.
J akarta, December 2012
Redaction
iv
Bambang Widarsono LEMIGAS R & D Centre
for Oil and Gas Technology
J l. Ciledug Raya, Kav. 109, Cipulir, Kebayoran
Lama, P.O. Box 1089/J KT, J akarta Selatan 12230
INDONESIA, Tromol Pos: 6022/KBYB-J akarta
12120, Telephone: 62-21-7394422, Faxsimile: 62-
21-7246150
CHOICE OF WATER SATURATION MODEL
IN LOG ANALYSIS AND ITS IMPLICATION
TO WATER SATURATION ESTIMATES A
FURTHER INVESTIGATION
Scientic Contributions Oil & Gas, December 2012,
Volume 35, Number 3, p. 99 - 107
ABSTRAK
Saturasi air adalah salah satu faktor penting
dalam estimasi akumulasi dan cadangan hidrokarbon.
Kesalahan dalam estimasi saturasi air akan
menimbulkan bias yang cukup berarti atas kedua
besaran tersebut. Meskipun diketahui bahwa ada
beberapa faktor yang dapat menimbulkan kesalahan
dalam estimasi saturasi air, pemilihan model saturasi
air diperkirakan memainkan peranan yang penting.
Studi ini melibatkan delapan model saturasi air
yang tetap banyak dipakai sampai sekarang. Dengan
menggunakan data masukan yang sama terbukti
bahwa model-model tersebut menghasilkan estimasi
saturasi air yang bervariasi. Dengan perbedaan harga
saturasi sebesar 20% saja maka kesalahan yang
dihasilkan atas estimasi cadangan dapat mencapai
50%, bahkan lebih, terutama jika dilihat lebarnya
potensi perbedaan harga saturasi air yang dihasilkan
oleh model-model tersebut. Bukti-bukti yang
dihasilkan dari studi ini seharusnya dapat memperkuat
kesadaran kita akan kemungkinan adanya kesalahan
tersebut di atas dan menjadikan kita menjadi lebih
berhati-hati dalam memilih model saturasi.
Kata kunci: saturasi air, pemilihan model saturasi
air, kesalahan angka cadangan, kehati-hatian dalam
penerapan model
ABSTRACT
Water saturation is one of the most important
governing factors in hydrocarbon in place and
reserves estimation. Error in the estimation of
water saturation may significantly impose bias
in the estimation of both quantities. In spite of
there are various factors affecting potential error
in water saturation estimation, choice in water
saturation model(s) appears to play an important
factor. This study involves eight water saturation
models that are widely used in log analysis up until
today. Using the same input data, the eight models
have proved themseleves to have produced different
water saturation estimates. Using a moderate level
of water saturation error of 20% evaluation may
result in up to 50% error in the reserves estimates.
Observing the wide disparities in the estimated
water saturation values yielded by the models used
in this study, errors higher than 50% may take place.
This evidence should strengthen our awareness
over the potential error and careful applications of
model(s) and validation of results that have to
be observed.
(Author)
Keywords: water saturation, choice of water
saturation model, error in reserves, careful
application of model
The descriptions given are free terms. This abstract sheet may be reproduced without permission or charge
ABSTRACTS

v
over the mils steel surface. High performance
liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis was
carried out to quantify the catechin fractions in
the tea extract and it was found that eight catechin
monomers were present in both tea extracts. From all
of monomers, it was found that four monomers were
identied as components responsible for controlling
the dissolution of mild steel in 1 M HCl medium.
(Author)
Keywords: mild steel, corrosion inhibition, green
tea, HPLC, potentiodynamic, EIS
Lisna Rosmayati (Technological Assessor at
LEMIGAS R & D Centre for Oil and Gas
Technology)
Lama, P.O. Box 1089/J KT, Jakarta Selatan 12230
I NDONESIA. Tromol Pos: 6022/KBYB-J akarta
21-7246150
THE IMPROVEMENT OF MERCURY REMOVAL
IN NATURAL GAS BY ACTIVATED CARBON
IMPREGNATED WITH ZINC CHLORIDE
Scientic Contributions Oil & Gas, April 2012,
ABSTRACT
Natural gas being produced from gas fields
around Indonesia areas, along with a large number
of other harmful substances (CO
2
,H
2
S, RSH,COS
etc) often contains mercury. Even in small amounts,
mercury and its compounds have an extremely
harmful effect on human health. Mercury content in
the natural gas should be removed to avoid equipment
damage in the gas processing plant or the pipeline
transmission system from mercury amalgamation and
embrittlement of aluminium. Mercury can be removed
by using adsorption processes such as activated
carbon that is impregnated with chlor, iodine or
sulfur. This research is dealing with the process
of mercury removal from gas based on principle
of adsorption and of chemisorption of mercury by
means of activated carbon impregnated with ZnCl
2
.
Time of impregnation is a signicant variable that
can effect adsorption capacity. The experiment results
showed that ZnCl
2
impregnation time of 12 hours
signicantly enhanced the adsorptive capacity for
mercury vapour.
(Author)
Keywords: mercury removal, activated carbon,
impregnated zinc chloride
Maymuchar
1)
, and Ismoyo Suro Waskito
2)
1)
Researcher,
2)
Litkayasa, at LEMIGAS R & D Centre
for Oil and Gas Technology
12120, Telephone: 62-21-7394422, Faxsimile: 62-21-
7246150
COMPARI SI ON DEPOSI T FORMATI ON
ON THE VA LV E DI ESEL ENGI NE
C A U SE D B Y B I ODI E SE L A N D
PETROLEUM DIESEL FUELS
Scientific Contributions Oil & Gas, April 2012,
ABSTRACT
The research on the inuence of the biodiesel to the
formation of deposits on the intake and exhaust valves
diesel engine has been carried out by means analysis
of merit rating. The fuels used on this study are FAME
(B-100), a mixture of 50% (v)of FAME in diesel fuel
48 (B-50), and diesel fuel 48 (B-0). The objective of
this research is to obtain data which represent the
inuence of the biodiesel to the formation of deposits
on the intake and exhaust valve diesel engine. The test
used a diesel engine driving 5 KVA generator which
is operated for 100 hours with 1.000 Watt electrical
load. The results of the study show that the use of
either FAME or biodiesel as alternative fuel in the
diesel engine generator 5 KVA has a positive effect
on reducing the deposit on the intake and exhaust
valves.
(Author)
Keywords: Biodiesel, intake valve, exhaust valve,
diesel engine
Saputro, R. A., Suprajitno Munadi and Humbang
Purba. LEMIGAS R & D Centre for Oil and Gas
Technology
INDONESIA, Tromol Pos: 6022/KBYB-Jakarta
21-7246150
SPECTRAL FI LTERI NG FOR REMOVI NG
COAL BRIGHT SPOT EFFECT IN SEISMIC
INTERPRETATION
Volume 35, Number 3, p. 109 - 114
ABSTRAK
Pada data seismik keberdaan reservoir gas
dan batubara keduanya dapat memberikan efek
bright spot. Oleh karena itu, diperlukan suatu
metode baru untuk membedakan respon bright spot
akibat adanya reservoir gas atau batubara. Spectral
ltering merupakan metode yang dapat digunakan
untuk mengatasi masalah tersebut. Metode ini pada
dasarnya dikembangkan dari metode dekomposisi
spektral yang telah lama digunakan dalam analisa
data seismik. Dalam paper ini spectral ltering telah
sukses diaplikasikan pada data real seismik 3D di
cekungan Natuna.
Kata kunci: Bright spot, dekomposisi spektral
ABSTRACT
Gas sand and coal bed both give bright
appearence in seismic section. For the purpose of
gas exploration one has to differentiate between
gas response and coal respone. A spectral ltering
technique is introduced in this paper to solve this
problem. This technique is the development of the
spectral decomposition method which constitutes
the leading edge in seismic data analysis. Testing
using the real seismic data has been carried out
using the seimic data from West natuna basin.
(Author)
Keywords: Bright spot, Spectral Decompositions
Eko Budi Lel ono and Nugrahani ngsi h
Technology
INDONESIA. Tromol Pos: 6022/KBYB-Jakarta
21-7246150
AUSTRALIAN PALINOMORPHS FROM THE
BUYA FORMATION OF THE SULA ISLAND
Scientic Contributions Oil & Gas, December
2012, Volume 35, Number 3, p. 115 - 127
ABSTRAK
Penelitian ini berhasil membuktikan kehadiran
kumpulan palinomorf umur pra-Tersier pada Formasi
Buya di Kepulauan Sula. Palinomorf-palinomorf ini
memiliki kekerabatan dengan palinomorf Australia
yang umum dijumpai di cekungan-cekungan
berumur Mesozoikum di Australia dan Papua New
Guinea. Kumpulan palinomorf ini didominasi oleh
spora dan dinoagelata. Berdasarkan kehadiran
spora indeks dapat disusun tiga zona mikro-ora,
yaitu (dari tua ke muda): zona Contignisporites
cooksoniae, zona Murospora florida dan zona
Retitriletes watheroensis. Sebaliknya berdasarkan
kemunculan dinoagelata indeks dapat dibuat empat
zona dinoagelata, yaitu (dari tua ke muda): zona
Caddasphaera halosa, zona Wanaea clathrata-
Wanaea indotata, zona Dingodinium swanense
dan zona Criboperidinium perforans-zona lebih
muda. Baik zona mikro-ora dan zona dinoagelata
menunjukan bahwa umur Formasi Buya adalah
J ura Tengah-Akhir atau setara dengan Bathonian-
Tithonian. Secara paleogeogras, kesamaan antara
palinomorf yang ditemukan di Formasi Buya dan
palinomorf yang ada di sedimen umur Mesozoic
di Australia menunjukan bahwa Kepulauan Sula
dan Australia adalah satu daratan pada umur J ura
Tengah-Akhir. Ini berarti bahwa pada umur J ura
Tengah-Akhir, Kepulauan Sula merupakan bagian
dari Kontinen Australia dan terletak jauh di selatan
dari garis Katulistiwa. Kepulauan Sula baru berada
di posisinya sekarang pada umur Neogen.
Kata kunci: Palinomorf Australia, Formasi Buya,
Kepulauan Sula
vi
Scientic Contributions Oil & Gas, August 2012,
ABSTRAK
gak dipakai
Imansyah Ibnu Hakim
1)
, Bambang Suryawan
1)
,
I Made K arti ka D.
1)
, Nandy Putra
1)
,
and Cahyo Setyo Wibowo
2)
1)
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of
Engineering Universitas Indonesia
Kampus UI Depok 16424 J awa Barat. Phone: 62-21-
7270032, Fax: +62-21-7270033, E-mail: imansyah@eng.ui.ac.
id
2)
Researcher at LEMIGAS R & D Centre for
Oil and Gas Technology J l. Ciledug Raya, Kav.
109, Cipulir, Kebayoran Lama, P.O. Box 1089/
J KT, J akarta Selatan 12230 INDONESIA. Tromol
Pos: 6022/KBY B-J akarta 12120, Telephone:
62-21-7394422, Faxsi mi l e: 62-21-7246150
CHARACTERI ZATI ON OF THERMAL
PRECIPITATOR IN SMOKE COLLECTOR BY
USING PARTICLE COUNTER
ABSTRACT
Air pollution in major cities in many countries
has reaching a very concerning level. One of the
cause of air pollution is pollution caused by smoke
aerosol. Smoke aerosols that has an average particle
diameter of 0.1 m 1 m can be found in cigarette
smoke, diesel vehicle fume, industrial fume and many
else. This condition will be worsen by the increase in
the number of smokers, motor vehicles and industry.
Therefore we need to pursue the control method for
that kind of air pollution. In the literature study, its
found that the cleaning method of air ltration for
ne particle with dimension of 0.01 5 m are by
using thermal precipitator. Thermal precipitator is
one method of air ltration based on thermophoretic
force, which is if there is a temperature difference
between two plates, it will cause the force that will
push the particles between the two plates toward
the plate that has lower temperature. In the effort
to help control and reduce the air pollution, for this
study we made a thermal precipitator test equipment
to deposit the particles in the air with the use of
thermophoretic force. That force is the force applied
to the particles that suspended in the uid ow. The
temperature difference between two plates is set
at T=5, 10, 15, and 20
o
C. This study utilized gas
sensors to observe the characterization of thermal
precipitator. From the experiment and analysis can
be concluded that thermal precipitator can be applied
as a smoke collector.
(Author)
Keywords: thermal precipitator, smoke collector,
gas sensor
Nofrizal (Researcher at LEMIGAS R & D Centre
for Oil and Gas Technology)
12120, Telephone: 62-21-7394422, Faxsimile: 62-21-
7246150
CORROSION INHIBITION OF MILD STEEL IN
1M HCL BY CATECHIN MONOMERS FROM
COMMERCIAL GREEN TEA EXTRACTS
ABSTRACT
The inhibitory effect of two Indonesian green
tea extracts (containing various catechins) were
investigated on the corrosion of mild steel (MS)
in 1M HCl medium. The anticorrosion effect was
evaluated by conventional weight loss method,
potentiodynamic polarisation, electrochemical
impedance spectroscopy (EIS) studies and scanning
ABSTRACT
This research has proved the occurrence of pre-
Tertiary palynomorphs within the Buya Formation
of the Sula Island. Most palynomorphs have
Australian afnity and appear in most Mesozoic
basins in Australia and in Papuan Basin of Papua
New Guinea. The palynomorph assemblage mostly
consists of spores as well as dinoagellates. Three
micro-ora zones can be dened referring to the
existing index spores, including (from older to
younger zone) Contignisporites cooksoniae zone,
Murospora orida zone and Retitriletes watheroensis
zone. Meanwhile, four dinoagellate zones enable
to be constructed such as (from older to younger
zone) Caddasphaera halosa zone, Wanaea clathrata-
Wanaea indotata zone, Dingodinium swanense zone
and Criboperidinium perforans zone-younger zone.
Both zonations suggest that the age of the Buya
Formation is Middle to Late Jurrasic or Bathonian
to Tithonian. From the palaeobiogeographic point of
view, the similarity between palynomorphs from the
Buya Formation of the Sula Island and those from
the Mesozoic sediment of Australia suggests land
connection between both areas during Middle to Late
Jurassic. It suggests that, during this age, the study
area attached the Australian Continent which was
situated far South from the equatorial. The study area
appears in its recent position during Neogene.
(Author)
Keywords: Australian Palynomorphs, Buya
Formation, Sula Island
I Made Kartika Dhiputra
1)*
, I Nym Guni
Ridhanta
1)
, and Dimitri R.
2)
1)
Flame and Combustion Research Group
Thermodynami cs Laboratory. Mechani cal
Engineering Department, University of Indonesia,
Indonesia
* Corresponding author. Tel:+628128266036,
Fax:+6221-7270033
E-mail: dhiputra_made@yahoo.com
2)
Technology. J l. Ciledug Raya, Kav. 109, Cipulir,
Kebayoran Lama, P.O. Box 1089/J KT, J akarta
Selatan 12230 INDONESIA
Tromol Pos: 6022/KBYB-Jakarta 12120, Telephone:
62-21-7394422, Faxsimile: 62-21-7246150
THE EFFECT OF ADDITIONAL COMPRESSIVE
STRESS ON THE SEAL OF BOTTLE VALVE
TO REDUCE THE LEAKAGE RATES OF LPG
SUPPLY SYSTEM
Scientic Contributions Oil & Gas, December
2012, Volume 35, Number 3, p. 129 - 137
ABSTRAK
Kebocoran sistem LPG memang tidak dapat
dihindari dalam penggunaannya sebagai bahan
bakar di rumah tangga, mengingat kebocoran
yang terjadi pada sistem ini adalah salah satunya
disebabkan oleh aliran difusi. Kebocoran akibat
aliran difusi melalui karet perapat pada tabung
LPG 3 kg sebagian besar disebabkan oleh aliran
difusi laminar atau bila diketahui perbandingan
compressive strss dengan gasket seating stress
yang bernilai kurang dari satu , dan karakteristiknya
berupa persamaan eksponensial. Penambahan
compressive stress terbukti memperkecil aliran
difusi yang menyebabkan pengurangan tingkat
kebocoran mencapai 33,18 % untuk karet perapat
NBR dan sebesar 36,43 % untuk karet perapat karet
Vulkanisir. Pengurangan Laju kebocoran akibat
penambahan compressive stress sangat dipengaruhi
oleh material penyusun karet perapat (Rubber seal)
yang direpresentasikan melalui nilai parameter AL
dan nL. Analisa numerik memperlihatkan bahwa
von mises stress yang diterima oleh karet perapat
masih dibawah nilai yield strength dari material jenis
karet dengan nilai Factor of Safety (FOS) mencapai
7,08 yang menegaskan bahwa deeksi yang terjadi

vii
pada karet perapat berada pada daerah elastisnya
dengan nilai maksimum sebesar 0,326 mm. Selain
itu, analisa numerik juga memperlihatkan bahwa
aliran difusi yang terjadi pada karet perapat
membentuk gradasi konsentrasi sesuai kedekatan
dengan permukaan kontak difusinya.
Kata kunci: Laju kebocoran LPG, tegangan kompresif,
aliran difusi, aliran laminar, karet perapat.
ABSTRACT
The leak of LPG system can not be avoided in
its uses as domestic fuel which considering it is one
of the result from difussion ow. The leak because
of difusion ow in 3 kg LPG tube is mostly caused
by Laminar difussion ow known by comparing
compressive stress with gasket seating stress which
value less than 1 with characteristic in exponensial
equations. Augmentation of compresive stress is
proved in minimizing diffussion ow which cause
subtraction in leak until 33.18% for NBR seal and
36.43% for vulcanized seal. Minimizing leak caused
by increasing compressive stress is very affected by
seal material composed representated by AL and nL.
Numerical analysis founded that von mises stress
received by seal is still under yield strength from
rubber material with Factor of Safety (FOS) achieve
at 7.08, this condition afrms that deectation
happened in Seal in its elastic area with maximum
value about 1.326 mm. Beside that, numerical
analysis show that difussion ow is occurred in
seal creating gradation concetration based on the
imminent of diffusion contact.
(Author)
Keywords: leakage rate of LPG, compressive
stress, diffusion ow, laminar ow, rubber-seal
Nofrizal LEMIGAS R & D Centre for Oil and
Gas Technology
INDONESIA. Tromol Pos: 6022/KBYB-J akarta
21-7246150
GAMBIR EXTRACT AS A CORROSI ON
INHIBITOR FOR MILD STEEL IN ACIDIC
SOLUTION
Volume 35, Number 3, p. 143 - 149
ABSTRAK
Pengaruh penghambatan korosi baja lunak
menggunkan ekstrak Gambir pada medium
asam klorida 1M dipelajari menggunakan
metode pengukuran kehilangan berat, polarisasi
potensi odi nami k, spektroskopi i mpedansi
elektrokimia (EI S) dan mikroskop elektron
(SEM). Hal ini diyakini bahwa senyawa fenolik
yang terkandung pada ekstrak Gambir dalam
media asam klorida encer dapat bertindak sebagai
penghambat proses korosi. Penelitian laju korosi ini
menunjukkan bahwa ekstrak Gambir memberikan
jenis penghambatan korosi melalui anodik proses,
dimana konsentrasi optimum ekstrak gambir dalam
menahan laju korosi adalah 150 ppm. Efsiensi
penghambatan laju korosi untuk metode pengukuran
berat badan, pengukuran polarisasi potensiodinamik
dan spektroskopi impedansi elektrokimia berturut-
turut adalah 76,52; 88,28 dan 66,27%. Analisis SEM
menunjukkan bahwa terdapat perbaikan bentuk
morfologi baja ringan yang telah direndam dengan
ekstrak gambir.
Kata kunci : Korosi , Gambi r, pol ari sasi
potensiodinamik
ABSTRACT
The inhibition inuence of Gambir extract in 1M
Hidrocloric Medium on corrosion of mild steel in
acidic solution was studied by weight loss measure-
ments, potentiodynamic polarization, electrochemi-
cal impedance spectroscopy (EIS) and scanning
electron microscope (SEM method. It is believed
that the phenolic compounds that contained in the
Gambir extract in 1 M Hidrocloric medium to be
responsible for the inhibition. The corrosion studies
shows that Gambir extract gives an anodic type of
inhibition and best at the concentration of 150 ppm.
The inhibition efciency for weight loss measure-
ment, potentiodynamic polarization measurement,
and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy were
76.52, 88.28 and 66.27% respectively. SEM analysis
shows that the morphology of inhibited mild steel
was improved compared with uninhibited mild
steel.
(Author)
Keywords: Corrosion, Gambir, Potentiondynamic
Polarisation

99
CHOICE OF WATER SATURATION MODEL IN LOG
ANALYSIS AND ITS IMPLICATION TO WATER
SATURATION ESTIMATES A FURTHER
INVESTIGATION
Bambang Widarsono
LEMIGAS R & D Centre for Oil and Gas Technology
Jl. Ciledug Raya, Kav. 109, Cipulir, Kebayoran Lama, P.O. Box 1089/JKT, Jakarta Selatan 12230 INDONESIA
Tromol Pos: 6022/KBYB-Jakarta 12120, Telephone: 62-21-7394422, Faxsimile: 62-21-7246150
First Registered on November 26
th
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st
2012
ABSTRAK
Saturasi air adalah salah satu faktor penting dalam estimasi akumulasi dan cadangan hidrokarbon.
Kesalahan dalam estimasi saturasi air akan menimbulkan bias yang cukup berarti atas kedua besaran tersebut.
Meskipun diketahui bahwa ada beberapa faktor yang dapat menimbulkan kesalahan dalam estimasi saturasi
air, pemilihan model saturasi air diperkirakan memainkan peranan yang penting. Studi ini melibatkan delapan
model saturasi air yang tetap banyak dipakai sampai sekarang. Dengan menggunakan data masukan yang sama
terbukti bahwa model-model tersebut menghasilkan estimasi saturasi air yang bervariasi. Dengan perbedaan
harga saturasi sebesar 20% saja maka kesalahan yang dihasilkan atas estimasi cadangan dapat mencapai
50%, bahkan lebih, terutama jika dilihat lebarnya potensi perbedaan harga saturasi air yang dihasilkan oleh
model-model tersebut. Bukti-bukti yang dihasilkan dari studi ini seharusnya dapat memperkuat kesadaran
kita akan kemungkinan adanya kesalahan tersebut di atas dan menjadikan kita menjadi lebih berhati-hati
dalam memilih model saturasi.
Kata kunci: saturasi air, pemilihan model saturasi air, kesalahan angka cadangan, kehati-hatian dalam
penerapan model
ABSTRACT
Water saturation is one of the most important governing factors in hydrocarbon in place and reserves
estimation. Error in the estimation of water saturation may signicantly impose bias in the estimation of both
quantities. In spite of there are various factors affecting potential error in water saturation estimation, choice
in water saturation model(s) appears to play an important factor. This study involves eight water saturation
models that are widely used in log analysis up until today. Using the same input data, the eight models have
proved themseleves to have produced different water saturation estimates. Using a moderate level of water
saturation error of 20% evaluation may result in up to 50% error in the reserves estimates. Observing the
wide disparities in the estimated water saturation values yielded by the models used in this study, errors
higher than 50% may take place. This evidence should strengthen our awareness over the potential error
and careful applications of model(s) and validation of results that have to be observed.
Keywords: water saturation, choice of water saturation model, error in reserves, careful application of
model
I. INTRODUCTION
Water saturation is an important parameter
in the determination of hydrocarbon in-place in
reservoir. Uncertainty in the water saturation data
results in uncertainty in the estimates of hydrocarbon
accumulation and reserves (Oil & Gas Journal,
2004). However, as Worthington put it earlier
(Worthington, 1985), log interpretation problem of
water saturation determination is that each model
can provide significantly different values. The
problem is still in place at present. Despite the known
problem, log interpretation of today is still often
carried out without any concern over the problem
and the resulting biased estimates remain being used
faithfully for hydrocarbon in place eatimation.
100
Widarsono (2008) also discussed this implication
on estimation of hydrocarbon in place. In the study
Archie model plus four other shaly sand water
saturation models to provide varried sets of water
saturation estimates. The shaly sand water saturation
models used were Popon dkk (1953), Hossin (1960),
Simandoux (1963), and Fertl (1975). Despite
deterministic in nature these old mathematical
expressions are still commonly in use at present. The
study showed that different use of water saturation
model may lead to different sets of water saturation
estimates. Provided no validity check is made this
certainly leads to bias in the estimates of hydrocarbon
in place.
Despite the differences, the study reported in
Widarsono (2008) has also shown that results of
some water saturation models may also prove that
they tend to yield similar estimates in certain ranges
of shale contents and formation rock resistivity. To
understand this occurrence a further investigation
has been performed using a couple of other models
of Schlumberger (1975) and Dual Water (Bassiouni
(1994) plus the more recent model of Kamel and
Mabrouk (2002), and the results are combined with
the previous results in order to provide a broader
view over the issue. As in the case of Widarsono
(2008), this paper is not intended to determine which
water saturation model as the best and most reliable,
but instead with these additional water saturation
models being used it is hoped that this may enrich
our awareness about what the different models could
mislead.
II. WATER SATURATION MODELS
Following the investigation and study made
by G.E. Archie in 1942 resulting in the infamous
Archie water saturation model scores of water
saturation models have been constructed and pro-
posed, especially those for application in shaly sand
cases. In the case of shaly sand water saturation
model, each of the models was constructed based
on various assumptions such as clay structures and
presence of multiple formation water. Despite the
underlying conditions for model validity the models
are often used indiscriminately for any cases of shaly
sands with varying outcomes. Therefore, no special
attention is to be given to the matter in this study,
and water saturation estimates are the sole outcomes
that are required.
Applications of the models have been reported in
many articles, but there were rarely reports showing
the models used simultaneously. It is the interest of
this study to observe the hypothetical application
of some of those models and to be aware of the
differences and the similarities. In Widarsono (2008),
the Archie water saturation (S
w
) model of
t
w
m
n
w
R
R a
S
|
=

....................... (1)
was used as the primary source of comparison, with n,
a, , m, R
w
, and R
t
are saturation exponent, tortuosity,
porosity, cementation factor, formation water
resistivity, and formation resistivity, respectively. The
shaly sand models used in the study were the Poupon
et al. (1953) laminated shaly sand model of
( )
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
sh
w
sh
sh
t
m
n
w
V
R
R
V
R
a
S
1
1
|

.......... (2)
with V
sh
and R
sh
are respectively the shale contents
and shale resistivity, the Hossin (1960) dual parallel
conductance (sand shale) model of
w
c
sh
t
m
n
w
R
R
V
R
a
S
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
2
1
|

.......... (3)
with dispersed clay resistivity R
c
= 0,4 x R
sh
, the
Simandoux (1963) dispersed clay model of
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
w t sh
sh
sh
sh w
w
R R R
V
R
V R
S
2
2
5
4 , 0 |
|
,

... (4)
and the Fertl clay distribution-free model of
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
2 2
81 , 0 1
2
sh sh
t
w
w
V V
R
R
S
o o
|
.......... (5)
(for a = 0.81, m = 2, dan n = 2) with is a measure
of correction on density and acoustic log data and
with values ranging from 0.15 though 0.36.
In this study, in addition to results yielded by the
five water saturation models, results from two
other models are also presented. The rst of the
Scientic Contributions Oil & Gas, Vol. 35. No. 3, December 2012 : 99 - 107

101
three additional models is the Schlumberger (1975)
dispersed-clay model of
( )
( ) (
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
sh w t sh
sh
sh
sh sh w
w
V R R R
V
R
V V R
S
1
5
1 4 , 0
2
2
2
|
|
.

... (6)
Notice the similarity to the Simandoux model.
The second additional model is the Dual Water
(DW) model. As described by Asquith and Krygowski
(2004), the Dual Water model is perhaps the most
widely used of the techniques that go beyond the
shale-volume methods. The DW model of

wa
w
wt
R
R
b b S + + =
2

....................... (7)
recognises the presensence of two kind of water in
the shaly rocks, the free water and the bound water
(i.e. water bound in the clay within the rock), both
of which inuence the overall reading of the true
formation resistivity (R
t
). The basic idea of the
models application is to nd the saturation of the
free water (S
we
). In the Equation (7) S
wt
and R
wa
are
total water saturation (shale corrected) and apparent
water resistivity, and

( ) ( )
2
/ 1
wb w wb
R R S
b

=

..................... (8)
with S
wb
and R
wb
are saturation and resistivity of bound
water. The bound water resistivity is determined from
the nearby shale formation and the bound water
saturation is estimated using
t
wb
wb
S
|
|
=

..................... (9)
Where
wb
and
t
are porosity lled with bound water
and total porosity, repectively. Upon knowing the
Swb, the effective free water saturation (Swe) is
calculated using
wb
wb wt
we
S
S S
S
=
1
.

....................... (10)

The third additional model is the Kamel and
Mabrouk (2002) model. The model is a combination
of Archie and Raiga formulas (Alimoradi et al,
2011) with using two logs of acoustic and electrical
resistivity of
t
m
X
ma p
w
w
R
t V
aR
S
(
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
A
=
1
6
10
1

......... (11)
where V
p
and t
ma
are P-wave velocity in rock
obtained from acoustic log and the P-wave acoustic
transit time of the rock matrix, respectively. Unlike
the shale-volume correction type models, this model
introduces X as additional conductivity added by
clay. The effect of the conductivity in overall is
a combination between this factor and V
p
, which
reects the shale quantity relative to matrix velocity
of V
ma
(= 1/t
ma
). The values of X are proposed as
1.6, 1.76, and 2.0 for sandstone (quartz), limestone
(calcite), and dolomite, respectively.
III. RESULTS OF MODEL APPLICATION
In a manner similar to the study in Widarsono
(2008) a set of the same hypothetical data as used in
the Fertl model is used. This data covers:
Water resistivity (R
w
) = 0,1 Ohm-m
Tortuosity (a) = 0,81 (Tixier)
Cementation factor (m) = 2 (Tixier), and
Saturation exponent (n) = 2
Shale resistivity (R
sh
) = 1 Ohm-m
Additional data:
Bound-water resistivity (R
wb
) = 0.05 Ohm-m (for
Dual Water model)
Clay-added conductivity factor (X) = 1.6 (sandstone,
for Kamel-mabrouk model)
P-wave transit time in matrix (t
ma
) = 160.4 sec/m
(sandstone, for Kamel-Mabrouk model)
P-wave velocity (V
p
) data for Kamel-Mabrouk model
is created through the use of Wyllie time-average
model of
ma f
ma p
t t
t t
A A
A A
= |
.
Choice of Water Saturation Model in Log Analysis and Its Implication to Water Saturation Saturation
Estimates A Further Investigation (Bambang Widarsono)
102
using P-wave transit time in uid (t
f
) of 576 sec/m
and V
p
= 1/t
p
.
Similarly too to Widarsono (2008), for porosity
() and shale contents (V
sh
) a value set of 10%, 20%,
dan 30% is used. Porosity values of higher than 30%
are not used since they are likely to be associated with
low shale contents and therefore similar water
saturation estimates. Shale contents higher than 30%
are not used either, since rocks with these high shale
contents are usually regarded as no longer belonging
to productive reservoir rocks.
Figures (1) through (9) present results of water
saturation estimates for the eight water saturation
models, for rock resistivity values of from 1 Ohm-m
to 70 Ohm-m. The low resistivity values of lower
than 5 Ohm-m are used in order to asses the potential
given by the seven shaly sand models in correcting
the Archie model. On the other hand, the higher
resistivity values of higher than 10 Ohm-m are used
to observe the differences in the water saturation
estimates.
From the plots between rock resistivity and water
saturation, it is obvious that at lower resistivity values
correction on the Archie model is not signicant
especially for moderate porosity (around 20%) and
moderate-high porosity (30%). Any corrections
made by the shaly sand models still keep the water
saturation at high values of higher than 70%. At those
high water saturation levels, the rocks are usually still
regarded as water-bearing.
As in the case of the four shaly sand models
used in Widarsono (2008), the additional three shaly
sand models used in this study also show signicant
difference in water saturation for resistivity values
higher than 10 Ohm-m. As an extreme case, plots in
Figure (9) show that while Archie model produces
90% water saturation for resistivity of 11 Ohm-m
the Kamel-mabrouk model yields a corrected water
saturation value of down to 18%. Larger discrepancies
are even shown by Hossin and Poupon models for
lower resistivity values. On the other hand, the two
additional models of DW and Schlumberger appear
to produce corrections in lesser degrees.
From the four shaly sand models used in
Widarsono (2008), Fertl and Simandoux models
tend to produce similar estimates even though
discrepancies occur for low porosity (10%), as
depicted on Figures (3), (6), and (9). Despite the
similarity shown by the results produced by the two
models, it is worth noting that the two models have
been derived under different principles (see Dresser
Atlas, 1982). One of the cause is most likely due
to the choice of = 0.25 for the Fertl model even
though in general the values range between 0.15 and
0.36. Similar occurrence also takes place between
Poupon and Hossin models.
0
20
40
60
80
100
1 10 100
W
a
t
e
r

s
a
t
u
r
a
t
i
o
n
,

%
Rock resistivit y, Ohm-m
Archie
Fertl
Simandoux
Hossin
Poupon et al
Kamel-Mabrouk
Schlumberger
DW
Figure 1
Plot for the eight water saturation models,
with Vsh = 10% and porosity = 30%.
Note: shale volume fraction is for Poupon et al,
Hossin, Simandoux, Fertl,
and Schlumber models only.
0,0
20,0
40,0
60,0
80,0
100,0
1 10 100
W
a
t
e
r

s
a
t
u
r
a
t
i
o
n
,

%
Rock resist ivit y, Ohm-m
Poupon et al
Hossin
Simandoux
Fertl
Archie
Kamel-Mabrouk
Schlumberger
DW
Figure 2

103
For three additional models, the Schlumberger
model appears to perform in a similar manner
to the Simandoux model, this can be understood
considering the similarity between the two models
(Equations (4) and (6), both are dispersed-clay
model. The DW model in general provides moderate
corrections at lower resistivity values but becomes
at higher resistivities. However, the magnitude of
0,0
20,0
40,0
60,0
80,0
100,0
1 10 100
W
a
t
e
r

s
a
t
u
r
a
t
i
o
n
,

%
Archie
Fertl
Simandoux
Hossin
Poupon et al
Kamel-Mabrouk
Schlumberger
DW
Figure 3
0,0
20,0
40,0
60,0
80,0
100,0
1 10 100
W
a
t
e
r

s
a
t
u
r
a
t
i
o
n
,

%
Rock resist ivity, Ohm-m
Poupon et al
Hossin
Simandoux
Fertl
Archie
Kamel-Mabrouk
Schlumberger
DW
0,0
20,0
40,0
60,0
80,0
100,0
1 10 100
W
a
t
e
r

s
a
t
u
r
a
t
i
o
n
,

%
Rock Resist ivity, Ohm-m
Archie
Fertl
Simandoux
Hossin
Poupon et al
Kamel-Mabrouk
Schlumberger
DW
Figure 4
and Schlumber models only
Figure 5
0,0
20,0
40,0
60,0
80,0
100,0
1 10 100
W
a
t
e
r

s
a
t
u
r
a
t
i
o
n
,

%
Archie
Fertl
Simandoux
Hossin
Poupon et al
Kamel-Mabrouk
Schlumberger
DW
Figure 6
the correction is not neccessarily the norm since
the input parameters of R
wb
and
wb
for the DW
model are simplication and only assumption. For
the Kamel-Mabrouk model, considerable corrections
on Archie model occur at rock resistivity values of
less than 1 Ohm-m. Assuming the input parameter
for the model as real it can then be considered that
this model works well for low resistivity zones with
104
0,0
20,0
40,0
60,0
80,0
100,0
1 10 100
W
a
t
e
r

s
a
t
u
r
a
t
i
o
n
,

%
Archie
Fertl
Simandoux
Hossin
Poupon et al
Kamel-Mabrouk
Schlumberger
DW
their potential of being overlooked. Nevertheless, a
more thorough investigation has to be performed for
a better conclusion.
Regardless whether the models used are the old
ones or the newer models, it has been shown that the
estimated water saturation values remain varied and
without careful checks through the use of production
test data and others the water saturation estimates
still have the potential for misleading the estimation
of hydrocarbon in place. Observing the variation of
the water saturation values produced in spite of the
same data being used hundred percents of error may
result in the estimation of hydrocarbon in place. This
is not to take into consideration of other sources of
error such as in uncertainties in the determination of
porosity distribution and bulk reservoir volume. This
underlines that a careful choice of water saturation
model that suites to the reservoir rock condition is
of utmost important, regardless the principle under
which the model is derived.
IV. EFFECT OF DIFFERENT ESTIMATES ON
RESERVES
In a manner similar to the study in Widarsono
(2008), a brief investigation is made on the effect of
different water saturation estimates on hydrocarbon
in place and reserves. Earlier than the study presented
in Widarsono (2008), a similar study has also been
carried out (Oil & Gas Journal, 2004). Figure 10
presents one aspect of the study, among which is a
relation between error in water saturation (20% error
is assumed) versus the error that can be potentially
inicted on the reserves.
Suppose that a reservoir has average water
saturation of 30%, then with the error of 20% in the
water saturation estimates due to the non-validated
use of different water saturation models this could
inict error in reserves of about 27%. For higher
water saturation values the error is likely to be
higher, with actual water saturation value of 60%
can lead to around 50% error in the reserves. This
is understandable since at higher water saturation
values the reserves values are consequently lower
and therefore more vulnerable to error in the
estimation.
The lesson from the use of relation on Figure
10 is clear, even though the cause of error in the
estimation of water saturation is not limited to the
choice of water saturation model only. As shown in
the same publication, factors such as wrong input in
cementation factors and saturation exponent may also
affect the water saturation estimates. Nonetheless,
the vast disparity between the estimates shown on
Figures (1) through (9) indicates that choice in water
saturation model is also important, and even larger
errors in resrves than are shown in Figure 10 may
take place because of this factor.
Figure 7
0,0
20,0
40,0
60,0
80,0
100,0
1 10 100
W
a
t
e
r

s
a
t
u
r
a
t
i
o
n
,

%
Archie
Fertl
Simandoux
Hossin Poupon et al
Kamel-Mabrouk
Schlumberger
DW
Figure 8
and Schlumber models only

105
V. DISCUSSIONS
Choice for the most correct water saturation
model in conventional open-hole well-log analysis
is dependent on the stage of development of a
eld of concern. In initial stage (discovery) and
the subsequent reservoir delineation activities log
analysis tends to use whatever water saturation model
considered appropriate. However, in later stages
of eld development when more data has been
obtained a more careful choice in water saturation
model has to be made.
Information regarding lithology and shale
distribution has to be at disposal. This is true since
many of the shaly sand water saturation models
have been derived based on assumptions made on
this matter. The best source of information is visual
data obtained by direct observation on core samples
through petrographic analysis. Use of Archie model
is appropriate for clay-free sandstones and carbonates
while detection over clay distribution type and
presence of secondary microporosity certainly point
to the most appropriate model(s). For shaly sands
with no clear distinction over the predominated shale
distribution type, some models such as Alger (1963)
and Fertl (1975) can be used as standard models.
For low resistivity rocks (R
t
< 5 Ohm-m), or
often termed as overlooked zone(s) the choice
over the most appropriate water saturation model
can be considered as not as cruicial as in the case
hydocarbon-bearing rocks with higher resistivities.
For low resistivity rocks, different use of water
saturation models leads in general to whether or not
the overlooked zone(s) can be detected. For higher
resistivity hydrocarbon-bearing rocks, however,
a mistake in choosing the right model leads to
signicant error in the estimation of hydrocarbon
in place. The use of newer Kamel-Mabrouk model
seems to underline this further since the model
provides considerable corrections to Archie model at
this low resistivity region. However, again, a more
careful and deeper investigation has to be spent for
a better understanding.
After choosing the most appropriate water
saturation model, whenever supporting data permits,
it is not necessarily true that all outcomes of the
analysis can be regarded as correct and representative
to the in situ condition. Apart from the fundamental
shortcomings of the models themselves there are
other sources of error such as log data quality,
assignment of support data, and the means used to
distribute the water saturation in three dimension and
at greater scale (i.e. reservoir scale). The choosing
of the most appropriate water saturation model with
regard to the formation rock condition will indeed
reduce the uncertainties in the estimation of water
0,0
20,0
40,0
60,0
80,0
100,0
1 10 100
W
a
t
e
r

s
a
t
u
r
a
t
i
o
n
,

%
Archie
Fertl
Simandoux
Hossin
Poupon et al
Kamel-Mabrouk
Schlumberger
DW
Figure 9
Figure 10
The effect of error in water saturation
(assumed 20%) on error in the resulting
reserves estimates. The x-axis is the actual
average value of water saturatin in reservoir
(Oil & Gas Journal, 2004)
106
saturation. Nevertheless, as have always been shown
by real practices, no matter how sophisticated a
water saturation model could be good input, data
and sources of validation (e.g. well testing and core
tests) is always needed.
VI. CONCLUSIONS
From this study, a set of main conclusions have
been drawn:
1. An inappropriate choice of water saturation model
may result in considerable bias in the resulting
water saturation estimates even at conditions that
all supporting data used are the same. Provided no
checks and corrective actions are taken the bias can
result in gross overestimation or underestimation
over the hydrocarbon accumulation volume.
2. A mistake in the use of unsuitable water
saturation model(s) has a larger impact on the
water saturation estimates for high resistivity
hydrocarbon-bearing rocks (R
t
> 10 Ohm-m) than
on lower resistivity rocks (R
t
< 5 Ohm-m). This
is caused by the increasing discrepancy between
the models performance with the increase of rock
resistivity.
3. The use of the additional models further
strengthens the pressumptions that different water
saturation models are likely to provide different
water saturation estimates.
4. Although various factors are known to have the
potential to cause bias in the estimation of water
saturation, choice of water saturation model
apparentlt plays an important role.
5. Assuming error in water saturation values of
20% from a study in the past, large errors in
hydrocarbon reserves estimation as high as 50%
- may occur. However, the errors could potentially
be higher considering the higher disparities in the
water saturation estimates shown by the different
water saturation models used in this study.
6. Well log analysts have to understand well about
the water saturation models being used. The
understanding should cover aspects related to
the models derivation and their tendency and
performance in producing water saturation
estimates.
7. Well log analysts have to use all available relevant
data in order to maximize credibility of the
estimates regardless at what stage of development
a eld of concern is under.
8. It is an utmost necessity to avoid stand-alone well
log interpretations no matter how sophisticated
the water saturation model(s) being used.
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9. Oil & Gas Journal (2004). Water Saturation Greatly
Affects Reserves Calculations.
10. Poupon, A., Loy, M.E. & Tixier, M.P. (1954). A
Contribution to Electric Interpretation in Shaly Sands.
Journal of Petroleum Technology, August, pp: 29
34.
11. Schl umberger (1975). A Gui de t o Wel l si t e
Interpretation for the Gulf Coast. Schlumberger
Offshore Services, 58 p.
12. Simandoux, P. (1963). Mesures Dielectriques en
Millieu Poreux, Application a Mesure des Saturations
en Eau, Etude du Comportement des Massifs Argileux.

107
Revue de lInstitut Franais du Petrole, Supplementary
Issue.
13. Widarsono, B. (2008). Ketidaktepatan Dalam
Pemakaian Model Saturasi Air dan Implikasiny
(Inaccuracy in the Use of Various Water Saturation
Models and the Implications). (in Bahasa Indonesia).
Lembaran Publikasi LEMIGAS, Vol. 42, No. 2,
August, pp:10 - 18.
14. Worthington, P.F. (1985). The Evolution of Shaly-
sand Concepts in Reservoir Evaluation. Log Analyst,
Jan Feb.
108

109
SPECTRAL FILTERING FOR REMOVING COAL BRIGHT
SPOT EFFECT IN SEISMIC INTERPRETATION
Saputro, R. A., Suprajitno Munadi, and Humbang Purba
First Registered on August 29
th
rd
2012
st
2012
ABSTRAK
Pada data seismik keberdaan reservoir gas dan batubara keduanya dapat memberikan efek
bright spot. Oleh karena itu, diperlukan suatu methode baru untuk membedakan respon bright
spot akibat adanya reservoir gas atau batubara. Spectral ltering merupakan metode yang dapat
digunakan untuk mengatasi masalah tersebut. Metode ini pada dasarnya dikembangkan dari metode
dekomposisi spektral yang telah lama digunakan dalam analisa data seismik. Dalam paper ini
spectral ltering telah sukses diaplikasikan pada data real seismik 3D di cekungan Natuna.
Kata kunci: Bright spot, dekomposisi spektral
ABSTRACT
Gas sand and coal bed both give bright appearence in seismic section. For the purpose of gas
exploration one has to differentiate between gas response and coal respone. A spectral ltering
technique is introduced in this paper to solve this problem. This technique is the development of
the spectral decomposition method which constitutes the leading edge in seismic data analysis.
Testing using the real seismic data has been carried out using the seimic data from West natuna
basin.
Keywords: Bright spot, Spectral Decompositions
I. INTRODUCTION
The high world demand for oil and gas is a challenge
for Oil and Gas Companies. Various exploration activities
have been carried out such as Re-study of G & G of
the existing oil and gas elds up to the expansion of
exploration activities into the deep sea reservoir. As we
know, the deep sea exploration is an activity that
requires signicant investment and has a high risk,
therefore innovation in geoscience is expected to
greatly contribute to the improvement the success
ratio in nding oil and gas.
The rst use of information from the amplitude
anomalies on seismic data as hydrocarbon indicators
was introduced in the early 1970s. This discovery
triggered interest among geophysicist for how to
connect the seismic amplitude with rock physical
properties and uid type. In general, the presence of
gas or light oil in sandstone (soft) can signicantly
increase the compressibility, the velocity will be
decreased so that the amplitude will move towards to
negative (bright spot) but if the sandstone is relatively
hard (compared to the cap-rock) the sandstone
with water saturated will also show a bright spot
anomaly.
The ambiguity of the bright spots response also
appears on the some other of geology event such
as:
- Volcanic intrusions and volcanic ash layer
- Highly cemented sands, often calcite cement in
thin pinch-out zones
- Low porosity heterolithic sands
- Over pressured sand and shale
- Coal beds
- Top Salt diapers
110
In addition the bright spot on seismic data can be
caused by the existence of coal beds. It also causes
dimming effect on the underlying reectors. This
is because the coal bed is a zone that has a high
attenuation property so that very little energy is
transmitted. As a result, the reectors below the coal
beds can not be seen clearly.
Seismic inversion, complex trace attribute, and
Q-inversion are several methods that utilize the
seismic amplitude for the hydrocarbon identication
and reservoir characterization. Therefore it is required
a special technique in order to separate hydrocarbon
and coal beds response.
This paper described deals with a technique
called as spectral ltering which can be used to
distinguish whether the bright spot anomaly due to
the coal or hydrocarbons (gas). Spectral ltering is a
technique based on spectral decomposition method
where the seismic data will be extracted into a
single frequency which can be used to describe the
subsurface geological feature at that level.
II. SPECTRAL DECOMPOSITION: TUNING
FREQUENCY
Spectral decomposition is a novel seismic
technique that was originally pioneered through
research at BP and Amoco in the 1990s. Spectral
decomposition is an imaging innovation that provides
interpreters with high-resolution reservoir detail for
imaging and mapping temporal bed thickness and
geological discontinuities within 3D seismic surveys
by breaking down the seismic signal into its frequency
component.
A fully processed seismic survey contains all of
the frequencies that are capable of being recorded by
the geophones/hydrophones used for that particular
survey (this is known as its dynamic range). After
the seismic source has been shot, the energy
propagates downward into the subsurface and at
each geologic boundary (e.g., an unconformity, bed
boundaries, etc.), the seismic energy is reected,
refracted, and/or absorbed.
As the wavefront continues to propagate into
the underlying sediments, it attenuates, causing
the frequency content to decrease with depth, i.e.,
higher frequencies are better preserved at the top
of the section. Due to this attenuation, the higher
frequencies deeper in the seismic survey are
drowned by the more dominant, lower frequencies.
The purpose of spectral decomposition is to see the
seismic response at different, discrete frequency
intervals, as higher frequencies image thinner beds,
while lower frequencies image thicker beds.
The concept behind spectral decomposition is
that the seismic reection from a thin bed has a
characteristic expression in the frequency domain that
is indicative of its thickness in time. For example, a
simple homogeneous thin bed contains a predictable
Figure 1
Spectral decomposition is used to identify thin beds through analysis
of the frequency spectrum in a short window around the time of the bed (Partyka et al., 1999).

111
and periodic sequence of notches into the amplitude
spectrum of the composite reection (see Figure 1).
However, typically a seismic wavelet contains the
information from multiple subsurface layers and
not just one simple thin bed. The combined seismic
response from these multiple subsurface layers
usually results in a complex tuned reection which
has a unique frequency domain expression; in order
to resolve these thin beds, spectral decomposition
can be used.
(a)
(b)
Figure 2
Tuning frequency, a: High Frequency signal (45 Hz) detect narrow channel,
b: Low frequency Signal (16 Hz) detect width channel (Partyka, et. al., 1999)
As stated before, spectral decomposition can be
used to break down the seismic data into its frequency
component (see Figure 2)
III. APPLICATION
The Technic of Spectral ltering which base on
Spectral decomposition discussed above has been
applied to the 3D seismic data in the West Natuna
basin. For the shake of secrecy the exact location of
the eld not be presented here.

1
2
3
Figure 3
Seimic section and Well log completly dominated by noumerous coal beds
Spectral Filtering for Removing Coal Bright Spot Effect in Seismic Interpretation (Saputro, R.A., et al.) Spectral Filtering for Removing Coal Bright Spot Effect in Seismic Interpretation (Saputro, R.A., et al.)
112
Coals are integral part of the West Natuna geology
and dominant from older group to the younger group.
This is shown in Figure 3 where numerous thin coal
beds dominate the stratigraphy (black arrow).
Moreover, on Figure 4b shows that the seismic
section also contains numerous bright spot anomaly
layers (Blue arrow), number 1 and 3 are top of
Hydrocarbon Sand reservoir which interpreted form
well log data and number 2 is coal beds level. Un-
fortunately, coals produce strong negative impedance
response so that it can be make mistake in amplitude
interpretation.
IV. RESULT AND DISCUSSION
In this paper, to reduce the ambiguity of bright
spot anomaly we applied spectral decomposition
method. The main goal of this method is to predict the
specic frequency both of coal and hydrocarbon in
the well. With this information we can start designing
the lter.
Figure 5 show the general workow for reservoir
identification which consists of Seismic data
conditioning, 1-D spectral decomposition, 3D/2D
spectral decomposition spectral filtering and
Figure 5
(a) Correlation Log bettwen Gamma Log and Spectral Decomposition
at 55 Hz which associeted with Coal beds (b). Spectral Decomposition with low frequency
content (19 Hz) which associeted with HC sand

(a) (b)
Figure 4
General workow of spectral decomposition for
reservoir identication

113
Reservoir delineation. However, this is not intended
to solve reservoir delineation.
From the Figure above (Figure 5) it is clear that
spectral decomposition is powerful tool to predict

(a) Near Stack

(b) Far Stack

(c) Full Stack and Spectral Decomposition respon
around the well
Coal
Coal
HC Sand
HC Sand
Coal
HC Sand
HC Sand
gas sand and also to reduce the ambiguity in bright
spot anomaly. For the purpose of comparing of the
result of spectral decomposition in predicting coal
and HC sand, we also analyze the AVO anomaly on
the seismic data (see Figure 6.)
Figure 6
AVO anomaly in seismic data
Spectral Filtering for Removing Coal Bright Spot Effect in Seismic Interpretation (Saputro, R.A., et al.) Spectral Filtering for Removing Coal Bright Spot Effect in Seismic Interpretation (Saputro, R.A., et al.)
114
Comparing the near and far offset section in
Figure 6 a and b, we immediately see that the
reection of HC sand changes signicantly with
offset meanwhile the reection from Coal is not
affected by increasing offset.
V. CONCLUSION
Spectral decomposition is a powerful tool to
lter or reduce the ambiguity in distinguishing bright
spot anomaly whether it is coal or hydrocarbon
sand. However if these coal beds are too close to the
pay beds they might still contaminate the reservoir
response.
REFERENCE
1. Budi E dan Sudarmadji, 2005. Seismic Attribut
Based on CWT (Continues Wavelet Transform). Lab.
Geosika. Universitas Gajah Mada. Yogyakarta.
2. Chopra, S., dan K. J. Marfurt, 2008, Introduction To
This Special SectionSeismic Attributes. The Leading
Edge (TLE) pp: 296-297.
3. Laughlin, K., P. Garossino, dan G. Partyka, 2002,
Spectral decomposition applied to 3D:AAPG Explorer,
23, no. 5, 2831.
4. Partyka G., et al., 1999. Interpretational Application
of Spectral Decomposition. SEG.

115
AUSTRALIAN PALINOMORPHS FROM
THE BUYA FORMATION OF THE SULA ISLAND
Eko Budi Lelono and Nugrahaningsih
trd
st
2012
st
2012
ABSTRAK
Penelitian ini berhasil membuktikan kehadiran kumpulan palinomorf umur pra-Tersier pada Formasi
Buya di Kepulauan Sula. Palinomorf-palinomorf ini memiliki kekerabatan dengan palinomorf Australia yang
umum dijumpai di cekungan-cekungan berumur Mesozoikum di Australia dan Papua New Guinea. Kumpulan
palinomorf ini didominasi oleh spora dan dinoagelata. Berdasarkan kehadiran spora indeks dapat disusun
tiga zona mikro-ora, yaitu (dari tua ke muda): zona Contignisporites cooksoniae, zona Murospora orida
dan zona Retitriletes watheroensis. Sebaliknya berdasarkan kemunculan dinoagelata indeks dapat dibuat
empat zona dinoagelata, yaitu (dari tua ke muda): zona Caddasphaera halosa, zona Wanaea clathrata-
Wanaea indotata, zona Dingodinium swanense dan zona Criboperidinium perforans-zona lebih muda.
Baik zona mikro-ora dan zona dinoagelata menunjukan bahwa umur Formasi Buya adalah Jura Tengah-
Akhir atau setara dengan Bathonian-Tithonian. Secara paleogeogras, kesamaan antara palinomorf yang
ditemukan di Formasi Buya dan palinomorf yang ada di sedimen umur Mesozoic di Australia menunjukan
bahwa Kepulauan Sula dan Australia adalah satu daratan pada umur Jura Tengah-Akhir. Ini berarti bahwa
pada umur Jura Tengah-Akhir, Kepulauan Sula merupakan bagian dari Kontinen Australia dan terletak jauh
di selatan dari garis Katulistiwa. Kepulauan Sula baru berada di posisinya sekarang pada umur Neogen.
Kata kunci: Palinomorf Australia, Formasi Buya, Kepulauan Sula
ABSTRACT
This research has proved the occurrence of pre-Tertiary palynomorphs within the Buya Formation of the
Sula Island. Most palynomorphs have Australian afnity and appear in most Mesozoic basins in Australia
and in Papuan Basin of Papua New Guinea. The palynomorph assemblage mostly consists of spores as well
as dinoagellates. Three micro-ora zones can be dened referring to the existing index spores, including
(from older to younger zone) Contignisporites cooksoniae zone, Murospora orida zone and Retitriletes
watheroensis zone. Meanwhile, four dinoagellate zones enable to be constructed such as (from older to
younger zone) Caddasphaera halosa zone, Wanaea clathrata-Wanaea indotata zone, Dingodinium swanense
zone and Criboperidinium perforans zone-younger zone. Both zonations suggest that the age of the Buya
Formation is Middle to Late Jurrasic or Bathonian to Tithonian. From the palaeobiogeographic point of
view, the similarity between palynomorphs from the Buya Formation of the Sula Island and those from the
Mesozoic sediment of Australia suggests land connection between both areas during Middle to Late Jurassic.
It suggests that, during this age, the study area attached the Australian Continent which was situated far
South from the equatorial. The study area appears in its recent position during Neogene.
Keywords: Australian Palynomorphs, Buya Formation, Sula Island
I. INTRODUCTION
This paper presents the result of the palynological
study on the pre-Tertiary sediment appearing in the
Sula Island. This study is actually a part of geological
investigation in the Sula Island in order to evaluate
hydrocarbon potential within this area which was
performed by the LEMIGAS Exploration Division
in 2010. This study is funded by the government
through a research project so called DIPA. It is well
known that the hydrocarbon bearing formations in
116
the eastern Indonesia are found in the pre-Tertiary
successions. One important aspect to evaluate their
potentiality is to understand the stratigraphy of
pre-Tertiary sediments. This understanding can be
approached by employing biostratigraphic tools to
investigate the biological contents including micro-
ora and fauna. In this study, it is applied palynology
to study micro-ora (palynomorph) deriving from
ancient vegetations. Unfortunately, the information
concerning pre-Tertiary palynomorph in eastern
Indonesia is rarely published. This fact prevents
biostratigrapher to comprehend the pre-Tertiary
stratigraphy of the potential sequences. This situation
is partly caused by the reality that most pre-Tertiary
samples collected during drilling campaigne were
sent aboard for analysis. The result of this analysis
is kept by the companies for their own purpose and
hardly shared for public. Therefore, for this particular
reason the Sula project was proposed.
The palynological study on the Buya Formation
is intended to record all pre-Tertiary palynomorphs
occurring within this formation. It is believed
that these palynomorphs have Australian afnity
as the Sula Island orinally came from Australian
Continent. The study area is tectonically active
due to interaction of three major plates including
Asian, Australian and Pacific Plates (Figure 1).
The Banggai-Sula Plate is interpreted as a micro-
continent deriving from Northwest Australia which
was formed during Paleozoic and drifted to the West
into its current position, so called Allochthonous
Paleozoic Microcontinent (Kemp et al., 1992). Its
movement was controlled by sinistral strike-slip
fault which is known as Sorong fault system. The
Banggai-Sula micro-continent, also recognised as the
Banggai-Sula platform is dened as a rock complex
consisting of Carbonaceous metamorphic rocks,
Permo-Triassic plutonic and volcanic rocks which
are unconformably overlain by a series of Jurassic
passive margin sediment, Cretaceous calcilutite
sediment and Tertiary carbonate platform.
Paleogeographically, the area of study was
situated far south from the equatorial, attaching
the Australian Continent during pre-Tertiary age.
SULA ISLAND
AREA OF STUDY
Figure 1
Tectonic element of the Banda arc and its surrounding
(Kemp and Mogg, 1992 with small modication)

117
The study area appears in its recent position during
Neogene (Garrard et al., 1988). This study provides
the evidence of high abundance and diversity
of micro-fauna and flora within pre-Tertiary
deposits which allows interpretation of age and
paleoenvironment. This is for the rst time to access
fossil content of Jura-Cretaceous sediments. Most
studied samples were deposited in the shallow marine
environment. This situation allows biostratigrapher
cross checking the result of palynological analysis
with other micropaleontological desciplines such
as foraminifer and nannoplankton to gain accurate
interpretation.
III. GENERAL STRATIGRAPHY
The stratigraphy of the studied area refers to that
introduced by Garrad et al. (1988) as seen in Figure 2.
Based on lithological association, fossil content and
age, the stratigraphy of the Baggai-Sula platform is
separated into four main units including Pre-Jurassic
Australian Palinomorphs from the Buya Formation of the Sula Islan (Eko Budi Lelono)
Figure 2
Regional stratigraphy of the Banggai-Sula (Garrard et al., 1988)
118
Basement Unit, Mesozoic Sedimentary Unit, Miocene
Limestone Platform and Quarternary Unit (Surono
and Sukarna, 1985). The pre-Jurassic Basement
Unit consists of volcanic and meta-sedimentary
rocks with local intrusion of granite and pegmatite
(Sukamto, 1975). The volcanic rock includes rhiolite,
dacite, lithic tuff and volcanic breccia. On the other
hand, meta-sediment rock is represented by schiss,
gneiss, argillite, marble, amphibolite and quartzite.
This basement unit was presumably formed during
Permian to Triassic (Pilgram et al., 1984).
The basement unit is then unconformably overlain
by the Mesozoic Sediment consisting of Menanga,
Bobong, Buya and Tanamu Formations. These
Mesozoic formations represent transgrssive phase
at the period of tectonic extention. The Menanga
Formation is composed of crystallised limestone,
schiss and phillite with quartzite intercalation. This
formation is unconformably overlain by the Bobong
Formation which is characterised by quartz sandstone,
claystone and conglomerate with coal intercalation.
This formation was deposited in shallow marine
environment (neritic). The Buya Formation consits of
siltstone, shale and the intercalation of thin limestone.
This formation is also indicated by the occurrence
of fragmens of carbon debris and glauconite which
suggests shallow marine environment (50m-
100m) with reduction condition. The youngest
Mesozoic sediment is the Tanamu Formation which
conformably overlies the Buya Formation. It is
characterised by calcilutite and yellowish grey marl.
The occurrence of Cretaceous planktonic forminifera
of Globotruncana sp. indicates that the Tanamu
Formation was deposited in deep marine environment
(more than 200m) during Cretaceous.
Subsequently, it is unconformably formed the
Miocene limestone platform over the Mesozoic
Sedimentary Unit composing of Salodik and Pancoran
Formations. The Salodik Formation consists of reef
limestone and coral reef with the intercalation of
sandy limestone, marl and conglomeratic basal in the
lower formation. This formation is interpreted to be
deposited in shallow marine environment (littoral)
during Eocene Middle Miocene (Supanjono et al.,
1993). On the other hand, the Pancoran Formation
is idented by reef limestone with less occurrence of
claystone and sandstone. It is presumably formed in
the Middle Miocene.
Finally, the Miocene Carbonate Platform is
unconformably overlain by the youngest succession
of Quarternary Unit which is well known as Peleng
Formation. It is composed of terrace deposits of
shallow marine limestone with the intercalation of
thin shale and claystone containing mollusc, algae
and forminifer. The Peleng Formation is assumed to
have an age of Middle Miocene.
III. METHOD
The area of study is located in the small town
named Modafumi and its surrounding area. This
location is selected due to the existence of the pre-
Tertiary Buya Formation which is exposed along the
Mahigo River (Figure 3). Some samples were collected
from this exposure for micropaleontological study
including forminiferal, calcareous nannoplankton
and palynological analyses.
Two major works were conducted within this
study. The rst was eldwork for collecting surface
samples and the second was laboratory work to
separate palynomorphs from the rock. Fieldwork
was divided into two methods which include logging
the lithology and collecting the samples. Logging
was aimed to record the lithological variation and
to estimate the lithological thickness. Therefore, it
allows statigraphers to reconstruct the lithological
column of the studied area which is dominated by
non-calcareous claystone with siltstone intercalation
(lower section) and with limestone and sandstone
intercalations (upper section) as shown in Figure 4.
The result of logging was used to determine interval
for sample collection. Here, sampling interval
very much depended on lithological variation and
lithological thickness. For palynological analysis,
sampling was focused on the sediment with ne grain
lithology. Ideally, every distinct lithology should be
sampled. However, limestone and other coarse grain
lithologies such as breccia, conglomerate and coarse
sandstone were avoided as these sediments certainly
provide poor recovery (Cross, 1962). In addition,
samples with high organic contents as indicated by
dark colour were preferable including brown or black
shale, lignite and coal. It can be emphasised that
sampling was done to the sediments consisting of
ne grain lithology and yielding high organic content.
A set of seven samples situated in the lower section
was selected for palynological analysis including
MGH-1, MHG-2, MHG-4, MHG-6, MHG-9, MHG-
11 and MHG-12.

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The aim of laboratory work (here is sample
preparation) is to release any palynomorphs
from minerals or sediments which enclose them
or obscure them in order to make them clearly
visible and concentrated enough for microscope
study and photography. Basically, the sample
preparation adopted the modied technique which
was proposed for Paleogene sediments by Lelono
(2001). Approximately 5 g of sample was cleaned up
to avoid surface contamination. It was then crushed
to reduce the surface sample and hence, speed up the
sample maceration using HCl, HF and HNO
3
. The
important key within the maceration was heating the
sample while reacting with nitric acid (HNO
3
). The
suitable heating resulted in the maximum recovery
of plant microfossils. Following this maceration,
sample was treated in alkali solution using 10%
KOH in order to clear up the residue. The proper
duration time of alkali treatment determined the
number of palynomorphs turning up in the residue.
It was necessary to sieve residue using 5 microns
sieve to collect more palynomorphs by separating
them from debris materials. Finally, residue was
mounted on the slides using polyvinyl alcohol (p. v.
a) and canada balsam.
Palynomorph examination was taken under the
transmitted light microscope with an oil immer-
sion objective and X 12. 5 eye piece. The result
of examination is recorded in the determination
sheets and used for the analyses. In addition, every
palynomorph appearing within the studied samples
was photographed to complete the existing pre-
Tertiary collection which was obtained from other
pre-Tertiary localities.
IV. AGE INTERPRETATION
This study applied other biostratigraphic dis-
ciplines to gain a reliable age of the sediments
occurring within the Buya Formation including
foraminifer and calcareous nannoplankton. The
ideal section for this study was found along the
Mahigo River. Approximately 31 samples were
collected from these sections. However, only four
samples situated on the upper section are available
for marine microfossil examination as these are the
only samples with calcareous content. These samples
are labeled MHG-28, MHG-29, MHG-30 and MHG-
31 which are situated in the upper section (Figure
4). Lithologically, they consist of limestone and
calcareous claystone.
Foraminiferal analysis showed the domination of
benthic forams such as Astacollusdictodes, Bulimina
ovata, Bulimina pupoides, Nodosaria spp. and
Haplophragmoides sp. suggesting deep middle neritic
environment (50m-100m). Unfortunately, planktonic
foraminifer is only represented by single occurrence
of Dicarinella algeriana in sample MHG-28 (bottom)
indicating Late Jurassic/ Turonian Stage (Lelono et
al., 2010). In addition, nannoplankton investigation
on the same samples as those for foraminiferal
analysis proved the appearance of some index taxa
including Stephanolithion bigotti and Zeugrhabdotus
embergeri. These taxa indicate the nanno zone of NJ-
17 along sample MHG-28 to sample MHG-31 which
equals to Late Jurassic/ Turonian Stage (Lelono et
al., 2010). After all, it is concluded that sediments
occurring in the upper section (MHG-28 to MHG-
31) may have been formed during the Late Jurassic
age (Turonian Stage). Having the above data, it is
assumed that samples below MHG-28 (including
palynological samples) can be assigned to Late
Jurassic or older.
V. POLLEN ZONATION
Common palynomorph assemblage occurs
within the studied samples which is dominated by
the Australian afnity (Figure 5). It mostly consists
of spores as well as dinoagellates. Unfortunately,
many of them remain unnamed due to the limitation
of pre-Tertiary references. This is actualy the
challenge for Indonesian palynologists to develop
pre-Tertiary palynology especially for eastern
Indonesia. The identication of existing palynomorph
refers to those occurred in the Australian Mesozoic
successions. These were published by the Association
of Australasian Palaeontologists in 1987.
The palynomorph assemblage is dominated
by spores which can be used to construct micro-
flora zonation. These spores are represented by
Polycingulatisporites crenulatus, Callialasporites
turbatus, Callialasporites dampieri, Dictyotosporites
compl ex, Cont i gni s por i t es cooks oni ae,
Murospora orida, Retitriletes watheroensis and
Clavatipollenites hughesii. Based on the occurrence
of these index spores, three micro-ora zones can
be dened including (from older to younger zone)

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Polycingulatisporites crenulatus
Callialasporites turbatus
Callialasporites dampieri
Contignisporites cooksoniae
Retitriletes watheroensis
Clavatipollenites hughesii
Murospora florida
Figure 5
Some index spores which dene micro-oral zones occurring within the studied section
Contignisporites cooksoniae zone, Murospora orida
zone and Retitriletes watheroensis zone (Figure 6).
These three zones can be grouped into two super-
zones i. e. Callialasporites dampieri superzone and
Microcachryidites superzone which equal to Middle
to Late Jurassic (Helby et al., 1987).
On the other hand, dinoagellates are represented
by the appearance of Rhaetogonyaulax rhaetica,
Dapcodinium priscum, Dapsilidinium langii,
Caddasphaera halosa, Pareodinia ceratophora,
Wanaea indotata, Wanaea clathrata, Dingodinium
swanense, Dingodinium jurassicum, Criboperidinium
perforans, Omatia montgomeryi and Egmontodinium
torynum (Figure 7). Referring to the occurrence of
these taxa, it can be constructed four dinoagellate
zones such as (from older to younger zone)
Caddasphaera halosa zone, Wanaea clathrata-
Wanaea indotata zone, Dingodinium swanense zone
and Criboperidinium perforans zone-younger zone
which cover three superzones including Pareodinia
ceratophora superzone, Pyxidiella superzone and
Fromea cylindrical superzone (Helby et al., 1987).
These dinoagellate zones is equivalent to Middle to
Late Jurassic (Figure 8). After all, it can be inferred
that the age of the Buya Formation is Middle to Late
Jurrasic or Bathonian to Tithonian.
VI. PALAEOBIOGEOGRAPHY
Palynological study on the Buya Formation
cropping out in the Sula Island shows signicant
occurrence of palynomorphs which mainly derive
from Australian continent. Most of them are key
palynomorphs including Polycingulatisporites
crenulatus, Callialasporites turbatus, Callialasporites
dampieri, Dictyotosporites complex, Contignisporites
cooksoniae, Murospora florida, Retitriletes
watheroensis and Clavatipollenites hughesii.
In addition, other palynomorphs also appear to
conrm Australian elements such as Corolina sp.,
Araucariates sp., Gleicheniidites spp., Matonisporites
sp A, Excecipollenites tumulus, Ceratosporites
equalis, Klukisporites variegatus, Classopollis
martinottii and Retitriletes austroclavatidites
(Figure 9). In fact, these taxa are also found in most
Mesozoic basins in Australia and in Papuan Basin
of Papua New Guinea (Helby et al., 1987). The

123
similarity between palynomorphs from the Buya
Formation and those from Australian formations is
an evidence of land connection between Sula Island
and Australia during Middle to Late Jurassic. These
data suggest that, during Middle to Late Jurassic, the
study area attached the Australian Continent situating
far south from the equatorial. According to Kemp
et al. (1992), the area of study (the Banggai-Sula
Plate) is interpreted as a micro-continent deriving
from Northwest Australia which was formed during
Paleozoic (Kemp et al., 1992). It appears in its recent
position during Neogene (Garrard et al., 1988).
Therefore, this study conrms the origin of Sula
Island from the Australian Continent.
Moreover, this study shows the appearance of
some index dinoagellates with Australian afnity
including Rhaetogonyaulax rhaetica, Dapcodinium
priscum, Dapsilidinium langii, Caddasphaera halosa,
Pareodinia ceratophora, Wanaea indotata, Wanaea
clathrata, Dingodinium swanense, Dingodinium
jurassicum, Criboperidinium perforans, Omatia
montgomeryi and Egmontodinium torynum. Other
dinoflagellates occurring in the studied samples
are Wuroia capnosa, Scriniodinium kemplae,

S
T
A
G
E

S
U
P
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R
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M
I
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c
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p
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d
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c
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p
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c
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k
s
o
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M
u
r
o
s
p
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r
a

f
l
o
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d
a

R
e
t
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r
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s

w
a
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C
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h
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h
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i
i

MHG-12

P
E
R
I
O
D
/

E
P
O
C
H

s
MICROFLORA
MHG 12
MHG-11 l l
MHG-9 l l l
MHG-6 l l l l l
MHG-4 l l l l l
MHG-2 l l l
MHG-1 l
C
o
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p
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c
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f
l
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w
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s
BATHONIAN
KIMMERIDGIAN
TITHONIAN
OXFORDIAN
-
CALLOVIAN
M
I
D
D
L
E
L
A
T
E
J
U
R
A
S
S
I
C
Figure6
Palynological zonation of the studied section based
on the occurrence of the index spores
124
Pareodinia ceratophora
Wanaea indotata
Dingodinium jurassicum
Criboperidinium perforans
Omatia montgomeryi
Egmontodinium torynum
Figure 7
Some index dinoagellates which determine dinoagellate
zones occurring within the studied section
Scriniodinium crystallinum, Leptodinium eumorphum,
Apteodinium granulatum and Cassiculosphaeridia
magna (Figure 10). Similar to spores mentioned
above, dinoagellates found in the study area posses
Australian afnity. These spores were recorded from
the Jurassic sediments of the Australian Basins (Helby
et al., 1987). This fact agrees with the data provided
by spore analysis as stated in the above paragraph.
Having the above discussion, it is inferred that the
area of study was a part of Australian Continent which
was paleogeographically situated far south from its
recent position during Middle to Late Jurassic.
VII. CONCLUSION
This study has proved the signicant occurrence
of pre-Tertiary palynomorphs throughout the
Buya Formation. This is for the first time to
access fossil content of the pre-Tertiary sediments.
This study has also revealed the fact that most
palynomorphs originally derive from Australian
Continent. Palynomorph assemblage appearing in
the Buya Formation mainly consits of spores and
dinoagellates. This research has been successfuly
identifying biostratigraphic markers of spores and
dinoflagellates which allows biostratigrapher to
construct biostratigraphic zonation and to dene the
age of the studied section.
Based on the occurrence of index spores of
Polycingulatisporites crenulatus, Callialasporites
turbatus, Callialasporites dampieri, Dictyotosporites
complex, Contignisporites cooksoniae, Murospora
orida, Retitriletes watheroensis and Clavatipollenites

125

S
T
A
G
E

S
U
P
E
R
Z
O
N
E
D
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N
O
F
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p
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D
a
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l
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t
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y
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P
E
R
I
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D
/

E
P
O
C
H

DINOFLAGELLATES
MHG-12 l
MHG-11 i
MHG-9 l l l l
MHG-6 l l l l l l l
MHG-4 l
MHG-2 l l l l l i
MHG-1 l
Caddasphaera
halosa
Wanaea
clathrata
-
Wanaea
indotata
Dingodinium
swanense
P
a
r
e
o
d
i
n
i
a

c
e
r
a
t
o
p
h
o
r
a
P
y
x
i
d
i
e
l
l
a
Younger
-
Criboperidini-
um perforans
F
r
o
m
e
a

c
y
l
i
n
d
r
i
c
a
BATHONIAN
KIMMERIDGIAN
TITHONIAN
OXFORDIAN
-
CALLOVIAN
M
I
D
D
L
E
L
A
T
E
J
U
R
A
S
S
I
C
hughesii combined with the appearance of index
dinoflagellates of Rhaetogonyaulax rhaetica,
Dapcodinium priscum, Dapsilidinium langii,
Caddasphaera halosa, Pareodinia ceratophora,
Wanaea indotata, Wanaea clathrata, Dingodinium
swanense, Dingodinium jurassicum, Criboperidinium
perforans, Omatia montgomeryi and Egmontodinium
torynum, it can be interpreted that the age of the Buya
Formation appearing on the study area is Middle to
Late Jurassic.
Meanwhile, the above taxa are also found in
most Mesozoic basins in Australia and in Papuan
Basin of Papua New Guinea. The similarity between
palynomorphs from the Buya Formation and those
from Australian formations suggests land connection
between Sula Island and Australia during Middle
to Late Jurassic. It suggest that, during Middle to
Late Jurassic, the study area attached the Australian
Continent which was located far south from the
equatorial.
Figure 8
Dinoagellate zones appearing in the studied section constructed
based on the occurrence of some markers
126
Corolina sp.
Araucariates sp.
Gleicheniidites spp.
Matonisporites sp.A
Excecipollenites tumulus
Ceratosporites equalis
Klukisporites variegatus
Staphilisporites caminus
Retitriletes austroclavatidites
Ceratosporites equalis
Classopollis martinottii
Staphilisporites caminus
Wuroia capnosa
Scriniodinium kemplae Scriniodinium kemplae
Scriniodinium crystallinum
Leptodinium eumorphum Apteodinium granulatum
Cassiculosphaeridia magna
Figure 10
Some dinoagellates occurring in the studied samples which have Australian afnity
Figure 9
Some spores occurring in the studied samples which have Australian afnity

127
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This study is a part of the research project in the
LEMIGAS Exploration Division which is conducting
geological investigations across the Sula Island to
evaluate its hydrocarbon potentiality. The author
are grateful to the management of the project for
providing the funding for this study.
REFERENCES
1. Cross, A. T., 1964. Plant Microfossils and Geology:
An Introduction. In: Cross, A. T (ed.), Palynology in
Oil Exploration. A Symposium, Society of Economic
Paleontologists and Minerologists, Special Publication
11, pp. 3 13.
2. Garrard, R. A., Supandjono, J. B. and Surono, 1988.
The Geology of the Banggai-Sula Microcontinent,
Eastern Indonesia. Proceeding Indonesian Petroleum
Association, 17
th
Annual Convention, pp. 23-52.
3. Helby, R., Morgan, R. and Partridge, A. D.,
1987. A Palynological Zonation of the Australian
Mesozoic. In: Jell, P. A. (eds.), Studies in Australian
Mesozoic Palynology, Association of Australasian
Palaeontologists, pp. 185.
4. Kemp, G. and Mogg, W., 1992. A Re-Appraisal of the
Geology, Tectonic, and Prospectivity of Seram Island,
Eastern Indonesia. Proceeding Indonesian Petroleum
Association, 21
st
Annual Convention, pp. 521552.
5. Lelono, E. B., 2001. Obtaining the Suitable Techniques
for Palynological Preparation. Lemigas Scientific
Contribution, no. 2/ 2001, pp. 2-6.
6. Lelono E. B., Nugrahaningsih, L., Setiawan, H.
L. and Sumarsono A., 2010. Paleogeography and
Hydrocarbon Potentiality of the Sula Area, North
Maluku. Lemigas In-House Research. Unpublished
Report, 156 p.
7. Pigram, C. J., Surono and Supandjono, J. B.
1984. Geology and Regional Significance of the
Sula Platform, East Indonesia. Joint Publication
by Geological Research and Development Centre,
Indonesia and Bureau of Mineral Resources Australia
(GRDC Publication).
8. Sukamto, R., 1975. Ujung Pandang 1:1,000,000 Scale
Geological Map. Geological Survey of Indonesia.
9. Supandjono, J. B. and Haryono E., 1993. Peta
Geologi Lembar Banggai, Sulawesi-Maluku, Skala
1:250.000. Pusat Penelitian dan Pengembangan
Geologi, Bandung.
128

129
THE EFFECT OF ADDITIONAL COMPRESSIVE STRESS
ON THE SEAL OF BOTTLE VALVE TO REDUCE THE
LEAKAGE RATES OF LPG SUPPLY SYSTEM
I Made Kartika Dhiputra
1)*
, I Nym Guni Ridhanta
1)
, and Dimitri R.
2)
1)
Flame and Combustion Research Group Thermodynamics Laboratory
Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Indonesia, Indonesia
* Corresponding author. Tel:+628128266036, Fax:+6221-7270033
E-mail: dhiputra_made@yahoo.com
2)
nd
th
2012
st
2012
ABSTRAK
Kebocoran sistem LPG memang tidak dapat dihindari dalam penggunaannya sebagai bahan bakar di
rumah tangga, mengingat kebocoran yang terjadi pada sistem ini adalah salah satunya disebabkan oleh aliran
difusi. Kebocoran akibat aliran difusi melalui karet perapat pada tabung LPG 3 kg sebagian besar disebabkan
oleh aliran difusi laminar atau bila diketahui perbandingan compressive strss dengan gasket seating stress yang
bernilai kurang dari satu , dan karakteristiknya berupa persamaan eksponensial. Penambahan compressive
stress terbukti memperkecil aliran difusi yang menyebabkan pengurangan tingkat kebocoran mencapai 33,18
% untuk karet perapat NBR dan sebesar 36,43 % untuk karet perapat karet Vulkanisir. Pengurangan Laju
kebocoran akibat penambahan compressive stress sangat dipengaruhi oleh material penyusun karet perapat
(Rubber seal) yang direpresentasikan melalui nilai parameter AL dan nL. Analisa numerik memperlihatkan
bahwa von mises stress yang diterima oleh karet perapat masih dibawah nilai yield strength dari material
jenis karet dengan nilai Factor of Safety (FOS) mencapai 7,08 yang menegaskan bahwa deeksi yang
terjadi pada karet perapat berada pada daerah elastisnya dengan nilai maksimum sebesar 0,326 mm. Selain
itu, analisa numerik juga memperlihatkan bahwa aliran difusi yang terjadi pada karet perapat membentuk
gradasi konsentrasi sesuai kedekatan dengan permukaan kontak difusinya.
Kata kunci: Laju kebocoran LPG, tegangan kompresif, aliran difusi, aliran laminar, karet perapat.
ABSTRACT
The leak of LPG system can not be avoided in its uses as domestic fuel which considering it is one of the
result from difussion ow. The leak because of difusion ow in 3 kg LPG tube is mostly caused by Laminar
difussion ow known by comparing compressive stress with gasket seating stress which value less than 1
with characteristic in exponensial equations. Augmentation of compresive stress is proved in minimizing
diffussion ow which cause subtraction in leak until 33.18% for NBR seal and 36.43% for vulcanized
seal. Minimizing leak caused by increasing compressive stress is very affected by seal material composed
representated by AL and nL. Numerical analysis founded that von mises stress received by seal is still under
yield strength from rubber material with Factor of Safety (FOS) achieve at 7.08, this condition afrms that
deectation happened in Seal in its elastic area with maximum value about 1.326 mm. Beside that, numerical
analysis show that difussion ow is occurred in seal creating gradation concetration based on the imminent
of diffusion contact.
Keywords: leakage rate of LPG, compressive stress, diffusion ow, laminar ow, rubber-seal
I. INTRODUCTION
Indonesian government policy which converts
LPG to kerosene is followed by the number of
accidental explosion of LPG cylinders when used by
public. Accident is often occurred started from a gas
leak (leakage) in the fuel gas channel system which
then can lead to a bolt of ame (ame ash back) that
potential to create res and even explosions. These
130
Figure 1
Installation of instrument at gas leak research
Figure 2
Regulator for connecting to the LPG storage
phenomenons are followed in case of blockage of
fuel vapor (liquid-vapor lock) both on line and on
LPG storage.
A rubber seal often a problem for user of LPG gas
because this part is the main source of LPG gas leak
causes
[1]
. Various attempts were made to improve the
performance of the rubber seals, for example by the
selection of materials and the addition of pressure on
the regulator style with a variety model. But, in fact,
this suppressor does not have a clear standard usage,
especially the large force that must be given to obtain
the optimal leakage reduction results.
This research focused on the effect of adding
compressive stress on the rubber seals on the
characteristics of the rate of leakage by using a
laminar ow model of Hagen-Poiseuille and Knudsen
molecular ow model. Leakage ow model refers
to theories had been carried out by Gu Boqin
[2,3]
but
it was not focused on LPG fuel system. This study
uses two variants of seal that is widely available at
the market with different material properties in order
to know the performance characteristics of each seal
against the addition of compressive stress
[4]
II. ANALYTICAL CALCULATION OF
THE GAS LEAKAGE RATE THROUGH
RUBBER-SEALING
Rubber-seal LPG is one of the non-metallic seal
which can be assumed as a porous media ow of gas
through this medium with the approach of molecular
and convective ow. The following equations are
used in this research model:
Hagen-Poiseuille ow theory
According to Hagen-Poiseuille ows theory, the
equation of laminar ow through porous media is
formulate as:

2
2
2
1
1
4
16
p p
cl
r
L
k
i
m
i
L

.................. (1)
where LL is the stream ow rates (Pa m3/s), k is
the number of pores, c is the coefcient of bending
capillaries, p1 and p2 is the pressure at the inlet and
the outlet (Pa), is the dynamic viscosity (Ns/m
2
),
lm is the average length of capillary holes (m), and r
is the radius of the capillary (m). This laminar ow is
the ow through the pores in which collisions occur
only in molecules with pore walls, while collisions
between molecules are ignored because the speed of
the molecules is lower than the viscous ow with a
larger pore diameter.
Knudsen law
Formulations for molecular ow is as follows

2
2
2
1
1
3
2
3
4
p p
M
rt
cl
r
L
k
i m
i
M

............ (2)
where Lm is the stream ow rate (Pa m
3
/ s), R is the
gas constant (J / kg K), M is the molecular mass and
r is the radius of the capillary (m). Molecular ow

131
The Effect of Additional Compressive Stress on the Seal of Bottle Valve to Reduce the Leakage Rates
of LPG Supply System (I Made Kartika Dhiputra, et al.)
is a ow through the pores in which collisions occur
between molecules and molecules with the wall so
resembles viscous ow.
Total Leakage
This study uses two types of ow that is molecular
ow and laminar ow depends on the magnitude of
the comparison between the stress given to seal the
gasket seating stress. Gasket seating stress (o) is
the maximum stress experienced by the seal during
installation of LPG gas is used. If the ratio /o <1
then most of the ow is laminar ow and if the value
of /o > 1 then the ow is the molecular ow
[2]
.
Total leakage which is a combination of leakage
due to laminar and molecular ow dened in the
equation (3).
( )
2
2
2
1
1
3 4
2
3
4
8
4
p p
M
rt
cl
r
cl
r
L
k
i m
i
m
i
M

|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
=
t
q
t
...... (3)
The addition of compressive stress on the rubber-
seal of LPG caused changes of the pore properties
of both the number of pores and pore radius.
Compressive stress has the effect of these parameters
into the equation (4)

n
i
m
f r f k

2 1
,
.................. (4)
With respect to the addition of compressive stress
then the total leakage rate equation becomes (5)
( )
l
p p
M
T
A p A L
M L
n
M m
n
L
2 1
0 0
1
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
=

o
o
o
o
q
......... (5)
III. TEST APPARATUS AND PROCEDURE
This research uses a setup as shown in Figure 1
where 3 kg LPG gas cylinder connected to a pressure
meter via a series of connectors that maintained its
locked out to avoid any leakage.
To remove the gas from the tube of LPG regulator
is used for regulatory function that eliminated with
cleaved as shown in Figure 2.
The steps undertaken in this experiment are:
1. The 3 kg LPG storage is placed on the scale (mass
counter) with forward-facing position for easy
installation of pressure regulators.
2. LPG gas cylinder is connected to a pressure meter
using a connector that has a xed position for each
trial for seals and large variations in emphasis.
3. Leak testing for all LPG connections to be proved
using bubble soap leakage test.
4. Pressure regulator is installed just above the LPG
cylinders with a symmetrical position to obtain a
uniform distribution of force.
5. Scales and pressure meter were switched on and
waited until the value indicated by scales and
pressure meter was stable.
6. Data is taken 150 minutes long with interval every
5 minutes. There was 5 times the retrieval of data
for each seal by pressing the spin rate of 0, 0.25,
0.5, 0.75, and 1.
IV. NUMERICAL METHODS
This research used numerical method which
are the Finite Element Analysis using Solid Works
9 and analysis of flow through a porous media
using the software COMSOL 4.1. Finite Element
Analysis (FEA) is used to study the response of the
construction of the rubber seals when installed on
the bottle valve and burdened by a static load. Two
things are became the focus of the FEA:
- Strain
Rubber seals as an elastic materials that can be
deformed (deformable body) when subject to the
force (force), then the stress strain deformation
will occur, i.e. changes in the shape and size.
Measurement involves the changes of size, either
length and angle
[5]
.
- Von Mises
Yield strength of material will be occurred when
the energy of distortion or shear strain energy of
the material reaches a certain critical value. In
simple terms, it can be said that the distortion
energy is part of the total strain energy per
unit volume involved in the changes in shape.
Distorted energy as part of the total strain energy
is expressed in the formula
[6]
.

2
1 3
2
3 2
2
2 1
6
1

E
v
ud
.....(6)

with E is the modulus of elasticity, is stress,
and v is the poisson ratio.
The numerical analysis used in this study is
COMSOL 4.1a CFD software which can simulate
double phenomenon (multipysiscs). In this study are
the inuences of static load ow and diffusion.
132
Rotation
Length of
rotation
(mm)
Force (N)
NBR Vulcanized
0 0 0.00 0.00
0.25 0.305 4.58 3.06
0.5 0.61 9.16 6.12
0.75 0.915 13.74 9.18
1 1.22 18.31 12.24

Figure 3
Graphic m versus time for NBR seal
Figure 4
Graphic m versus time for vulcanized seal
V. RESULT AND ANALYSIS
A. Flow of mass per time unit
This research focused on NBR and vulcanized
seal that are given compressive stress using stressor
regulator screw type.
The Figure 3: and Figure 4: show that the
different characteristics shown by each level of
emphasis, which saw the declining trend of reduction
in mass (m) with increasing rotation. According GU
Boqin, CHEN Ye and Zhu Dasheng in their research
entitled Prediction of Leakage Rates Through
Sealing Connections with Nonmetcallic Gaskets
[2]

stated that with the addition of compressive stress
on the seal with a non-metal material will result in a
large reduction in the number and radius of the pore
(leakage path) of the seal.
The addition of compressive stress on the second
graph shows that there is a reduction in the rate of
leakage. Reduction that occurred in this study can
reach to 36.43% for volcanic seal and 33.18% for
seal NBR.
B. Leakage Rates Equation
Leakage rate equation is obtained by the approach
flow through a porous membrane according to
equation 5. Due to the value of (the addition of
compressive stress) <o (gasket seating stress), the
leakage ow can be assumed as laminar ow by
eliminating components ow rate leakage derived
from molecular ow. Gasket seating stress values
for the rubber seals of LPG based on ISO 7655:2010
is 1.85 MPa. Equation 5 can be further written into
the equation (7).
l
P P
P A L
m
n
L
L
2 1
0
1
(
(
|
.
|
\
|
=

o
o
.................. (7)

Linearization of equation (7) is done to have a
simple linear equation.
y = ax +b
by using a natural logarithmic, so equation (7)
become
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ |
.
|
\
|
=
|
|
.
|
\
|

(
(
|
.
|
\
|
=

l
P P P A
nL L
l
P P
P A L
M L
m
n
L
L
2 1
2 1
.
.
ln
0
ln ln
0
1
ln ln
o
o
o
o
The coefcient A
L
and -nL can be found by
ploting graph ln L vs ln (/o)
Table 1
Force versus rotation to seal

133
Rotation
L (Pa
m3/s)
/o In L
ln
(/o)
pm
(bar)
p1-p2/l
(bar/m)
X
(mm)
F (N)

(N/m^2)
0 0.00108 0 -6.83 0 3.55 2147.03 0 0 0
0.25 0.00104 0.04 -6.86 -3.08 3.55 2143.68 0.30 3.06 84361.67
0.5 0.00097 0.09 -6.94 -2.39 3.42 2037.42 0.61 6.12 168723.3
0.75 0.00077 0.14 -7.17 -1.98 3.40 2020.12 0.91 9.18 253085
1 0.00069 0.18 -7.28 -1.70 3.47 2079.70 1.22 12.24 337446.7
average 3.48 2085.59
Rotation
L (Pa
m3/s)
/o In L
ln
(/o)
pm
(bar)
p1-p2/l
(bar/m)
x (mm) F (N) (N/m^2)
0 0.00081 -7.11 3.51 2025.88 0 0 0
0.25 0.00077 0.065 -7.17 -2.73 3.51 2030.69 0.30 4.57 119508.6
0.5 0.00064 0.129 -7.34 -2.04 3.50 2017.95 0.61 9.15 239017.2
0.75 0.00058 0.194 -7.44 -1.64 3.45 1979.44 0.915 13.73 358525.8
1 0.00054 0.258 -7.51 -1.35 3.42 1954.47 1.22 18.31 478034.4
average 3.48 2001.69
Table 3
Value of ln L vs ln (/o) for linearization Leakage Rates Equation of Vulcanized seal
Table 2
Value of ln L vs ln (/o) for linearization Leakage Rates Equation of NBR
Figure 5
Graph ln L vs ln (/o) for NBR
l
P P
P x L
m
2 1
248 . 0
0
1
21 10 19 . 1

(
(
|
.
|
\
|
=

o
o
......... (8)
The leakage rates of Vulcanized Seal by the
similar way to NBR seal is
21
L
10 x 1.19 A

=
=
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
=
=
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ |
.
|
\
|
=
5
5
4
2 1 4
2 1
2 1
10 691 . 2001 .
00022 . 0
10 482 . 3 .
10 8 . 3
.
.
10 8 . 3
.
.
ln 856 . 7
248 . 0
856 . 7 248 . 0 .
.
ln
0
ln
ln
x
x A
x
l
P P P A
x
l
P P PM AL
nL
x
l
P P P A
nL
y L
L
M L
M L
o
o
0.248 nL
So the leakage rates equation of NBR is
134
Figure 6
Leakage rates versus addition
of compressive stress
Figure 7
Von Mises Stress results from FEM
0.305 nL
10 x 1.28 A
21
L

l
P P
P x L
m
2 1
305 . 0
21
0
1
10 28 . 1

(
(
|
.
|
\
|
=

o
o
.......... (9)
The thing to be observed is the value A
L
and nL
from two equations that show the characteristics of
the leakage rate, where the greater value nL and A
L

are the greater the leakage rate. These cases will be
occurred the compressive stress smaller than the
gasket seating stress.
C. Leakage Rates Against the addition of
Compressive Stress
The Figure 6. show the compressive stress in
general more sensitive or has greater inuence to
volcanic seal in compared with NBR seals for the
values of at 0-3.5 kPa as seen from the slope of the
graph. This phenomenon is caused by the tendency of
different properties for the NBR seal in accordance
with equation 4 in which f1 and f2 are functions that
depend on the type and geometry of the material
given stress . The difference function which is the
tendency of different characteristics of the leakage
rate for the second seal when given the stress from
the outside. Number of pores (k) and pore radius (r)
is the factor that determines the ow rate of diffusion
so that when the functions f1 and f2 are different then
it will indirectly affect the ow pattern of diffusion
which will be reected from the leakage.
Rubber vulcanized seal generally have a greater
leakage rate compared with NBR seals. This is
especially noticeable at the condition without the
addition of compressive stress where there is a
difference value is very large leakage rate between
the two types of seals.
D. Analysis of Von Mises Stress Results
The maximum value of Von Mises stress
occurring is equal to 1304854.5 N/m2 whereas the
minimum values ranging from 171.3 N/m2. This
resulted the seal that actually has an area (section)
of work is uneven in every its part. From the gure
due to the imposition of the deformation occurs in the
middle area which has a thickness which is thinner
than other parts of rubber seals, so it is natural that
the deformation and von Mises stress occurs in this
region of great value. The lowest value of von Mises
is at the lower of the seal. It is due at the bottom of
this there is a xed xture where the presence of xed
contributing to the style of the xture (in this case
is the basis bottle valve) to the lower base resulting
in stress reduction received by the rubber. It also
resulted in a stress gradient from bottom to top are
visible on the outer surface of the rubber.
From the results of von Mises can be seen that
the maximum von Mises value is lower than the yield
strength of this seal. Comparison of yield strength
values of von Mises maximum value known as the
Factor of Safety (FOS), which in this case is worth
7.08. FOS value in this case is quite large, which

135
Figure 8
Deection result for seal using
FEM simulation

Figure 9
Propane diffusion ow pattern
means energy is distorted when loading has not been
able to (difcult) to cause the rubber sealing material
is plastically deformed so that it can be said of
deformation that occurs is still in its elastic region.
E. Deection Analysis Result
Deflection which occurred on seal resulted
of loading at maximum value as 0.3236 mm and
minimum value approaches 0. The maximum
deection is occurred at the center of seal where is
indicated by reduction of concave and thickness of
seal effected elasticity of seal is higher.
Minimum area of deflection is occurred at
under and outside the seal. This condition consist of
xed xture at this area proceed from wall of valve
regulator of LPG until deection value approaches
0 logically. This deection also had been gradation
along the thickness of seal, which the deection will
decreased from inside diameter to outside diameter.
The Von Misses analysis shows that the deection at
this seal is elastic and not plastic that the geometry
changes impermanent.
Parameter of deection at seal of LPG is very
important to avoiding leakage. The deection at
above surface is 0.188 mm so that possible to cause
gas leakage.
F. Diffusion Analysis Results
In this simulation, seal was considered as
homogeneous porous material which amount and
diameter of pore are uniform for whole section.
The pressure and material were used in this
simulation are 6 bar and NBR respectively. The
composition at input is 60% propane and 40% butane
or in concentration about 5 mol/m
3
and 3 mol/m
3
for
propane and butane respectively.
In the previous simulation of FEM are known
that deection occurred on seal when loading takes
place affected the existence of gap at the center of
seal. This gap resulted gas ow through this section.
This condition consider as input at contact area of seal
using COMSOL 4.1. The concentration travelling
is occurred because of difference concentration
potential or driving force from high concentrate to
low concentrate as movement of LPG ow to seal
that also called molecular displacement. In this case,
beside of contribution of convective displacement, gas
ow can be occurred through diffusion displacement
because of its velocity.
Figure 11 shows the diffusion ow along of the
thickness of seal. The diffusion of propane and butane
gas have concentrate gradation pattern appropriate
with diffusion contact area. Closer to diffusion con-
tact area, the diffusion concentration would be higher
and conversely.
VI. CONCLUSIONS
In the experiment and numerical analysis of
this research can conclude:
1. Characteristics of leakage rate system of LPG fuel
with pressure 6 bar are formulated as:
136

Figure 10
Butane diffusion ow pattern
Figure 11
Propane diffusion ow at cross section

l
P P
P x L
NBR a
m
2 1
248 . 0
21
0
1
10 19 . 1
.
(
(
|
.
|
\
|
=

o
o
l
P P
P x L
Vulkanis b
m
2 1
305 . 0
21
0
1
10 28 . 1
.
(
(
|
.
|
\
|
=

o
o
2. Increasing of compressive stress at LPG seal is

directly proportional to decreasing of leakage rate.
This research reports decreasing of leakage rate
attained 36.43 % for vulcanized seal and 33.18 %
for NBR seal.
3. Impact of adding compressive stress to decreasing
of leakage rate concludes that vulcanized seal is
more sensitive than NBR seal which is presented
by value of AL and nL of vulcanized seal are larger
than NBR seal.
4. Leakage rate of vulcanized seal and NBR seal
is directly proportional to difference of pressure
inside and outside the LPG storage if the gasket of
seating stress seal is larger than the compressive
stress given.
5. Von mises stress that accepted by seal still under
yield strength of material seal type with factor of
safety (FOS) attained 7.08 from Finite Element
Analysis simulation.
6. Deflection that occurred on seal is plastic
deformation with maximum deformation consist
on concave area at center of seal as 0.326 mm and
minimum deformation at area which contact with
interior wall.
7. Diffusion flow that occurred on seal formed
concentration gradation from interior wall through
to outer wall as the closeness with contact surface
of diffusion.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors greatly appreciate the financial
support this work by Directorate of Research and
Community Services of Universitas Indonesia
(DRPM UI) under Research Grant 2011 No.
DRPM/RKBK-UI/2011/I/11151.
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[1] Esdm (2011, Februari 01). Artikel. Januari 2,
2012. http://www.esdm.go.id/berita/artikel/56-
artikel/4122
[2] Gu, B. et al. (2007) Prediction of Leakage Rate
Through Sealing Connections with Non Metallic Gas-
kets, J.Chem. Eng., Vol. 15, No. 6, pp.837-841.
[3] Gu, B.Q., Lu, X.F., Test machine for gasket
performancesat elevated temperature and method for
leak detection,China Petroleum Machinery, 27 (1),
39 - 41,46 (1999).
[4] I Made Kartika Dhiputra, Raka CP, I Nym
Guni R. An Experimental Study of Leakage Rate
Through Rubber-Seal of LPG Bottle Valve Used in

137
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Solo-Indonesia, October 3-4,2011
[5] Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid.
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology, 4th ed.,
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[6] Robert H. Wagoner and Jean-Loup Chenot.
Fundamentals of Metal Forming, John Wiley and
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[7] Bi rk, A. M. , The BLEVE: An Updat e and
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The Finite Element Method for Engineer. Norfolk
Virginia : John Wiley & Sons, Inc
138

139
GAMBIR EXTRACT AS A CORROSION INHIBITOR
FOR MILD STEEL IN ACIDIC SOLUTION
Nofrizal
First Registered on December 18
th
th
2012
st
2012
I. INTRODUCTION
Gambir is an aqueous extract prepared from the
leaves and young twigs of Uncaria Gambir Roxb, a
member of the Rubiaceae family
[1]
. Gambir can be
found in irregular masses or cubes, reddish-brown,
pale brownish-gray, gray or light brown. It can be
easily broken into small fragments or reduced to
powder, bitterish with sweetish after-taste, inodorous
and great astringency
[2]
.
In the present day, the usage of gambir has been
diversied due to its local anesthetic property. Gambir
ABSTRAK
Pengaruh penghambatan korosi baja lunak menggunkan ekstrak Gambir pada medium asam klorida
1M dipelajari menggunakan metode pengukuran kehilangan berat, polarisasi potensiodinamik, spektroskopi
impedansi elektrokimia (EIS) dan mikroskop elektron (SEM). Hal ini diyakini bahwa senyawa fenolik yang
terkandung pada ekstrak Gambir dalam media asam klorida encer dapat bertindak sebagai penghambat proses
korosi. Penelitian laju korosi ini menunjukkan bahwa ekstrak Gambir memberikan jenis penghambatan
korosi melalui anodik proses, dimana konsentrasi optimum ekstrak gambir dalam menahan laju korosi
adalah 150 ppm. Efsiensi penghambatan laju korosi untuk metode pengukuran berat badan, pengukuran
polarisasi potensiodinamik dan spektroskopi impedansi elektrokimia berturut-turut adalah 76,52; 88,28 dan
66,27 %. Analisis SEM menunjukkan bahwa terdapat perbaikan bentuk morfologi baja ringan yang telah
direndam dengan ekstrak gambir.
Kata kunci: Korosi, Gambir, polarisasi potensiodinamik
ABSTRACT
The inhibition inuence of Gambir extract in 1M Hidrocloric Medium on corrosion of mild steel in
acidic solution was studied by weight loss measurements, potentiodynamic polarization, electrochemical
impedance spectroscopy (EIS) and scanning electron microscope (SEM method. It is believed that the
phenolic compounds that contained in the Gambir extract in 1 M Hidrocloric medium to be responsible for
the inhibition. The corrosion studies shows that Gambir extract gives an anodic type of inhibition and best
at the concentration of 150 ppm. The inhibition efciency for weight loss measurement, potentiodynamic
polarization measurement, and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy were 76.52, 88.28 and 66.27%
respectively. SEM analysis shows that the morphology of inhibited mild steel was improved compared with
uninhibited mild steel.
Keywords: Corrosion, Gambir, Potentiondynamic Polarisation
has been employed as an astringent medicine in
Southeast Asia for the treatment of diarrheas and sore
throat
[3]
. Previously, gambir was used to cure spongy
gums and tooth acne by placing it in the affected area
instead of chewing it with a betel nut
[2]
.
Taniguchi et al.
[3]
showed that gambir consists of
avan monomers, (+)-catechin and (+)-epicatechin,
several other dimeric compounds related to
(+)-catechin, as well as alkaloids. Recently, plant
extracts have become important as an environmentally
acceptable, readily available and renewable source
140
for a wide range of corrosion inhibitor. Several
investigations have been reported using plants
extract and showed that the actual inhibitors in the
plants extract are usually alkaloids, polyphenolic
compounds as well as carbohydrates
[5, 6]
.
Corrosion is known as physicochemical
interaction between a metal and its environment that
results in metal deterioration or surface damage. It is
often called rust
[7, 8]
. Temporary existence in metallic
form causes metal to corrode with the presence of
driving force
[9]
. In general, corrosion can be chemical
or electrochemical. Chemical corrosion is direct
oxidation of the metal. The reactions involve at
least one anodic and one cathodic reaction. Anodic
reactions are oxidation or dissolution reactions in
which electrons are released. This reaction occurs on
the surface of anode. Whereas cathodic reactions are
reduction or deposition reactions in which electrons
are consumed, and it is occured on a cathode.
Corrosion affects every sector of industry as well
as the infrastructure and the general population. It can
be extremely harmful, bringing physical effect and
nancial ruin. Corrosion may cost a country billion
of dollars each year for replacement and maintenance
costs. Due to the increased demand for sustainability
and life extension, a great number of scientic studies
have been made to investigate corrosion inhibition
potential of natural products since these organic
compounds with N, S and O showed signicant
inhibition efciency
[10]
.
Corrosion inhibitors are substances that reduce
the rate of either anodic oxidation or cathodic
reduction or both. It can be anodic, cathodic, or
mixed inhibitor. The aim of the present work is to
evaluate the inhibitive effect of Acetone extract of
Uncaria Gambir as a natural corrosion inhibitor
on the corrosion of mild steel in acidic solution.
The behavior of the extract was studied using
weight loss, potentiodynamic polarization methods,
electrochemical impedance spectroscopy and the
inhibited mild steel surface was examined using
SEM.
II. MATERIALS AND METHODS
A. Sample Preparation
Raw materials of gambir purchased from
Payakumbuh West Sumatera, Indonesia were ground
into ne powder and sieved through a 50 m lter.
Parts from this gambir (5.0 g) were dissolved in
~80C acetone 40% (100 ml). The aqueous extract
of gambir was shaken at 200 rpm (IKA KS 260)
for 1 hour. Then it was transferred to a centrifuge
tube and centrifuged for 5 minutes to obtain a clear
solution. The undissolved gambir was removed by
ltering them through vacuum lter and the mother
liquors were treated with n-Hexane (50 ml, QRC)
three times for separation and purication of the
extracts. The puried extracts of gambir in water were
freeze-dried (Labconco) for 2 days. Finally, the dried
extracts were ground into powder and weighed. AR
grade solvent were used in this experiment.
B. HPLC Analysis
HPLC analysis was carried out by Shimadzu LC-
10AD VP instrument equipped with a C18 column.
The injection volume was 20 l for both samples and
catechin and epicathecin hydrate standards (Sigma)
with a ow rate of 1 l / min. The mobile phase used
was water:acetonitrile:methanol in different ratios
(83:6:11, v/v/v) and the samples were dissolved in
40% acetone. Detection was carried out at 280 nm
for catechin and epicathecin standards at ambient
temperature. The samples were injected 3 times to
conrm the retention time of the identied peak.
External standards of catechin and epicatechin
hydrates (10-100 mg/l) were freshly prepared to
generate a calibration curve.
C. Speciment preparation
The mild steel (MS) specimens of composition
(Fe: 97.57, C: 1.54, O: 0.88 % weight) were taken
and were polished using different grades of abrasive
paper from 400 up to 1200 before the analysis. Mild
steel specimens of size (2.7 x 2.7 x 0.1 cm) were used
for the weight loss method and SEM analysis while
specimens with an exposed area of 3.142 cm
2
were
used for the electrochemical studies.
D. Weight Loss Measurements
The experiment was carried out in a beaker
containing 100 mL test solution. A clean pre-weighed
MS specimen was completely immersed in 100 ml of
electrolyte with and without the addition of different
concentrations of GT extract at room temperature
(30o C 2). After 24 h of immersion in 1 M HCl
solution, the specimen was withdrawn, rinsed with
distilled water, washed with acetone, dried and

141
weighed. Triplicate measurements were performed.
The inhibition efciency (% IE) was calculated as
follows
[4]
:
0
Wi
% IE= 1- 100
W

................ (1)
Where,
W
0
and W
i
are the

weight loss of mild steel without
and with inhibitor, respectively.
E. Electrochemical method
Electrochemical studies were carried out using
Gamry Instrument reference 600 (potentiostat/
galvanostat / ZRA). A three-electrode cell system
were employed for the measurement wherein mild
steel with an exposed area of 3.142 cm2 acts as a
working electrode (WE) while platinum wire and
saturated calomel electrode acts as counter electrode
and reference electrode (SCE), respectively. The
measurements were performed in 1.0 M HCl solution
with and without the addition of different inhibitor
concentrations in an aerated environment. All
polarisation and impedance curves were recorded at
room temperature (302)o C and the electrodes were
immersed in the test solution for 30 min at natural
potential to attain steady state before measurement.
AC impedance measurements were carried out
at the corrosion potential (Ecorr) with frequency
ranging from 0.1 to 10000 Hz at an amplitude of
10 mV. The impedance diagrams are given in the
Nyquist representation. Inhibition efciency (% IE)
is calculated from the charge transfer resistance (Rct)
values by using equation
[4]
:
ct(o)
ct(i)
R
% IE = 1- 100
R

................ (2)
Where, R
ct(o)
and

R
ct(i)
is the charge transfer resistance of
mild steel without and with inhibitor, respectively.
The potentiodynamic current density - potential
curves were recorded by scanning the electrode
potential from -800 to -200 mV (vs SCE) with a
scanning rate of 1 mV s-1. The linear Tafel segments
of the anodic and cathodic curves were extrapolated
to corrosion potential to obtain the corrosion current
densities (Icorr). Equation (3) shows the calculation
of % IE from the Icorr values
[4]
.
corr(i)
corr(o)
I
% IE 1- 100
I

=

................ (3)
Where, Icorr(i) and Icorr(o) is the corrosion
current density of mild steel with and without
inhibitor, respectively.
F. Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)
The surface morphology of steels specimens
were evaluated by SEM analysis (Leo Supra 50VP).
A test specimen that exhibit higher efciency of
corrosion inhibition from weight loss measurement
was examined with scanning electron microscopy
(SEM) instead of blank (without inhibitor) and fresh
steel.
III. RESULTS AND DICUSSION
A. HPLC Analysis
The identification of phenolic compounds
were carried out using HPLC analysis. Attention
was focused on catechin and epicatechin as a
phenolic compounds which is a polar molecule
(Figure 1). Based on a previous study, The HPLC
conditions were: isocratic elution using mobile
phase composition of water:acetonitrile:methanol
(83:6:11); ow rate, 1 mL min-1; monitored at 280
nm. Under these conditions, all the analytes were
separated in less than 7 min.
B. Weight Loss Measurements
The % IE obtained for different concentrations
of green tea extract is showed in Table 1. The
results prove a positive correlation between the
concentration of gambir extract and the inhibition
efciency for mild steel in 1 M HCl solution. This
trend may result from the fact that the amount
adsorbed and the coverage of inhibitor molecules on
the mild steel surface increased with the increase of
the gambir extract concentration, thus the mild steel
surface is efciently blocked from the hydrochloric
acid. The maximum % IE was obtained at maximum
concentration of 150 mg L-1 for gambir extracts and
was found to be 76.52..
C. Electrochemical method (Potentiodynamic
Polarization Measurements)
Figure 3 represents the anodic and cathodic
polarization curve of mild steel in different
Gambir Extract As A Corrosion Inhibitor for Mild Steel in Acidic Solution (Nofrizal) Gambir Extract As A Corrosion Inhibitor for Mild Steel in Acidic Solution (Nofrizal)
142
concentrations of acidic solutions of gambir
extract. By extrapolating the Tafel anodic and
cathodic linear parts until they intersect as
straight lines and show the corrosion current
density (icorr) and corrosion potential (Ecorr)
as well as resistance polarization (Rp). A steady
state of corrosion current density (icorr) occurs
when the measured curve becomes horizontal
[9]
.
Basically, anodic polarization is the shift of
anode potential to the positive (noble) direction
whereas cathodic polarization is the shift
of cathode potential to the negative (active)
direction. A study of corrosion prevention and
protection have supported that mixed type of
inhibitors are generally represented by organic
compounds with donor atoms Se, S, N or O
instead of having reactive functional groups
which latch on to the metal
[10]
. For this reason, it
was comrmed by potentiodynamic polarization
curve that gambir extract exhibits a anodic inhibitor.
Electrochemical corrosion parameters obtained from
the Tafel analysis of the polarization curve from
Figure 2 were illustrated in Table 2.
D. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy
(EIS)
EIS analysis shows typical Nyquist plots for
gambir extract which are given in Figures 3.
It is also observed from Table 3 that the Rct
values increased with increasing concentrations of
inhibitors. This is because, the addition of inhibitor
increases the adsorption of phyto-constituents over
the MS surface and results in the formation of a
protective layer which may decrease the electron
transfer between the metal surface and the corrosive
medium. The values of CPE decrease with the
increase in inhibitor concentrations due to the
addition of inhibitor that increases the adsorption
phenomena, which consequently may decrease the
electrical capacity and/or increase in the thickness
of the electrical double
[11]
. The % IE of impedance
results, are in good agreement with the polarisation
and weight loss studies that shows maximum of
Figure 1
Typical chromatograms for the separation of catechins
(1) and epicatechin (2) in Gambir extract using monolithic column
Inhibitor Concentration Weight Loss % IE
- 0 0.0558
Gambir
extract
10 0.0345 38.17
50 0.0267 52.15
100 0.0184 67.02
150 0.0131 76.52
200 0.0150 73.12
Table 1
Effect of gambir extracts for the corrosion of mild steel
in 1.0 M HCl (Weight loss studies)

143
Conc.
(ppm)
E(i=0),
mV
I
corr

(A/cm
2
)
Ba
(mV/dec)
-Bc
(mV/dec)
IE (%)

0 -503 3.1327 315.7 339.8 -
10 -437 1.8123 213.9 221.8 42.15
50 -308 0.9799 204.7 220.5 68.72
100 -191 0.7831 251.4 270.4 75.00
150 -161 0.3670 261.3 181.1 88.28
200 -179 0.6399 291.8 250.6 79.57
Table 2
Effect of gambir extracts for the corrosion of mild steel in 1.0 M HCl
(Polarization studies)
Figure 2
Tafel plots of gambir extracts on mild steel in 1.0 M HCl
88.28% for gambir extracts for the maximum
concentration of 150 g mL-1.
E. SEM Studies
To monitor the morphological changes on the
mild steel surface during the corrosion process, SEM
EDX studies were carried out. Mild steel specimens
were screened after the potentiodynamic polarisation
studies and the micrographs are given in Figures 5.
It was observed that the surface of mild steel is very
rough and severely damaged in absence of inhibitor
while in Figure 5B the surface is transformed into
Gambir Extract As A Corrosion Inhibitor for Mild Steel in Acidic Solution (Nofrizal)
144
Figure 3
Nyquist plots of gambir extract on mild steel in 1 M HCl
Conc.
(ppm)
R
ct

(ohms) x 10
3

R
s
(ohms) % IE
0 1.471 37.65 0
10 1.628 67.59 44.29
50 1.582 78.52 52.05
100 1.755 87.56 57.00
150 2.494 111.62 66.27
200 2.135 96.16 60.85
Table 3
Effect of gambir extracts for the corrosion
of mild steel in 1.0 M HCl (Impedance studies)
Figure 4
The Randles CPE circuit which is the equivalent
circuit for this impedance spectra
Figure 5
SEM images of mild steel in 1M HCl medium
(A) absence of inhibitor
(B) presence of gambir extract
smoother, more uniform deposit with cracks upon
addition of gambir extract.
IV. CONCLUSION
Gambir extract are good inhibitors for mild steel
in 1 M HCl. The inhibition efciency obtained via
electrochemical measurements is in good agreement

145
with that obtained by using the weight loss method.
SEM analysis shows that the morphology of inhibited
mild steel was improved compared with uninhibited
mild steel.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The Author gratefully acknowledge the support
of this work by The R & D Center for Oil and Gas
Technology LEMIGAS.
REFERENCES
1. Aroma, J., Klarin, A. (1999). Materials, Corrosion
Prevention, and Maintenance. Finland: Fapet Oy, pg
67-106.
2. Bentiss, F., Lebrini, M., Lagrene, M., Traisnel,
M., Elfarouk, A., & Vezin, H. (2007). The inuence
of some new 2, 5-disubstituted 1, 3, 4-thiadiazoles on
the corrosion behaviour of mild steel in 1 M HCl solu-
tion: AC impedance study and theoretical approach.
Electrochimica acta, 52(24), 6865-6872.
3. Perez, N. (2004), Electrochemistry and Corrosion
Science. New York, Boston, Dordrecht, London,
Moscow: Kluwer Academic Publishers, pg 4-91.
4. Raja, P.B., Sethuraman, M.G. (2008). Natural
products as corrosion inhibitor for metals in corrosive
media A review. Materials Letters, 62, 113-116.
5. Rahim, A.A., Kassim, J. (2008). Recent development
of vegetal Tannins in corrosion protection of iron steel,
Recent pattern on material sciences, 1, 223-231.
6. Remington, J. P., Wood, H. C., The Dispensatory of
the United States of America, 1918.
7. Roberge, P.R. (2008). Corrosion Engineering
Principles and Practice. Mc Graw Hill, pg 19.
8. Sastri, V.S., Ghali, E., Elboujdaini, M. (2007).
Corrosion Prevention and Protection (Practical
Solutions). England: John Wiley & Sons, 80-89.
9. Schweitzer, P.A., Corrosion of Linings and Coatings,
Cathodic and Inhibition Protection and Corrosion
Monitering, Taylor & Francis Group pg 55-59.
10. Taniguchi, S., Kuroda, K., Doi, K., Tanabe, M.,
Shibata, T., Yoshida, T., Hatano, T. (2006). Revised
Structures of Gambiriins A1, A2, B1, and B2, Chalcane-
Flavan Dimers from Gambir (Uncaria gambir Extract).
Chem. Pharm. Bull, 55(2), 268-272.
11. Taniguchi, S., Kuroda, K., Doi, K., Inada, K.,
Yoshikado, N., Yoneda, Y., Tanabe, M., Shibata,
T., Yoshida, T., Hatano, T. (2007). Evaluation of
Gambir Quality Based on Quantitative Analysis of
Polyphenolic Constituents. Yakugaku Zasshi, 127(8),
1291-1300.
Gambir Extract As A Corrosion Inhibitor for Mild Steel in Acidic Solution (Nofrizal)
146

147
SUBJECT INDEX
kehati-hatian dalam penerapan model 99
Kepulauan Sula 115
Korosi 139
karet perapat 129
L
Laju kebocoran LPG 129
Leakage rate of LPG 129
Laminar ow 129, 130, 131, 133
O
Oil production 129, 130
P
Pemilihan model saturasi air 99
Palinomorf Australia 115
Polarisasi potensiodinamik 139
Potentiondynamic Polarisation 139
R
Rubber seal 129, 130, 131, 136
S
Saturasi air 99
Spectral Decompositions 189
Sula Island 115, 116, 122, 123, 125, 127
source-sink matching 129, 130, 131, 140,
141
T
Tegangan kompresif 129
W
Water saturation 99, 100, 101, 102, 104, 105,
106, 107
A
Australian Palynomorphs 115
Aliran difusi 129
Aliran laminar 129
B
Bright spot 109, 110, 111, 112, 114
Buya Formation 115, 116, 118
C
Careful application of model 99
Choice of water saturation model 99, 104, 106
CO
2
EOR 129, 130, 131, 135, 137, 140
CO
2
sequestration 129, 130, 131, 137, 140
Compressive stress 129, 130, 131, 132, 134,
136
Corrosion 139, 140, 141, 142, 145
D
Dekomposisi spektral 109
diffusion ow 129, 130, 131, 132, 134, 136
E
Error in reserves 99, 104
F
Formasi Buya 115
G
Gambir 139, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145
I
Industrial CO
2
sources 129, 140
K
Kesalahan angka cadangan 99
148
AUTHORS INDEX
A
A.S., Rosie, see, Munadi, Suprajitno, 35 (2) : 83 - 90
D
Desrina, R., Effect of Chemicals on the Formation of Tar Balls From Overboard Water Discharges
An Analysis of Environmental View, 35 (2) : 91 - 98
H
Hakim, Imansyah Ibnu, Characterization of Thermal Precipitator in Smoke Collector, 35 (1) : 1 -10
K
Kartika D., I Made. see, Hakim, Imansyah Ibnu, 35 (1) : 1 -10
L
Lelono, Eko Budi, The Migration Pathway of Some Selected Australian Palynomorphs from Their
Origin to SE Asia, 35 (2) : 49 - 56
Lelono, Eko Budi, Oligocene Palynology of On-Shore West J ava, 35 (2) : 67 - 82
Lelono, Eko Budi, Australian Palinomorphs from the Buya Formation of the Sula Island, 35 (3) :
115 - 127

M
Maymuchar, Comparision Deposit Formation on The Valve Diesel Engine Caused by Biodiesel and
Petroleum Diesel Fuels, 35 (1) : 31 -37
Munadi, Suprajitno, Differenciating Oil, Gas and Water in Seismic Section Using Spectral
Decomposition, 35 (2) : 83 - 90
Munadi, Suprajitno, see, Saputro, R.A., 35 (3) : 109 - 114
Dhiputra, I Made Kartika, "The Effect of Additional Compressive Stress on the Seal of Bottle Valve to
Reduce the Leakage Rates of LPG Supply System, 35 (3) : 129 - 137
N
Nofrizal, Corrosion Inhibition of Mild Stel in 1M HCL by Catechin Monomers from Commercial Green
Tea Extracts, 35 (1) : 11 - 24
Nugrahaningsih, see, Lelono, Eko Budi, 35 (3) : 115 - 127
Nofrizal, Gambir Extract As A Corrosion Inhibitor for Mild Steel in Acidic Solution, 35 (3) : 139 -
145

149
P
Putra, Nandy, see, Hakim, Imansyah Ibnu, 35 (1) : 1 -10
Purba, Humbang, see, Munadi, Suprajitno, 35 (2) : 83 - 90
Purba, Humbang, see, Saputro, R.A., 35 (3) : 109 - 114

R
Rosmayati, Lisna, The Improvement of Mercury Removal in Natural Gas by Activated Carbon
Impregnated With Zinc Chloride, 35 (1) : 25 - 29
Rani, Devitra Saka, Dilute Acid Pretreatment and Enzymatic Hydrolysis of Lignocellulosic Biomass
for Butanol Production as Biofuel, 35 (1) : 39 - 48
Ridhanta, I Nym Gunu, see, Dhiputra, I Made Kartika, 35 (3) : 129 - 137
R., Dimitri, see, Dhiputra, I Made Kartika, 35 (3) : 129 - 137
S
Suryawan, Bambang, see, Hakim, Imansyah Ibnu, 35 (1) : 1 -10
Sari, Cut Nanda, see, Rani, Devitra Saka, 35 (1) : 39 - 48
Sugihardjo, Preliminary Carbon Untilization and Storage Screening of Oil Fields in South Sumatra
Basin, 35 (2) : 57 - 65
Saputro, R.A., Spectral Filtering for Removing Coal Bright Spot Effect in Seismic Interpretation,
35 (3) : 109 - 114
T
Usman, see, Sugihardjo, 35 (2) : 57 - 65
U
Usman, see, Sugihardjo, 35 (2) : 57 - 65
W
Wibowo, Cahyo Setyo, see, Hakim, Imansyah Ibnu, 35 (1) : 1 -10
Waskito, Ismoyo Suro, see, Maymuchar, 35 (1) : 31 - 37
Widarsono, Bambang, Choice of Water Saturation Model in Log Analysis and Its Implication to Water
Saturation Estimates - A Further Investigation, 35 (3) : 99 - 107
150
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
We would like to convey our gratitude to Senior Editos, Editors and Peer Group
who have assisted and edited articles in Scientic Contributions Oil & Gas Volume 35
(Number 1, 2 and 3)
Senior Editors : - Prof. Dr. Maizar Rahman (Chemical Engineering)
- Ir. E. J asj, M.Sc., APU. (Chemical Engineering)
- Prof. Dr. Suprajitno Munadi (Geophysics)
- Prof. M. Udiharto (Biology)
- Prof. Dr. E. Suhardono (Industrial Chemistry)
- Dr. Ir. Bambang Widarsono, M.Sc. (Petroleum Engineering)

Editors : - Dr. Ir. Usman, M.Eng. (Petroleum Engineering)
- Ir. Sugeng Riyono, M.Phil. (Chemical Engineering)
- Dr. Ir. Eko Budi Lelono (Palynologist)
- Abdul Haris, S.Si., M.Si. (Chemistry and Environment)
- Ir. Bambang Wicaksono T.M., M.Sc. (Petroleum Geology)
Peer Group : - Prof. Dr. Ir. Septoratno Siregar (Petroleum Engineering)
- Prof. Dr. R.P. Koesoemadinata (Geological Engineering)
- Prof. Dr. Wahjudi Wisaksono (Energy and Environment)
- Dr. Ir. M. Kholil, M.Kom. (Management of Environment)
- Ferry Imanuddin Sadikin, S.T., M.E. (Electrical Engineering)

151
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GENERAL
1. Scientific contributions Oil & Gas J ournal is the specific media for the LEMIGAS scientists and experts, which accommodate the scientific
analyses, studies and reviews on the matter concerning with petroleum industries which had been conducted by LEMIGAS.
2. The Scientific contributions Oil & Gas editor shall also receive the article from the scientists individually or in group of experts either personally
or on behalf of the government or private institution, more scientifically and sharply, however. It is intended to push and to increase the quality
of writing particularly for the interest of the internal institution circumstances.
WRITING STANDARD
1. Language
The article should be written in English version using the standardized English principles terminology and referred to the oil and gas
dictionary edited by Lemigas and English dictionary.
2. Article
The title of the article should be written on the first line on top centered using small/capital letters 24 points size.
- The Name of Authors should be written on the second line below the title of the article.
- Abstracts of the article must be written in English and is determined by the initial article. Abstract is written in no more than 200 words.
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as follow: authors, name, year of edition, title, cited page. Publication Data (city, publications name, total pages).
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The reference is a literature series used by the author or writer (s) to compose the article.
The reference should be placed on the last part of the article and composed in an alphabetical order based on the authors name, as
the example below:
a. Book
- Single author
Davis, Gordon B., 1976, Management Information System, Conceptual Foundation Structur and Development, Mc Graw Hill.
- Two authors
Newman W.H. andE. Kirby Warren, 1977, The Process of Management, Concept, Behavior, and Pratice, Prentice-Hall of India
Private Ltd., New Delhi, hlm. 213.
- More than three authors
Bennet J.D., Bridge D. Mcc, Camcron N.R., Djunuddin A, Ghazali S.A, Jeffery D.H., Kartawa W., Keats W., Rock N.M.S., and
Thompson S.J., 1981, The Geology of the Langsa Quadrangle, Sumatra, GRDC, Bandung.
or:
Bannet J.D., et al., 1981, The Geology of the Langsa Quadrangle, Sumatra, GRDC, Bandung.
b. J ournal
- A.S. Nasution andE. Jasjfi. 1996, Production of Gasoline and Impact of More Stringent Specification on Catalyst Performance, 4
th
ASCOPE Refining Workshop, Thailand, November.
- Weissmann J Dr.; 1972, Fuel for Internal Combustion Engines and Furnace, Report, In-house Research, May, LEMIGAS, J akarta.
c. Web sites :Should be mentioned date and year.
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Tools Name: Research location of shale gas reservoir

2. Increasing of compressive stress at LPG seal is

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