Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
SOLARIS POWER
Prepared By
BATCH -2005(B)
Project Advisor
Winston Churchill
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
for his tremendous motivation, support and technical assistance without this
We would also like to express our gratitude to Mr. Raza Jafri (Associate
Professor & Internal Advisor) for his help and guidance throughout the
project.
Zeeshan (Assistant Professor) for his help in the initial distribution and the
for her help in the literary support and Mr. Salman Jafri (Assistant
TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
• Overview of Solar Energy
• Current projects of the world
• Objective of the Solaris Power
• General description
-2-
CHAPTER 1
Solaris Power
Based on the current scenario presented by the rise in global energy consumption, we
have to face the fact that there is not enough oil in this world left to continue to support
our needs...eventually, our supply will stop and following it, the grinding halt of the
world's economy. Fossil fuels are becoming costly and people are worried as our nation
is so dependent on everyone else, but ourselves. Solar energy is becoming more and more
common as a means to power things that normally run off of electricity. Alternative
longer for the environmental conservationists. People are starting to wake up and see that
our planet is slowly being destroyed by pollution and lack of responsibility. Prime
examples are the introduction of the fuel cell, solar energy generators, hybrid cars etc.
The sun holds a very prominent place in the history of human development, numerous
examples of its precedence in the minds of those before us is evidence of it, even today
this is proving to be the case as of all the sources of renewable energy available to
mankind in its pursuit of a sustainable future, solar power is a pivotal one. Plentiful, free
and absolutely clean, the main challenge to fully tap its huge potential is to harness and
distribute it. We have made considerable progress with solar power, but future uses of
solar energy will be spawned by innovations still to come. At present, solar power is used
in three main ways, that is, to heat air, water and space. Photovoltaic cells are also one of
the most popular forms whereby sun energy is converted into power. According to the
U.S. Department of Energy’s Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy arm, there will
be more breakthroughs in new materials, cell designs, and novel approaches to product
development in photovoltaic research and development. Future uses of solar energy could
-3-
include our mode of transportation and even clothing, which will be equipped to produce
In the future, use of solar energy will be ubiquitous because concentrating solar power
decade. “Concentrating solar power, or solar thermal electricity, could harness enough of
the sun's energy to provide large-scale, domestically secure, and environmentally friendly
electricity”.
There are several solar power plants in the Mojave Desert in the US, which supply power
to the electricity grid. Solar Energy Generating Systems (SEGS) is the name given to
nine solar power plants in the Mojave Desert which were built in the 1980s. These plants
have a combined capacity of 354 megawatts (MW) making them the largest solar power
receiver located at the top of a tower. A heat transfer fluid, usually molten nitrate salt, is
heated in the receiver and used either to drive a turbine/generator to produce electricity or
to provide high temperature thermal heat. The molten salt can be used to store the
thermal energy for producing electricity at night or during cloudy weather. The U.S.
Department of Energy, and a consortium of U.S. utilities and industry, built the first two
large-scale, demonstration solar power towers in the desert near Barstow, CA.
-4-
Solar One operated
successfully from
1982 to 1988,
towers perform
efficiently to produce
utility-scale power
Solar One plant used water/steam as the heat-transfer fluid in the receiver; this presented
several problems in terms of storage and continuous turbine operation. To address these
problems, Solar One was upgraded to Solar Two, which operated from 1996 to 1999.
The unique feature of Solar Two was its use of molten salt to capture and store the sun's
heat. The very hot salt was stored and used when needed to produce steam to drive a
intermittent clouds and continued generating electricity long into the night.
the Israeli company Luz Industries. These plants have a combined capacity of 354 MW
making them the largest solar power installation in the world. Today they generate
Trough systems convert the heat from the sun into electricity. Because of their parabolic
shape, trough collectors can focus the sun at 30-60 times its normal intensity on a
receiver pipe located along the focal line of the trough. Synthetic oil circulates through
the pipe and captures this heat, reaching temperatures of 390 °C (735 °F). The hot oil is
pumped to a generating station and routed through a heat exchanger to produce steam.
Finally, electricity is produced in a conventional steam turbine. The SEGS plants are
configured as hybrids to operate on natural gas on cloudy days or after dark, and natural
Although solar technology has been in operation since the 1980’s however, it has only
Even now its use is only limited to Solar Heaters and DC to DC power generation.
-6-
Objective:
This project has aimed to utilize all available technologies regarding the implementation
as well as homes.
The implementation of this project was sought because the current technology available
alteration of the appliances operating on AC power. The vendors have designed the new
Therefore, our goal was to devise a system which does not require the alteration of the
appliances installed. Another subsequent advantage of our project is that no such system
exists in Pakistan.
Feasibility:
It provides electricity when and where power is most limited and most expensive, which
is a highly valuable and strategic contribution. Solar electricity mitigates the risk of fuel-
While many of the costs of fossil fuels are well known, others (pollution related health
foreign energy sources) are indirect and difficult to calculate. These are traditionally
external to the pricing system, and are thus often referred to as externalities. A corrective
pricing mechanism, such as a carbon tax, could lead to renewable energy, such as solar
thermal power, becoming cheaper to the consumer than fossil fuel based energy.
-
-7-
Also solarr thermal poower plants can generallly be built in a few yeears becausee solar plantts
types of conventiona
c al power prrojects, especially coal and nucleear plants, require lonng
lead timess.
Figure 1.1
Figure 1.2
-
-9-
A descripttion of the critical
c compponents of the
t project is
i provided below:
top surface. The cell converts thhe sunlight into direct current elecctricity. Num
merous cellls
are assembbled
1.1.2 Traccker:
It perform
ms the solar tracking
t of PV modulee to increasee the efficienncy of the system.
s
of equipm
ment utilizedd in this prooject; it is needed
n to prevent
p the
project aree:
(a) DC-D
DC charger (PV
( Regulaator), used when
w electrricity from
(b) AC-D
DC chargeer, used when
w photto-voltaic energy
e is
be used.
inverter.
1.1.6 Inveerter:
voltages supplied
s byy the batterries into AC electricitty which
will be utiilizable for the electriccal appliancces. And forr this projecct the Invertter would be
b
1.1.7 Disp
play Panel:
showing meters,
m charrging source selection,, and overlooad and undder
as circuit breakers,
b fuuses and em
mergency shu
utdown buttton.
CHAPTER: 2
PROJECT DESIGN &
IMPLEMENTATION
• Design & Circuit Layouts
• Module Operation
• Testing and Simulation
• Troubleshooting
-12-
CHAPTE
ER 2
Module Explanation
E n
PHOTO SENSORS
ker:
2.1 Track
A
A
sun. [3]
It takes innput from thhe 2 sensorrs (LDR) & then takees decision to move th
he panel in a
direction with
w greaterr sunlight inntensity.
Figu
ure 2.1
-13-
2.1.2 Circcuit Implem
mentation
Problem Statement:
S :
• The Tracker
T was rarely deteecting a balance condiition i.e. it was eitherr moving thhe
panel right
r or left. It was not stopping th
he motor.
sensorrs.
• Even when
w almosst the same intensity
i off light was falling
f over the 2 sensors, there waas
Solution
n:
In order too remove thhe stated problems wee decided too take an innternal refeerence ratheer
LDR
R Voltage Reference
R C
Circuit
Figu
ure 2.2
* Reference [55], [6]
-14-
Implemen
nted PCB of
o the Circu
uit:
ure 2.3
Figu
Figu
ure 2.4
Thhe circuit foor a Chargee Controllerr is rated 6A and batteery (i.e. to be chargedd)
Diiode D4 is a schottkyy diode useed for dischharge preveention. It iss one of thhe
typical appplications of
o a schottky diode. Schottky
S D
Diodes are m
metal to n--type Silicoon
Diode andd are differeent from Sillicon Diodes. Advantagges of Schoottky Diode over Silicoon
Silicon Diodes which makes them unsuitable for high power applications.
potential of 50V which is large enough to prevent Batteries from discharging through the
PV panel. This is necessary so that the PV panel does not get damaged.
Transistor T3 turns on when the PV panel voltage is large enough to cross the
potential Vbe of T3 which is typically 0.7V, voltage drop across R9 & the 12V drop
across D6. Here D6 ensures that T3 does not turn on at a voltage below 12V, R9 limits
Capacitors C6 & C7 are used to filter the input and output. VR1 is a potentiometer used
to change the Float Voltage Setting i.e. the Depth of Charging. The Temperature Sensor
TM1 (thermistor) modulates the float voltage setting slightly, the full voltage set point
rises in colder temperatures & falls at hot temperatures. Shorting the equalize terminals
J1 causes the circuit to stay in the charging state, this is useful for occasionally
IC1 has been split up into IC1a & IC1b just to make the schematic clear.
Otherwise both are part of the same IC. IC1a & IC1b are Op-Amps operating as
Comparator. Each Op-Amp produces an output which is the counterpart of the other for
Battery Voltages are compared to the float voltage setting by the Op-Amp IC1a &
IC1b. If the battery voltage is less than the float voltage setting then the Red light turns
on and the battery gets charging. Once Battery voltages become equal to the Float
Voltage Setting Green LED glows indicating the battery voltage has reached the floating
-16-
voltage, then the circuit starts oscillating above and below the Float voltage and RED &
The opto-coupler OC1 provides electrical isolation to the Output of IC1a & the
Gate of MOSFET T1. It provides optical coupling, & switches on or off depending on the
input. As a signal passes through the pin 1 & pin 2 of OC1 i.e. when the battery is
charging & RED led is glowing the opto-coupler turns on. As soon as the signal through
the battery. When there is no input at its gate (OC1 is off due to IC1a output low)
minimum current flows through T1. As the output of IC1a goes high this turns OC1 on &
F1 is a 6.0A Fuse to provide protection to the circuit. It breaks if the current goes
above 6.0A. D5 is a Crowbar Diode for safety purpose. If the Battery is inserted in the
reverse position by mistake, i.e. the polarities are not proper then the diode D5 provides a
short part through itself & a 6.0A fuse. Thus prevents other parts of the circuit from
damage. The current Rating of the Diode must be greater than 6.0A so that it does not
Figure 2.5
-17-
2.2.1 Mod
dified Charrge Controlller Board::
Problem Statement:
S :
• We trried to sim
mulate the test
t circuit of the chaarge controoller based on discrette
Solution
n:
Figu
ure 2.6
'brain', thee PIC micrrocontroller and the otther part iss for
reference is
i centered on P1; HIG
GH referencee is centeredd on
voltage too the two references. The PIC will then take
actions.
require a lot
l of code space,
s the taasks preform
med by the program
p aree:
• Chheck if TEST
T is High inn order to ch
hoose the addjustment rooutine or no
ot.
Adjustmeent:
Too set the dessired HIGH voltage refference, a teest mode is used. Why
y? because in
i
point at +5volt, we inform the PIC to run the adjustment routine, means without delays.
• Set power supply to 10.8 volts. Adjust P1 to get a LOW level on GPIO.4 (pin 3).
• Set power supply to 13.8 volts. Adjust P2 to get a LOW level on GPIO.5 (pin
2).This means that the 'Solar Panel' is disconnected above 13.8 volts (or other
• Between 10.8 and 13.8, GPIO.5 is HIGH and GPIO.4 is HIGH (Solar Panel and
Load connected)
• Above 13.8, GPIO.5 is LOW and GPIO.4 is HIGH (Solar Panel disconnected)
When this has been achieved, disconnect test point (TP) from +5 volts to go back to
Normal Mode.
Problem Statement:
At this step we were unable to achieve the desired output from the controller. The
output of the microcontroller was unpredictable even though we had programmed it.
Observation:
We realized that, there was some problem with the configuration registers. The
HEX file for the source code generated by Microchip was incorrect.
-20-
MPLAB
o It changes the register variables after every step, i.e. it reset the values in certian
o If you leave the simulator continue running it does’nt update the variables.
o There are different types of PIC and each uses a different compiler.
After wasting too much of our time on MPLAB we switch to the new tool i.e. MikroC of
Mikroelektronica.
MikroC
For the final design we shifted from the 12F675 having 6 I/O pins to the 16F877A which
has 33 I/O pins. Here the decision will be made according to the Present Battery Level.
We also added the Source Selection feature to the design & finally the decisions taken by
• If battery level is sufficient enough (present level falls within the nominal range)
• If battery level is insufficient then check which of the source is available for
• Charge the battery until it saturates. But don’t over charger it!!!
Charge controller disconnects the charger from battery when the battery voltages
become constant (does not increase further) indicating saturation is achieved & thus
Initially the idea was to have hardware controlled limits; however when using software
controlled limits to control charging, this modification freed up more pins of controller &
microcontroller for a more efficient and compact design; this is also a slight modification
The battery voltage drops after the charging is turned off & it took some time for the
battery to go back to its new holding voltage, thus we introduced a delay in the code so
that the controller waits for sometime after switching off charging, so that the battery
-22-
voltage stabilizes & then reads the present battery level to make Charging Decision i.e.
CIRCUIT SCHEMATIC
Figure 2.7
PCB LAYOUT
Figure 2.8
2.2.2 PV Regulator:
The voltage levels being obtained from the solar panel are unregulated; to stabilize the
Figure 2.9
Configuration
• Q3 & Q4 forms the control circuit. These two transistors are wired in parallel &
the charging current for the battery flows equally through this parallel
combination of transistors.
The amount of current that can pass through the Darlington pair can be calculated by:
-24-
• When no modulation is needed, i.e. the output voltage is equal to input voltage &
there is no error.
• The sensing circuit remains OFF, therefore entire current flows though the Q1 &
Q2.
• Q1 & Q2 conducts max current & drives Q3 & Q4 into full conduction so that Vce
• Once Q5 & Q6 detects error then the current that drives Q1 & Q2, conducts
through Q5 & Q6 too. Thus the entire current is divided between transistors Q1,
• Thus Q1 & Q2 moves towards cutoff region (away from saturation) as their input
current is decreased.
consequence Vce increases & thus output decreases until it becomes equal to
voltage settingg.
OUT
TPUT < DE
ESIRED OU
UTPUT
• Onnce Q5 & Q6
Q detect errror then the Q5 & Q6 moves
m towarrds cutoff, thus
t the
• Ass a result Q11 & Q2 movves towardss saturation region (awaay from cutoff) as theirr
inpput current is
i increasedd.
connsequence Vce
V decreasses & thus output
o increeases until itt become eq
qual to
• Thhus Q5 & Q6 keeps moonitoring outtput and maaintains outpput at desireed voltage
settting
Schematicc Diagram:
Figu
ure 2.10
-26-
Implemen
nted PCB of
o the Circu
uit:
Figu
ure 2.11
Testing th
he PV Regu
ulator:
circuit v
voltages from an auto-
the reguulator as w
well as th
he controlleer
board.
-27-
2.2.3 AC Charger:
C
accordinglly with the size of the battery [13]. The charginng ON/OFF
F time and voltages
v wiill
220 VAC CONTROL
RECTTIFIER BATTTERY
50Hz CIRCUIT
Circuit Diagram:
Figu
ure 2.12
Simulatioon Result:
-28-
Figure 2.13
2.3 Inverter:
Power inverters are devices which can convert electrical energy of DC form into AC. [14]
They come in all shapes and sizes, from low power functions such as powering a car
radio to that of backing up a building in case of power outage. Inverters can come in
many different varieties, differing in price, power, efficiency and purpose. The purpose
12 volt car battery, and transform it into a 220 volt AC power source operating at 60Hz,
Figure provides an idea of what a small power inverter looks like. Power inverters are
used today for many tasks like powering appliances in a car such as cell phones, radios
and televisions. They also come in handy for consumers who own camping vehicles,
boats and at construction sites where an electric grid may not be as accessible to hook
-29-
into. Inverters allow the user to provide AC power in areas where only batteries can be
made available, allowing portability and freeing the user of long power cords.
On the market today are two different types of power inverters, modified sine wave and
pure sine wave generators. These inverters differ in their outputs, providing varying
levels of efficiency and distortion that can affect electronic devices in different ways.
A modified sine wave is similar to a square wave but instead has a “stepping” look to it
that relates more in shape to a sine wave. This can be seen in Figure 2.14, which displays
how a modified sine wave tries to emulate the sine wave itself. The waveform is easy to
produce because it is just the product of switching between 3 values at set frequencies,
thereby leaving out the more complicated circuitry needed for a pure sine wave. The
modified sine wave inverter provides a cheap and easy solution to powering devices that
need AC power. It does have some drawbacks as not all devices work properly on a
modified sine wave, products such as computers and medical equipment are not resistant
to the distortion of the signal and must be run on a pure sine wave power source.
Figure 2.14
-30-
2.3.1 Methodology
The construction of the pure sine wave inverter can be complex when thought of as a
whole but when broken up into smaller projects and divisions it becomes a much easier
to manage project. The following sections detail each specific part of the project as well
as how each section is constructed and interacts with other blocks to result in the
Analog circuitry, as well as discrete components, a MOSFET drive integrated circuit and
a low pass filter is all that is necessary to generate a 60Hz, 220V AC sine wave across a
load. The block diagram shown in figure shows the varying parts of the project that will
be addressed.
The control circuit is comprised of three basic blocks, the 6.0V reference, sine wave
generator and triangle wave generator; when these blocks are implemented with
comparators and other small analog circuitry they control the PWM signals that the two
MOSFET drivers will send. The PWM signals are fed into these MOSFET drivers that
configuration.
From here the signal is sent through a low pass LC filter so that the output delivers a pure
sine wave. The specific operation, construction, and resulting output waveforms for each
PWM
M & SIGNALLLING OUTPUT DRIIVER
Figu
ure 2.15
PWM CONTROL
CIRCUIT
DC‐AC
INVERTERR
HALF BRIDG
GE
CONVERTER R
SINE‐PW
WM
CONTROLLLER
CIRCUIT HIGH
FREQUENCYY
TRANSFORMER
FULL BRID
DGE
INVERTEER
LOW PASS FFILTER
220 VAC 6
60Hz
OUTPUT
Figurre 2.16
-32-
M Control Circuit
2.3.3 PWM
Figu
ure 2.17
modifyingg the trianglle wave. If these waveeforms are passed intoo a comparaator, we will
obtain:
-33-
PWM H-BRIDGE CONTROL SIGNAL
can obtain:
The first step to creating an accurate pulse width modulation signal using analog
was needed to produce a stable 60Hz sine wave that had little distortion so that the output
produce this signal because of its ability to produce a stable sine wave that contains very
[10]
little distortion. The circuitry and values chosen are shown in Figure and the op-amp
chip chosen to complete the task was an LM348 as it is an inexpensive part and meets all
Figure 2.18
-34-
Results:
Generating a sine wave at 60Hz requires both the reference sine wave and a carrier wave
at the switching speed of the power supply. Carrier waves can be either saw-tooth or
triangular signals; in this case, a triangular wave is used. The generation of the triangular
carrier wave has been done with analog components. The circuit for the construction of
[10]
the triangle wave generator consists of a square wave generator and integrator , as
Figure 2.19
-35-
The above circuit will oscillate at a frequency of 1/4RtC, and the amplitude can
be controlled by the amplitude of R1 and R2. Rt =150K VR, R1=8.2K & R2=1.5M VR,
Results:
Problem Statement:
Difficulties with this circuit were mainly caused by the operational amplifier
selected in its design. The square and triangle waves may be skewed due to the op-amp’s
inability to reach output rails. Also, if the frequency is too high for the op-amp to handle,
the square wave will be skewed and the triangle wave will be noticeably clipped or
distorted.
We have used 9 ICs for generating the required signals. The behavior of discrete
component is sometimes unpredictable and again in the PWM output we get the result as
show in the oscilloscope output. The output signals are not very clean PWM pulses; this
Solution:
work we have
h to convvert the
Op-amp based
b circuits to
the XR
R-2206 Fuunction
generator IC.
P
Previous outtput from Opp-Amps. R-2206 based PWM.
Output of XR
-37-
Generating a sine wave centered on zero volts requires both a positive and negative
voltage across the load, for the positive and negative parts of the wave, respectively. This
can be achieved from a single source through the use of four MOSFET switches arranged
speeds, N-Channel MOSFETs were chosen as switches in the bridge. Level translation
between PWM signals and voltages required to forward bias high side N-Channel
MOSFETS, the IR2110 MOSFET driver integrated circuit was chosen. A diagram of the
H-Bridge circuit with MOSFETS and drivers is shown in the figure below:
Figure 2.21
The IR2110 High and Low Side Drive device exceeds all requirements for driving the
switching speeds. This device is required to drive the high side MOSFETS in the circuit
designated HO, due to the fact that the gate to source voltage must be higher than the
drain to source voltage, which is the highest voltage in the system. This device utilizes a
drain to source voltage. With a full bridge configuration, two of these devices are
utilized, as shown in the above figure. A typical connection of a single IR2110 device is
shown in Figure.
-39-
Operation of the IR2110 device will be controlled through generated PWM signals. The
PWM signals will be fed to the HIN and LIN pins simultaneously. If the internal logic
detects a logic high, the HO pin will be driven; if a logic low is detected, the LO pin will
be driven. The SD pin controls shut down of the device and will be unused and tied to the
ground. Additional pins that require external connections are the Vss pin which will also
be tied to the ground, the Vcc pin which will be tied to 12V, pins requiring connections to
Driving four MOSFETs in an H-Bridge configuration allows +350, 350, or 0 volts across
the load at any time. To utilize PWM signals and this technology, the left and right sides
of the bridge will be driven by different signals. The MOSFET driver on the left side of
the bridge will receive a square wave of 60Hz, and the right side will receive the 50KHz
PWM signal. The 60Hz square wave will control the polarity of the output sine wave,
while the PWM signal will control the amplitude. The MOSFETs to be used in the design
are the IRFB20N50KPbF (IRF740) Hexfet Power MOSFET, rated for 500V at 20A with
an Rds of 0.21ohm.
-40-
The implemented PCB:
Figure 2.22
A schematic of the half-bridge converter is shown in Figure 2.23. The major components
of the half-bridge converter are the two transistors, which are illustrated in the figure. The
that an alternating current is seen by the transformer. The red and blue paths have been
added to figure to illustrate the switching technique used to create and alternating current
-41-
from direcct current. T
The red pathh shows thaat current iss forced acrross the prim
mary side of
o
producingg an AC
waveform
m. Since the pulses
IRFZ44 diissipated thee least amouunt of heat for long durrations of ooperation.
* Reference [15]
-42-
The TL494 was selected; a short description of the IC is given below:
Figure 2.24
-43-
Now the TL494 circuit was interfaced with transformer of rating; Input = 15+0+15 Volt
The results:
-44-
Problem Statement:
From the above oscilloscope output we can see the output is not pure Square output,
Figure 2.25
-45-
MODIFIED
CIRCUIT
Figure 2.26
AMPLITUDE
≈ 300 Vpp
Now we got the 60Hz (16.67msec) Square outputs with an rms value of 211VAC.
Problem Statement:
The output was about 190VAC on load; however
many dumping signals.
Observation:
From above simulation we noticed that the core gets saturated after 30‐40 minutes.
And the voltage starts decreasing by 3‐5 volts per minute.
Conclusion:
The term ferrite core may refer to a core used to build an electric transformer; there are
two kinds of core (nucleous) applications following the size and frequencies, one for
The ferrite cores used for power transformers are working in the range of low frequencies
(1 to 50KHz usually) and are quiet big size, can either be toroidal, shell or C shaped and
are useful in all kind of switching electronic device (especially power supplies from 1W
to 100W maximum because usually powerful applications are out of range of ferritic
The ferrite cores used for signal have a range of applications from 1KHz to many MHz
interesting history. Ferrite is rigid and brittle. Like other ceramics, ferrite can chip and
break if handled roughly. Luckily it is not as fragile as porcelain and often such chips and
cracks will be merely cosmetic. Ferrite varies from silver gray to black in color. The
-47-
electromagnetic properties of ferrite materials can be affected by operating conditions
There are basically two varieties of ferrite: soft and hard. This is not a tactile quality but
rather a magnetic characteristic. 'Soft ferrite' does not retain significant magnetization
Ferrite has a cubic crystalline structure with the chemical formula MO.Fe2O3 where
Fe2O3 is iron oxide and MO refers to a combination of two or more divalent metal (i.e:
zinc, nickel, manganese and copper) oxides. The addition of such metal oxides in various
amounts allows the creation of many different materials whose properties can be tailored
Ferrite components are pressed from a powdered precursor and then sintered (fired) in a
kiln. The mechanical and electromagnetic properties of the ferrite are heavily affected by
Ferrite shrinks when sintered. Depending on the specific ferrite, this shrinkage can range
from 10% to 17% in each dimension. Thus the unfired component's volume may be as
much as 60% larger than the sintered value. Maintaining correct dimensional tolerances
as well as the prevention of cracking related to this shrinkage are fundamental concerns
(E, EP, EFD, EC, ETD, PQ, POT, U and others), toroids, and some custom designs.
ETD-49:
10
2314.2135
10
0.101
-49-
1 10 1 /
1.5
50
10
1
4
100 1000
211 2.11
271 2.71
900
10
4
10
4
0.3, 80%
5.71
1 10
1
1
10
1
900 900
10
244 10
1
1
10
25
213 2.13
173 1.73
10
10
4
1 ;
10 ;
5.07 10
450
0.3
80%
?
3.684
10
3.684 450 5.07 10 0.8 25 0.3
4
0.22 10
248.82
4 0.8 25 0.3
4 14.2
248.82
-51-
ferrite-corres in Pakisttan. Now ouur first challlenge was to search thhe whole market
m for thhe
ferrite-corres, and finaally after maany days off searching, we finally got two sizzes of ferritee-
cores, how
wever these were withoout any speccifications or
o data. We browsed th
hrough manny
cores, dow
wnloaded thhe pictures and we co
ompared thee features oof cores thaat we boughht
-52-
ding Resultts:
The Wind
Figu
ure 2.27
Now from
m the datasheeets and cattalog charts the Core ETD-49
E valuues are:
It is now confirmed
c thhat our calcculations aree on cue.
-53-
Figure 2.28
AC voltage at the output are varying due to the output frequency of 4.51 KHz, however,
the digital meters that we have are operating at a less approximation speed. We rectified
the output and measured the DC voltage for first three transformers using an analog
meter, and the results were very shocking. The DC voltages were more than 800VDC. As
for the forth one, which was designed for 400V we got 300VDC as shown in the above
Problem Statement:
smooth the output, the transformer starts to generate noise and voltage drops to 20-
30VDC. While searching through different forums on the internet we found that for
primary side Strip wire of the same width of the Bobbin is used for winding however,
this is unavailable in Pakistan, so we tried to use copper sheet of same thickness but still
failed to achieve the desired output. And one more critical factor of Ferrite core winding
is the type of core, of which three types are available namely, F-Type, R-Type and P-
Type. The component vendors in Pakistan do not have any data related to the type of
towards thhe square wave inverrter based on the connventional iron core transformerr.
2.3.6 Mod
dified Sine--wave Inverrter
Figu
ure 2.29
The Result:
about 1
188VAC. This
as followss; Input 12 + 0 + 12 VA
AC, Output 220 + 240 + 260 VAC
C at current of
o 7A.
Figu
ure 2.30
ure 2.31
Figu
resulting waveform
w a
after passinng through the
t low-passs LC Filterr. And the amplitude is
i
CHAPTER: 3
ACCESSORIES
• Battery
• PV Panel
• 16 X 2 LCD Module
• PIC Microcontroller
-59-
CHAPTE
ER 3
Acceessories
3.1 Batterry
General Sizes
S of Avaailable Battteries:
Tab
ble 3.1
Chargingg Rate:
nickel-bassed chemisttries in that voltage ratther than cuurrent limitiing is used.. The chargge
time of a sealed lead-acid batteery is 12-16 hours (uup to 36 hoours for larrger capacitty
can be redduced to 10 hours or lesss. Lead-aciid cannot bee fully chargged as quick
kly as nickeel
or lithium--based systeems.
to dischargge. On nickkel-based baatteries, this ratio is 1:1, and roughhly 1:2 on lithium-ion.
-60-
Battery raatings:
12VDC, 85Ah
8 ,18Plaate Phoenixx Brand Leaad Acid Batttery is usedd in the systeem.
accurate SoC
S estimattion for leadd acid batteeries. It is im
mportant thhat the batteery is free of
o
BCI Stand
dard for SoC estimation
of a 12V lead acid carr battery.
Tab
ble 3.2
The Do annd don’t baattery table summarizees these neeeds and advvises properr handling of
o
- Nickel-ca
admium Nickel-meta
al- Lithium-ion Leead-acid
(NiCCd) hydride (NiM
MH) (Li-ion) (Seale
ed or flooded)
)
Used in Two-way ra adios, Similar application as Cell phones, laptops
s, Motorcy
ycles, cars,
power toolss, N
NiCd; higher deensity. video cameras. wheelch
hairs, UPS.
medical.
Charging Do run the battery Do run the batte
D ery Do ch
harge the batte ery Do charrge the batteryy
fully down once per fu
ully down once often.. The battery la
asts immediately after
month; try to use up ev
very 3 months s. longer with partial ad-acid must
use. Lea
all energy before
b O
Over-cycling is not ratherr than full always be kept in a
charging. advised. discha
arges. chargedd condition.
The batttery lasts
Do not leav
ve battery Do not leave ba
D attery Do noot use if pack g
gets longer with
w partial
in charger for more in
n charger for more
m hot du
uring charge. rather than
t full
than 2 dayss because th
han 2 days beccause Checkk also charger. discharg
ges. Over-
of memory. off memory. cycling is not advised..
Charg ge methods:
Avoid getting Avoid getting ba
A attery Consttant voltage to Charge methods:
battery too
o hot to
oo hot during 4.20V V/cell (typical). No Constan nt voltage to
during charrge. ch
harge. trickle
e-charge when 2.40/ceell (typical),
full. Li-ion
L may rema ain followedd by float held
Charge methods: in thee charger (no at 2.25V V/cell.
Constant cuurrent, Charge methods
C s: memo ory). Battery mmust Battery must remain
followed by
y trickle C
Constant curren
nt, remain cool. No fastt- cool. Fa
ast charge not
charge wheen full. fo
ollowed by trickkle charge possible. possiblee; can remain
Fast-chargee ch
harge when full. on floatt charge.
preferred over
o slow Slow charge nott Rapid charge = 3h
charge. re
ecommended. Slow ch
harge = 14h
Slow charge = 16h Battery will get Rapid charge = 10h
Rapid chargge = 3h w
warm towards full
f
Fast charge
e = 1h+ ch
harge.
R
Rapid charge = 3h
Fa
ast charge = 1h+
1
-61-
Discharging
g Full cycle does
d not Avoid too many
A y full Avoid full cycle Avoid fuull cycle
harm NiCd.. cy
ycles because of becauuse of wear. 800% because e of wear. Use
NiCd is onee of the w
wear. Use 80% depth-of-discharge 80% de epth-of-
most hardy y and depth-of-discharge. recommmended. Re- discharg ge. Recharge
durable che emistries. N
NiMH has higher charge more often. more offten or use
en
nergy density than Avoid full discharge.. larger battery.
b
N
NiCd at the expense Low voltage
v may cut Low ene ergy density
off shorter cycle life. off safety circuit limits le
ead-acid to
wheeled d applications
Service Discharge tot 1V/cell Discharge to 1V
D V/cell No maaintenance Apply to opping charge
needs every 1 to 2 months evvery 3 months s to needeed. Loses capac
city every 6 months.
to prevent memory. prevent memory y. due to
o aging whetheer Occasio onal discharge//
Do not disccharge D not discharg
Do ge used or
o not. charge may improve
before each h charge. before each cha arge performmance.
Storage Best to store at 40% Store at 40% ch harge Store at 40% charge e in Store always at a full
charge in a cool in
n a cool place. Open a cooll place (40% state-off-charge. Do
place. Open n terminal te
erminal voltagee state--of-charge read ds not storre below
voltage cannnot caannot determin ne 3.75-3.80V/cell at 2.10V/c cell; apply
determine state-of- sttate-of-charge. open terminal. topping charge every
charge. 5 years
y and Prime battery iff Do noot store at full 6 month hs.
longer storage sttored longer th
han 6 charge and at warm m
possible. Prrime m
months. tempe eratures becau use
battery if stored of acc
celerated aging g.
longer thann6
months.
Disposal Do not disppose; Should be recyc
cled. Should be recycled. Do not dispose; must
contains tooxic Lo
ow volume Low volume
v household be recycled.
metals; mu ust be household NiMHH may Li-ion may be dispossed
recycled. be disposed.
Tab
ble 3.3
unspecifieed.
Assembliees of cells are used too make solaar moduless, which maay in turn be
b linked in
i
photovoltaaic arrays.
PV panel ratings:
* Reference [22]
-63-
3.3 Displaay Panel
modules of
o 16 x 2 linnes.
• Inttelligent, w
with builtt-in Hitach
hi HD447780
com
mpatible LC
CD controlller and RAM
M providingg simple intterfacing
• 61 x 15.8 mm
m viewing arrea
• Poowerful com
mmand set annd user-pro
oduced charaacters
• TT
TL and CMO
OS compatiible
MO
ODE SELECTTION
INVERTER
. . NG
CHARGIN
ON
N OFF PV AC
-64-
3.4 PIC Microcontroller
Introduction:
The microcontroller is a very common component in modern electronic systems. Its use
is so widespread that it is almost impossible to work in electronics without coming across
it.
• Keyboard of a PC.
• Printers.
• Mobile phones.
• Hearing aids.
• Security alarm systems, fire alarm systems, and building services systems.
What is a microprocessor?
• The ability to execute a stored set of instructions to carry out user defined
tasks.
• The ability to be able to access external memory chips to both read and
PIC stands for – “Peripheral Interface Controller”. The original PIC was designed to be a
Peripheral Interface Controller for 6502 microcontroller from Rockwell late 70’s.
The architecture of 16F877 has wide range of built-in modules so that no need for
Figure 3.1
Supporting Hardware:
CHAPTER: 4
FABRICATION &
PERFORMANCE
EVALUATION
• System Wiring Diagrams
• Modular Performance Charts
• Cost Analysis
• Conclusion
-68-
CHAPTER 4
Fabrication & Performance Evaluation
Figure 4.1
The true scaled CAD layout based on the above wiring diagram:
-69-
Finished Modules
M
-70-
4.2 Performance Charts
4.2.1 Tracker
Table 4.1
4.2.2 PV Regulator
Table 4.2
Table 4.3
-71-
4.2.4 Inverter
4.3 Conclusion:
As you can see from the information above most of the more important design constraints were
met. The packaged product did convert 12VDC to a 220VAC, 50 Hz. Some of the more
aggressive constraints were however not met. We were unable to produce a pure sine wave. Even
though, we have designed the PWM circuitry for the Sine wave generation, however for the
failure of the ferrite core transformer phase of the project, we feel that this constraint was set
pretty aggressively without enough knowledge of the availability of the data and the categorized
core itself. We feel that while this constraint was a failure that it is an acceptable failure. The
packaged unit size was efficiently controlled by using the CAD tools. The overall efficiency of
the entire system is 85% which is appreciable on the research and testing level. In the end our
Future Improvement:
With the proper implementation of ferrite core transformers the efficiency, weight
reduction and the pure sine wave output can be achieved. If one is able to find the
respective data and specifications of the ferrite core and its materials.
-72-
4.4 Cost Analysis
Table 4.5
Our estimated cost was Rs.75,000; however we have been able to complete the project in
under Rs.50,000, this cost reduction has been quite an achievement for us.
APPENDICES
• Firmware
• Transformer Core Datasheets
• List of Test Points ‐ Troubleshooting
• Software & Instruments
• References
-74-
APPENDIX A: FIRMWARE
void bfcheck()
{
batt = ADC_Read(1); //Read Battery
if(batt >= 690) //If Battery is in
{ //Nominal Range then
hang: PORTB.f7 = 1; //INDICATE BATTERY FULL
goto hang; //LOOP BACK (HANG)
}
else
-75-
PORTB.f7 = 0; //Indicates Battery not
fully charged
}
void SrcCheck()
{
pv = ADC_Read(0); //Read PV
if(pv >= 700) //If PV = 3.42v is
sufficient
{
PORTB.f5 = 1; //PV Available Indication
}
else
{
PORTB.f5 = 0; //PV not available
}
void CC()
{
OPTION_REG = 2; //Prescaler 1:8
ADCON0 = 1; //ADCON0.0 = ADON =
1
ADCON1 = 130; //AN0 to AN4 Analog,
AN5 to AN7 Digital, ADC Clock = Fosc/2, Right Justified
TRISA = 0xFF; //PortA/RA = Input
TRISB = 0; //PortB/RB = Output
TRISC = 0; //PortB/RB = Output
PORTC = 0; //Reset Output Port
batt = ADC_Read(1);
delay_ms(1); //Acquisition Time
pv = ADC_Read(0);
delay_ms(1);
while (pv > 700)
{
PORTB.f7 = 1; //Battery Full
Indication
while(batt < 690) //If battery is not in
nominal range
{
charge1: PORTB.f7 = 0; //Battery not full
PORTC.f0 = 1; //Turn DC Charger RELAY ON
PORTB.f1 = 1; //Charging INDICATION
for(i=0; i<600 ; i++) //Wait for 30 minutes
{
delay_ms(3000);
}
PORTB.f1 = 0; //Charging INDICATION OFF
PORTC.f0 = 0; //DC Charger RELAY OFF
for(j=0; j<60 ; j--) //wait for 3 minutes
{ //so that battery voltage
stabilise
delay_ms(300);
}
bn = ADC_Read(1); //Read Battery level after
being charged for "i" minutes
delay_ms(1);
if(batt < bn) //if battery voltage rises
{
batt = bn; //store new battery level
-76-
goto charge1; //loop back
}
else //if battery voltage not
rising
if(bn > 685) //if battery is in nominal
range
{
goto bfull1; //battery full
}
else //battery not in nominal
range
{
goto error1; //error indication
}
bfull1: PORTB.f7 = 1; //BATTERY FULL LED
PORTC.f0 = 0; //DC CHARGER RELAY OFF
while(1); //HANG INDEFINITELY
error1: PORTB.f7 = 0; //BATTERY FULL LED
PORTC.f0 = 0; //DC CHARGER RELAY OFF
PORTB.f0 = 1; //ERROR LED
while(1); //HANG INDEFINITELY
}
void BC()
{
OPTION_REG = 2; //Prescaler 1:8
ADCON0 = 1; //ADCON0.0 = ADON = 1
ADCON1 = 130; //AN0 to AN4 Analog,
AN5 to AN7 Digital, ADC Clock = Fosc/2, Right Justified
TRISA = 0xFF; //PortA/RA = Input
TRISB = 0; //PortB/RB = Output
batt = ADC_Read(10);
delay_Us(2000);
PORTA.f7 = 1; //BATTERY FULL
while(batt < 690) 645 = 3.068volt == 11.19v;
{
charge: PORTB.f7 = 0; //BATTERY FULL
PORTC.f1 = 1; //AC CHARGER RELAY
PORTB.f1 = 1; //CHARGING INDICATION
for(i=0; i<600 ; i++) //WAIT FOR 30minutes
{
delay_ms(3000);
}
PORTB.f1 = 0; //CHARGING LED
PORTC.f1 = 0; //AC CHARGER RELAY
for(j=0; j<60 ; j++) //WAIT 3minutes
{
delay_ms(3000);
}
bn = ADC_Read(1);
delay_ms(1);
if(batt < bn) //IF BATTERY VOLTAGE RISING
{
batt = bn; //UPDATE CURRENT BATTERY
LEVEL
goto charge; //LOOP BACK
}
-77-
else
if(bn > 685) 3.34volts == 0;
{
goto bfull; //JUMP TO BATTERY FULL
}
else
{
error; //JUMP TO ERROR
}
bfull: PORTB.f7 = 1; //BATTERY FULL
PORTC.f1 = 0; //AC CHARGER RELAY OFF
while(1);
error: PORTB.f7 = 0; //BATTERY FULL
PORTC.f1 = 0; //AC CHARGER RELAY OFF
PORTB.f0 = 1; //ERROR LED
while(1);
}
}
TRACKER
int left,right;
void main()
{
OPTION_REG = 2; Prescaler 1:8;
ADCON0 = 1; ADCON0.0 = ADON = 1;
ADCON1 = 128; //AN0 to AN4 Analog, AN5 to
AN7 Digital, ADC Clock = Fosc/2, Right Justified
TRISA = 0xFF; //PortA/RA = Input
TRISB = 0; PORTB/RB = Output;
PORTB = 0; //Reset PORTB
while(1)
{
left = ADC_Read(0);
Delay_ms(100);
right = ADC_Read(1);
Delay_ms(100);
if (left > 500 && right < 500)
{
PORTB.f7 = 1; // LEFT PIN
PORTB.f6 = 0; // RIGHT PIN
PORTB.f5 = 0;
Delay_ms(5000);
PORTB.f7 = 0;
}
else if(right > 500 && left < 500)
{
PORTB.f7 = 0; // LEFT PIN
PORTB.f6 = 1; // RIGHT PIN
PORTB.f5 = 0;
Delay_ms(5000);
PORTB.f6 = 0;
}
else
{
PORTB.f7 = 0; // LEFT PIN
PORTB.f6 = 0; // RIGHT PIN
PORTB.f5 = 1;
-78-
delay_ms(20000);
PORTB.f5 = 0;
}
}
DISPLAY BOARD
DEVICE : PIC16F877A
CLOCK : 12MHz
HS
RS = C.4 , R/W = C.5 , En = C.6 , Data Bus = D.7 to D.0
Lcd8_Init(*portctrl, *portdata);
E ? ctrlport.6
RS ? ctrlport.4
R/W ? ctrlport.5
D7 ? dataport.7
D6 ? dataport.6
D5 ? dataport.5
D4 ? dataport.4
D3 ? dataport.3
D2 ? dataport.2
D1 ? dataport.1
D0 ? dataport.0
void main()
{
int inp,m,bfull; //inp Stores the value at PORTE (Sw
Input)
m = 0; //m stores the current mode
selection
TRISA = 63; //Digital Inputs
TRISB = 0; //LED
TRISC = 0; //PORTC is output (Ctrl Port - LCD)
TRISD = 0; //PORTD is output (Data Bus - LCD)
// TRISE = 7; //PORTE is input (Keypad)
ADCON1= 7; //All inputs are Digital
PORTC = 0; //Reset PORTC
PORTD = 0; //Reset PORTD
Lcd8_Init(&PORTC, &PORTD); // Initialize LCD at PORTC and
PORTD
Lcd8_Out(1, 7, "TIE"); // Print text on LCD
Lcd8_Out(2, 5, "SOLARIS");
m: Delay_ms(2000);
Lcd8_Cmd(LCD_TURN_OFF);
Delay_ms(200);
Lcd8_Cmd(LCD_TURN_ON);
PORTB = 0;
bfull = PORTA.f0;
Lcd8_Cmd(LCD_CLEAR);
if(bfull==1)
PORTB.f4 = 1;
PORTB.f3 = 0;
Lcd8_Cmd(LCD_CLEAR);
Lcd8_Out(1, 7, "INV?");
Lcd8_Out(2, 5, "Press YES");
Lcd8_Cmd(LCD_BLINK_CURSOR_ON);
-79-
b1: Delay_ms(1000);
inp = PORTA.f5;
if(inp==1)
{
PORTB.f7 = 1;
goto invr;
}
else
goto b1;
else
{
PORTB.f4 = 0;
PORTB.f3 = 1;
Lcd8_Cmd(LCD_CLEAR);
Lcd8_Out(1,7, "CHRG?");
Lcd8_Out(2,5, "Press YES");
Lcd8_Cmd(LCD_BLINK_CURSOR_ON);
b2: Delay_ms(1000);
inp = PORTA.f5;
if(inp==1)
{
PORTB.f0 = 1;
goto chrg;
}
else
goto b2;
}
invr:Lcd8_Cmd(LCD_CLEAR);
Lcd8_Cmd(LCD_TURN_OFF);
Delay_ms(200);
Lcd8_Cmd(LCD_TURN_ON);
Lcd8_Out(1,6, "INV-ON");
while(bfull==1)
bfull = PORTA.f0;
Delay_ms(3000);
PORTB.f7 = 0;
Lcd8_Out(1,6, "INV-OFF");
PORTB.f3 = 1; //Battery Low Indication
PORTB.f4 = 0;
goto m;
chrg:Lcd8_Cmd(LCD_CLEAR);
Lcd8_Cmd(LCD_TURN_OFF);
Delay_ms(200);
Lcd8_Cmd(LCD_TURN_ON);
Lcd8_Out(1,6, "CHRG-ON");
while(bfull==0)
bfull = PORTA.f0;
Delay_ms(3000);
PORTB.f0 = 0;
Lcd8_Out(1,6, "CHRG-OFF");
PORTB.f4 = 1; //Battery Full Indication
PORTB.f3 = 0;
goto m;
}
-86-
APPENDIX C: LIST OF TEST POINTS - TROUBLESHOOTING
Sr # TOPIC PAGE #
1. Tracker – Voltage Reference Circuit 13
2. Charge Controller Board (12F675) 17
3. Programming Issues 19
4. Battery Charge Monitor 22
5. PV Regulator 26
6. AC Charger 28
7. Sine Wave Bubba Oscillator 33
8. Carrier Wave Generator 34
9. TL494 Based Half-Bridge Converter 42
10. SG3525 Based Half-Bridge Converter 44
11. Ferrite Core Transformer Testing 46
12. SG3525 Based Mod-Sine Inverter 54
13. PIC Inverter 56
-80-
APPENDIX B: TRANSFORMER DATASHEETS
-81-
-82-
-83-
-84-
-85-
-87-
APPENDIX D: SOFTWARE & INSTRUMENTS
SOFTWARES:
EQUIPMENTS:
[1] Home Power Magazines, 2007 Feb, June & November + 2008 August.
[2] Single Phase Grid connected PV System Mr. Chainon Chaisook, 2002.
[3] Solar Tracker EC476, Spring 2005 by Toby Peterson & Jeff Valane.
[6] IEEE Workshop on PIC microcontroller presented by Andrew & Tim, 16 Jan, 2000.
[11] Current overload protection for inverter, USS4410935 Oct 18, 1983.
[13] Single Stage battery charger with PFC by Ningliang Mi – Curtis Instruments Inc.
[14] DC-AC Isolated battery inverter. Application note AN9611 Feb, 2003.
[16] NASA Technical Notes – PWM Static Inverter by Francis Gourash Feb, 1970.
[17] HF Power inductor design by Dr. Ray Ridley, Ridley Engineering March 2007.
Websites
o www.precision-inc.com
o www.wa4dsy.net/filter
o www.piclist.com
o www.mikroelektronika.com
o www.irf.com
o www.semikron.com
o www.datasheetcatalog.com
o www.educypedia.be
o www.aaroncake.net
o www.scribd.com