Multiplexing and PSTN

IMPERIAL COLLEGE of SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY and MEDICINE,
DEPARTMENT of ELECTRICAL and ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING.
COMPACT LECTURE NOTES on COMMUNICATION THEORY.

Dr Athanassios Manikas, Autumn 2001
Multiplexing &
Public Switched Telephone Network
(PSTN)
Outline:
ì PCM: Bandwidth, Bandwidth Expansion Factor, output SNR and Threshold

Effects.
ì CCITT recommendations for PCM (24-channels and 30-channels)
ì Plesiochronous digital hierarchies (PDH)
ì Synchronous digital hierarchies (SONET/SDH)
ì BDSL-type transmission systems
E303 & ISE3.2E

Principles of Communication Theory & Systems Compact Lecture Notes
1. INTRODUCTION
H(f)
^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^
PSTN ?2? Dr A. Manikas
ì PCM œ sampled quantized values of an analogue signal are transmitted

via a sequence of codewords.
i.e. after sampling & quantization, a Source Encoder is used to map the
quantized levels (i.e. o/p of quantizer) to codewords of # bits
i.e. quantized level È codeword of # bits
and, then, a digital modulator is used to trasmit the bits,

i.e. PCM system
ì There are three popular PCM source encoders

(or, in other words, Quantization-levels Encoders).
Binary Coded Decimal (BCD) source encoder

Folded BCD source encoder
Gray Code (GC) source encoder

g (inputÑ È gq ÐoutputÑ
gq (Volts)
m8
111 BCD code
samples
m7 110
111
110 Folded BCD gq : occurs at a rate Fs sec
GRAY Code
m6 101
110
111 ÐN.B.: Fs #.Fg Ñ
101
100 101
m5 100
011
100
m4 g (Volts)
U œ quantizer levels;
000
000
010 m3
,3>=
#= log# aUb level
001
001
001
010
m2
011
000 m1
011
010
ì Note:
codeword rate (o/p of source encoder) = quantÞ levels rate = sampling rate =J= =#J1
Å Å Å
#-bit -9./A9<.= levels =+7:6/=
sec sec sec
ì bit rate: rb = # . J = e.g. for U œ 16 levels then rb =% .J= bits

Å Å Å sec
bits levels #
level sec
Æ Æ
(e.g. transmitted sequ.=101011001101 ....)
Å
Ú
Ý Differential PCM (DPCM): diff. quantizers
Ý
Ý
Ý
Ý Delta Modulation: diff. quants with 2 levels +? or ?
Ý Å
ì versions :Û are encoded using
of PCM Ý Ý a single binary digit
Ý
Ý
Ý
Ý (DM − DPCM)
Ü Others

2. PCM: BANDWIDTH & "

ì we transmit several digits for each quantizer's output level Ê FPCM Fg
FPCM denotes the channel bandwidth
where œ
Fg represents the message bandwidth
ì PCM Bandwidth
baseband bandwidth: FPCM channel symbol rate

2 Hz
bandpass bandwidth: FPCM channel symbol rate

2 ‚ 2 Hz
ì Note that, by default, the Lower bound of the 'baseband' bandwidth is

assumed and used in this course
ì bandwidth expansion factor œ " œ channel bandwidth

message bandwidth
ì Example - Binary PCM
#J=
FPCM œ channel symbol rate
2 œ bit rate
2 œ # œ # J1 Hz Ê FPCM œ # J1
Å
log# U
FPCM
FPCM œ # J1 Ê J1 œ#Ê "œ#

3. NOISE EFFECTS in a binary PCM

ì It can be proved that the Signal-to-Noise Ratio at the output of a binary
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) system, which employs a BCD
encoder/decoder and operates in the presence of noise, is given by the
following expression
X e g! Ð>Ñ# f 2##
SNRout = X en Ð>Ñ# fX en Ð>Ñ# f =
! q! 1+4.pe .2##
where pe =f(type of digital modulator) œ pe =TÈÐ" 3Ñ.EUEŸ
e.g. if the digital modulator is a PSK-mod. then pe =TÈ#.EUEŸ
3.1. THRESHOLD EFFECTS in a binary PCM
2# #
ì We have seen that: SNRout =
1+4.pe .2##
ì Let us examine the following two cases: SNR38 =high and SNR38 =low
i) SNRin =HIGH ii) SNRin =LOW
SNRin =high Ê pe =small SNRin =low Ê pe =large
Ê " %.pe .### ¶ "
Ê SNRout ¶ ### Ê " %.pe .### ¶ %.pe .###
"
Ê SNRout ¶ 6# dB Ê SNRout ¶ %.pe

ì THRESHOLD POINT- definition:
Threshold point is arbitrarily defined

##
as the SNRin at which the SNRout (i.e. 1+4.2pe .2## ) falls 1dB
below the maximum SNRout (i.e. 1dB below the value 2## ).
ì By using the above definition it can be shown (...for you ...) that the
threshold point occurs when
pe = "'."###
where # is the number of bits per level.
PSTN ? 10 ? Dr A. Manikas
SNRout (dB)
1dB γ=8
6dB
γ=7
6dB
γ=6
6dB
γ=5
SNRin,threshold
for γ=8
SNRin (dB)
3.2. COMMENTS on THRESHOLD EFFECTS

ì The onset of threshold in PCM will result in a sudden Å in the output noise power.
ì P = Å Ê SNR38 = Å Ê SNRout reaches 6# dB and becomes independent of P
signal =318+6
... above threshold: increasing signal power Ê no further improvement in SNRout

ì The limiting value of SNRout depends only on the number of bits # per
quantization levels
4. INTRODUCTION to TELEPHONE NETWORK

subscriber-A: 1784-382384 subscriber-B:20759 46266
Junction box Junction box

(network Termination) (network Termination)
PSTN
Twisted Twisted
coper coper
pair pair
Note that, as calls are routed through the PSTN, they will be
routed (multiplexed) through a hierarchy of switching
centers
Regional Center - Class 1
… …
Sectional Center - Class 2
… …
Primary Center - Class 3
… …
Toll Center - Class 4

… …
Local Loop
End Office - Class 5 Local Loop
… …
PSTN
ì 1960 British Post Office (BPO) (currently BT) had established

a 24-ch PCM system with objective the system to be available
in 1968. Some of this work become the basis to the formation
of a number of CCITT recommendations.
ì In Europe, the original 24-ch PCM systems, which were

designed mainly for up to 32Km transmission routes, have
been replaced by 30-ch PCM systems.
ì There are two different CCITT recommendations for PCM.

The main differences between these two recommendations are
shown in the following table:
PCM CCITT RECOMMENDATIONS
1st Recommentation 2nd Recommentation
Package Size 24-channels 30-channels
Encoding Law .-law E-law
.=255 (but they use .=100), E=)(Þ'
# =7 56 samples
bits
; # =8 samples
bits
# =8 samples
bits
Frame- FA-signal is distributed FA-word is placed

Alignment amongst several frames into a separate slot (TS0)
Signalling information is Signalling information
Signalling conveyed within each for all 30-channels
Strategies speech-time-slot encoded and conveyed in a
separate 8-bit TS (TS-16)
That is,
1st CCITT rec. (24-channels PCM)
Ts=1/Fs=125µsec
TS1 TS2 TS3 TS4 TS24
1 2 3 4 24 1 193 bits
bit = X=
8 bits 8 bits 8 bits 8 bits 8 bits
Frame
1/6 bits Signaling Information Alignment
2nd CCITT rec. (30-channels PCM)
Ts=1/Fs=125µsec
TS0 TS1 TS1 TS3 TS15 TS16 TS17 TS31
8 1 2 3 15 8 16 30 = 256 bits
bits bits X=
8 bits 8 bits 8 bits 8 bits
Signaling Information
Frame Alignment [4bits kth user + 4bits (k+15)th user]
1 Ÿ k Ÿ 15
ì Note:
ˆ A-law=better than .-law (cheaper to produce and easy equipment

maintenance, smaller quantization error in particular within the
most significant part of the dynamic range).
ˆ in 24-ch PCM the signalling information is conveyed within each

speech time-slot (technique known as bit stealing). Result: a slight
reduction in speech-coding performance.
Single-Channel Path of 2nd CCITT rec. (30-channels PCM)
Message Uniform HDB3

signal A-law quantizer Line Codee
bandwidth A=87.6 Q=28
Fg=4kHz
3rd PCM HIGHWAY

user
(say) bits
γ=8 level
Gray Code
8bits
Sampling PAM Ts=1/Fs=125µsec
Frequency HIGHWAY TS0 TS1 TS1 TS3 TS15 TS16 TS17 TS31
Fs=8kHz Bit rate=γ.Fs 8

bits
1 2 3
8 bits 8 bits 8 bits
15 8
bits
16 30
8 bits
i.e. rb=64kbits/s Frame Alignment Signaling Information
Implementation of 2nd PCM CCITT RECOMM. (First Level Mltplx )
FDM Hierarchy CCITT recommendations
ì Based on the 24-channels amd 30-channels PCM CCITT

recommendations (primary multiplex groups) the core telephone
network evolved from using Frequency Division Multiplex (FDM)
technology to digital transmission and switching
ì These two PCM CCITT recommendations have led to two PDH

(Plesiochronous digital hierarchies) CCITT reccommendations for
assembling the TDM telephony data streams from different calls.
ì Plesiochronous means:
"almost synchronous because bits are stuffed into the frames as
padding and the calls location varies slightly - jitters - from frame to
frame"
PDH Hierarchy
Hierarchical Level American DS-B European CEPT-B
0 DS-0 64 kbits/s CEPT-0 64 kbits/s
1 DS-1 1,544 kbits/s CEPT-1 2,048 kbits/s
5 CEPT-5 565,148 kbits/s
ì The 24-channel PDH TDM CCITT recommendation (DS-x)
ì The 30-channel PDH TDM CCITT recommendations (CEPT-x)
Main disadvantage of PDH Networks
ì PDH multiplexing was designed for point-to-point communications and

channels cannot be added to, or extracted from, a higher multiplexing level
demultiplexing down and then multiplexing up again, throught the entire
PDH
ì For instance, to isolate a particular call from DS4, say, it must be

demultiplexed to DS1.
ì i.e. this is a very complex procedure and needs very expensive equipment
at every exchange to demultiplex and multiplex high speed lines
ì American & European Telephone Systems are incompatible (therefore

very expensive equipment required to translate one format to the other for
transatlantic traffic )
ì Solution: SONET/SDH Signal Hierarchy

SDH (Synchronous Digital Hierarchy)
ì The tranditional PDH standards are based on the DS (USA) and CEPT
(Europe) PCM systems (24-channels and 30-channels PCM CCITT
recommendation)
ì PDH hierarchy is almost synchronous (extra bits are inserted into the
digital signal stream to bring them to a common rate.
ì In 1988 SDH (Synchronous Digital Hierarchy) was adopted by ITU and

ETSI (European Telecommunications Standards Instritute) based on
SONET (synchronous optical Networks)
ì SDH signals have a common external timing i.e. SDH is synchronous
ì The SDH standards used in Europe are
STM-1 which provides 155 Mbits/sec
etc (increments of 155 Mbits/sec )
ì The most important main standards are STM-1, STM-4 and STM-16.
These are commercially available
SONET/SDH Hierarchy
Hierarchical Level American SONET STS-B European SDH STM-B
0 STS-3 œ 3 ‚ DS-3 STM-1 œ " ‚ CEPT-%
1 STS-12 œ 12 ‚ DS-3 STM-4 œ % ‚ CEPT-4
2 STS-48 œ 48 ‚ DS-3 STM-16 œ "' ‚ CEPT-%
Key Advantages
ì it is simple to add and drop channels to meet customer requirements
ì more bandwidth is available for network management
ì equipment is smaller and cheaper
ì network flexibility
ì integrate and manage various types of traffic on a single fiber.
CORE
Access Networks Access
Networks Networks
PDH Nets
POTS SDH Nets POTS
xDSL xDSL
2G Mobile Nets 2G
3G ATM Nets 3G
B-ISDN IP Nets B-ISDN
bluetooth bluetooth
ethernet Inteligent Networks ethernet
GUI etc. GUI
etc. etc.
Network Gateways
CORE
Network
No.2
Gateway Interface
Access CORE CORE Access

Network Network Network Network
No.1 No.1 No.3 No.3
5. xDSL-type Transmission Systems
INTERNET
SERVICE MODEM
PROVIDER MODEM
To a POTS line Card
LOCAL LOCAL
EXCHANGE EXCHANGE
(or a street-cabinet) (or a street-cabinet)
POTS Network
(Narrowband Network)
LOCAL
EXCHANGE
(or a street-cabinet)
To a POTS line Card
INTERNET
xDSL
Spliter
SERVICE
filter
E.
PROVIDER
g.
SD
H
/S
O
N
ET
Broadband Network
Spliter
xDSL filter
LOCAL
POTS Network POTS EXCHANGE
(Narrowband Network) Line-card (or a street-cabinet)
LOCAL
EXCHANGE
(or a street-cabinet)
To a POTS line Card
Frequency spectrum
Upstream Upstream
ADSL Spectrum
Downstream Downstream
640kb/s
8Mb/s
In practice
250kb/s
POTS
POTS
In practice
2Mb/s
f (Hz)
-1.1M -138k -25k -4k 4k 25k 138k 1.1M
Upstream VDSL Spectrum Upstream
Downstream Downstream
14 Mb/s
3 Mb/s
POTS
POTS
f
-10M,-30M -3.94M -3.56M -138k -4k 4k 138k 3.56M 3.94M 10M-30M
Examples of Bit-rate Requirements for Various Applications

ì In the following table the first number (bit-rate) indicates the minimum
satisfactory rate for some RESIDENTIAL users, and the second number
indicates the rate that will satisfy nearly all RESIDENTIAL users.
Application Downstream Bit Rate (bit/s) Upstream Bit (bits/s)
Voice telephony 16k - 64k 16k - 64k
Internet, online service access 14k - 3M 14k - 384k
email 9k - 128k 9k - 64k
High definition TV 12M - 24M -
Broadcast video 1.5M - 6M -
Movies on demand 1.5M - 6M 9k
Music on demand 384k - 1.5M 9k
Video phone 128k - 1.5M 128k - 1.5M
Distance learning 384k - 3M 128k - 3M
Shop Home 128k - 1.5M 9k - 64k
Video Games 64k - 1.5M 64k - 1.5M
ì It is clear from the above that for offering a near broadcast quality video
service, telephony and fast Internet, the network transmission should
support at least 5 Mbit/s.
From POTS to xDSL
ì The POTs coper network (designed and built to support telephony service)
provides an extensive infrastructure of twisted pairs which connects
approximately 30 million residential and business UK customers .
ì Originally, customers wishing to transmit data were restricted to using

modems which operated in the 4 kHz voice-band. The first voice-band
modems were introduced in the 1950s and were capable of operating at 300
bit/s, but these rapidly developed to 28.8 (and more) kbit/s.
ì As the core network evolved from using Frequency Division Multiplex

(FDM) technology to digital transmission and switching, the rollout of the
64 kbit/s narrowband digital PSTN network meant that copper transmission
in the access network was no longer restricted to 4 kHz bandwidth.
Transmission equipment can now exploit the far greater bandwidth
capabilities of the network infrastructure between the exchange and the
customers' premises.
ì In 1986 Basic Rate ISDN (ISDN2) was introduced. ISDN2 operates over a
single copper pair and modulates data using one four level pulse to
represent two binary bits (2B1Q). Data is sent simultaneously in both
directions using echo cancelled hybrid transmission, and adaptive
equalisation is used to automatically compensate for attenuation across the
transmission band. ISDN2 uses 80 kHz bandwidth to deliver 160 kbit/s
symmetric data over access lines up to approximately 5.5 km long (or up to
42 dB insertion loss at 100 kHz).
ì The evolution of digital transmission systems continued with the

deployment of HDSL in 1992. HDSL uses the same line code as ISDN
(2B1Q) but is capable of delivering 2 Mbit/s services such as ISDN30 and
MegaStreamTM over access lines up to 3.7 km in length (or up to 26 dB
insertion loss at 100 kHz). To achieve this the system uses frequencies up to
290 kHz, and employs two or three copper pairs each operating at between
784 kbit/s and 1 Mbit/s.
ì The most recent DSL system which is currently available from BT is

ADSL. Unlike ISDN or HDSL, ADSL employs asymmetric data
transmission. and is capable of delivering up to 8 Mbit/s downstream to the
customer, and 640 kbit/s upstream to the exchange over a single copper
pair. ADSL uses frequencies up to 1.1 MHz, but does not use the 4 kHz
voice-band. Customers subscribing to ADSL derived data services can
therefore continue to use basic telephony. Although ADSL is technically
capable of delivering 8 Mbit/s downstream, the highest bit rate offered by
BT's commercial ADSL data products (DataStream and IPStream) is 2
Mbit/s downstream and 250 kbit/s upstream.
ì VDSL is the next generation of digital copper transmission system, further

increasing the capacity of a metallic twisted pair and using bandwidths of
more than 10 MHz, and as high as 30 MHz.
ì The standards for VDSL are still under discussion
ADSL (Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line)

ì provides high bit rate transmission to the customer premises for a
combination of services that include video, telephony and data.
ì It is based on the notion that the bit rate requirement for downstream traffic
to the customer is much higher than in the upstream direction from the
customer.
ì For example, the downstream traffic may carry a video channel or high
speed Internet files, while the upstream traffic carries only a narrowband
data channel for controlling video, or other control signals and low speed
data.
ì ADSL operates over the local access twisted pair network between the local
exchange and the customers' premises.
ì It can simultaneously transport the following on a single twisted pair:

ˆ Downstream (towards the customer) bit rates up to 8 Mbit/s
ˆ Upstream (towards the exchange) bit rates up to 640 kbit/s
ˆ Voiceband telephony service
ì The operating frequency range of ADSL is limited to between 25 kHz and

1.1 MHz. The upstream channel is placed at the lower end of the available
frequency band where it suffers less attenuation and crosstalk noise and is
therefore easier to receive. The downstream channel bandwidth is much
greater thus enabling the system to achieve higher transmission capacity for
conveying services to the customer.
MODULATOR: Discrete Multi-Tone modulation (DMT)
ì The ANSI ADSL standard (T1.413) specifies DMT as the modulation

technique.
ì DMT is a multi-carrier modulation technique which employs a variant of

Orthogonal Frequency Domain Multiplex modulation. The transmitter and
receiver structures are shown below.
Band Pass
Parallel Filter
Encoder Inverse
Transmit discrete to
and D/A
Data Fourier serial To line
buffer
transform converter
DMT transmitter
Band Pass
Filter Serial
Discrete Decoder
to
A/D Fourier and Receive
From line parallel
transform buffer Data
converter
DMT receiver
ì The data stream to be transmitted is buffered into blocks of bits.
ì The overall channel spectrum is divided into 256 independent sub-channels

and the blocks of bits are assigned to each frequency sub-channel.
ì The data is encoded by modulating each sub-carrier so that the amplitude

and phase forms a QAM constellation for that sub-channel.
ì Each sub-carrier can encode a variable but pre-determined number of data

bits, thus forming different constellation sizes (see figure).
QAM sub-channels
Variable constellation sizes per sub-channel

Signal Power
Frequency
ì The overall data capacity varies with frequency, and those sub-channels
with higher capacity are assigned more bits. The number of bits allocated to
each sub-channel is determined using an algorithm based on each sub-
channel's signal to noise ratio. All of these are performed by the first block
of the DMT transmitter diagram.
Twisted Copper Pair
DMT Data Transmission
Bits per Channel

Line Attenuation
Frequency Frequency
ì In the second block, the collection of N QAM symbols is then modulated by

passing through the inverse discrete Fourier transform (IDFT) process. Real
signals are then taken from the IDFT output, parallel-to-serial converted,
digital-to-analogue converted, and finally band pass filtered before
transmission.
ì The demodulation process at the receiver is simply the reverse process.


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IMPERIAL COLLEGE of SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY and MEDICINE,

DEPARTMENT of ELECTRICAL and ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING.

COMPACT LECTURE NOTES on COMMUNICATION THEORY.

ì PCM: Bandwidth, Bandwidth Expansion Factor, output SNR and Threshold

E303 & ISE3.2E

PSTN ?2? Dr A. Manikas

Principles of Communication Theory & Systems Compact Lecture Notes

ì PCM œ sampled quantized values of an analogue signal are transmitted

i.e. quantized level È codeword of # bits

and, then, a digital modulator is used to trasmit the bits,

ì There are three popular PCM source encoders

Binary Coded Decimal (BCD) source encoder

PSTN ?3? Dr A. Manikas

Principles of Communication Theory & Systems Compact Lecture Notes

ì bit rate: rb = # . J = e.g. for U œ 16 levels then rb =% .J= bits

PSTN ?5? Dr A. Manikas

2. PCM: BANDWIDTH & "

baseband bandwidth: FPCM channel symbol rate

bandpass bandwidth: FPCM channel symbol rate

ì Note that, by default, the Lower bound of the 'baseband' bandwidth is

ì bandwidth expansion factor œ " œ channel bandwidth

PSTN ?6? Dr A. Manikas

Principles of Communication Theory & Systems Compact Lecture Notes

ì Example - Binary PCM

PSTN ?7? Dr A. Manikas

3. NOISE EFFECTS in a binary PCM

where pe =f(type of digital modulator) œ pe =TÈÐ" 3Ñ.EUEŸ

e.g. if the digital modulator is a PSK-mod. then pe =TÈ#.EUEŸ

PSTN ?8? Dr A. Manikas

Principles of Communication Theory & Systems Compact Lecture Notes

3.1. THRESHOLD EFFECTS in a binary PCM

i) SNRin =HIGH ii) SNRin =LOW

SNRin =high Ê pe =small SNRin =low Ê pe =large

Ê " %.pe .### ¶ "

Ê SNRout ¶ ### Ê " %.pe .### ¶ %.pe .###

PSTN ?9? Dr A. Manikas

ì THRESHOLD POINT- definition:

Threshold point is arbitrarily defined

where # is the number of bits per level.

Principles of Communication Theory & Systems Compact Lecture Notes

3.2. COMMENTS on THRESHOLD EFFECTS

... above threshold: increasing signal power Ê no further improvement in SNRout

4. INTRODUCTION to TELEPHONE NETWORK

Junction box Junction box

Principles of Communication Theory & Systems Compact Lecture Notes

Regional Center - Class 1

Primary Center - Class 3

Toll Center - Class 4

ì 1960 British Post Office (BPO) (currently BT) had established

ì In Europe, the original 24-ch PCM systems, which were

Principles of Communication Theory & Systems Compact Lecture Notes

ì There are two different CCITT recommendations for PCM.

Frame- FA-signal is distributed FA-word is placed

Principles of Communication Theory & Systems Compact Lecture Notes

ˆ A-law=better than .-law (cheaper to produce and easy equipment

ˆ in 24-ch PCM the signalling information is conveyed within each

Single-Channel Path of 2nd CCITT rec. (30-channels PCM)

Message Uniform HDB3

3rd PCM HIGHWAY

Fs=8kHz Bit rate=γ.Fs 8

i.e. rb=64kbits/s Frame Alignment Signaling Information

Principles of Communication Theory & Systems Compact Lecture Notes

Implementation of 2nd PCM CCITT RECOMM. (First Level Mltplx )