Sex, Gender and Sexuality Most of the roles and identities that are there in the society are

not biological but rather socially constructed. When we discuss the factors that cause the stratification in the society, along with caste, class, race and ethnicity, gender is also involved. Ones presumed sex is often used to determine who holds what positions and who carries out what tasks, ones chances in the stratification system is affected by the age and sex. Gender identities and roles change, reflecting the economic, political and social realities of the societies and the influence of other societies. Sex is embedded on you during time of your birth. At birth, when the Doctor says Its a boy/ girl they are referring to the distinguishing primary characteristics that determine sex, the penis or vagina. Sex is a biological term referring to the ascribed genetic, anatomical, and hormonal differences between males and females. It is also a determination made through the application of socially agreed upon biological criteria for classifying persons as females or males. Sexuality is the capacity to have sexual experiences and responses Homosexuality (same sex) Heterosexuality (opposite sex) Bi sexuality (either sex) Pan sexuality (all gender identities) Asexuality (no sexual attraction) Sexual orientation of the individuals occurs because of the influence of the society and it is also influenced by psychosexual development of the individuals Freud described two currents of emotional life in all of us: an affectionate current, including our bonds with the important people in our lives, and a sensual current, including our wish to gratify sexual impulses. During adolescence, a young person tries to integrate these two emotional currents. The real challenge is to bring about a convergence of the two currents; the affectionate and the sensual. Human sexuality is also part of the social life of humans, governed by implied rules of behavior and the status quo. This focus narrows the view to groups within a society. The socio-cultural context of society places major influences on and form social norms, including the effects of politics and the mass media. In the past people fought for their

civil rights and such movements helped to bring about massive changes in social norms. Sexuality refers to how we experience our own bodies and our bodies in relation to others. Most often sexuality was defined in binary terms and behaviours falling outside hetero sexual boundaries were often defined as perverse (in the past). While the terms such as sex, gender, and sexuality are often used interchangeably, they do have distinct meanings. One can be a masculine heterosexual female, a masculine homosexual male, or any possible combinations. Gays are males having homosexual attraction between them, where as lesbians are women homosexuals. Heterosexuals have sexual affiliation with people of opposite sex, whereas bisexuals have sexual relationships with same sex and opposite sex. Associated with sexuality, procreative technology has also its developments The increasing developments in genetic engineering, changing attitudes towards sexuality, and practices like pre-marital sex, global sex industry, sex tourism (Thailand and Philippines), sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), violence, drug trade, criminality, exploitation and violence of human rights are all topics of concern associated with sexuality. Beginning at birth an individual passes through many stages; at each stage there are messages that reinforce appropriate gender behaviour in society. Although gender socialization varies from each society, proper roles are established by the culture and learned from birth. These gender expectations are inculcated into children by parents, siblings, grandparents, peer groups, friends. If we are not following the gender roles, it may lead to teasing, isolation, exclusion, harsh words, and stigma. The age and manner in which children are informed of issues of sexuality is a matter of sex education. The school systems in almost all developed countries have some form of sex education, but the nature of the issues covered varies widely. In some countries (such as Australia and much of Europe) "age-appropriate" sex education often begins in pre-school, whereas other countries leave sex education to the pre-teenage and teenage years. Sex education covers a range of topics, including the physical, mental, and social aspects of sexual behavior. Societys views on sexuality have many influences from the past and the present, including religion and philosophy. Vygotsky states that a childs development cannot be understood only by the individual alone. The only way to truly

understand development is by looking at the individual and the environment or external social world in which the development is occurring. Most world religions have sought to address the moral issues that arise from people's sexuality in society and in human interactions. Each major religion has developed moral codes covering issues of sexuality, morality, ethics, etc, which have sought to guide people's sexual activities and practices. Sexuality has always been a vital part of the human existence and in societies from the long hunting and gathering phases of history to the rise of agriculture, the long centuries of the agricultural period of history, as well as during modern times. For all civilizations throughout time, there have been a few common, special characteristics of how sexuality was managed through sexual standards, representations, and behaviour. Before the rise of agriculture there were groups of hunter/gatherers (H/G) or nomads inhabiting the world. Within these groups, some implications of male dominance existed, but there were also ample signs that women were active participants in sexuality with bargaining power of their own. These H/G groups had less restrictive sexual standards that emphasized sexual pleasure and enjoyment, but with definite rules and constraints. Some underlying continuities or key regulatory standards contended with the tension between recognition of pleasure, interest, and the need, for the sake of social order and economic survival. H/G groups also place high value on certain types of sexual symbolism. Once agricultural societies emerge, the sexuality framework shifts in many ways that persist for many millennia in much of Asia, Africa, Europe, and parts of the Americas. On common characteristic that became new to these societies was the collective supervision of sexual behavior due to the population increases and more concentrated communities due to urbanization. These changes in sexual ideology were used to try and control female sexuality and to differentiate standards by gender. With these ideologies, sexual possessiveness and increases in jealousy emerged. With the domestication of animals, new opportunities for bestiality (sex with animals) flourished. During the 18th and 19th centuries, during the beginning of the industrial revolution, many changes in sexual standards have occurred. New dramatic artificial birth control devices are introduced such as the condom and diaphragm. Doctors started claiming a new role in sexual matters urging that their advice was crucial to sexual morality and health. A significant new pornographic industry blossomed, and Japan adopted its first ever laws against homosexuality. On the other hand, in western societies, the definition of homosexuality is constantly changing, and western influence on others is increasing

in strength. New contacts created serious issues around sexuality and sexual traditions. There were also major shifts in sexual behavior. Sexual Revolution and Birth Control--The sexual revolution is a sign of a new youth culture that included commitment to sexual expression. The sexual revolution, occurring in the 1960s and 70s, happened to be an era of free love. Mechanization and more efficient means of production led to shorter work weeks and more leisure time. The separation between sexual pleasure and reproduction emerged allowing for more emphasis on sexual pleasure in society. Then in the 1980s, HIV/AIDs surfaced to existence. Alfred Kinsey initiated the modern era of sex research. Todays InfluencesSexuality of today is not only influenced by human ancestry or religions, but by the internal commercial society within societiesmainly western. According to a Time Magazine/CNN survey, 74% of teenagers said that friends and television were their main sources of sexual education. During the 1970s and 1980s, in the wake of the sexual revolution, numerous feminist writers started to address the question of female sexuality from their own female perspective, rather than allowing female sexuality to be defined in terms of largely male studies. The first such popular non-fiction book was Nancy Friday's My Secret Garden. Other writers such as Germaine Greer, Simone de Beauvoir and Camille Paglia were particularly influential in this, although their views were not universally or placidly accepted. Toward the end of the twentieth century the most significant European contributions to understanding female sexuality came from psychoanalytical French feminism, with the work of Luce Irigaray and Julia Kristeva. Lesbianism and female bisexuality also emerged as topics that could be talked about in public. A short-lived movement towards political lesbianism within the feminist movement led to temporary schisms within the feminist movement between heterosexual and lesbian women, then rapidly floundered in the face of the acceptance that most women's sexuality was not defined by politics, but by their own sexual preferences. The first is that female sexuality should be accepted and women should be free to have sex when they like, with whomever they like, provided they are of legal age and are willing to participate. This view is supported by academic and philosopher Patricia Petersen. The other is that women should be empowered to refuse to have sex when they want to, or to have their sexuality respected in society. Confirming the theory that "a woman's body is a woman's right", Indian Feminist Author Sarojini Sahoo claimed the patriarchal society has held control over sexuality. In the case of a married woman, she encounters many restrictions with respect to sexuality whereas her male partner is free from these restrictions.

This has led to different groups of feminists embracing and opposing pornography as sexually liberating and sexually oppressive respectively, both in the name of women's empowerment over their own sexuality. Beauty Concepts through Ages and Countries In Western cultures, the ideal of feminine appearance has traditionally included long, flowing hair, light skin, a narrow waist, and little or no body hair or facial hair. These feminine ideals of beauty have been criticized by some feminists and others as restrictive, unhealthy, and discriminatory. In particular, the prevalence of anorexia and other eating disorders in Western countries has frequently been blamed on the feminine ideal of thinness. Cultural standards vary a great deal on what is considered feminine. For example, in 16th century France, high heels were considered a masculine type of shoe, though they are currently considered feminine. Body alteration is the deliberate altering of the human body for aesthetic or nonmedical purpose. One such purpose has been to induce perceived feminine characteristics in women. For centuries in Imperial China, smaller feet were considered to be a more aristocratic characteristic in women. The practice of foot binding was intended to enhance this characteristic, though it often made walking difficult and painful. In a few parts of Africa and Asia, neck rings are worn in order to elongate the neck. In these cultures, a long neck characterizes feminine beauty. The Padaung of Burma and Tutsi women of Burundi, for instance, practice this form of body deformation. Men's perceptions of feminine beauty range widely among different cultures. In 1883, Francis Galton first noticed that averageness or koinophilia (Koinophilia is a term used by biologist Johan Koeslag, meaning that when sexual creatures seek a mate, they prefer that mate not to have any unusual, peculiar or deviant features), is a strong indicator of physical beauty. Today, a multi-billion-dollar industry exists around what men find feminine. Physiologists have shown that women with hourglass figures are more fertile than other women due to higher levels of certain female hormones, a fact that may subconsciously condition males choosing mates

In 1959, the Barbie fashion doll was introduced as a feminine ideal of modern aesthetic beauty by Mattel, in the United States. While there are those who hold Barbie to be the feminine ideal, Barbies anatomical proportions are exaggerated and do not, for example, meet the aesthetic proportions that men in Indo-European cultures find most attractive. This icon of femininity, in the views of some, attracts a wide international audience of women and men. She has been used as a teaching tool for femininity. One of the most common criticisms of Barbie is that she promotes an unrealistic and unattainable idea of feminine beauty and fits the weight criteria for anorexia. (Anorexia nervosa is an eating disorder characterized by an obsessive fear of gaining weight. The terms anorexia nervosa and anorexia are often used interchangeably, however anorexia is simply a medical term for lack of appetite.) Gender stereotypes influence traditional feminine occupations, resulting in microaggression toward women who break traditional gender roles. These stereotypes include that women have a caring nature, have skill at household-related work, have greater manual dexterity than men, are more honest than men, and have a more attractive physical appearance. Occupational roles associated with these stereotypes include: midwife, teacher, accountant, data entry clerk, cashier, salesperson, receptionist, housekeeper, cook, maid, social worker, and nurse. Occupational segregation maintains gender inequality and gender pay gap. Men who behave in ways associated with femininity may be called effeminate. Men who wear clothing associated with femininity are cross-dressers. A drag queen is a man who wears women's clothing and behaves in an extremely feminine manner for entertainment purposes. Femininity is not necessarily related to a man's sexuality, though male femininity is often associated with homosexuality in modern Western culture. Feminist philosophers such as Judith Butler and Simone de Beauvoir contend that femininity and masculinity are created through repeated performances of gender; these performances reproduce and define the traditional categories of sex and/or gender. In sociology, feminization is the shift in gender roles and sex roles in a society, group, or organization towards a focus upon the feminine. This is the opposite of a cultural focus upon masculinity. Scholar Ann Douglas chronicled the rise of what she describes as sentimental "feminization" of American mass culture in the 19th century, in which writers of both sexes underscored popular convictions about women's weaknesses, desires, and proper place in the world.

It can also mean the incorporation of women into a group or a profession that was once dominated only by men. One is not born a woman but one becomes a woman Simone de Beauvoir Gender identity is learned and created; it refers to a societys notion of masculinity and femininity-socially constructed meanings associated with male and female, and how the individuals construct their identity within these constraints. These meanings determine proper behaviours and placement in the stratification system, and individuals are expected to act appropriately for their sex category. Gender roles are those commonly assigned tasks or expected behaviours of individual because of their sex category. Gender stereotypes- These are one-sided and exaggerated images of men and women which are deployed repeatedly in everyday life. They are found commonly in the mass media because they operate as a widely understood shorthand. Sociologists often see stereotyping as part of the process by which children are socialized into sex roles and by which adults and children are denied opportunities for more individually varied development. (http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O88-genderstereotypes.html) Our cultural beliefs define what is right and wrong, and our identities are constructed with in this frame work; there is not any absolute truth governing gender roles and identities. Gender order is the power relations between masculinities and femininities that are widespread throughout society. The three realms labour, power and cathexis are affected by this power constructs. Labour-sexual division of work within home and labour market Power-authority, violence and ideology in institutions, the state, the military and domestic life Cathexis (Concentration of emotional energy on an object or idea) - dynamics within intimate, emotional and personal relationships, including marriage, sexuality and child rearing. We can observe hegemonic masculinity and emphasized femininity in the traditional role expectations of the society. Resistant femininities will look at gender relations as concepts that are not fixed It will discuss the crisis that we can observe in three fields

1. Crisis of Institutionalization- Institutions that have traditionally supported mens power started rethinking 2. Crisis of Sexuality-growing strength of womens sexuality and gay sexuality puts traditional hegemonic masculinity under pressure. 3. Crisis of interest formation-New foundations for social interests contradict the existing gender order. Sociology of gender is a prominent subfield of sociology. Since 1950 an increasing part of the academic literature, and of the public discourse uses gender for the perceived or projected (self-identified) masculinity or femininity of a person. The term was introduced by Money (1955):

The term gender role is used to signify all those things that a person says or does to disclose himself/herself as having the status of boy or man, girl or woman, respectively. It includes, but is not restricted to, sexuality in the sense of eroticism.

Women are often objectified and portrayed as objects. This is shown through advertisements where women become the objects. Women and men experience different types of mobility within the workplace. Women tend to experience a glass ceiling, an invisible barrier that prevents them from moving up the corporate ladder. Men in jobs traditionally held by women, such as nursing, elementary school teaching, and social work, experience a glass escalator effect in which they are able to quickly ascend the job hierarchy to become managers and principals. Also there tends to be a gender pay gap between men and women, with women only earning 77% as much as men. Intersectionality suggests that forms of inequality, oppression, and privilege shaped by interconnected axes of identity are mutually reinforced by social interactions and by social, political, and economic structures, such as capitalism, patriarchy, and institutionalized heternormativity. Intersectionality emphasizes that race, class, gender, and other markers of identity are social constructions. This theory disassembles the assumption that systems of power relations are normative and can hold individuals accountable for their own character and efforts. Embodiment may be defined as the ways in which cultural ideals of gender in a given society create expectations for and influence the form of our bodies. There is a bidirectional relationship between biology and culture; by embodying societally determined gender roles we reinforce cultural ideals and simultaneously shape, both temporarily and permanently, our bodies, which then perpetuates the cultural ideal.

Social embodiment, for both men and women, is variable across cultures and over time. Examples of women embodying gender norms across cultures include foot binding practices in Chinese culture, neck rings in African and Asian cultures, and corsets in Western cultures. Another interesting phenomenon has been the practice of wearing high heels, which shifted from a masculine fashion to a feminine fashion over time. In the United States, the ideal body image and dimensions have changed for both women and men, with the body ideal female body shape becoming progressively slimmer and the body ideal for men becoming progressively larger. These differences are epitomized in the example of childrens toys; G.I. Joe dolls depict the physical ideals for boys and Barbie dolls embody the ideals for girls. The Beauty Myth, as discussed in Naomi Wolfs book The Beauty Myth: How Images of Beauty Are Used Against Women, refers to the unattainable standard of beauty for women, which sustains consumer culture. In contrast, mens bodies are also dictated by cultural ideals of gender, as is evident in consumer cultureespecially beer commercialsin which men are portrayed as outdoorsy, tough, strong, and manly. Sexuality is related to a variety of factors, including an individuals Sex, Gender identity and expression, and Sexual orientation. Sexuality encompasses both sexual behavior and sexual desire. However, Heteronormativity structures social life so that Heterosexuality is always assumed, expected, ordinary and privileged. Its pervasiveness makes it difficult for people to imagine other ways of life. Mass media works to glorify heterosexuality, which in turn lends to its pervasiveness and to its power. Both ordinary and exceptional constructions of heterosexuality work to normalize heterosexuality; thus, it becomes difficult to imagine anything other than this form of social relationship or anyone outside of these bonds. There is a common perception of heterosexuality as the natural emotional and sensual inclination for Human sexuality. Furthermore, marital heterosexuality occupies the largely invisible core of normative and desirable sexuality, while all other sexualities are marginalized and considered perverse and unnatural. Alfred Kinsey created a HeterosexualHomosexual Rating Scale called the Kinsey Scale, which challenges the common perception of Human sexuality as strictly binary and directly linked to Gender. Drag queens are an example of troubling gender, complicating the understanding of sexuality in our society by causing people to think outside the binary of male/female. Masculinity is a performed gender identity. Contrary to popular perception, it is not the same as sex or sexual orientation. The contents and practices of masculinity are socially constructed and reproduced through daily interaction, especially on a micro scale. Theorists West & Zimmerman emphasized that gender is maintained through accountability. Men are expected to perform masculinity to the point that it is naturalized. Thus, a mans status depends on his performance. It is important to note, however, that masculinity can be performed by any sex.

The dominant form of masculinity in a society is known as hegemonic masculinity. Men are constantly performing this to prove their status as men. It is not really possible to reach it, especially as peers are in constant surveillance of each other, looking for flaws in their performance. Hegemonic masculinity is constructed in opposition to femininity and is dominant to all other gender identities (including alternative masculinities). Men are socialized from birth to perform it, especially through behavior and symbolism. One of the prominent behaviors is aggression in order to protect ones reputation. An example of symbols used would be clothing. Hegemonic masculinity is often reproduced and reinforced through media and culture. Media representations of menoften glorify mens use of physical force, a daring demeanor, virility, and emotional distance. Gender-based violence is the physical, sexual or emotional harm or suffering enacted upon an individual as contextualized by societal gender norms. Violence affects the lives of millions worldwide, in all socio-economic and educational classes. It cuts across cultural and religious barriers, impeding the right of many to participate fully in society. Violence is about power, control, and domination. Systems of inequality and oppression interact positioning certain groups as particularly vulnerable to violence. Gendered violence takes place within a socially constructed power dynamic in which one ideology (masculinity) dominates another (femininity). What it means to be a woman in society is influenced and ascribed by the media, which acts a powerful educational force. The media glamorizes violence against women cultivating a toxic cultural environment in which women are institutionally positioned as inferior and worthy objects of violence. There are three social arenas in which violence commonly takes place (1) in the familyincluding domestic violence, infanticide, and traditional practices such as female genital mutilation, foot binding, and bride burning; (2) in the communityincluding rape, sexual assault, sexual harassment, and commercialized violence such as sexual slavery, labor exploitation, female migrant workers; and (3) by the Stateincluding violence against women in detention, and in situations of armed conflict such as systematic war rape. In order to address and end gendered violence, solutions must address both the root causes and interpersonal manifestations of gender roles and power relations in order to ensure a balance of power at all levels of society. Globalization refers to the increasingly global relationships of culture, people and economic activity. It impacts female equality on a large and international scale, both negatively and positively. With continuous changes in international relations, the perception of feminism in Western and Nonwestern societies is frequently revised. It is important to be wary of Western bias in sociological accounts of global feminism, as Modern Western society is not always due credit for feminist reform in other cultures and countries. Feminist sentiments or a push for gender equality emerge as a result of the nation-specific circumstances, not according to the exported beliefs of Western

society. Advances in female equality and status are often the result of individuals and small groups, not national groups or corporations. One of the results of globalization is the increased use of female factory workers in nonwestern countries. In Mexico, the female worker is ideal because she is seen as docile and inexpensive labor. Stereotypical feminine traits such as beauty, domesticity, and docility are exaggerated and exploited for the production of goods. These gender traits then frame the behavior of the women beyond the occupational realm. Despite increasing feminism, the lack of economic and social mobility prevents women in many nations from having equal status in society. One of the solutions to erasing gender inequalities globally is to provide resources and funds to impoverished women who will in turn use them for education as well as business ventures. The global economy could benefit drastically from incorporating educated women into the workforce. In response to the pressure from feminism and cultural trends highlighting characteristics in workers which have culturally been associated with women, feminisation of the workplace is a label given to the trend towards greater employment of women, and of men willing and able to operate with these more 'feminine' modes of interaction. Drivers of this change are said to be the increase in socially interactive work such as telesales, therapy, personal services, caring professions and the like which have tended to place a premium on empathy, listening and emotionally well-tuned responses. These are the markers of the so-called feminisation: empathy, sociability, greater emotional engagement, a greater preference for non-confrontational interactions, emotional sensitivity Until modern industrialized times, legal and cultural practices, combined with the inertia of longstanding religious and educational traditions, had restricted women's entry and participation in the workforce. Economic dependency upon men, and consequently the poor socio-economic status of women had also restricted their entry into the workforce. Particularly as occupations have become professionalized over the 19th and 20th centuries, women's access to higher education had effectively excluded them from the practice of well-paid and high status occupations. Entry of women into the higher professions like law and medicine was delayed in most countries due to women being denied entry to universities and qualification for degrees. For example, Cambridge University only fully validated degrees for women late in 1947, and even then only after much opposition and acrimonious debate. Such factors had largely limited women to low-paid and poor status occupations for most of the 19th and 20th centuries. However, through the 20th century, public perceptions of paid work shifted as the workforce increasingly moved to office jobs that do not require heavy labor, and

women increasingly acquired the higher education that led to better-compensated, longer-term careers rather than lower-skilled, shorter-term jobs. Restrictions on women's access to and participation in the workforce include the wage gap and the glass ceiling, inequities most identified with industrialized nations with nominal equal opportunity laws; legal and cultural restrictions on access to education and jobs, inequities most identified with developing nations; and unequal access to capital, variable but identified as a difficulty in both industrialized and developing nations. Although access to paying occupations (the "workforce") has been and remains unequal in many occupations and places around the world, scholars sometimes distinguish between "work" and "paying work," including in their analysis a broader spectrum of labor such as uncompensated household work, childcare, eldercare, and family subsistence farming. The division of labor by gender has been particularly studied in women's studies (especially women's history, which has frequently examined the history and biography of women's participation in particular fields) and gender studies more broadly. Occupational studies, such as the history of medicine or studies of professionalization, also examine questions of gender, and the roles of women in the history of particular fields. In addition, modern civil rights law has frequently examined gender restrictions of access to a field of occupation; gender discrimination within a field; and gender harassment in particular workplaces. This body of law is called employment discrimination law, and gender and race discrimination are the largest sub-sections within the area. The increase of women in the labor force gained momentum in the late 19th century. At this point women married early on and were defined by their marriages. If they entered the workforce it was only out of necessity. The fourth phase, known as The Quiet Revolution, began in the late 1970s and continues on today. Beginning in the 1970s women began to flood colleges and grad schools. They began to enter profession like medicine, law, dental and business. More women were going to college and expected to be employed at the age of 35, as opposed to past generations that only worked intermittently due to marriage and childbirth. This increase in expectations of long-term gainful employment is reflected in the change of majors adopted by women from the 1970s on. As gender roles have followed the formation of agricultural and then industrial societies, newly developed professions and fields of occupation have been frequently inflected by gender. Some examples of the ways in which gender affects a field include:

Prohibitions or restrictions on members of a particular gender entering a field or studying a field; Discrimination within a field, including wage, management, and prestige hierarchies; Expectation that mothers, rather than fathers, should be the primary childcare providers.

Note that these gender restrictions may not be universal in time and place, and that they operate to restrict both men and women. However, in practice, norms and laws have historically restricted women's access to particular occupations; civil rights laws and cases have thus primarily focused on equal access to and participation by women in the workforce. These barriers may also be manifested in hidden bias and by means of many microinequities. Recognising the invisible nature of power structures that marginalise women at the workplace, the Supreme Court in the landmark Vaishaka versus High Court of Rajasthan (1997) identified sexual harassment as violative of the women's right to equality in the workplace and enlarged the ambit of its definition. The judgment equates a hostile work environment on the same plane as a direct request for sexual favours. To quote: "Sexual harassment includes such unwelcome sexually determined behaviour (whether directly or by implication) as: physical contact and advances; a demand or request for sexual favours; sexually coloured remarks; showing pornography; any other unwelcome physical, verbal or non-verbal conduct of sexual nature". The judgement mandates appropriate work conditions should be provided for work, leisure, health, and hygiene to further ensure that there is no hostile environment towards women at the workplace and no woman employee should have reasonable grounds to believe that she is disadvantaged in connection with her employment. Gender identity is a person's own sense of identification as female, male, both, neither, or somewhere in between. The social construction of gender has been discussed by a wide variety of scholars, Judith Butler notable among them. Sexual behavior and intimate relationships are strongly influenced by a persons sexual orientation. Sexual orientation refers to your degree of emotional and physical attraction to members of the opposite sex, same sex, or both sexes. Domestic discrimination (at homes) and Institutionalized discrimination (outside the home, at workplace) Patterns of the social action that are embedded in the entire social system that may influence men and women. Gender Socialization takes place through a series of life stages.

Infancy Learning about gender roles begins at birth. Girls-soft, delicate, fine-featured, little, beautiful, pretty, cute, awkward, and resembling their mothers. Boys-strong, firm, alert, well-co-ordinated Clothing, room, dcor and toys also reflect notions of gender. Each toy or game helps to enact anticipatory socialization. The toys with which boys play (guns, building blocks), etc, helps in inculcating technical skills and aggressiveness, where as the soft toys and dolls make the girls timid, coy and tell them the feminine standards expecting from them. Childhood Many boys are encouraged to be more independent or exploratory, while girls are protected from situations that might prove harmful. Children become aware of their own gender identity, and they learn that their sex is permanent and they begin to categorize behaviours that are appropriate for their sex. Certain reinforcements solidify gender roles, setting the stage for later life gender-related interactions, behaviours and choices. 1. Corporations that produce products that reinforce the gender stereotyping, like Barbie dolls for girls and hot wheel computers for boys (Mattel Inc) 2. Portrayal of women in stories, cartoons, movies, ads, etc. 3. Traditional messages regarding gender conveyed by toyshops 4. Mass media, educational system, and religion.

Sometimes mass media and videogames dehumanize women, by presenting women who are highly attractive and unrealistically thin; it will teach and perpetuate stereotypes about women. Some action films and movies include adventurous and competent girls and women, which is a recent trend that we can find in the movies and mass media. (Hermione in Harry Potter, Queen of Nabo and Senator Amidala in Star wars) Gender is a socially created or constructed idea, not one that emanates from ones biological traits. Superwoman Image

Women are expected to be beautiful, youthful, and sexually interesting and interested; and at the same time prepare the food, care for the children, keep a clean and orderly home, and sometimes bring in money to support the family. Multiple, sometimes contradictory expectations for women cause stress and even serious psychological problems. Superwoman syndrome is a pattern by which women assume multiple roles and try to do all well, takes its toll. Its a term coined by Marjorie Hansen Shaevitz. The resulting strain contributes to depression and certain health problems such as headaches, nervousness, and insomnia. Second shift In the case of working women, they are handling multiple roles by performing multiple roles at the same time. For instance a working woman who is married and has children, after her official job will come back to her home to take care of her house hold chores. This type of shift in the job from the official to the domestic is termed as Second shift by Arlie Russell Hochschild. Concepts like androcentric world -main thrust to world dominated by masculine views, centered or focused on men, often to the neglect or exclusion of women And gynocentric world, where the greater thrust is given to the females views. The most appropriate attitude for the existence of a healthy world is the existence of an androgynous vision for the world. (Equal thrust to men and women in a society) Feminists programmes will look at the global and national patterns, and will address issues like domestic violence, missing women, rape, abuse, Girlsfemale infanticide killing of newborn girl babies etc. Feminist movement has given rise to a large body of theory which attempts to explain gender inequalities and set firth agendas for overcoming those inequalities. Reference: 1. http://www.guardian.co.uk/global-development/povertymatters/2011/may/25/india-census-alarming-sex-ratio-female-foeticide 2. Wikipedia 3. Perry and Perry. Contemporary Society: An Introduction to Social Science. London. Allyn and Bacon. 2008. 4. Giddens, Anthony. Sociology. Fifth Edition. Wiley India Pvt Limited . 2006

5. Flyvberg, B. Making Social Science Matter. CUP. 2001. 6. Singer, Peter. A Companion to Ethics, Black well Publishers.

Article India's census reveals a glaring gap: girls India's census reveals a country obsessed by boys and sex-selection laws that no one will enforce. Continuing female foeticide explains why the child sex ratio is getting worse.

India's child sex ratio has deteriorated in the past 10 years, now at 914 girls for per 1,000 boys; in 2001 the ratio was 927 per 1,000. Dumped female foetuses are also found regularly. In the world's largest democracy a massive crisis of missing girls is unfolding, according to India's 2011 census. The latest census shows that the gap between the number of girls per 1,000 boys up to the age of six has widened to 914, a decrease from 927 a decade ago, at the 2001 census. In a country where a large part of the population finds it hard to get access to toilets and clean drinking water, access to illegal foetal sexselection procedures seems easier. The girl child in India is falling prey to the profit-driven ultrasound industry and doctors who commit foeticide without compunction. The child sex ratio is emblematic of the status of women in the country. More than a dozen female foetuses were found dumped in a city in eastern Bihar state recently, days before the damning child sex ratio was revealed. Although there has been a fall in the rate of population growth (pdf), awareness of family size is accompanied by a greater preference for boys a trend seen across class and rural-urban divides.

Mumbai, India's commercial capital, boasts a ratio of 874 girls, one of the lowest in the country. Jhajjar district in the northern state of Haryana, could well be the capital of female foeticide, with a ratio of 774 girls to 1,000 boys the state's ratio is 830, down from 861 recorded in the 2001 census. Regions that had more balanced sex ratios, such as the southern and eastern states, are now also registering this trend and research shows that even Indians overseas demonstrate similar sex ratios. Sabu M George, an activist with 25 years' experience in the field, said: "There are highly organised vested interests, a powerful lobby of doctors and companies selling ultrasound machines that cater to the sex-determination market." Doctors in India make at least $200m a year by conducting illegal sex-selection procedures, he said. During 1991, in the prosperous states of Gujarat, Punjab and Haryana, 5% of girls were eliminated. Ten years on, in 2001, this climbed to 10%-15%; and 7,000 fewer girls are born every day than ought to be, according to Unicef. Legislation was enacted in 1994 the Pre-Conception and Pre-Natal Diagnostic Techniques Act (Prohibition of Sex Selection Act or PNDT) but that failed to act as a deterrent to potential parents and doctors. A public interest case was filed in 2000 by George and two NGOs, MASUM and CEHAT, citing the government's failure to the implement the law. In 2001, seven years after legislation was enacted, the supreme court directed state governments to enforce it, making special reference to Punjab, Delhi, Bihar, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra and West Bengal. But in the past three years the relevant government committee has not met even once to take stock of the situation, George said. While an estimated 15 million girls were wiped out simply not born in India over the last decade, the figure is 25 million in China, where the state's one-child policy has become a one-son policy. Chinese ultrasound manufacturers also see India as their big market. Machines that were meant to be sold only to registered clinics are probably being sold to unauthorised entities. Activists have also criticised companies from the west, such as GE. The company points out that ultrasound is essential for many medical procedures, adding that, while buyers require valid certificates and must produce "affidavits stating that the equipment shall not be used for sex determination GE's observation is that these laws are not routinely enforced." And it is not just the makers of medical devices who are taking advantage of the situation. Microsoft, Yahoo and Google, for example, have all contributed to the problem. The 1994 law prohibits advertising sex-selection services, often for genetic determination of sex, but those corporations carried online advertising, sponsored links,

for sex-selection services. Another public interest case was filed to challenge the online ads. These are signs of the stunted evolution in the status of Indian women. Not surprisingly, India ranks a lowly 112 out of 134 countries in the World Economic Forum's Global Gender Gap Index for 2010 (pdf). The economic impact of women not contributing to society is clearly lost on many Indians, and the great Indian economic growth story has bypassed women's emancipation. Natural selection would have yielded an additional 600,000 girls every year. This translates into 10 million potential brides after two decades. The horror of how this could unfold is best captured by a chilling, if slightly exaggerated, film called Mathrubhoomi: A Nation Without Women.