A Hundred and One Rules !

A Short Reference for Arabic Syntactic, Morphological & Phonological Rules for Novice & Intermediate Levels of Proficiency Mohammed Jiyad
Spring 2006

CONTENTS Page Subject I Introduction 1 The Arabic Alphabet 2 The Arabic Consonants Diagram 5 One Direction Connectors, mphatic Consonants, Short !o"els in Arabic # $unation, The Shadda, The Sun %etters & The 'oon %etters, Arabic S(nta), The De*inite Article, Arabic 'orpholog( + The ,eminine 'ar-er, The Personal pronouns . Countries, to"ns, /illages, De*initeness in Arabic, The $isba 10 %ong /o"el to a Diphthong, The Possessi/e pronouns, Sentences in Arabic 11 The !ocati/e Particle, The Idaa*a, The Simple Idaa*a 12 The Diptotes, Demonstrati/e Pronouns, The 1uational Sentence <9=:;> 67894:; 2345 1? Interrogati/e Particles, Inde*inite $oun Subject, $egating 1uational Sentences 1@ 15 1# 1& The Subject mar-ers, The Di**erent ,orms o* AB: Interrogati/e Particles, The Idaa*a Cre/isitedD !erbESubject Agreement, Transiti/e !erbs, Felping !o"els

1+ mphasisRContrast 1. 20 21 22 $umbers 2@ Plurals 25 2# 2& 2+ !erbs

GH, The Cluster Iuster O L P , GJK $egation o* Past Tense !erbs, N L MGJK L The conjunction C>D , De*initeness CQe/isitedD,
Object Pronouns, The "ord The De*acto Case o* the $oun and Adjecti/e, $umbers, Plurals

TP , ;SG4:

$umbers CQe/isitedD, W V6 O 6 X 2U !erb Object Pronouns, Object Pronouns o* Prepositions Prepositions, ,eminine Sound Plurals, The Qoots, The !erb ,orm The Phonological n/ironment *or ,orm !III !erb, $onEhuman 'ultiples o* 10, The Conjunction YZ: , The Singular Subject and its mood mar-ers The Present Tense o* the Arabic /erb, The 'oods !o"els o* the Present Tense !erb

[8\

, $egation o* Present and ,uture Tense !erbs, The Sic-

O L P , The Plural !ocati/es, 'asculine Sound Plural 2. ^ L _` ] N CQe/isitedD ?0 $egation o* the ,uture Tense CQe/isitedD, !erbs "ith T"o Objects, The SemiEDiptotes
?1 Tense ?2c ??

aGP

X her Sisters, The Apposition

b79:6 , The 'ood( Present a V f

X her Sisters

The Subjuncti/e 'ood

a d 6 ] GH

CQe/isitedD, The $ominalieer II

?@ ?5 ?# ?& ?+

Adjecti/es CQe/isitedD

aGg

X her Sisters CQe/isitedD

Phon(R,a-e Idaa*a, The Per*ect Particle ,orms o* the !erbal $ouns The Qelati/e Pronouns

7h, The !erbal $oun

i7j4:6 Nmn:; <kG4l p3q4:; bn_o4:; mphasis 7BPn8:; ] <Bs The Dropping o*

GH

CQe/isitedD, The Cognate Accusati/e

?. The noun the Shadda o* @0

A L or , The

The Imperati/e 'ood,

a V 6and her sisters

@1 The preposition o* Ieginning, @2 @? @@

tJH L

, The Apposition The Acti/e Participle

b79:6 CQe/istedD, !erbs w u v 6

and

Deri/ation o* the Acti/e Participle, The nouns

v 6 x

The Faal Construction bGy:; The Passi/e Participle, Deri/ation o* the Passi/e Participle

$egation Particle A w B: CQe/isitedD @5 The Accusati/e o* Distinction CQe/isitedD @# Particles o* )ception |GJ}8~; z;>{6 @& The Accusati/e o* Purpose, The Absolute $egation @+ The %ong !o"els CQe/isitedD 50 The Pedagog( Section, The "hole language and guided participator( approach #0 ,unctional Arabic !erbs list #. Qe*erences

I INTRODUCTION The Arabic language de/eloped through the earl( centuries in the Arabian Peninsula in the era immediatel( preceding the appearance o* Islam, "hen it ac1uired the *orm in "hich it is -no"n toda(c Arab poets o* the preEIslamic period had de/eloped a language o* amaeing richness and *le)ibilit(c ,or the most part, their poetr( "as transmitted and preser/ed orall(c The Arabic language "as then, as it is no", easil( capable o* creating ne" "ords and terminolog( in order to adapt to the demand o* ne" scienti*ic and artistic disco/eriesc As the ne" belie/ers in the se/enth centur( spread out *rom the Peninsula to create a /ast empire, *irst "ith its capital in Damascus and later in Iaghdad, Arabic became the administrati/e language o* /ast section o* the 'editerranean "orldc It dre" upon I(eantine and Persian terms and its o"n immense inner resources o* /ocabular( and grammatical *le)ibilit(c During the ninth and tenth centuries, a great intellectual mo/ement "as under"a( in Iaghdad, in "hich man( ancient scienti*ic and philosophical tracts "ere transposed *rom ancient languages, especiall( ree-, into Arabicc 'an( "ere augmented b( the ne" "isdom suggested b( Arabic thin-ers other te)t "ere simpl( preser/ed, until urope rea"a-ened b( the e)plosion o* learning ta-ing place in Arab Spain, sa" its rebirth in the Qenaissancec That is ho" Arabic became b( the ele/enth centur( the principal reser/oir o* human -no"ledge, including the repositor( *or the accumulated "isdom o* past ages, supplanting pre/ious cultural languages such as ree- and %atinc And it "as the Arabic language alone "hich united man( peoples in the Arab mpire and the ci/ilieation "hich *lourished under itc ,or "hen "e spea- o* the Arab ci/ilieation and its achie/ements "e do not necessaril( mean that all its representati/e "ere Arab, or that all "ere 'uslimsc It "as the peculiar genius o* Arab ci/ilieation that it attracted and encompassed people o* man( races and creedsc Citieens o* the Arab mpire, the( identi*ied themsel/es "ith this ci/ilieation and it "as the Arabic language, "ith its great *le)ibilit(, that made them e)ponents o* that ci/ilieationcc Iet"een the eighth and t"el*th centuries, Arabic "as as much the uni/ersal language o* culture, diplomac(, the sciences and philosoph( as %atin "as to become in the later 'iddle Agesc Those "ho "anted to read Aristotle, use medical terms, sol/e mathematical problems, or embar- on an( intellectual discourse, had to -no" Arabicc

The *irst rules o* Arabic language, including its poetr( metrical theor(, and its s(nta), morpholog( and phonolog(, "ere "ritten in Ira1c This tas- "as conducted both in AlEIasrah under AlEhalil Ibn Ahmed AlE,arahid( and in AlEuu*ah under Abu alEFasan AlEisaaic During the 'iddle Ages AlEhalil in his boo-

YB_:; uG8P and, his

student, Siiba"a(h in uG8Z:; concluded that tas-c The *irst complete dictionar( o* the Arabic language "as composed b( AlEhalil, "ho had also been in/ol/ed in the re*orm o* the Arabic script and "ho is generall( acclaimed as the in/entor o* the Arabic metrical theor(c The pro*essed aim o* YB_:; uG8P , "hich goes under his name, "as the inclusion o* all Arabic rootsc In the introduction, a s-etch is gi/en o* the phonetic structure o* Arabic, and II the dictionar( *ull( uses a/ailable corpora o* Arabic b( including 1uotations *rom the uran and *rom the numerous preEIslamic poems, "hich had both undergone a process o* codi*ication and "ritten transmission b( the hands o* the grammariansc The earl( attempt to "rite the Arabic grammar began as earl( as the time o* the *ourth ellEuided Caliphs, Ali Ibn Abi Taalib, "hen he commissioned a man named Abu AlEAs"ad AlEDuali *or the tas-c In his boo- CG`{; zG9 G9:; reports the *ollo"ing anecdote c

2KrD

AlEAnbari,

WiG9r;

C:; B3 D :G `; Y` 3 YBJHn4:; <BH; [3 3{ 7U z75n P 3H r f bG YBJH4:; <BH6 GU tK GH 3 ]2_hi 7h 75n u<_:; GB l; a6 z{i ET5G; J_U |;<4y:; tK 2q:G=4` 7 L un8ZH GB> 2_h<:; V cB3 a>748_U> ]B:f an_5<U V :f [:; T ][4 V 4 L :; Y 9r6 GH T~G c <\> N_> T~f 3P Z:6 L GH N_o:;> : bGh> c[J_H {G; GH <y:;> ]` | w [9r6 B:f h> GH B:f l;> ]nyJ:; ;tK w rfc
I came to The %eader o* the Ielie/ers, Ali Ibn Abi Talib, and *ound that he "as holding a note in his handc I as-ed, hat is this, Oh %eader o* the ,aith*ul Fe said, I ha/e been thin-ing o* the language o* the Arabs, and I came to *ind out that it has

been corrupted through contacts "ith these *oreignerscThere*ore, I ha/e decided to put something that the( Cthe ArabsD re*er to and rel( onc Then he ga/e me the note and on it he "rote Speech is made o* nouns, /erbs and particlesc $ouns are names o* things, /erbs pro/ide in*ormation, and particles complete the meaningc Then he said to me, ,ollo" this approach and add to it "hat comes to (our mindc AlEDuali continued to sa(,

0*#1 2$3 -.+/ , + + *+ %(' & ) $" # "! -.+ *+ !6( ! # %5 5' .( ) 4 !6@ A ( ? 3:1 # ; )>=' <-.& # 9: 2-+ 8 7/ - !60 B@ !6 % D C&@c
I "rote t"o chapters on conjunctions and attributes then t"o chapters on e)clamation and interrogati/esc Then I "rote about

G;n;> a V f
III

and I

Y V Z:c hen I sho"ed that to him CPeace be upon himD, he ordered me to add Y V Z:c There*ore, e/er( time I
s-ipped *inish a chapter I sho"ed it to him C'a( od be satis*ied "ith himD, until I co/ered "hat I thought to be enoughc Fe said, Fo" beauti*ul is the approach (ou ha/e ta-en ,rom there the concept o* grammar

nyJ:;

came to e)istc

,ollo"ing Abu AlEAs"ad AlEDuali came a group o* grammarians that "e -no" most o* b( their names, not their "or-sc The list includes

TmG Y` <jr , AlE'ahr( a;7_H Y` 29J W<4:; , AlEA1ran a<h; an4BH , AlEAd"aan( Y` [ByU r;>7_:; <4_U , AlEA-h*ash <9P; o; , AlEAraj , AlE Fadhram( H<y:; py~; `; Y` 3:; 79 , Ibn AlEAlaa n`6
Ibn AaSim

|_:; Y` ><4 ,

AlETha1a*(

"rote t"o *amous boo-s,

o}:; <4 Y` [B , bG4P; and HG:;

"ho

aa*i credited AlETha1a*( o}:; *or trans*erring the interest *rom Iasrah to uu*a, because he began his "or- there, and AlEhalil "as his studentc Among the other uu*ic grammarians "ere AlE

4B48:; Y4\<:; 79 Y` aG9B 2U>G_H n`6 and AlE Farraa |;<:; SG_H T3H n`6 and AlEQuaas( <o_5 n`6 ~;-<:; "ho "rote NjBo:;DD cI* Siiba"a(h "as considered the Imaam o* grammar in Iasrah, the uu*ic /ersion "as AlEisaa( n`6 kGZ:; ><B Y` 4\ Y` 3 Yy:; "ho studied under AlEFarraa |;< V :;and AlEQuaas( c ~;-<:;n*ortunatel(, AlE
Tamiim( isaa( did not author an( major "or- in Arabic grammarc Fo"e/er, he became one o* the best se/en readers o* the uranc The *rame"or- o* the Arab grammarians ser/ed e)clusi/el( *or the anal(sis o* Arabic and, there*ore, has a special rele/ance *or the stud( o* the languagec ,rom the period bet"een &50 and 1500 "e -no" the names o* more than @000 grammarians "ho de/eloped a trul( comprehensi/e bod( o* -no"ledge on their o"n languagec Siiba"a(h "as the *irst grammarian to gi/e an account o* the entire language in "hat "as probabl( the *irst publication in boo*orm in Arabic prosec In his boo-, uG9:; <4> u;{; <K , AlE Fusar( reported that Siiba"a(h used to ha/e his "or- re/ie"ed b( another grammarian o* his time named AlEA-h*ash AlESaghiir "ho said that, Siiba"a(h sho"ed me the grammar rules he came up "ith thin-ing that I -ne" better than himc In *act, he has better -no"ledge than mec Siiba"a(hs e)ample set the trend *or all subse1uent generations o* grammarians, "ho belie/ed that their main tas- "as to I! pro/ide an e)planation *or e/er( single phenomenon in Arabicc Conse1uentl(, the( distinguished bet"een "hat "as transmitted and "hat "as theoreticall( possible in languagec In principle, the( accepted e/er(thing *rom reliable resources, "hich included the language o* the uran, preEIslamic poetr(, and testimonies *rom trust"orth( Iedouin in*ormantsc A*ter the period o* the Islamic con1uests, the sedentar( population o* 'e--a and 'edina began to regard the *reeEroaming Iedouin, "hose

language preser/ed the purit( o* the preEIslamic times, as the ideal t(pe o* Arab, and the term u<_:; P %anguage o* the Arabs came to denote the pure, una**ected language o* the Iedouinsc !ersteegh stated that the earl( beginnings o* grammar and le)icograph( began at a time "hen Iedouin in*ormants "ere still around and could be consultedc There can be no doubt that the grammarians and le)icographers regarded the Iedouin as the true spea-ers o* the Arabic ,uSFa, and continued to do so a*ter the con1uestsc In the "ords o* Ibn halduun, the Iedouin spo-e according to their linguistic intuitions and did not need an( grammarian to tell them ho" to use the declensional endingsc There are reports that it "as *ashionable among notable *amilies to send their sons into the desert, not onl( learn ho" to shoot and hunt, but also to practice spea-ing pure Arabicc The Prophet 'ohammed "as one o* those "hen he "as a small bo(c Other reports come *rom pro*essional grammarians "ho sta(ed *or some time "ith a Iedouin tribe and studied their speech because it "as considered to be more correct than that o* the to"ns and citiesc The Arabic linguistic re*erences tell us that the need *or some linguistic authorit( came to e)ist long be*ore the time o* AlEhalil and Siiba"a(hc There is a /ast amount o* anecdotes concerning the linguistic mista-es made b( the nonEArabs "ho con/erted to Islamc It is commonl( belie/ed that these anecdotes document a state o* con*usion and corruption o* the Classical languagec According to man( resources, the ellEguided *ourth Caliph, Ali Ibn Abi Taalib, the cousin and sonEinEla" o* the Prophet 'ohammed, "as the *irst to insist that something to be donec One anecdote mentioned that Ali came to per*orm his preEda"n pra(er at the 'os1ue o* AEuu*ahc As he "ent in, he heard a nonEArab 'uslim reading the uran and that man "as assigning the endE"ords /o"eling incorrectl(c The /erse in 1uestion "as *rom ,aaTir CChapter ?5c !erse 2+D

L G43_:; | {G9 YH w 3:; [=U G4rf

Those trul( *ear Allah, Among Fis Ser/ants ho ha/e -no"ledge

Apparentl(, that man had the nominati/e case assigned to "hat supposed to be the direct object assigned to the subject | L G43_:;c Iecause the endE"ord /o"eling is the mani*estation o* Arabic language grammar, the meaning o* that /erse "as completel( messed upc That same da( Ali handed a note to Abu AlEAs"ad AlEDuali "hich said that, Speech is made o* three

w 3:;, and the accusati/e case "as

elements nouns, /erbs, and particlesc Ali as-ed AlEDuali to e)pand on that de*inition and "rite the *irst grammar rules *or ! Arabicc In other "ords, Ali "as as-ing *or a linguistic authorit( "hose rules should be en*orcedc According to some historians, AlEDuali at *irst hesitated but "as later persuaded "hen his o"n daughter made a terrible mista-e in the use o* the declensional endings, b( con*using the e)pressions Fo" beauti*ul is the s-(Rhat is the most beauti*ul thing in the s-( She "as reported to ha/e said

w w G4:; Y | G4:; Y w \6 GH R | L \6 GH G4:; Y | w G4:; Y w \6 GH R | L \6 GH

The origin o* the dot, notation o* the three short /o"els, and the $unation is ascribed to Abu AlEAs"ad, and the names o* the /o"els C,atFa, Dhamma, asraD are connected to their articulationsc ,rom that "e ha/e the common e)pression,

><y:;, literall( meaning put the dots on the letters, icec, to be more clearRspeci*iccT"o other inno/ations attributed to Abu AlEAs"ad concern the notation *or hamea Cglottal stopD and Shadda Cconsonant geminationDc Ioth signs are absent *rom the $abataean scriptc
The *rame"or- o* the Arab grammarians ser/ed e)clusi/el( *or the anal(sis o* Arabic and there*ore has a special rele/ance *or the stud( o* the languagec ,rom the period bet"een &50 and 1500 "e -no" the names o* more than @000 grammarians "ho elaborated a comprehensi/e bod( o* -no"ledge on their o"n languagec 'ost Arabic grammars *ollo" the order established b( Siiba"a(h and start "ith s(nta) nyJ:6 , *ollo"ed b( morpholog( U<j8:; , "ith phonolog( added as an appendi)c Phonolog( did not count as an independent discipline and "as there*ore relegated to a position at the end o* the treatise, although a considerable bod( o* phonetic -no"ledge "as transmitted in introductions to dictionaries and in treaties on recitation o* the uran,

[3 GJ:; l

7Un u;<f , a term

The grammarians main preoccupation "as the e)planation o* the case endings o* the "ords in the sentence, called

originall( meant the correct use o* Arabic according to the language o* the Iedouins but came to mean declensionc ees belie/es that the "or-s "hich appeared a*ter AlEhalil and Siiba"a(h onl( contributed either b( o**ering commentaries or *urther e)planationsc In this conte)t, this publication is nothing more than an account o* the most common rules nonEspea-ers o* Arabic "ill need to re*er to in their 1uest *or learning the languagec et, our additional aim is to o**er some suggestions and ideas on ho" to present these commonl( used rulesc !I These suggestions and ideas are based on recent research in language pro*icienc( learning and pedagog(c 'an( researchers agree that *ormal classroom instruction o* certain grammatical structures Ethat is, morphological in*lections, *unction "ords, and s(ntactic "ord orderE can be bene*icial to studentsc The rationale *or teaching grammar is multi*acetedc ,irst students are e)pected to be alread( literate and there*ore ha/e established e)pectation concerning language instructionc rammar instruction can be bene*icial because o* the *act that it raises learners consciousness concerning the di**erences and similarities o* %1 and %2c In this respect, grammar instruction can be used as a linguistic map, "ith re*erence points o* rules o* thumbs to assist students as the( e)plore the topograph( o* the ne" languagec Fo"e/er, "e need to remember that grammatical structures b( themsel/es are rather uselessc %i-e road signs, grammatical structures ta-e on meaning onl( i* the( are situated in a conte)t and in connected discoursec ,urthermore, rashen C1.+2D reminds us that grammatical structures "ill become internalieed onl( i* the learners are placed in a situation in "hich the( need to use the structures *or communicati/e purposesc Conse1uentl(, an important role o* the teacher is to create learning situations in "hich the students *eel a need to master the grammar in order to comprehend and communicate in the target languagec A detailed pedagog( scheme on ho" to teach and learn grammar is pro/ided in a section that *ollo"s the presentation o* the rulesc

1 1. The Arabic Alphabet. The Arabic sources, as long as the( do not attribute the in/ention o* the Arabic script to Adam or Ishmael, tell us that the script had been introduced either *rom South Arabia region or *rom 'esopotamia CIra1Dc Ibn AlE$adim, *or e)ample, said that the people o* AlEFira, the capital o* the %a-hmid d(nast( in the uphrates /alle(, used a *orm o* S(riac cursi/e script "hich had de/eloped into the Arabic alphabetc !ersteegh claims that the theor( o* S(riac origin has no" been abandoned b( most scholarsc It seems much more li-el( to him that the Arabic alphabet is deri/ed *rom a t(pe o* cursi/e $abataean in Petra, ordanc In the Aramaic script, *rom "hich $abataean "riting ultimatel( deri/ed, there are no ligatures bet"een lettersc Iut in the cursi/e *orms o* the $abataean script most o* the *eatures that characteriee the Arabic script alread( appearc !ersteegh adds that the elaboration o* an Arabic script *or te)ts in Arabic too- place as earl( as the second centur( C c This "ould mean that the de/elopment o* the Arabic script as it is used in preEIslamic inscriptions occurred largel( independentl( *rom the later de/elopments in $abataean epigraphic scriptc The most important internal de/elopment in Arabic script is the s(stematic elaboration o* connections bet"een letters "ithin the "ord, and the s(stem o* di**erent *orms o* the letters according to their position "ithin the "ordc According to Siiba"a(h, the Arabic Alphabet is made o* 2. letters, including ? long /o"elsc Fe put them in the *ollo"ing order starting "ith the lar(ngeal and ending "ith labial, representing the place o* articulation along the /ocal tractc

] ] M ] x ] ] ] ] K ]; ]|] ]z]{]]a]i]b]W]]] >]]u] ]]S]]]

Though Siiba"a(h listed 2. letters he concluded that in realit( there "ere ?5 sounds "hich are represented b( those 2. lettersc Fe e)plained that the recitation o* the uran and reading o* poetr( had necessitated the e)istance o* those # additional soundsc The list

2oBo=:; anJ:;, the medial Famea EF% (.( . , Ali* alEImaala EG>GH =#; %D ,the E sounded Shiin TB:GP 8:; YB:; , the Esounded emphatic S
included the light $uun

BF5 )!I9 , the /elarieed Ali* TB=o8:; :6 in the language o* Fijaae in "ords li-e, GP:;> j:;> GBy:;c
Siiba"a(h "ent on to sa( that he could trace @2 sounds but the additional & sounds "ere not *a/orable in the recitation o* the uran and reading o* poetr(c There*ore, the( "ere o* less signi*icance since their use is onl( limited to oral communicationc 2 AlEhalil Ibn Ahmed, "ho died in &.1, grouped and put them in the *ollo"ing order

] z { ] ] ] M ] x K |W;>]u ]a{i]S
The codi*ication o* the uran "as a crucial moment in the de/elopment o* a "ritten standard *or the Arabic languagec On a practical le/el, the "ritingEdo"n o* the hol( te)t in/ol/ed all -inds o* decisions concerning the orthograph( o* the Arabic script and elaboration o* a number o* con/entions to ma-e "riting less ambiguous and more manageable than it had been in preEIslamic Arabiac riting "as not un-no"n in the peninsula in that periodc Iut, *or religious reasons, earl( Islamic sources emphasieed the illiterac( o* the Prophet 'ohammedc The Prophet "as H6, someone "ho could not read nor "rite, and this "as "hat made the re/elation o* the uran and his recitation o* the te)t a miraclec There are clear indications that as earl( as the si)th centur( "riting "as *airl( common in the urban centers o* the peninsula, in 'e--a and to a lesser degree in 'edinac In the commercial societ( that "as 'e--a, businessmen must ha/e had at their disposal /arious means o* recording their transactionsc There are re*erences to treaties being "ritten do"n and preser/ed in the aba in 'e--ac /en the

;><:; , the transmitters o* poetr(, sometimes relied on "ritten notes,

although the( recited the poems entrusted to them orall(c In the uran, "e *ind re*lection o* a societ( in "hich "riting *or commercial purposes "as "ell establishedc In the second sura "e *ind, *or instance, detailed stipulations on the settlement o* debts that include the e)act "ritingEdo"n o* the termsc

In the biograph( o* the Prophet, there are man( re*erences to his using scribes *or his correspondence "ith Arab tribes and o* "riting treatiesc In the accounts preser/ed b( the historians, scribes and "itnesses "ere mentioned and the Prophet signed those documents "ith his *ingernailc Tradition has preser/ed the names o* se/eral scribes to "hom 'ohammed dictated messages, chie* among them being a(d Ibn Thabitc ust as Christian mon-s o* the 'iddle Ages spent li*etimes "riting and illuminating religious manuscripts, their Arab and 'uslim *orebears contemporaries de/oted their li/es to producing elegantl( hand"ritten copies o* the uranc In lieu o* pictorial representation, "hich "as *ro"ned upon, calligraph( became not onl( practical, but decorati/e, replacing design, painting and sculpture o/er a period o* centuriesc %ater e/er( caliphs court emplo(ed these artists to dra" up o**icial documents, design o**icial signatures and "rite out diplomatic correspondencec The Arabs and 'uslims o* that time used interlaced geometric lines deri/ations *rom the u*ic st(le to adorn the "alls o* palaces and mos1ues, and the name o* this st(le, arabes1ue, is a reminder o* its cultural originsc Arabic calligraph( *orms a primar( ornamentation o* the 'oorish palace o* Alhambra in ranada, other citadels and ? mos1ues o* 'oorish Spain spea- elo1uentl( o* the golden ages o* arabes1ue design and calligraph(c The tracer( and *lo"ing patterns o* the arabes1ue st(le, o* calligraph( itsel*, impl( a deeper, s(mbolic meaning stemming *rom ancient m(stic belie*sc The designs endlessl( reproducing themsel/es in apparentl( con*used entanglements, but in realit( *lo"ing an ingenious s(stem, are interpreted as s(mbolic o* the order o* nature "hich in perpetual change al"a(s repeats its c(clesc The meanders are said to represent the continuit( o* li*e, the circle is held to stand *or eternit( and the rosettes and palmettos o* design *or birth and maturit(c Calligraphers toda( pla( an integral role in the Arab and 'uslim orldsc The( not onl( cop( uranic /erses and design phrases to be incorporated into building tiles and mos1ues , but the( "rite nearl( all ne"spaper and magaeine headlinesc 'odern Arabic lends itsel* to the art, "ith its *luid design and diacritical mar-ingsc

2c The Arabic C ns natial S!ste" includes e1ual numbers o* /oiced /ersus /oiceless, t"o nasals, three /elarised, t"o lateral and one trillc Please note the *ollo"ing diagram Obstruents S n rants #all $ iced% Un$elari&ed 'elari&ed lateral labial !oiceless trill /oiced /oiceless /oiced nasal

J interdental K
labioEdental dentoEal/ec

IPR U Z L V \ OPQ N

M ; 7

SPT
palatal /elar u/ular XPY Phar(ngal %ar(ngeal

W [ ]P^A

@ (. One Directi n C nnect rs c O* the 2. letters that ma-e the Arabic Alphabet onl( si) connect to the proceeding letterc These include t"o long /o"els ; and > , and *our consonants connect to both sidesc

]iS]{

c The rest

). E"phatic C ns nants are a Semitic languages phenomenonc In Arabic there are *our "hich include ] ] ]c These consonants are articulated b( a process o* /elarieation the tip o* the tongue is lo"ered, the root o* the tongue is raised to"ards the so*t palate C/elumD, and in the process the timbre o* the neighboring /o"els is shi*ted to"ards a posterior realieationc

*. Sh rt ' +els in Arabic The notation o* the short /o"els "as a complicated problemc Abu AlEAs"ad AlEDuali is credited "ith introduction o* the s(stem o* colored dots in the "riting s(stem, and the terminolog(, ,atFa

Ew

Dhamma EL , asra Ecc Iut, a substantial impro/ement in the s(stem o* short /o"els notation is usuall( attributed to the *irst le)icographer o* the Arabic language, AlEhalil Ibn Ahmedc Fe replaced the colored dots "ith speci*ic shapes *or the short /o"els and the Shaddac ith AlEhalils re*orm, the s(stem o* Arabic orthograph( "as almost the same e/er sincec hen used at the end o* a de*inite noun or adjecti/e the( indicate casec CaD CbD CcD

EL Ew E

indicates $ominati/e case as in indicates Accusati/e case as in indicates eniti/e case as in

u L G8Z:; u w G8Z:; u G8Z:;

As (ou might ha/e noticed, Siiba"aih did not include the short /o"elsc $either did he tal- about the diphthongs "hich are created e/er( time (ou ha/e a short /o"el proceeding the long /o"els

>and W

as in

B` ? w ] >!

,. Nunati n. hen a noun or an adjecti/e is inde*inite it carries $unation, "hich is an( o* the short /o"els plus RnR soundc CaD

Evv indicates $ominati/e case as in CbD E indicates Accusati/e case as in CcD E indicates eniti/e case as in
5

vSG8~; SG8~; SG8~;

Please notice that the accusati/e $unation

G8B`c An e)ception to that is "hen the *inal consonant is either the *eminine mar-er, Taa 'arbuTa 29:G , or Famea, | G4~ ;D
as in -. The Shadda is used "hen (ou ha/e t"o identical consonants in a se1uence, pro/iding that the *irst has a Su.uun Ceero /o"elDc

is al"a(s "ritten on C

 d w w i w i{

is "ritten as

w i V w{

/. The Sun 0etters. Due to a Phonological rule, the R bR sound o* the de*inite article is assimilated b( an( o* the *ollo"ing sun consonantsc There*ore, (ou need to use Shadda to replace the assimilated R bRc The Sun %etters are

V :; a i S { z L i7
1. The 2 The( are n 0etters ha/e the de*inite article *ull( pronouncedc

u L G8Z:;

K b M

xu T~f
,

13. Arabic S!nta4. According to Siiba"a(h "ords are noun

/erb N_ , or particle <\ w intended *or items "hich are neither noun nor /erbc The basic di**erence bet"een the three parts is the declension, u;<; cIn principle, onl( nouns and their adjecti/es ha/e case endings to indicate their s(ntactic *unction in a sentencec This classi*ication remained intact throughout the histor( o* the Arabic grammatical traditionsc The noun categor( "as de*ined either as a "ord "ith certain s(ntactic characteristics such as its combinabilit( "ith the de*inite article or as a "ord denoting an essencec nli-e the de*inition o* the noun in estern grammar, the Arabic noun categor( includes adjecti/es, pronouns and e/en a number o* prepositions and ad/erbsc The categor( o* the /erb "as de*ined as a "ord that denotes an action and could be combined "ith some particlesc The particle categor( includes the remaining "ords, and their *unction is to assist other "ords in their semantic *unction in the sentencec 11. The De5inite Article in Arabic. A noun or adjecti/e is made de*inite b( pre*i)ing C :;D to itc ac an old house bc the old house

T v U7h v B` T v U7h L B9:;

,

12. The Arabic 2 rph l 6!. At a /er( earl( date, the Arab grammarians in/ented a notation *or the morphological patterns

U<j8:; , "hich represented the three root radicals N_ ,or those

grammarians, the tas- o* morpholog( "as the brea-do"n o* "ords into radical and au)iliar( consonants 7k;>:;c The grammarians set up methods to identi*( the radicals, o* "hich the most important "as

G8; , the comparison o* the *orm under scrutin( "ith

morphologicall(Erelated "ords "ith the same semantic contentc In line "ith the idea o* the purit( o* the language, the semantic e)tension o* an e)isting "ord "as regarded as the most appropriate de/ice *or e)pansion o* the le)iconc The model *or this procedure "as belie/ed to ha/e been gi/en b( the language o* the uran itsel*c Semantic e)tension became an accepted method o* creating ne" terminolog(c 1(. The 7e"inine 2ar.er. As in man( other languages, an( Arabic nounRadjecti/e has to be either masculine or *emininec ith *e" e)ceptions, the general rule is to su**i) the Taa 'arbuTa C to the masculine nounRadjecti/e *orms to deri/e the *eminine onesc )amples are

R2D

29:GR:G ] 23~;<HRN~;<H ] SG8~;RSG8~; adjecti/es 7U75R7U75 ] 23B45RNB45 ]24U7hRTU7h

nouns Fo"e/er, (ou need to remember that the Taa 'arbuta C R2D is used in certain ancient Arabic male proper names such as

4\ ] 2U>G_H ] 2y3
Also, it is used on some bro-en plural patterns such as Cgiant D

2:G4R4 Cpro*essorRsD SG8~;RSG8~; c 1 Gr; c # Yyr c2 w r; c & T8r; wV 8r; +c? r; c Y c @ nK c . TK L 10c 5 K c Y V LK

1). The 8ers nal pr n uns are used to replace nounsc The *ollo"ing is a list o* the singular C1E5D and plural *orms C#E10D

1*. All c untries9 t +ns9 $illa6es, etcc are treated as *emininec The e)ceptions to this rule are si) Arab countriesc These are

L , UnZ:; u<4:; , a{ L i; , ;<_:; , a;{n:; , aGJ9:

& 1,. De5initeness in Arabic. As (ou might ha/e noticed in the phrases in point 11 abo/e, adjecti/es in Arabic usuall( *ollo" nouns and agree "ith them in terms o* number, gender, case, and de*initenessRinde*initenessc ac small boobc the small boo-

< v G8P v Bm u < L G8Z:; v Bm u

I* an adjecti/e completel( agrees "ith its noun in e/er( aspect, then (ou ha/e a phrase, as in e)amples CaD and CbD belo"c Fo"e/er, i* a noun CsubjectD is de*inite and its adjecti/e CpredicateD is inde*inite (ou ha/e a sentence, as in CcDc

CaD a ne" house CbD the ne" house

v 7U75 v B` L 7U7:; L B9:;

CcD The house is ne" G ` >Ga D ._

1-. The Nisba is an adjecti/e that is created *rom a nounc The most common are those that re*er to origin, nationalit( or countr(c The main de/ice *or ma-ing such adjecti/es *rom nouns is to su**i) CW V vD *or *eminine to the nounc The noun D *or masculine and C 2U must be *irst stripped o** CaD the de*inite article, CbD *eminine su**i), or CcD *inal position long /o"elc ac bc cc

;<_:;D ] V h;<D h;< ] 2B 2U{n_:;D ] W V {n_~D {n_~ ] 2U GUin~D ] W V in~D in~ ] 2U

a Diphth n6. I* an( o* the t"o long /o"el

1/. 0 n6 $ +el t

,>

is proceeded b( the short /o"el character to a diphthong

, the long /o"el changes its

uu EEE ou ii EEE ei

i>{ ] i>{ w YU{ ] YU{ w

11. The 8 ssessi$e pr n uns are su**i)ed to nouns to e)press possession and, conse1uentl(, ma-e them de*initec + m( house, (our C*D house, our house

GJ8 L B` w

L 8B` w ] 8B` w

The *ollo"ing is a list o* the personal pronouns Csingular 1E5 and plural #E10D, and their corresponding possessi/e ones

#c GJ Yyr Gr; c1 w 2c TZ T8r; c& w r; ?c Y r; V Z Y V 8r; c+ @c T L nK L TK c. 5c Y G K V Y V K c10

23. Sentences in Arabic. The closest e1ui/alent in Arabic grammar to the estern notion o* a sentence is 2345, a s(ntacticall( complete string o* "ords that e)presses a semanticall( complete messagec In a sentence, there is al"a(s one head "ord that rela(s or determines the sentential *unctions resulting in mar-ers in the *orm o* case endingsc According to the estern anal(sis o* Arabic sentence structure , there are t"o t(pes o* sentence nominal and /erbalc The Arab rammarians di**er and suggest three t(pesc #a% 2B3_o:; 234:; The /erbal sentence is the basic sentencec Its order is # b:ect%;<<< sub:ect ;<<< $erb. In this t(pe o* sentence, a /erb is mar-ed b( the gender o* its subjectc #b% 2B4~; 234:; The $ominal Sentence is "here the subject ta-es an initial position *or emphatic purposes, *ollo"ed b( the /erb, # b:ect%;<<< $erb ;<<< sub:ectc Conse1uentl(, the /erb is mar-ed b( the number and gender o* its subjectc

#c% <9=:;> 67894:; 2345 The 1uational Sentence is made o* a subject and a predicate "ithout an( e)pressed /erbc The /erb to be is understood, predicate;<<< sub:ect c Ioth the subject and the predicate ha/e to be in the nominati/e casec 21. The ' cati$e 8article GU is limited *or use "ith people onl(c The noun it is used "ith becomes de*inite, and there*ore "ould carr( a short /o"el, not $unationc

SG8~; GU L

O, pro*essor

1 22. Idaa5a 2Gl;. The Idaa*a structure is usuall( made o* t"o or more nouns that are semanticall( related and in a se1uencec Sometimes it sounds li-e a sort o* possessi/e relationship, "here nglish could use o* or s cThe *irst term o* the Idaa*a might be in an( case and should not ta-e $unation or a de*inite articlec The Second term o* the Idaa*a, on the other hand, is al"a(s in the geniti/e case and ma( ta-e $unation or a de*inite articlec the language pro*essor a language pro*essor

2 3:; SG8~; ] 2 3:; w SG8~; 2 : SG8~; ] 2 : w SG8~;

] ]

2 3:; L SG8~; 2 : L SG8~;

If you encounter a cluster of nouns, then you should try to find out if it is an Idaafa structure. 2(. The Si"ple Idaa5a is made o* t"o nounsc The Comple) Idaa*a is made o* ? or morec As e)pected, such se1uences "ill create a S(ntactical n/ironment "here some nouns "ill pla( double grammatical *unctionsc ac the uni/ersit( building bc the door o* the uni/ersit( building b=#

2 _HG:;

] D GJ` u | L G`

2). The Dipt tes is a categor( o* proper names o* indi/iduals, countries, cities, and to"nsc These nouns share the *ollo"ing characteristics ac The( do not ta-e the de*inite articlec bc In spite o* the absence o* the de*inite article, the( do not ta-e $unationc cc In the geniti/e case the( ta-e the accusati/e case mar-er insteadc ac Omers hobbies bc *rom Iaghdad

< L GU;nK w 4 z w {;7` YH

2*. De" nstrati$e 8r n uns. The use o* thisRthat X theseRthose in Arabic is determined b( the number and gender o* the nounRadjecti/e the( introducec ac Singulars are bc Plurals are distinctionD

w :S 2c/ tK ] 2c/ ] w :>6 ] | K

13

;tK

Cno gender

2,. The E=uati nal Sentences. As indicated earlier, an e1uational sentence in Arabic is a sentence "ithout a /erbc It consists o* t"o parts, a subject and a predicatec The subject could be CaD a demonstrati/e pronoun, CbD a personal pronoun, or CcD a noun, "hile the predicate ma( be either o* these, as "ell as CcD an adjecti/e, CdD an ad/erb, or CeD a prepositional phrasec

2B tK v V 3P CbD a subject personal pronoun c v 74yH Gr6 CcD a subject noun j:; L SG8~;c CaD a predicate personal pronoun Gr6 L SG8~;c CbD a predicate noun c v 74yH L SG8~; CcD a predicate inde*inite adjecti/e v 7U75 L SG8~; c CdD a predicate ad/erb wMGJK L SG8~;c CeD a predicate prepc phrase L SG8~;c 8Z4:;
CaD a subject demonstrati/e pronoun c

A pronoun of separation could be added in e)ample CbD abo/e, "here both the subject and the predicate are nounsc

v 74yH nK L SG8~;c
2-. Interr 6ati$e 8articles. NK R 6 are interrogati/e particles "hich are used to introduce 1uestions that ma( be ans"ered "ith either es or $oc

v 8ZH ;tK NK 6

Is this an o**ice

There is some phonological restriction on the use o* *ollo"ing "ord starts "ith a Famea, such as

"hen the

GJK v 7U75 w r66

It is better, in *act easier phoneticall(, to use

NK

GJK v 7U75 w r6 NK
2/. Inde5inite N un Sub:ect. ou cannot start a sentence in Arabic "ith an inde*inite noun subjectc nder such circumstances, the subject needs to be mo/ed inside the sentence and, there*ore, "ill ta-e the predicate position, not its s(ntactical *unctionc There are g(ptian students C*D in the classroomc 11 21. Ne6atin6 E=uati nal Sentences. This t(pe o* Arabic sentence is negated b( using A w B:c Qemember that the predicate noun or adjecti/e has to be in the accuasati/e casec The pro*essor is not g(ptianc

z j:; c v GU<jH z v G9:G

GV U<jH L SG8~; A w B:c

(3. The Sub:ect "ar.ers *or /erbs in the past tense are su**i)ed to the /erb stem in order to demonstrate subjectR/erb agreementc The( are

d d K ] CE w D nKD D r6 ] C L D Gr6 ] C w D w r6 ] CD GJD Y d Y L D L dD T8r6 ] Ca w ED L yr ] CY V L 8D Y V L 8r6 ] CT8 V K ] C;nD TK

(1. The Di55erent 7 r"s attached to

A w B:, it "ill ta-e the *ollo"ing *orms GJ: Y L : Gr6 L yr T8 T8r6 L : w : w r6 Y : r6 V L 8: Y V L 8r6 ;nB: TK A w B: nK Y Y d w B: K w : V LK (2. Interr 6ati$e 8articles NK R 6 #re$isited%c The Arabic language does not tolerate the use o* NK "ith an( *orm o* A w B: in order to ma-e a 1uestionc ou ha/e to stic- "ith c 6 2 98Z4:; L :Gq:; A w B:6
Isnt the student CmD in the librar( ((. The Idaa5a #re$isited%c Arabic grammar does not allo" an(thing to be placed bet"een the *irst and second term o* Idaa*a e)cept *or a demonstrati/e pronounc There*ore, CaD the students boois correct and CbD this students boois also correctc Iut, CcD b =_ D5 12 is incorrect due to the *act that the possessi/e pronoun C inserted bet"een

A w B: c hen subject pronouns are

2 9:Gq:; u L G8P 2 9:Gq:; tK u L G8P

G D is

the *irst and second terms o* Idaa*ac

(). 'erb<Sub:ect A6ree"ent. A /erb that proceeds its subject is mar-ed b( gender onl(c I* it *ollo"s its subject it should be mar-ed b( both number and genderc The students C*D "ent to the dormc

YZ:; c

[:; z 9KS L G9:Gq:;

The students C*D "ent to the dormc

YZ:; c

[:; Y L G9:Gq:; w 9KS z

(*. A Transiti$e 'erb CaD re1uires an object intransiti/e CbD does notc ac I ate an applec bc I "ent to the uni/ersit(c

2\Go L L 3P6 c 2 _HG:; [:f L 9KSc

(,. Helpin6 ' +els replace the ero !o"el "hen the *ollo"ing "ord starts "ith Fameac There*ore, an en/ironment *or using a helping /o"el "ill be created e/er( time one uses a de*inite articlec The purpose o* this Phonological Qule is to pro/ide a smooth transition *rom one "ord to the ne)tc enerall( spea-ing, this transition is go/erned b( the *ollo"ing rulesc ac I* the proceeding /o"el is ,atFa the helping /o"el is asrac Is the boo- ne"

C7 w C dNK w v U75 u L G8Z:; NK

bc I* the proceeding /o"el is asra, the helping /o"el is ,atFac This pencil is *rom the o**icec

Y DT L 3:; ;tK d H

' b ? )%( ?# bD

cc I* the proceeding /o"el is Dhamma, the helping /o"el is Dhammac

w < w Gh CdT83` w GhD ;SG4: L 83` w U74:; T

h( did (ou Cm, plD meet the director C*D

(-. Ob:ect 8r n uns. ou remember "hat "as mentioned earlier that possessi/e pronouns are su**i)ed to nounsc $o", I "ould li-e to remind (ou that object pronouns are su**i)ed to the /erbsc Please, notice the di**erence o* the pronouns in the *ollo"ing sentences ac CPossessi/e PronounD bc CObject PronounD 1(

2 :>Gq:; [3 G` L G8Pc L 7KGc n:; G

(/. The + rd GH has di**erent meanings, depending on the conte)tc It could mean "hat, and in this case (ou are e)pected to ha/e a demonstarati/e pronoun or a de*inite noun *ollo"ing itc hat is this hat is his job

hen the 1uestion "ord GH is *ollo"ed b( a /erb in the past tense, it changes its o"n *unction to a negation particlec I did not eat at this restaurantc

;tK GH L 34 GH

T_q4:; ;tK L 3P6 GHc

(1. The Cluster >uster. enerall( spea-ing, Arabic does not tolerate three or more consonant clustersc The common practice to deal "ith such a phonological en/ironment is to insert a short or long /o"el in bet"eenc e mentioned earlier the use o* the short helping /o"elc A good e)ample *or the use o* a long /o"el is "hen "e ha/e an attached object pronoun *or transiti/e /erbs "hich ha/e

T8r6 as a subjectc $otice the use o* the long /o"el C the cluster in the *ollo"ing sentences n:; GKn47KG c
ou CmpD sa" her in the mar-etc

> D to brea-

[4:; Grn483`Ghc
ou CmpD met us in the ca*ec

ou CmpD taught him Arabicc )3. Ne6ati n 5 8ast Tense 'erbs. There are t"o methods to

2B`<_:; Ln4843 wc

negate the /erbs in past tensec The eas( "a( is b( using the /erbc The other is to use the negation particle the jussi/e *orm o* the /erbc e didnt "atchRsee this mo/iec

GH

be*ore

T: *ollo"ed b(

T w G GHc w 3o:; ;tK Gr7K T Gr L T:c w 3o:; ;tK d7K

)1.

w GJK M L R GJK L

are nouns that can also be used as ad/erbsc

CaD There is a student C*D in the classroomc

j:;c
CbD The ne" boo- is herec 1)

w GJK v 29:G M L GJK L L 7U7:; u L G8Z:;c

O L P is a noun that "ill be a *irst term o* Idaa*a and could mean )2. N e/er(Reach i* it is *ollo"ed b( a singular inde*inite nounc I* the

O L P "ould mean allR"holec I* it is used a*ter singular noun is de*inite, N a noun, then it should carr( its corresponding pronoun su**i) and its *unction becomes emphaticc
ac I read e/er( boo- bc I read the "hole boo-c cc I read the boo-, all o* itc

V LP z u L 6<hc G8P N

V LP z u L 6<hc G8Z:; N w G8Z:; z L V 3P u L 6<h

O P is *ollo"ed b( a plural noun, that noun should be Fo"e/er, i* N de*inite and both create Idaa*ac Chec- the *ollo"ing sentences
All the emplo(ees CmD camec

O P< Y w Bon4:; N w \

All the o**ice emplo(ees CmD camec )(. The c n:uncti n negatedc

O P< 8Z4:; onH N w \c C >D

changes to

C >6 D

"hen the sentence is

I li-e co**ee and teac

W w G:;>c c

wn:; 6 O \ wn:; 6 c O \

$either do I li-e co**ee nor tea W w G:;>6

)). De5initeness in Arabic #Re$isited%. ou should -no" b( no" that a noun or an adjecti/e in Arabic is made de*inite b( one o* the *ollo"ing methods ac a de*inite article bc *ollo"ing the /ocati/e particle

cc a possessi/e pronoun dc b( relating it to a de*inite noun in Idaa*a structure )*. E"phasis?C ntrast. Since /erb *orm indicates the person, gender, and number o* the subject an( use o* a subject pronoun is considered redundantc I*, ho"e/er, (ou "ant to emphasiee or contrast t"o objects Arabic allo"s (ou to use the subject pronoun in such a linguistic en/ironmentc

T_q4:; [:f ;n9KS TK L >2 98Z4:; [:f L 9KS Gr6 c

I "ent to the librar( and the( "ent to the restaurantc 15 ),. The De5act Case 5 the N un and Ad:ecti$e in Arabic is N "inati$e. A noun case is changed to accusati$e i* it becomes an object o* a /erb CThere are other cases "here a noun should carr( the accusati/e case mar-erc Chec- aana X Inna pointsDc A noun is said to be in the 6eniti$e case i* it *ollo"s a preposition or it is a second term o* Idaa*ac $o matter "hat is the case o* the noun, the adjecti/e "ill *ollo", mar-ed b( the same casec The g(ptian man is in his housec I sa" the g(ptian manc I said hello to the g(ptian manc )-.

L 5 8 Bw ` W :; N L <:;c O <j4 w 5 W L <:; z L 7KGc V <j4:; N W V 3~c L <:; [3 L 4 <j4:; N5

C"h(D has to be *ollo"ed b( a /erb because it as-s about actionRacti/it( C/erbs usuall( e)press thoseDc

;SG4:

h( did (ou CmD go bac- to the room

2 <:; [:f L _5i ;SG4:

w has to be *ollo"ed b( an )/. hen it means ho" man(, TP inde*inite noun, in the accusati/e casec nli-e nglish, it has to be singularc Arab grammarians call it a particle o* The Accusati/e o*
Distinction, or

BB4 wc j:; G9: G TP

Fo" man( students are there in the class

)1. Nu"bers that proceed nouns should ta-e the opposite gender o* those nounsc ,urthermore, the( should carr( the mar-er that is determined b( their grammatical *unction in the sentencec The noun

itsel* has to be in the geniti/e case because this combination "ill create an Idaa*ac ac I met *i/e students C*Dc

z w G9:G A L 3`Ghc w 4 < d $e = D3 ? %" ? w \ ' w Ca w > D su**i)ed Y w UD in both

bc ,i/e students CmD camec

*3. 8lurals. There are three t(pes o* plural in Arabic ac The 'asculine Sound plural is created b( to the noun in the nominati/e case, and C geniti/e and accusati/e casesc teachers CmD

Y w n~i L ] Y L ] a L w B~i 7H w B~i 7H 7H

1#

bc The ,eminine sound plural is created b( dropping the Taa 'arbuuTa and replacing it "ith case and

teachers z G~i G~i L ] z L ] z v G~i L 7H 7H 7H cc The Iro-en plural is an irregular *ormc /en though se/eral nouns ma( e)hibit the same bro-en pattern, one has to learn the "ords indi/iduall(c dogCsD, catCsD

Cz ;D

C z v ;D *or the nominati/e

*or the accusati/e X geniti/e casesc

qqh R qh ] u R v P v 3P

*1. Nu"bers #Re$isited%. It "as mentioned earlier that numbers that proceed nouns should ta-e the opposite gender o* those nounsc An additional rule "hich (ou need to consider is that unli-e nglish, the noun has to be in plural onl( bet"een ?E10c A*ter that the noun has to be singular in the accusati/e casec This is another e)ample o*

BB4

accusati/e o* distinctionc

G43h < w w 24 L U<8fc w

I bought *i*teen pencilsc *2. W V 6 both mean "hich Cas a 1uestion "ordDc The *irst is O 6 R L 2U used *or masculine "hile the second is used *or *emininec The noun "hich *ollo"s either one o* them has to be in the geniti/e casec The

implication is that the t"o nouns create Idaa*ac Please notice that

W O 6 R carr( the /o"el o* the original case o* the noun (ou as- aboutc
ac hich magaeine #sub:ect<n "inati$e% is this

L 2U V6

tK 2 V 3H V6 w L 2U

1&

bc hich student CmD # b:ect<accusati$e% did (ou C*D see

z 7KG :G W V 6

cc To "hich cit( # b:ect

z JU7H 2 V U6 [:f w <G~ 2

5 a prep.<6eniti$e% did (ou tra/el

*(. 'erb Ob:ect 8r n uns. e mentioned earlier that object pronouns are su**i)ed to the transiti/e /erbsc

z ;iGq:; 2 qyH w GKw 7KGc

Fe sa" her at the train stationc *). Ob:ect 8r n uns 5 8rep siti ns. The object pronouns *or transiti/e /erbs are the same *or the intransiti/e /erbs "hich ta-e prepositionsc An e)ception to this is the object pronoun *or the *irst person,

Gr6

, "hich becomes

She "ent "ith me to the mar-etc

CWD *or some prepositionsc n:; [:f _H d9 w wKS c

Please remember that the object pronouns in such linguistic en/ironment are attached to prepositions, n t the $erbsc The list o* /erb and preposition object pronouns su**i)es includes the *ollo"ing Object Subject Independent

1c WD R J 2c w ?c @c L 5c G #c ^ &c ) D^ +c ( ) D^ .c D^

L w w E d ^ D^ ( D^ ^!

Gr6D w r6 rf nK K (60 01 ( D 01 A D

10c ( D^
1/ **. 8rep siti ns "hich end "ith Ali* 'asura,

?^ (

A ( D

CD "ill reclaim their

original C W D *orm "hen an( object pronoun is attached to themc Checthe *ollo"ing e)ample

z ;iGq:; 2 qyH w KG GH7J GB3 T w c w GK7 w V 3~

Fe greeted her "hen he sa" her at the train stationc *,. 7e"inine S und 8lurals ta-e the geniti/e mar-er *or the accusati/e casec

e sa" the students C*D at the post o**icec *-. The R ts. 'ost Arabic "ords can be attributed to some ?E letter root, "here radicals are re*erred to b( means o* a protot(pical

7U<9:; G9:Gq:; Gr7KGc w z 8ZH

w w_w stands *or the *irst radical, *or the second, and b root, 'N *or the thirdc This ?Eletter root *orm is the entr( (ou need to use "hen (ou "ant to chec- out an( "ord in an( Arabic dictionar(c ou should -no" b( no" ho" to dissect "ords in order to get to that rootc 'ainl(, (ou need to drop o** an( gender and number mar-ers o* the nounRadjecti/ec In case o* the /erbs, (ou need to drop o** an( subject, tense, and mood mar-ersc

*/. The 'erb 7 r" Nu"bers s(stem is 1uite old, going bac- to the earliest uropean Arabic grammars such as that o* uillaume Postal, Paris, cac 15?+ and Pedro de Alcala cac 1#1?c Their order o* numbering is the same as that "hich "e are *amiliar "ith toda(c Another grammar "as published in Qome cac 1#22 "hich uses the numbering s(stem but has *orms II and I! s"itchedc rpenius grammar "as onl( superseded in 1+10 b( the grammar o* De Sac(, "ho used the same s(stem "hich has been in /ogue e/er sincec Incidentall(, the numbering s(stem "as also used in older grammars o* Febre", but seems to ha/e *allen out o* usagec The s(stem, an e)tremel( use*ul mnemonic de/ice is not entirel( unrelated to the traditional "or- o*

<m w , *or it *ollo"s the order

o* {< V 4:; and 7U4:; cThe use o* numbering, ho"e/er, is the %atin, uropean inno/ation "hich might ha/e been a cla1ue on some aspect o* the stud( o* %atin grammarc At the /er( least, it is "ell -no"n that %atin grammar traditionall( numbers the di**erent classes o* conjugationc De Sac( is care*ul to ma-e clear in his presentation the /erb *orms that the( *all into groups o*

><\ }39}` 7U4:; ]YB<y` 7U4:; ] L 2

<y` 7U4:;

1. 'ost /erbs in Arabic can be classi*ied into ten *ormsc These *orms are

w ~ w wGo 1c N N w w c# w ;< w w _o 2c w rf N w rf c& w 3 w w_w 8f c+ ?c w w if N w o V w_f c. @c < N w \f V 4 w w_o8 5c w ~f N w ~f c10 w w 7=8

w w_w N w i w w{ w V_w w i V w{ N w wG w 7wKG N w w 9h6 N w w_6 N w V _o w w w V 7y w w N

,urthermore, each transiti/e pattern has an automatic passi/e counterpart "here the stem short /o"el ,tha and asra are replaced b( Dhamma and asrac To learn more about these forms, please check the computer program ARAFORM. You will find it and other programs at the following website: +++."th l! .e.edu?c urses?":i!ad? *1. The 8h n l 6ical En$ir n"ent 5 r 7 r" 'III 'erb. The characteristic *eature o* ,orm !III is the re*le)i/e a**i) R

R "hich

is inserted a*ter the *irst radical o* the rootc That R 8 R "ill create the en/ironment *or a phonological rule o* assimilation that applies itsel* i* the *irst radical is a dental stop or *ricati/ec The result is that the inserted R consonants

8 R is assimilatedc In/ol/ed here are the *ollo"ing MONQRLIKS

Compare the *ollo"ing e)amples

CaD a *ull( pronounced R

w 4 w w 85f
CbD a *ull( assimilated R

w 4 w w 5 ] w {;{f E w {;
P

[{ V f E G{ w

%uc-il(, Arabic does not ha/e man( /erbs o* this t(pec Fo"e/er, (ou need to remember the three *ollo"ing related phonological rules #1%. A*ter the emphatic consonants inserted R

R becomes

w w 7qmf
23 #2%. A*ter the *ricati/es assimilation and the "ritten "ith Shadda, as in

the emphatic , as in E w w 7m w

w T V f T w 3 w 3

there is a complete resultant double consonant is

#(%. I* the *irst radical o* the /erb is

C >D

as in

>D "ill be completel( assimilated b( the inserted R 8 R, and thus the use o* the Shadda "ould be re1uiredc
Consider the *ollo"ing e)ample

w m N w w> , the C

w j w m N w V f N w w>

,3. N n<hu"an 8lurals are treated as *eminine singular in terms o* adjecti/e, pronoun, and subjectE/erb agreementc

GU6 v 23B45 K c v 7U75 z V :;c L ;iGB

The cars are ne"c The( are prett(, tooc ,1. 2ultiples 5 13 d n t sh + 6ender distincti n. Consider the *ollo"ing sentence

 G`G8P Y L 6<h> 2:G~i Y L 98Pc w U< z w U<

I "rote t"ent( letters and I read t"ent( boo-sc ,2. The C n:uncti n

pronoun su**i) in the accusati/e casec On the other hand, YZ: d tolerates the use o* /erbs a*ter itc Ioth are used to ma-e compound sentences and mean butc

Y V Z:

is usuall( *ollo"ed b( a noun or a

? .6 f : b 1 YZ: d ? !g E f :1 .
I dont li-e co**ee but I li-e mil-c

` >!e i D^ )i ` .%a h D #0*_c

The program is beauti*ul but it is longc ,(. The Sin6ular Sub:ect and its " d "ar.ers *or /erbs in the present tense are pre*i)ed and su**i)ed to the /erb stemc This is necessar( to demonstrate subjectR/erb agreementc These singular mar-ers are

21

K ? ^

w r6 ? ^ Y w

r6 ^.^''' ? ^ ? ^ EL EL

Gr6 nK 1 E

Subject mar-ers 'ood mar-ers

EL

,). The 8lural Sub:ect and " d "ar.ers. It "as mentioned abo/e that *or /erbs in the present tense subject and mood mar-ers are pre*i)ed and su**i)ed to the /erb stem in order to demonstrate subjectR/erb agreementc The same is true "ith plural mar-ers, "hich are

A D

A ( D

^ D01 ( ^ D01

Y L yr

Subject mar-er

Y w cc U ( ?^

>ccc none

Y w dcc

r U w ccc ? ^ none ( ED

'ood mar-ers

,*. The 8resent Tense 5 the Arabic $erb re1uires that (ou pre*i) the subject mar-er and su**i) the mood mar-er to the stem o* the /erbc Fo"e/er, this is not as eas( as it sounds, especiall( *or ,orm Ic The /o"els (ou need to add are going to be a little bit challengingc $ote the *ollo"ing paradigmc

1c1c L wKtU w E w wKw S 2c1c L 5 w E w 5 w i <U w ?c1c L 8ZU w E w 8P w @c1c u L < w Eu w < w U 2c L E L i w i 7U V w{ ?c L 7KGU L E w 7wKG w 9U w w 9h6 @c N L EN 5c L V 7y w V 7y w 8U w E w L w `G8U w w `G #c N w EN &c L <j w E w < w JU w rf w j +c L 74 8_U w E w 74 w 8f .c < w E< w yU w \f O 4 V 4 10c w L 7=8U w w 7=8~f
22

L w_oU w w_ N w EN L _oU w w_ N w EN L L_oU w w_ N w EN L w_oU w _ N w EN w _oU w V_ N L EN L w wG N GoU L EN L _oU w w_6 N L EN L _ w V_o N V o8U w EN L wGo8U w wGo N w EN L _oJU w w_orf N w EN L _8oU w w_8f N w EN O w_oU V w_f N w EN L _o8U w w_o8~f N w EN

,,. The 2 ds. The Present tense /erb in Arabic has three moodsc 1c Indicati/e is the regular present tense /erbc

2 V :; tK 86 Y L Zc
'( sister li/es in this apartmentc 2c Subjuncti/e is used "hen there is doubt, *ear, hope, purpose, obligation, negated *uture, etcc

2 j c V :; tK 86 Y w Z (
'( sister "ill not li/e in this apartmentc ?c ussi/e is used in negating the past tense "ith the particle

T d : 2 d T:c V :; tK 86 YZ
'( sister did not li/e in this apartmentc ,-. ' +els 5 the 8resent Tense 'erb. There are three important /o"els (ou need to ta-e note o* "hen (ou conjugate an( Arabic /erb *rom past tense to the present tensec These include /erb 1. The Subject mar-er /o"el, "hich is the *irst /o"el o* the

2. The Stem !o"el, "hich is the /o"el that goes on the second radicalRconsonant o* the root (. The 'ood 'ar-er !o"el, "hich is the last /o"el o* the /erbc The *ollo"ing is a chart o* these /arious /o"els *or the ten *orms o* the Arabic /erb s(stem ,orm Indicati/e 'ood Stem Subject I II III I! ! !I !II !III I Dhamma Dhamma Dhamma Dhamma Dhamma Dhamma Dhamma Dhamma Dhamma Dhamma unpredictable ,atha asra Dhamma asra Dhamma asra Dhamma ,atha ,atha ,atha ,atha asra ,atha asra ,atha ,atha ,atha asra ,atha

2? ,/. [ V 8\ means until "hen it is *ollo"ed b( a /erb in the past tensec hen it is *ollo"ed b( a /erb in the present tense it "ill e)press purpose and, there*ore, means in order toRso thatc In that case, the /erb should be in the subjuncti/e moodc CaD

w GJK M w c
,1. Ne6ati n

CbD

V 8\ GJK Y w c L 83kG dz<\ [ w Z~ V 8\ <KG:; [:f d 38rf w i L 7 [

5 8resent and 7uture Tense 'erbs.

!erbs in the present tense are negated b( *uture tense are negated b(

c !erbs "hich e)press

d Y:

a*ter dropping the *uture mar-er

pre*i) C ~ Dc Please remember that the /erb has to be changed to the Subjuncti/e 'oodc ac e dont "atchRsee this mo/iec

T3o:;c
bc e "ill not "atchRsee this mo/iec

;tK L 7KGr w 7KGr Y:

T3o:; ;tKc

-3. The Sic. 'erbs 238_4:; bG_; . An( /erb that has a long /o"el as one o* the three radicals in its root is called a sic- /erbc These long /o"els "ill go through a change "hen the /erb is used in the present tensec Conse1uentl(, there are three t(pesc ac Assi"ilated, i* the *irst radical o* the /erb is a long /o"el such as

L j w m N wU R N w w> < w Ri L BU w G~

to arri/ec

bc H ll +, "hen the second radical position is occupied b( a long /o"el such as to "al-c

cc De5ecti$e, "hen the third radical position is occupied b( a long /o"el such as

n7U w R G{ w

to in/itec

T chec. h + these irre6ular $erbs are c n:u6ated t the $ari us pr n uns 5 r b th present @ past tenses9 please chec. the c "puter pr 6ra" at the +ebsite address 6i$en earlier.

O P are nouns and "hen used be*ore another noun -1. ^ w ]N L _` the( create an Idaa*a CaDc I*, ho"e/er, the( are used a*ter a noun, the( "ill be emphatic *or that proceeding noun, and "ill carr( its case and its identical pronoun re*erence CbDc
ac bc

L V 3Pc
-2. The 8lural ' cati$es

V P GJ4 V 3_c V :; N L N 45 i7 w 4 RG V 3P V 3_ V :; N L GJ4 w 5 i7

2@

G O U6 and c G8 V U6 ou ha/e alread( been introduced to the /ocati/e GU, "hich is used "ith singular
nouns and, there*ore, could be *ollo"ed b( a proper noun, a title, or an Idaa*a, regardless o* the genderc

w GU 8Z4:; < w U7H G O U6

] L SG8~6 GU

] < L B4~ GU

The plural *orms sho" gender distinction and, there*ore, Arabic has *or the masculine and G8 V U6 *or the *emininec The plural /ocati/e should be *ollo"ed b( a noun "ith the de*inite article in the nominati/e casec

z V 6 u L V q:; GU O 6 L G9:Gq:; G8U

-(. It "as mentioned earlier that the 2asculine S und 8lural C'SPD is *ormed b( su**i)ing C

a w > D *or the nominati/e case, and C Y w B D *or

*orm o* the nounc

the accusati/e and geniti/e cases, to the singular

Y V n V n v V n w no w Bo w HRa w H w H
The *inal C

Y w D o* this -ind o* plural is dropped "hen such a noun

ta-es the position o* a *irst term o* Idaa*ac This rule applies regardless

o* the case o* the noun, "hether it is nominati/e, accusati/e, or geniti/ec

2 V n V n _HG:; o _HG:; no w HR2 w H

the uni/ersit( emplo(ees C$ and A X D -). Ne6ati n be 5 the 7uture Tense #Re$isited%. hen the *uture

/erb is mar-ed b( C

d Y:

~ w D the negation particle that is used should

becomes

*ollo"ed b( the /erb in the subjuncti/e moodc

d B9 w :; [:f w wKS6 Y:
I* the *uture tense is mar-ed b(

B9 w :; [:f L wKS~

w n~ w then such a construction ma( be made negati/e b( placing be*ore the imper*ect indicati/e /erbc B9:; [:f B9 L KS6 w n~ becomes w :; [:f L KS6 w n~
2* -*. 'erbs +ith T+ Ob:ects. Among /erbs that ta-e t"o objects is a group that means to gi/eRto grantc Consider the *ollo"ing e)ample

The "oman ga/e her daughter a presentc The direct object is

2U q6 c V 7K G8J` L6<4:; 2U V 7K

and the indirect object is

G8J`

-,. The Se"i<Dipt tes is another categor( that includes colors, the elati/e patterns o* adjecti/es and some bro-en plural patternsc The( beha/e li-e Diptotes and, there*ore, the( do not ta-e $unation and the( ta-e the accusati/e mar-er *or the geniti/e casec The ruler is on a green boo-c The( CmD stud( in pri/ate schoolsc

< :6c G8P [3 L< w 6 u w q4 w n~i w a w i;7H w 7L U

2 m V Gc

I tal-ed to a girl "ho "as taller than her sisterc

w n6c G8 6 YH b

V 3Z J` H L 4

Fo"e/er, the( can ta-e the de*inite articlec hen the( do, the( beha/e li-e regular nouns or adjecti/esc

< :6c G8Z:; [3 L< w q4 ; u 2 m w n~i w :; a V G=:; i;74 w 7L Uc c G8 V 3Z 6 YH bn:; J9:; H L 4

--.

subject in its nominati/e case but change the in*lected predicate to the accusati/e casec The *ood "as deliciousc The *ood is not deliciousc

V ]b w ; GH ] a w GP @ her Sisters C] i w ] w 9m6 w Gm ] N w ` A w B:D, "hich usuall( go "ith e1uational sentences, lea/e the ;tUt: N L P; aGPc ;tUt: N L P; k ? .^ ?c a w GP c

ou -no" that e1uational sentences re*er to present timec The e1ui/alent in past time is e)pressed b( using the /erb

-/. $ouns are said to be in App siti n b7 w w 9:; to another noun "hen (ou can drop o** an( o* them "ithout a**ecting the semantics o* the sentencec rammaticall( and logicall( spea-ing, both o* the nouns should carr( the same case mar-erc 2#

m I+ * D% ?+ D D =.l ? 5c
The Caliph Omar "as *airc -1. The 2 d! 8resent Tense. Present tense /erbs are said to be in the Indicati$e 2 dc Fo"e/er, /erbs "hich e)press hope, desire, purpose, li-e, disli-e, doubt, *ear, uncertaint(, obligations, etcc, change their mood *rom the regular Indicati$e to the Sub:uncti$ec That also re1uires that the( should *ollo" one o* the Subjuncti/e particles, such as c

[ V 8\ ] (^ ? 1 ^ b $.5 )

P ]

$ote the purpose e)pressed in the *ollo"ing sentence

I "ent to the librar( so that I "ould stud( therec /3. In the Sub:uncti$e 2 d o* the Arabic /erb, the *inal C a w D o* the

w GJK M L w 98Z4:; [:f L 9KS c w i L { 2

third person masculine plural is dropped and replaced b( a silent C the( CmD go in order *or them CmD to go In addition to

Dc

a w n9KtU w ;n9KtB:

C : D,

other particles o* subjuncti/it( "hich e)press

purposeRintention and, thus, mean in order to, so thatc include

Z: ] P ] [ V 8\c w GJK M L ;n~i7B: < w jH [:f ;><G~ c

The( CmD tra/eled to g(pt in order to stud( therec The original form of the underlined erb is

Ca w n~i7UD

Please note that the *inal C a w D o* the second person *eminine singular should also be dropped, but "ithout replacement "ith silent C

; Dc Y w B~i L 7 so that (ou C*cscD stud( ~i w 7 Z: w GJK M L ~i <G~ c L 7 Z: < w jH [:f z

(ou C*cscD stud( ou C*cscD tra/eled to g(pt in order to stud( therec The original form of the underlined erb is 2-

CY wD w B~i L 7

/1. The most common subjuncti/e particle in Arabic is probabl(

a d 6

, "hich usuall( sits bet"een t"o /erbs re*erring to the same or a di**erent person, and thus, *unctioning something li-e the in*initi/e in nglishc I* (ou e)amine the sentence care*ull(, (ou "ill notice

that

a d 6

introduces a subordinate clause "hich *unctions as an

object *or the main /erbc

Lc <j4:; [:f w wKS6 a d 6 L 7Ui;

I "ant to go to the ban-c

/2. It has been mentioned earlier that GH can be used as a 1uestion "ord and as a negation particle *or the /erb in past tensec In addition, it can be used to be as a part o* a nominalieer as in

B9 w :; ;tK Y w GH7J w 83`Ghc w Z~

I met him "hen he li/ed in this housec /(. The N "inali&er

a V ] D change the subject nominati/e case mar-er to the accusati/e but the( lea/e the predicate in its nominati/e casec I(
the "a(, a V fRa V 6 are called $ominalieers because the( introduce nominal sentencesc

a V f

@ her Sisters C

V _: Y V P ] a V 6]N V Z: ] a

In *act, the *ood is deliciousc

@>@ i ? 5n ` c

'( sister said that the *ood "as deliciousc

w P; a tUt: N V 6 8L ; d:Gh vc w P; Y tUt: N V Z: vc

ccc but the *ood "as deliciousc

w Ghc An("here else (ou ha/e to use a an( *orm o* b V 6c Its meaning, there*ore, changes *rom indeedRin *act to thatc Qemember that all these particles should be *ollo"ed b( nouns or attached pronoun
su**i)esc Also notice that a V fand her sisters should be *ollo"ed b( the subject or its corresponding attached pronounc 2/

a V f

is onl( used in the initial position o* a sentence, and *ollo"ing

/). Ad:ecti$es. e learned earlier that adjecti/es in Arabic are usuall( placed a*ter the noun the( modi*(, and there*ore, the( agree in terms o* number, gender, de*initenessRinde*initeness, and case "ith that nounc The comparati/e and superlati/e degrees o* the adjecti/es are *ormulated *ollo"ing the pattern A*alu mar-er *or geniti/e caseDc There*ore,

Dc The( should be treated as Diptotes Cno $unation X accusati/e u L <h6

opppppppp

L w_6 CN

w v U<h

L 456 opppppppp N v B45 and N w a. ith comparati/e adjecti/es, (ou need to use the
preposition CY D to d H compare the t"o nouns, as in '( house is smaller than hersc

G8 B` < w Y w d H L m6 8B`

b. In superlati/e, the most common method is to place the adjecti/e be*ore the noun, as in

'( house is the smallest ChouseD in the /illage !lease remember that the comparati e and superlati e forms of ad"ecti es are gender blind. Therefore, and masculine nouns as well.

2 U<:; BL` < L m6 8Bw`c

< L m6 can be used for feminine

/*. a w GP@ her Sisters #Re$isited%c e said earlier that a w GP X her Sisters are used "ith e1uational sentencesc Fo"e/er, the( can tolerate the use o* /erbs a*ter themc That /erb has to be in the present indicati/e *orm, as in

L 4_ drGPc G98ZH w N

She "as "or-ing in her o**icec

2. I* the subject is e)pressed, it should be placed bet"een sisters and the /erbc

a w GP

X her

The pro*essor "as "or-ing in her o**icec An e)ception to this rule is "hen (ou "ant to topicaliee the subject, and that simpl( means that (ou "ant to emphasiee itc

L 4_ LSG8~; rGPc G98ZH w N

L 4_ drGP L SG8~;c G98ZH w N

/,. 8h n!?7a.e Idaa5a. ou might ha/e noticed that the noun "hich *ollo"s the adjecti/e that is in the superlati/e *orm structure is in the geniti/e casec

2w U<:; B` w < wc L m6 8B`

The reason is that this combination creates the S(ntactical n/ironment *or Idaa*ac Iecause the components o* this structure are not limited to the usual nouns Cthe *irst term is in *act an adjecti/eD Arab rammarians tend to call this Phon(R,a-e Idaa*ac /-. I* the Per*ect Particle 7h is used "ith a /erb in the past tense, then both are translated as a Present Per*ect ChasRha/e ParticipleDc She has "or-ed in this *actor(c

Jj4 w 7h c w :; ;tK d34

hen this particle is used "ith a w GPand a /erb, then the "hole phrase is translated as a Past Per*ect ChadparticipleDc

w 9h ri 2 J~ w GPc w N w ; 7h U7m a
'( *riend had /isited me a (ear agoc //. The 'erbal N un i7 w j4 w :; is a noun that is deri/ed *rom a /erbc There*ore, it acts li-e a noun, as in the *ollo"ing e)amples ac a subject

L 4 P<:; tK N v _m w w_:;c w 2

bc an object cc a *irst term o* Idaa*a

w ;<:; w| L ;c O \ v i;74 v 7 B5 w | w :; L|GJ` c

?0

dc a second term o* Idaa*e ec a predicate

w ;<:; u | c v 7U75 w L G8P L 9 V q:; K 8U w ;nKc

A /erbal noun deri/ed *rom a transiti/e /erb does sometimes act li-e that /erb and "ould ta-e an objectc

2B V `<_:; SG8~; A w w 6 wc L Ui7 J9

/1. 7 r"s 5 'erbal N uns. ActionRacti/it( is e)pressed b( /erbs and /erbal nounsc %i-e other languages, the /erbal nouns in Arabic indicate that actionRacti/it(, and beha/e li-e regular nounsc The *ollo"ing chart sho"s the /arious "a(s o* deri/ation according to the *orms !erb ,orm )ample Ic !erbal $oun !erb )ample !erbal $oun

w w_ N

unpredictable

an( /erb

w V_ N v B_o N IIIc v 23 w GoH L w wG N I!c ? i ? &1 ` & ; v L_o ! N w V_o c N !Ic i ?+ ? ^ ? `+ i D ^ ? v G_o !IIc b rf w w_orf N
IIc

unpredictable

w i V w{ w 7wKG ? ? +1 w V 7y w i ? ? ^* ? w < w rf w j

A v Ui7 v 7 w wKGH L + ` v O 7y w i ` D ^* ? v ;<j rf

!IIIc

v G_8 b f v _ b f v G_o8 b ~f

w w_8f N
Ic

T w 38~f < w \f V 4 w w 7=8~f

~f v 8 i \f v ;<4 v ;7=8~f

V w_f N
c

w w_o8~f N
13. The Dr ppin6

mentioned earlier that these particles change the subjects /o"el mar-er *rom nominati/e to accusati/e casec hen the Shadda is eliminated, the subject maintains its nominati/e case mar-er CaDc ,urthermore, these particles "ill tolerate the use o* /erbs CbD a*ter themc

a V f and her sisters ] Y V Z: a L Bo=c It "as V 6]a V P . Arab grammarians call this anJ:;
5 the Shadda 5

2H ~ V 6 w vc w {Gh w SG8~; a L _4
?1 CaD 2H d ~ w vc w {Gh L SG8~; a6 L _4 I heard that the pro*essor C*D is comingc

< w > w Y d < w KG:; [:f < w G~ G5 V Z: w {;7` [:f iG5 z w G~c
CbD

[:f G5> L w < d < w G~ Y d Z: w {;7` [:f iG5 z w G~ < w KG:;c

'( neighbor tra/elled to Iaghdad, but her husband tra/elled to Cairoc 11. The Relati$e 8r n uns Nmn:; < w are used to w kG4l introduce subordinate adjecti/al clauses and there*ore create comple) sentencesc The choice o* such pronouns depends on the antecedents number and genderc

Wt:;

is used *or masculine singularc

8:; ;n3:; Y w Ut:;

is used *or *eminine singularc is used *or *eminine pluralc is used *or masculine pluralc

a. I* the antecedent is part o* the subject phrase, the relati/e clause is embedded inside the main sentencec

w ~ Wt:; N L 5 GJK w b L GJ L < V :;c

b. I* the antecedent is part o* the object phraseRpredicate, then the relati/e close *ollo"s the main sentencec

w ~ Wt:; N w 5 GJ w b L < w Ghc L 3` V :;

c. I* the antecedent is inde*inite, (ou do not need to use a relati/e pronounc

wL i w ~ 5 GJ w b w Ghc L 3` w

d. Sometimes (ou "ill encounter a sentence "ith a relati/e pronoun and a relati/e clause, in "hich the antecedent is absent, but still understoodc

Originall(, this sentence is

L w 2B W V `<_ w :; J~ w i <jH v SG8~; V w { Wt:;c

?2

L w 2B CW V `<_ w :; J~ w i <jH v SG8~; V w { Wt:; CL SG8~;c

12.

GH

#Re$isited%ce mentioned earlier three possible "a(s o*

using this "ordc The *ourth possibilit( *or using

GH is as a relati/e

pronoun li-e Wt:;c ith that, it can introduce a relati/e clause *or an antecedent that is onl( e)pressed in a *orm o* an object pronounc

wn9~; ;tK L ;c O \ L 6<h Wt:; R GH

I li-e "hat I read this "ee-c

L n_o4 1(c The C 6nate Accusati$e p3q4 L :; b w :; is a /ebal noun, "hich is deri/ed *rom the same /erb o* the sentence, and it does come in a phrase as
ac inde*inite that is *ollo"ed b( an adjecti/e

L 5 G4B G9 L U c V \ L Lw 7w 3w ` N L < O y V :; ;tK

This man lo/es his countr( a lotc bc de*inite as a part o* Idaa*a or *ollo"ing

P ] ^ N w v _`

She respects her pro*essor Cthe "a(D a daughter respects her motherc

L GH J9:; w ;<8\; GSG8~; L <8yc V P G3K6 GK7 w 7wG4:; N w wG~c

Fer *amil( helped her greatl(c !lease remember that the Cognate Accusati/e phrase *unctions as an ad/erb to modi*( the /erb o* the sentencec 1). The noun A L or is *eminine and means soulc I* (ou use it be*ore another noun it "ill create Idaa*a and change its meaning to samec Fe al"a(s eats at the same restaurantc I* it *ollo"s a noun, it should carr( a corresponding pronoun re*erence to that noun and its case as "ellc Its *unction becomes emphaticc I met the correspondant, himsel*c 1*. The E"phasis

L PU c T_q4:; Aor G4k;{ N

w ~ ;<4 w or N L L :; L 3`Ghc

O P ] ^ 7BPn8:;"ith the use o* N w ]A L _` L or

mphasis can be e)pressed b( using an( o* the abo/e particles a*ter a noun, pro/iding that an identical ?? personal pronoun be su**i)edc The particle should carr( the same case mar-er o* the noun it re*ers toc ac nominati/e

D3 D ^ ?0 D^ q% D * ?4 ? : ?.
The teacher, himsel*, camec bc accusati/e I sa" the teachers C*D, all o* themc

Y w Gc G~i L :; z L 7K V LV 3P z 74

cc geniti/e

I spo-e to the students, some o* themc 1,. < L Bs is a noun "hich "ill create Idaa*a "hen it is used "ith another noun CaDc It also ser/es to negate nouns and adjecti/es and ma( be translated nonE, unE, and so onc hen it is used in such a S(ntactical n/ironment Cicec, "ith adjecti/esD it creates "hat "e call Phon(R,a-e Idaa*a, "here the second term is an adjecti/e CbDc

T _` w u V y w c L 7 q:; [:f

w >u ac u L q:; wG485; < w \ w c q:; < L Bs w Students and nonEstudents attended the meeting
bc

w bn9H w GP c w < L 34 w w a w Bs

Fis act "as unacceptablec

1-. The I"perati$e 2 d o* the /erb is used "hen someone is gi/en a direct command or ma-ing a re1uestc This commandRre1uest is either CaD positi/e or CbD negati/ec ac 2 w 98Z4 w :; [:f 9KSf ou C*cscD go to the librar( bc 2 w 98Z4 w :; [:f 9Kt ou C*cscD do not go to the librar( The /erb that is used in both cases is *ormed *rom the sec nd pers n ussi/e 'ood "ith a little modi*icationc In CaD (ou need to drop the subject mar-er pre*i) and insert a Famea R fR instead to

9K w Sc In the case o* the negati/e imperati/e CbD (ou just put the negation particle in
brea- the resulting consonant cluster, as in *ront o* the /erbc

?@ 1/. Though the imperati/e structure is inherentl( addressed to a second person, it can also be e)pressed indirectl(c In this case (ou should ha/e in mind either CaD *irst person or CbD third personc ou can *orm that b( pre*i)ing the particles C /erbc CaD

: D

or C

3 D to the ussi/e 'ood

T_ c w q4 w :; ;tK dNPJ:
%et us eat at this restaurant

CbD ;n9KtB3 '^ bb!. D %et them CmD go to their homes 11. The prep siti n

tJH L

, "hich means since, is generall(

used "ith "ords that e)press time concepts such as

L ]v 2J w ~ w ]< v ] vn9~;

w G~ w ] v 2 v nU

etcc

2wG~ L tJH B9 w :; [:f w wKw Sc L

Fe "ent home since an hourc It can also be used "ith /erbs and, there*ore, changes its semanticRs(ntactic *unctions to an ad/erb o* timec I ha/e not met her since "e separatedc 133. The App siti n b7 w w 9:; #Re$isted%c A noun is said to be in apposition to another noun i* it o**ers additional in*ormation about that nounc The apposition noun should agree "ith the original nouns case, gender, and numberc

GJh< w Gh GHc L G83` w 8; L tJH

. + = b ?7 ? G% ? * ? >G# D D ? <m c
I met the school principle, 'rc Alic

w w_5 131. 'erbs 5 >e6innin6. Past tense /erbs li-e N w 6 ] 67` w ] w t w ma( be used "ith a *ollo"ing /erb in the present indicati/ec Ioth /erbs agree "ith the subject "hich, i* e)pressed, should be placed bet"een them, as in ;<_ w a :; bGo; l> w n7 V y w 8U w w c L GJ:; 67` w dY
The people began to tal- about the situation o* children in Ira1c

132. The Acti$e 8articiple N Go:; T L ~fIn general, the meaning o* the acti/e participle is per*ormingRha/ing per*ormed the action indicated b( the /erbc The nglish e1ui/alent is commonl( CaD an adjecti/e ending in Eing, as in (* CaD z V :; L G J:; G 2 V tK z V :; | v G9: L GJPG The "omen li/ing in this apartment are studentsc In addition, a great man( Acti/e Participles ha/e ta-en on speci*ic concrete meanings and are used as CbD ordinar( nouns such as CbD

v H Y v \ G` ] T G ] v :G ] N v GP v PG\ ] v PG~ ]

The third possible use o* the acti/e participle is "hat the Arab rammarians call the circu"stantial r Haal C nstructi n.

_ ?^ D5 ? m =^ ?# b : q 9 D =_ ? S b * ?4 ? : ?c
The student C*D came to class carr(ing her boo-c 13(. The Deri$ati n 5 the Acti$e 8articiple. The Acti/e

Participle deri/ation pattern *or /erb ,orm I is usuall(

the other *orms CIIED, the pattern is to pre*i) C H D to the stemc The stem /o"el on the second radical is al"a(s asrac An e)ception to that is *or pattern I, "hich has to be ,atFac $otice the *ollo"ing e)amples

N Gc ,or

13). The n uns o* the usual short /o"elsc This usage is restricted to t"o conditions CaD as a *irst term o* Idaa*a or CbD "hen a possessi/e pronoun is attached to either o* themc CaD

i^ b_g# D ##III% ] 7 GH L #II% i L 7H #'II% J* b9 ? # ? D 'I% ] N~ 3Z8H ;<8H L #'%T L #A% i^ b_g^ ?3# D ] #IA% ] < 8H w yH L #'III% 4 L 4 v 6 "ill ta-e long /o"el mar-ers instead u v 6 and x
#I'

WiG5 n`6 J3` w Ghc WiG5 G`6 w Ghc L 3`

WiG5 `6 [3 V 3~ w c L 4
CbD

GKn`6 J3` w Ghc GKG`6 w Ghc L 3`

?#

GB`6 [3 V 3~ w c L 4

13*. The Haal C nstructi n c bGy:; As indicated earlier the acti/e participle can be used in the Faal Constructionc It has to be inde*inite and in the accusati/e casec It has to agree "ith the modi*ied noun in number and genderc Also, (ou need to remember that the Haal could be a clausec $otice ho" the *ollo"ing sentence can be e)pressedc

G9 j G\ < w 8P 23H w :Gq:; z w \c V :; [:f L 29 w

The student C*D came to class carr(ing her boo-c

L 4 1c G9 j y K> < w 8P N w :Gq:; z w \c V :; [:f L 29 w L 4 2c G9 j y < w 8P N w :Gq:; z w \c V :; [:f L 29 w

ou might ha/e noticed that the /erb o* the Faal Clause has to be in

w 4 the present indicati/e moodc Iecause the /erb N w is transiti/e, w \ the acti/e participle deri/ed *rom it "ould ta-e an objectc That is
"h( the noun casec

G9 w 8P in the sentence abo/e is in the accusati/e

Ob/iousl(, i* a /erb is intransiti/e, such as w y l w , the acti/e participle "ill not re1uire an objectc Chec- the *ollo"ing sentence

2Z\ Gl j < w :Gq:; z w \ w c V :; [:f L 29 w

The student C*D came to class smilingc ou need to remember that "hether the Faal Construction bGy:; is e)pressed b( a /erbal sentence or an e1uational sentence, the independent pronoun agrees "ith the noun modi*ied b( the c bGy:;

< V `< w nK> w 2B w i v Bm w w_:; w w {c

Fe studied Arabic "hile he "as littleR(oungc 13,. The 8assi$e 8articiple bn_o4 w :; T~f is onl( deri/ed *rom transiti/e /erbsc The basic meaning o* the passi/e participle is undergoing or ha/ing undergone the action indicated b( the /erbc The most common use o* the passi/e participle is as an adjecti/ec

w Gc 7U<9 w :; w GH6 w 2h><4 V :; z w w :; wiGB L 7K 8ZH

I sa" the stolen car in *ront o* the post o**icec ?& Secondl(, it can be used "ith Idaa*ac

w as a second term o* a *a-e < L Bs

w Gj= L 2_ B u G:; GK< wc w H w < ns<H w Bs L 98_

The uni/ersit( considers her an undesirable personc

Thirdl(, it can be used as a a regular nounc

It is "ell -no"n that the Arabs ha/e greatl( participated in the "orld ci/ilieationc 13-. The Deri$ati n 5 8assi$e 8articiple bn_o4 w :; T~f ou ma( deri/e a passi/e participle *or ,orm I b( using the pattern

24 w 24 w G~ u w < V 6 ><_4 w B w wKGH L ;n4K w :; Y w w_:; a w H 2B i V rGr; w :; c w Gy

bn_oH w

c )amples are

G ? l^ ?3# D )!# ? ]*g# ? T7 qG ?# D 7 w =8H w GH w ] < L ] < L ] N` L w 8yH w ZH

,or the other *orms, (ou replace the stem asra /o"el "ith ,atFa, as in

13/. Ne6ati n 8article

A w B: #Re$isited%c In rule 22, it "as mentioned that an( *orm o* A w B: is used to negate 1uational
Sentencesc e also said in rule #2 that present tense /erbal

sentences are negated b( using sentences

c Please chec- the *ollo"ing

e -no" that Sadaat "as one o* the heros o* the g(ptian re/olutionc

;> a in}:; b w GP z;{G V 6 L <_r V :; a Gq`6 YH ;7\ 2 V U<j4:;c

e dont -no" that Sadaat "as one o* the heros o* the g(ptian re/olutionc I*, ho"e/er, the same sentence starts "ith a pronoun subject, Arabic allo"s (ou to negate it "ith negation is prett( strongc

;> a in}:; b w GP z;{G V 6 L <_r V :; a Gq`6 YH ;7\ 2 V U<j4:;c

A w B: c In *act, this *orm o*

;> a in}:; b w GP z;{G V 6 L <_r Y V :; a Gq`6 YH ;7\ L yr 2 V U<j4:;c ;> a in}:; b w GP z;{G V 6 L <_r GJ: V :; a Gq`6 YH ;7\ 2 V U<j4:;c
131. The Accusati$e 5 Distincti n #Re$isited%

BB48:6 c In

point @+ "e mentioned that TP, "hich means ho" man(, should al"a(s be *ollo"ed b( an ide*inite noun ?+ in the accusati/e casec Arab rammarians called this noun e)ample

BB48:;

W{7 w w_:;

The Distinction o* $umberc Consider the *ollo"ing

w 2 G`G8P z 3q_ Y L :; b L 6<hc w U<

I read t"ent( boo-s during the brea-c The underlined "ord could be articles, reports, magaeines, charts, etcc

There is another *orm o* this accusati/e noun "hich deals "ith -indRt(pec It is called c nJ:; BB48:; suall( it is an inde*inite singular nounR/erbal noun "hich has the meaning o* "ith respect to, in terms o*, as to, and thus in/ol/es some le/el o* comparisonc As to preparedness *or the e)am, she is the most among all studentsc Fo"e/er, it is not necessar( that the accusati/e o* distinction is limited to e)pressing comparisonc Consider the *ollo"ing sentence

a ~; u q:; < Gy8H: ;{;7_8 L }P6 Kc

The mother *illed the house C"ithD happinessc 113. 8articles includes 5 E4cepti n

w {G_~ H w :; O ; z w w B9 w c

c |GJ}8~; z;>{6 This categor(

$" ? r! b H: G+ ?
A noun that *ollo"s an( o* the abo/e has to be in the accusati/e casec )amples are ac "ith an intransiti/e /erb

The students came, e)cept *or halidc bc "ith a transiti/e /erb The students /isited the museum, e)cept *or halidc Fo"e/er, i* the /erb is negated and the semantics o* the sentence impl( that the noun "hich *ollo"s V f is the one "ho per*ormed the /erbs act, then Arabic allo"s (ou to put that noun in the nominati/e casec

;7: w G5c G V f u L q:; |

;7:G V f w y w 84 L q:; i w :; u w ;

The students did not go to the museum, e)cept *or halidc ?. 111. The Accusati$e 5 8urp se 35 bn_o4:; is an inde*inite, singular /erbal noun in the accusati/e casec It gi/es in*ormation about "h( the actionR/erb is donec It can al"a(s be an ans"er to the 1uestion "ord sentences

d c v 7:G V f y w 84 L q:; w T: w :; [:f u wKtU

c;SG4:

Consider the *ollo"ing

The students stood upc

u L q:; w Ghc

h( did the students stand up

u L q:; w Gh ;SG4:

The students stood up in respect *or the pro*essorc 112. The Abs lute Ne6ati n. It "as mentioned earlier that one

\; u SG8~: GH;<8 L q:; w Ghc

w to negate the Arabic e1uational has to use some *orm o* A w B: sentencec Fo"e/er, Arab grammarians ha/e also de*ined a rather
strong semantic en/ironment "here (ou ha/e to use The( called this method e)amples

insteadc

AJ 3: 2BGJ:; c Chec- the *ollo"ing v 5 N B9 L i w :; c w v 5 N B9 L i w :; A w B:c w w 5 B9 w :; N L i w c

1. There is a man in the housec 2. There is no man in the housec

(. There is a no man in the housec

@0

,unctional Arabic !erbs %ist

Depending on the t(pe o* the /erb used in a sentence, there are three patterns o* Arabic !erbal Sentencesc 1c Iasicall(, a transiti/e /erb needs an object, and the pattern is COptionc Ad/c Phc ?D COpc Ad/c 2D COpc Ad/c Phc 1D Object Subject !erb

w CG= w 9h 2 w w 9w c w 9qH wG~ N w< tUt: 29 w 5> L ` w D 2 w 7:;> = 1 2 ?

st uvwxyz {vv|y} ~ }y{v uy~ xyz |w{xy ~ xvz ~v'
Opti nal "eans that ! u can ha$e 19 2 9(9 r NONE 5 th se ad$erbial phrases. The rder depends n +hat ! u +ant t e"phasi&e. The " st i"p rtant c "es last.

2c An intransiti/e /erb does not need an object, and the pattern is COpc Ad/c Phc ?D COpc Ad/c 2DCOpc Ad/c Phc 1D Subject !erb

L d L 7 w n G8 <s w :; b w B\> w c w 35 w 8; nB
st wyz ~w t xyzyc xyz zvvu ~ }~t v' ?c I* the intransiti/e /erb ta-es a preposition the pattern is COpc Ad/c Phc 1D Object o* the Prepc Preposition Subject !erb

2wG~ L tJH w 98Z4:; [:f 6 w wKSc w 2

st zvwxyz yw wv wxy z~zt {y ~ xvz' Please note the *ollo"ing Indicates a sic- /erb "hich means that there is a long /o"el among the ? Qadical %etters o* its rootc Indicates a double end Shadda !erbc Ioth t(pes beha/e a little bit di**erent *rom the regular /erbs "hen the( are conjugated to the /arious subject pronounsc to tra/el to eat

c1 <G~ w 6 c 2 NP

@1

c ? N` w Gh to "rite c @ 8P w to drin- c 5 u< to as- c # b~ to readc & 1* ?^ ?< to "or-, do c + N4 L w to obtain, get c . [3 Nj w w \ to be*riend "ith c 10 w R{ w H {Gj w Gm to bu( c11 <8f to "al- c 12 [H w to tal- "ith c 1? V 3Z R w V 7y w H w w w T to tal- about 1@ T V 3Z R ? w V 7y w w c (+ to hear c 15 4 ~ w to listen to c 1# [:f 4 w 8~f to learn c 1& T w 3w to learn sthc c 1+ T V 3_ to pla( c 1. _ : to go c 20 K w wS to lea/e c 21 M< w w w i to run c 22 ^g w to ride c 2? P i w to dri/e, lead c 2@ {Gh to coo- c 25 9 w to sleep c 2# Gr
to meet

@2

c 2& Gym to sho"er c 2+ T w 8~f V y to "elcome, recei/e someone c 2. \ V i w to see, "atch c ?0 7K w G to carr( c ?1 N4 w \ to mo/e, trans*er c ?2 Nr to go up c ?? 7_m w to go do"n c ?@ br to rent c ?5 <58~f to spend c ?# < w w m to e)change Ccurrenc(D c ?& < w V m to stand up c ?+ h> w to sit do"n c ?. A35 w to dance c @0 hi w to sing c @1 [ V Js to help, assist c @2 7 w G~ to begin, start c @? 67 w w` to complete, *inish c @@ N4 w P6 to argue @5 c <? to discuss @# c hGr to loo- *or c@& Y y w w` to *l( c @+ iG to boo-, reser/e c @. w \ w to laugh c50 y l w to cr( c 51 [Z` to li-e, lo/e c 52 V \6
to "a-e up

to hate @?

c 5? < wP

c 5@ i; to marr( c 55 > V to elect c 5# = w 8rf to become sic- c 5& < w H w to *eel, sense c 5+ <_ w to s"im c 5. 9 w ~ w to hug, embrace c #0 Y w \ w to -iss c #1 N9 V h to open c #2 8 to close c #? p3s6 to hit c #@ u< w w l to jump c #5 oh L to be in*ormed c ## <9; to teach c #& T V 3 w ] i V w{ to "ear c #+ A9 w: w to ta-e o** c #. 3 w w to drin- c &0 u< to ans"er c &1 uG56 to correspond "ith c &2 N~ w w ;< to be angr( "ith c &? [3RYH ws w GJ to compete "ith c &@ A w to ta-e c &5 t w 6 to gi/e c &# [q6 to author c && V :6
to /isit

to steal @@

c &+ < w w ~

c &. < V Z to belie/e c +0 7 w w 8f to immigrate c +1 <5 w GK to attac- c +2 T5 w GK to li/e, reside c +? YZ~ w to graduate c +@ < w V = to ad/ertise, announce c +5 Y36 to smile c +# T w w 8`f to use c +& N4 L _8~f to emplo( c ++ 7 w ~f w =8 w to mention c +. <PS w to remember c .0 < V Pt to assemble, meet c .1 4 w w 85f to borro" Cnot mone(D c .2 iG_8~f to introduce c .? 7 V h to imagine c .@ in w V j w G\ to preser/e, maintain c .5 [3 V \ to sol/e c .# N w to escape c .& u< w wK to continue c .+ Nm w ;> to greet c .. [3 T V 3~ w to arri/e c 100 Nm w > wv c} 101c 75 w w> to promise 102c 7 w w> to in/ite 10?c G{ to reco/er 10@c 5 w <8~f
to thin-

 to act cruel(, to be harsh

c 105 Gh to "al- c 10# [H w to return c 10& {G

@5

c 10+ r to criticiee c 10. 78rf to in*luence, a**ect c 110 < V 6 to e)it c 111 < w w to enter c 112 N w w{ to scream, shout c 11? x< w w m to "hisper c 11@ A4 w wK to cross c 115 <9 w w to e)press c 11# Y w <9 V w to sa( c 11& bGh to bu( c 11+ <8f to complain c 11. GZ to gro" c 120 G4r w to "in c 121 ` i w to lose c 122 < w to participate c 12? Mi w G to *ast c 12@ Gm to pra( c 125 [3m w to build c 12# [J` w to demolish, tear do"n c 12& 7 w wK to con/ert to Islam c 12+ T3~6 to surrender c 12. T38~f to settle do"n c 1?0 < 8~f to be able c 1?1 Y V Z4 w to please c 1?2 < w 6
to *orget

to ma-e happ(

c 1?? 7_ w ~6 to raise an issue c 1?@ iG6 to add c 1?5 Gl6 to demand c 1?# :G

@#

c 1?& 7 w \ w to remain, sta( c 1?+ ` w to tr( c 1?. b> w G\ to be c 1@0 aGP to ta-e place, occur c 1@1 7 w \ w to e)ert c 1@2 bt` w to apologiee c 1@? iw t8f to "ant c 1@@ [ V J4 w to respond c 1@5 {i w to do c 1@# N4 w to accept c 1@& N9h to decline, re*use c 1@+ ^i w to lose c 1@. 7 w to e)pose c 150 P to push, pa( c 151 { w to deal "ith a matter, to eat a meal c 152 b> w GJ w 8Pf to disco/er c 15? to repeat c 15@ {G6 to super/ise c 155 h;i w to encourage c 15# V to lie c 15& utP to pre*er c 15+ N V to trust c 15. p w> to continue c 1#0< w 8~f 4
to happen

c 1#1 p;> h to decrease c 1#2 N to increase c 1#? {;{f to appear c 1#@ < w to sa/e c 1#5 tr6
to accept @&

c 1## [3 l w to come c 1#& |G5 to di**er c 1#+ 38f w to doubt c 1#. to understand c 1&0 T to ser/e c 1&1 7 w w to describe c 1&2 m w w> to thin-, belie/e c 1&?Y to "ait c 1&@ <8rf to be late c 1&5 < V to surprise c 1&# 5G to bother, harrass c 1&& w 6 to calculate, assume c 1&+ Y4 w V to indicate c 1&. [:f iG6 w to include c 1+0 N4 to manage, direct c 1+1 i;{6 to get closer c 1+2 u< w 8hf to accuse c 1+? T w V f to e)ceed c 1+@ >G w to e)plain c 1+5 < w to de*ine c 1+# {7 V \ w to achie/e, in/estigate c 1+& p V \ w w Zrf to be e)posed c 1++
to pressure

c 1+. V hn w to carr( out, e)ecute c 1.0 t V or to "onder, 1uestion onesel* c 1.1 b| w G w to stroll, "al- around c 1.2 [ V 4 w w to succeed c 1.? w r to *ail c 1.@ N w
to e)pect @+

c 1.5 Zif to honor c 1.# < w P6 to rene" c 1.& {7 V 5 w to get angr( c 1.+ ws to target c 1.. 78~f to be hesitant, to be spread CrumorD c 200 {{ V < w w to -ill c 201 N8 w wh to "ound c 202 < w 5 c to get read( c 20? 7w_8~f wv allo" 20@c 4 w w ~ wv w~|y ' @^ ?"1 wv y~w ' i^ ?51 to come, attend 20&c < w \ w to stud( 20+c i w w{ w wo mention 20.c <PS to /isit 210c i; to li/e, reside 211c YZ~ w to "rite 212c 8P wo li/e 21?c G to be absent 21@c uGs to spend the night, e/ening 215c < w w ~ to memoriee 21#c o \ w
to commit a mista-e, crime

' k^ b_^ ? to pla( 21+c _ : to smo-e 21.c Y V { w w to change sthc 220c <B V s to help 221c 7 w G~ to tra/el 222c <G~ to be late 22?c < V
wv y~z @.

w rf 22@c N to meet, assemble 225c 4 w 85f to mo/e to 22#c [:f N8rf to rent 22&c <5 w 8~f to "elcome 22+c N9 w 8~f to lea/e 22.c M< w w 8\f to occup( 2?0c N
to be bus(

50 The 8eda6 6! Secti n The E4plicit?I"plicit C ntr $ers! Although man( pro*essionals agree on the bene*its o* some grammar instruction, the 1uestion o* ho" to teach grammar has met "ith little agreementc The contro/ers( has become particularl( acute "ith the ad/ent o* the communicati/e language teaching re/olution, "hich has consistentl( underscored the importance o* stressing meaning o/er *ormc ,or (ears, our pro*ession has been grappling "ith polarieed /ie"s concerning the teaching o* grammar "ithin a communicati/e *rame"or-c Some scholars CFiggs and Cli**ord 1.+2D ad/ocate an e)plicit method o* grammar instruction, "ith direct teacher e)planations *ollo"ed b( related manipulati/e e)ercisesc 'an( o* us ha/e probabl( e)perienced this method o* grammar instruction, since most te)tboo-s tend to present grammar in this *ashionc n*ortunatel(, man( o* the te)tboo-s manipulati/e drills are grounded in shallo" and arti*icial conte)ts, so these drills become rather meaningless to studentsc Another problem "ith e)plicit grammar instruction is that it ad/ocates a direct and o/ert role on the part o* the teacherc Conse1uentl(, this practice designates a rather passi/e role on the part o* the studentsc Interaction *or them is supposed to ta-e place a*ter the e)planation and a*ter a plent( o* structural manipulation o* the grammatical elementsc In Qi/ers C1.+?D terms, s-illEgetting should be stressed be*ore s-illEusingc On the other side o* the spectrum, implicit grammar e)planation as espoused b( rashen C1.+5D, Terrel C1.&&D, and Dula( and Iurt C1.&?D reject the need *or *ormal grammar anal(sisc These researchers argue that students can ac1uire language naturall( i* the( are pro/ided "ith su**icient comprehensible input *rom the teacherc In other "ords, i* students are e)posed to a su**icient amount o* comprehensible input, the( "ill e/entuall( be able to h(pothesiee and determine the *unctions as "ell as the meanings o* linguistic *ormsc Theoreticall(, the learners should be able to do the h(pothesieing on their o"nc Fo"e/er, Ferron and Tomasello C1..2D ad/ise that the inducti/e method cannot guarantee that the learner "ill disco/er the underl(ing concepts or that the induced concepts "ill actuall( be correctc ,urthermore, the inducti/e approach can be *rustrating to adult learners, man( o* "hom ha/e alread( become anal(tical "ith regard to the rules that go/ern their nati/e languagesc The learners intuiti/el(

(earn to speed up the learning process b( consciousl( comparing and contrasting their o"n nati/e rules to the rules that go/ern the ne" target languagec Re5 r"ulatin6 Bra""ar Instructi n Although e)plicit and implicit teaching are clearl( opposites, the( share some notable de*icienciesc $either approach ac-no"ledges the critical role o* the teacher in negotiating classroom e)planations, and neither approach ac-no"ledges the contributions and bac-grounds that the learners bring to the instructional setting CTharp and allimore 51 1.++Dc 'oreo/er, neither approach recogniees the natural learning tendencies that occur bet"een human beings outside the classroomc %earning is a d(namic, reciprocal, and interacti/e processc Fo"e/er, our pro*ession has been grappling "ith t"o established methods, neither o* "hich recogniees the mutuall( responsi/e interactions that are *undamental to learning as it occurs naturall( bet"een humans in e/er(da( li*ec There*ore, "e belie/e it is time *or the pro*ession to begin a serious reappraisal regarding teaching o* grammarc e are ad/ocating a "hole language and guided participator( approach that contrasts "ith traditional e)plicit or implicit teachingc In man( "a(s, this alternati/e approach ma( ser/e as a /iable compromise bet"een e)plicitRimplicit polarieed /ie"sc ,or a number o* reasons that "ill be discussed later, "e belie/e that a "hole language and guided participator( approach might hold the -e( to dramatic impro/ement in the teaching o* grammarc >asic 8rinciples 5 Ch le 0an6ua6e Teachin6

Ie*ore discussing some practical applications o* this approach, "e should discuss some basic principles o* "hole language and guided participator( teachingc 'an( specialists in *irst language de/elopment ha/e been e)ploring the implications o* "hole language teaching *or the past decadec %i-e"ise, researchers in cogniti/e ps(cholog( ha/e been in/estigating guided participation in the areas o* science, math, and social studiesc n*ortunatel(, *oreign language education has been lagging behind these other disciplinesc ,irst "e "ill discuss some basic principles o* a "hole language approach to grammar instruction, and then "e "ill discuss ho" to use guided and joint problem sol/ing to enhance grammar e)planationsc

As earl( as 1.&#, ps(chologist en oodman stated that language is language onl( "hen it is "hole C1uoted in ,ountas and Fannigans 1.+., pc 1?@Dc According to oodman, the "hole is al"a(s /ie"ed as being greater than the sum o* its parts, and it is the "hole that gi/es meaning to the partsc In terms o* grammar instruction, "ords, phrases, or sentences are not linguistic islands unto themsel/es on the contrar(, these linguistic elements onl( gain meaning "hen the( are placed in conte)t, and "hen used in conjunction "ith the "holec According to oodman, once students e)perience the "hole, the( are then better prepared to deal "ith the anal(ses o* the partsc e should ac-no"ledge that oodman is primaril( addressing the needs o* *irst language learnersc Fo"e/er, research in *irst language de/elopment has o*tentimes acted as a catal(st *or theoretical ad/ancement in second language de/elopmentc ,urthermore, man( second language specialists are currentl( emphasieing the importance o* contentEbased instruction, authentic te)ts *or listening and reading comprehension, and the need *or connected discourse in grammar instruction, all o* "hich emphasiee the importance o* "hole language rather than *ragmented speech in secondR*oreign language classroomc Conceptuall(, then, "e need to reappraise our orientation to grammar instruction i* "e ha/e too o*ten *ocused on *ragmented discourse and arti*icial e)ercisesc 'an( 52 language programs stress a bottomEup approach b( emphasieing the bits and pieces o* language Csound, /ocabular( lists, /erb drills, etccDc This classroom practice usuall( results in nonElanguage that can be characterieed as being unnatural, cogniti/el( undemanding, and dull CCummins 1.+@Dc On the other hand, a "hole language approach stresses natural discourse and encourages students to comprehend meaning*ul and long samples o* discourse *rom the /er( beginning o* the lessonc I( introducing the lesson "ith a "hole te)t C*or e)ample, a stor(, poem, song, taped listening selection or cartoonD, the teacher is *oreshado"ing the grammar e)planation through the use o* integrated discourse that "ill highlight the critical grammar to be taughtc allo"a( and %abarca C1..0D e)plain that *oreshado"ing o* ne" language elements is bene*icial, *or it pro/ides learners "ith a *eel *or "hat is to come and can help students cast *or"ard a *amiliarit( net b( "hich aspects o* language prompt initial recognitions and later, graduall(, are pulled into the learners producti/e repertoirec In this

"a(, the lesson highlights the *unctional signi*icance o* the grammar structure be*ore the learners attention is *ocused on *ormc In a "a(, this is li-e using ad/ance organieers to assist the students b( pro/iding an anchoring *rame"or- *or the ne" concepts to be learnedc nli-e man( classroom te)tboo-s, "hich ma( o**er a group o* disconnected sentences or a conte)tualieed drill, a "hole language and guided participator( approach in/ites the learner to use language *unctionall( and purpose*ull( through integrated coursec This practice is in agreement "ith rashens C1.+2D Input F(pothesis, "hich stresses the importance o* comprehensible input that contains structures a little be(ond our le/el o* competencec As a result, *rom the /er( beginning o* the lesson the teacher and learners are engaged in authentic use o* language through joint problemE sol/ing acti/ities and interactionsc I( using pictures, mime, and gestures, the teacher sca**olds and guides the learners to e/entuall( comprehend the stor( or other sample o* connected discoursec Once comprehension is achie/ed, the teacher can then turn the students attention to /arious linguistic elementsc nli-e bottomEup processing, "hich is traditionall( linear in approach, grammar instruction using a "hole language approach is c(clicalc During the *irst stage o* the c(cle, the teacher *oreshado"s the grammar structure "ith an appropriate te)tc At this point, the meaning or comprehension o* the te)t is o* prime importancec The second stage is actuall( an e)tension o* the *irst stage, since once again the emphasis is on meaningc Fo"e/er, the second stage di**ers due to an increased le/el o* learner participationc $o" the learners ha/e a general idea o* the signi*icance o* the te)t conse1uentl(, the( can become more participator( through /arious acti/ities, mime, role pla(ing, etcc All o* these acti/ities ser/e to deepen comprehension *or the learnersc Once comprehension is achie/ed and meaning is understood, the teacher mo/es into the third stage and turns the learners attention to *ocus on *orm, or the /arious linguistic elements o* the grammatical structuresc 5? A*ter this stage, the teacher completes the c(cle b( encouraging learners to interact "ith integrated discourse through e)pansion acti/ities such as re"riting or recreating similar stories, paired acti/ities, or group acti/itiesc Through these e)tension acti/ities, the learners become more a"are o* the *unction o* the grammatical structurec That is, the( learn that the( can carr( out a particular tas-

or *unction b( e)ploiting or using the appropriate grammatical structurec This approach is in agreement "ith %arsenE,reemans C1..1D suggestion that meaning, *orm, and *unction need to be interacting dimensions o* grammar instructionc A 2 del 5 r Inte6ratin6 7 r" in a Ch le 0an6ua6e Appr ach ,ocus on *orm has recentl( become the topic o* intense research and has been sho"n to be an important design *eature o* language teaching C%ong 1..1Dc The theor( o* learning and de/elopment has emphasieed the importance o* creating a eone o* pro)imal de/elopment "ith the learner so that "hat the learner re1uires help on toda( "ill emerge as independent, automatic per*ormance at a later timec rammar teaching can also be /ie"ed in this "a(c It is no less an interacti/e process bet"een e)pert and no/ice than an( other aspect o* de/eloping communicati/e abilit( in learnersc %earners need to be guided to re*lect on language the( use to create their o"n meaningsc $o language teaching should be dri/en b( grammar instruction alone, nor should grammar instruction be literall( interpreted to mean instruction on morpholog( Cecgc, adjecti/e or subjectE/erb agreement, rules *or pluralieation, etccD or meaningless manipulation o* *ormsc hen the teacher *ocuses on *orm, attention is dra"n to the *ormal properties o* the language, "hich includes its sound s(stem, "ord *ormation, s(nta), discourse mar-ers, and de/ised *or relating one sentence to another, to name a *e"c Our colleagues "ho teach reading in the elementar( schools call this *orm o* instruction language Artsc Classes that *ocus on language *orm *or the purpose o* increasing comprehension and meaning ha/e been sho"n to result in greater language gains than classes "here no *ocus on *orm is a/ailable or "here *orms are learned as meaningless structures C%ightbo"n and Spada 1..0Dc There*ore, the issue is not "hether a teacher should *ocus on *orm rather, ans"ering the 1uestion o* ho" and "hen and in "hat conte)t "ill ultimatel( clari*( this important design *eature o* *oreign language instructionc The *ollo"ing is a *our step model *or conte)tualieing interactions "ith students about the *orms in a "hole language lessonc 1. 8resentati n 5 2eanin65ul 0an6ua6e

This step represents the "hole language (ou are presenting in a thematic "a(c It can be an interesting stor( C*ol-tales and legends "or- "ellD, a TPQ lesson, a recorded authentic listening or /ideo segment, an authentic document, or a demonstration o* a realEli*e situationc 'aterials *rom the te)tboo- Cnarrati/es, dialogues, storiesD ma( e/en be used i* the( are *ound to be interesting and episodicall(

organieedc The presentation does not consist o* isolated, disconnected sentences illustrating the target *orm in 1uestionc Qather, it is thematic, conte)tualieed "hole language intended to capture student interest and 5@ pro/ide opportunities *or the teacher to create comprehension through the negotiation o* meaningc The structure should appear o*ten enough during the presentation to be salient to the student "ithout ma-ing the language sound unnatural or stiltedc Authentic stories, documents, or listening segments can guarantee naturalness and o*ten contain naturall( occurring repetitionsc The presentation should also be interacti/ec I( sca**olding participation in the acti/it(, teachers can guide students through the ne" elements o* the language to be learnedc This guided participation ma( ta-e the *orm o* student repetition o* -e( phrases cued b( the teacher during a stor(telling session, studentEteacher role re/ersal in a TPQ acti/it(, cloee e)ercise based on listening segments, or discussions that anticipate the content o* a readingc The goal here is to enable students to stretch their language abilities b( using the ne" elements o* the target language in meaning*ul "a(s through the help and mediation o* the teacherc This step ma( last either part o* or the entire class sessionc ,or e)ample, a stor(telling lesson ma( contain preE stor(telling acti/ities, dramatieation, pairE"or- comprehension chec-s, or stor(Etelling e)ercisesc The length o* time re1uired depends on the nature o* the acti/it( and the amount o* negotiation "or- re1uired to charge the language "ith meaningc 2. Attenti n This step *ocuses learner attention on some aspect o* the language used during the presentation acti/it(c In this step, the teacher highlights some regularit( o* the languagec This can be achie/ed in se/eral "a(sc Teachers can as- 1uestions about patterns *ound in a "ritten te)t or about "ords and phrases repeated in a stor(c O/erhead transparencies o* e)ample sentences *rom the presentation can be prepared, "ith important "ords and phrases circled or underlinedc The point to this step is to get learners to *ocus attention on the target *orm "ithout needless elaboration or "asted timec (. C <c nstruct an E4planati n %earners and teachers should be coEconstructors o* grammatical e)planationc A*ter learners *ocus attention on the target *orm, the teacher assists them in raising their a"areness about the target

structurec During this step, students are guided to h(pothesiee, guess, ma-e predictions, or come to generalieations about the target *ormc CoEconstructing an e)planation re1uires teacher 1uestions that are "ell chosen, clear, and directc uestions are po"er*ul tools in the hands o* teachers "ho can adjust their 1uestioning in *light to meet the emergent understandings o* their studentsc ,or e)ample, as-ing students 1uestions such as "hat "ords do (ou hear or see repeated in the te)t, and "hat could the( mean, hat pattern do (ou see in this group o* "ords, and Fo" do certain "ords change as their meanings change is a "a( to help students to dra" insights *rom the language the( hear and understandc These cogniti/e probes help learners disco/er regular grammatical patterns, sound s(stems, "ord order, uni1ue cultural meanings o* "ords, or language *unctionsc 55 As students h(pothesiee and generaliee about the target *orm, teachers build upon and e)tend students -no"ledge "ithout o/er"helming them "ith super*luous grammatical detailsc F(pothesis testing can also be conducted, "ith teachers leading learners in tr(ing out their ne" -no"ledge b( appl(ing their generalieations to ne" situationsc Teachers are also a"are that the help the( pro/ide is graduated and ma( range *rom brie* hints about the target *orm to e)plicit instruction i* needed CAljaa*reh 1..2Dc It is important to note that, unli-e guided induction techni1ues, "hich primaril( rel( on teacher 1uestioning, a coEconstructed e)planation is not in1uisitionc Qather, coEconstructed e)planations recogniee that students ma( not be able to percei/e the *ormal properties o* language on the basis o* the teachers 1uestions alonec hat is ob/ious to an e)pert language user is o*ten a m(ster( to the no/icec A coEconstructed e)planation is as participator( *or the teacher as it is *or studentsc That is, teachers need to assess the abilities o* their students and assist them b( pro/iding as "ell as eliciting in*ormation "hen necessar(c As Tharp and illimore C1.++D point out, teaching is responsi/e assistance and cannot be reduced to series o* actions to be per*ormed in the same order in e/er( instructional circumstancec I( listening closel( to learner contributions during this step, teachers can assess ho" much help is needed to attain the conceptc In time, some learners ma( be able to "or- in small groups on their o"n grammar problems and report bac- to the class about their disco/eries C,otos and llis 1..1Dc ). E4tensi n Acti$it!

,ocus on *orm is onl( use*ul i* this -no"ledge can be pressed into ser/ice b( the learners in a ne" "a( at a later timec In "hole language teaching, the teacher ne/er loses sight o* the "holec There*ore, the e)tension acti/it( pro/ides learners "ith the opportunit( to use their ne" s-ill in creati/e and interesting "a(s "hile at the same time integrating it into e)isting -no"ledgec The e)tension acti/it( should be interesting, be related to the theme o* the lesson in some "a(, and, most importantl(, allo" *or creati/e sel*Ee)pressionc )tension acti/ities are not "or- sheets on "hich learners use the target *orm to *ill in the blan-s o* disconnected sentencesc Qather, the( can be in*ormationEgap acti/ities, role pla( situations, dramatieations, games, authentic "riting projects, paired inter/ie"ed, class sur/e(s, or simulations o* real li*e situationsc The possibilities are endless, as long as the learners ha/e the chance to tr( to use the target *orm in "a(s that the( see are use*ul and meaning*ulc The e)tension acti/it( closes the circle and puts the "hole bac- into "hole language teachingc The discussion abo/e should lead to the conclusion that language learning is a thin-ing process, or *rom the learners /ie"point, a guessing gamec Teachers need to design cogniti/el( demanding acti/ities that "ill encourage learners to h(pothesiee, predict, ta-e ris-s, ma-e errors, and sel* correct C,ountas and Fannigan 1.+.Dc I( doing so, the learners become acti/e participants in the learning processc All the "hole language and guided participator( acti/ities should encourage the learners to be acti/e thin-ers and h(pothesieers as the( collaborate in language learning acti/ities "ith the teacher or "ith their peersc 5# hether listening to a stor(telling acti/it(, coEconstructing a grammar e)planation, or collaborating "ith peers during an e)tension acti/it(, the learners are acti/el( disco/ering and h(pothesieing about the target languagec This approach concurs "ith Iruners C1.+#D ad/ice that students need to be cogniti/el( challenged through the use o* disco/er( methodsc 'oreo/er, all he classroom acti/ities should encourage interaction and the *unctional use o* language b( gi/ing learners opportunities to share in*ormation, as- 1uestions, and sol/e problems collaborati/el(c ,inall(, a distinguishing theme o* "hole language and a guided participator( approach to grammar instruction is that learning needs to be integrated, conte)tualieed, and meaningEcentered acti/ities CPearson 1.+.Dc Such acti/ities *acilitate comprehension and retention on the part o* the learnersc ,urthermore, the e)tension acti/ities encourage learners to integrate meaning, *orm, and *unction "hile e)periencing language in conte)tc It should be mentioned that creating

integrated and meaningEcentered acti/ities is probabl( one o* the most di**icult aspects o* "hole language teaching, since, man( te)tboo-s still stress conte)tEreduced practice and *ragmented materialsc Creating conte)tualieed acti/ities is the onl( "a( to implement, encourage and succeed at "hole language teachingc Through "hole language learning students are able to con/erse "ith more con*idence, and their listening, reading, and "riting s-ills impro/ec As the( use Arabic in real communication, it becomes less *oreign and more natural , integral part o* their e)periencec e -no" the best "a( to learn a *oreign language is to li/e "ith those "ho spea- it, and our students should be encouraged to ta-e this step and go to the Arab orld *or a semester or a (ear programc In preparation *or that e/ent, and also *or those students "ho "ill not /enture be(ond the classroom, there is much practice to be done "ith peers and "ith teacher, "hose responsibilit( is to *ind or create meaning*ul practicec

5& Re5erencesD

[*H .g6 '_n* % I* AR 0*.g + ( .A *Gy~; n`6 ]W<jy:; 5R S*. i. 7I W7_#c 7I 7I3 .A *#Fl% BG# .g6 '(. 5 G%: ( i.l BG.A* E*Ag ;$)_= #c S*. =.= *4 7I ' *$5 (3: c p ^A _S*. =.% ) 7I ' )->!_.c ^A E*Ag' E6( .>! Sg_e &E+!= . (>G; $a e!.3c E*Ag =* _ * 9# =40 7I '= -g& G: !G_+ + &c
Aljaa*reh, Ac The Qole o* ImplicitR )plicit rror Correction and %earners one o* Pro)imal De/elopmentc npublished dissertationc ni/ersit( o* Dela"are, 1..2c Iruner, c Actual Minds, !ossible #orlds c Cambridge, 'A Far/ard ni/ersit( Press, 1.+#c CelceE'urcia, 'c 'a-ing In*ormed Decisions About the Qole o* rammar in %anguage Teachingc Foreign $anguage Annals 1+ C1.+5D2.&E?01c Cummins, c %anguage Pro*icienc(, Iilingualism and Academic Achie/ementc %ilingualism and &pecial 'ducation: (ssues in Assessment and !edagog) c San Diego, CA CollegeEFill, 1.+@c ,otos, Scc, and Qc llisc Communicating about rammar A Tas-EIases Approachc T'&O$ *uarterl) 25 C1..1D #05E#2+c ,ountas, Ic, and Ic Fanniganc 'a-ing Sense o* hole %anguage The Pursuit o* In*ormed Teaching, +hildhood 'ducation #5 C1.+.D 1??E 1?&c

allo"a(, !c, and Ac %abarcac ,rom Student to %earner St(le, Process and Strateg(c dc Dc Iirc-bichlerc ,ew !erspecti es and ,ew -irections in Foreign $anguage 'ducation c %incoln"ood, I% $ational Te)tboo- Compan(, 1..0 111E15+c 5+ Ferron, Cc, and 'c Tomaselloc Ac1uiring rammatical Structures b( uided InductioncThe French Re iew #5 C1..2D &0+E&1+c Figgs, Tc !c, and Qc Tc Cli**ordc The Push To"ard Communicationc dc Tc !c Figgsc +urriculum, +ompetence and the Foreign $anguage Teacherc ACT,% ,oreign %anguage Series, /olc 1?c %incoln"ood, I% $ational Te)tboo-, 1.+2 5&E&.c rashen, Sc !rinciples and !ractice in &econd $anguage Ac.uisition c O)*ord Pergamon, 1.+2c rashen, Sc The (nput /)pothesis $e" or- %ongman, 1.+5c %arsenE,reeman, Dc Teaching rammarc dc 'c CelceE 'urciacTeaching 'nglish as a &econd $anguage c Ioston, 'A Feinle and Feinle, 1..1 2&.E2.5c %ightbo"n, Pc, and $c Spadac ,ocus on ,orm and Correcti/e ,eedbacin Communicati/e %anguage Teachingc &tudies in &econd $anguage Ac.uisition 12 C1..0D @2.E@@+c %ong, 'c The %east Second %anguage Ac1uisition Theor( $eeds to )plainc T'&O$ *uarterl) 2@ C1..1D #@.E###c Oller, c, rc Some or-ing Ideas *or %anguage Teachingc dsc c Oller, rc and Pc QichardEAmatoc Methods That #orkc Qo"le(, 'A $e"bur( Fouse, 1.+?c Pearson, Dc Qeading the holeE%anguage 'o/ementc 'lementar) &chool 0ournal .0 C1.+.D 2?1E2@1c Qi/ers, c +ommunicating ,aturall) in a &econd $anguage c Chicago ni/ersit( o* Chicago Press, 1.+?c Terrel, Tc A $atural Approach to Second %anguage Ac1uisition and %earningc Modern $anguage 0ournal #1 C1.&&D ?25E??&c

Tharp, Qc, and Qc allimorec Rousing Minds to $ife: Teaching, $earning and &chooling in &ocial +onte1t c $e" or- Cambridge ni/ersit( Press, 1.++c !ersteegh, eec The Arabic $anguagec $e" or- Columbia in/ersit( Press, 1..&c

i;7:; AB35 noj:; 38=H i;74:;>

A0<EA0EFS

-. The Arabic c ns natial S!ste" includes e1ual numbers o* /oiced /ersus /oiceless, t"o nasals, three /elarised, t"o lateral and one trillc Please note the *ollo"ing diagram Obstruents S n rants #all $ iced% Un$elari&ed 'elari&ed trill labial labioEdental interdental dentoEal/ec palatal !oiceless /oiced /oiceless /oiced nasal lateral

K L T PS RPI OPQ

M N ; 7

U V /elar W u/ular XPY Z phar(ngal [ lar(ngal ^AP]