Fibonacci Numbers and Its Closest Neighbors

Oreste M. Ortega, Jr.

Leyte Normal University
Tacloban City, Philippines

October 2003

Abstract
This study was conducted in view of the need to developing problem-solving skills
and to find relevant instructional materials and strategies. This used the problem
posing approach exemplified in the work of Kenneth Shaw and Leslie Aspinwall in
their article, ”The Recurring Fibonacci Sequence: Using a Pose and Probe Rubric.”
The study identified relational characteristics between terms of the Fibonacci se-
quence 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, .... The identified patterns were verified by using different
Fibonacci numbers and the generalizations were confirmed using the proof by math-
ematical induction.
This led to the derivation of Theorem 1 (General Formula) stating the established
relationship between the square of any Fibonacci number, Fn , and the product of its
ith -closest neighbors, Fn−i and Fn+i and Theorem 2 (The Generalization) which gener-
alizes the difference between two Fibonacci numbers, Fn and Fn+j , and the product
of their ith -closest neighbors, Fn−i and F(n+j)+i . These formulas were drawn from
five Lemmas. Theorem 1 was drawn from the patterns derived from Lemmas 1 to
5 and Theorem 2 was derived from the patterns derived evident in Lemmas 6 to 10.
Theorem 1 and 2 are stated as follows:
Theorem 1. (General Formula)
The difference between the square of a Fibonacci number, Fn2 , and the product of its
i -closest neighbors Fn−i and Fn+i is (−1)n+i Fi2 , that is, Fn2 − Fn+i Fn−i = (−1)n+i Fi2
th

for n > i, i = 1, 2, 3, ....

Theorem 2. (The Generalization)
The difference between the product of two Fibonacci numbers, Fn and Fn+j and
the product of its ith -closest neighbors is (−1)n+i Fi Fi+j , that is, Fn Fn+j −Fn−i F(n+j)+i =
(−1)n+i Fi Fi+j where n > 1 for i = 1, 2, 3, ... and j = 1, 2, 3, ....

1
1 Introduction
Problem solving is one of the dynamic modes for organizing learning that is consis-
tent with a view of learning that has received renewed attention. Constructivism asserts
that students build their own knowledge. This view argues that students must integrate
new knowledge into existing internal structures. Students do so by exploring their own
environments, manipulating objects in the environment, testing hypotheses, and draw-
ing their own conclusion [9]. Exploring patterns is one of the problem solving strate-
gies that students should occasionally be exposed. This strategy is also recommended
by [5]. Through problem solving in mathematics, the ability of the students to observe,
discover relationships, draw conclusion, and validate their findings is further enhanced
with proper choice of content and problems that are well within the ability of the students
to comprehend. While there are several number sequences that are associated to the real
world phenomena, the Fibonacci sequence proved to have innumerable associations, not
only with other sequences but with nature’s phenomenon as well.
The Fibonacci sequence is a sequence of numbers that begin with 1 and 1; and ev-
ery number, thereafter, is derived by adding the preceding two numbers. The first eight
numbers in the sequence are 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21. The general formula for finding the nth
Fibonacci number Fn is given by Fn = Fn−2 + Fn+1 . The mathematics associated with
Fibonacci numbers is widespread, deep and full of mysterious patterns, the reason for
the continued fascination by mathematicians. Hence it has become the subject of many
mathematical investigations.

2 Results and Discussion

Investigations on the difference between the square of a Fibonacci number, Fn , and the
product of its ith left and right closest neighbors, where i is the number of terms in the
Fibonacci sequence to the left and to the right of Fn were the following:

Fn2 − (Fn−1 )(Fn+1 )

Fn2 − (Fn−2 )(Fn+2 )

Fn2 − (Fn−3 )(Fn+3 )
..
.
Fn2 − (Fn−i )(Fn+i )
Resulting the following first Lemma.

Lemma 1: The difference between the square of any Fibonacci number, Fn , and the product
of its first closest neighbors, Fn+1 and Fn−1 is (−1)n+1 F12 , that is, Fn2 − (Fn+1 )(Fn−1 ) =
(−1)n+1 F12 for n > 1.

Proof : (Mathematical Induction)

For n = 2,

2
 F22 − F3 F1 = F22 − (F1 + F2 )F1
= F22 − F12 − F1 F2
= F2 (F2 − F1 ) − F12
= −F12
= (−1)2+1 F12

Assume that (Fk )2 − Fk+1 Fk−1 = (−1)k+1 F12 .

Since Fk+2 = Fk+1 + Fk and Fk−1 + Fk = Fk+1 , then

(Fk+1 )2 − Fk+2 F k1 = (Fk+1 )2 − [Fk+1 + Fk ]Fk

= Fk+1 [Fk−1 + Fk ] − [Fk+1 + Fk ]Fk
= Fk+1 Fk−1 + [Fk Fk+1 − Fk Fk+1 ] − Fk2
= Fk+1 Fk−1 − Fk2
= −(−1)k+1 F12
= (−1)k+2 F12

Hence, Fn2 − (Fn+1 )(Fn−1 ) = (−1)n+1 F12 for n > 1.

Based on further investigations, the following lemmas were formulated.

Lemma 2: The difference between the square of any Fibonacci number, Fn , and the product
of its second closest neighbors, Fn+2 and Fn−2 is (−1)n+2 F22 , that is, Fn2 − (Fn+2 )(Fn−2 ) =
(−1)n+2 F22 for n > 2.

Lemma 3: The difference between the square of any Fibonacci number, Fn , and the product
of its third closest neighbors, Fn+3 and Fn−3 is (−1)n+3 F32 , that is, Fn2 − (Fn+3 )(Fn−3 ) =
(−1)n+3 F32 for n > 3.

Lemma 4: The difference between the square of any Fibonacci number, Fn , and the product
of its fourth closest neighbors, Fn+4 and Fn−4 is (−1)n+4 F42 , that is, Fn2 − (Fn+4 )(Fn−4 ) =
(−1)n+4 F42 for n > 4.

Lemma 5: The difference between the square of any Fibonacci number, Fn , and the product
of its fifth closest neighbors, Fn+5 and Fn−5 is (−1)n+5 F52 , that is, Fn2 − (Fn+5 )(Fn−5 ) =
(−1)n+5 F52 for n > 5.

For a more clearer picture of the investigations above, the following tables were pre-
sented for a specific Fibonacci number Fn . As evident in the tables, the researcher sum-
marized and synthesized the results and stated the general formula for the difference
between the squares of the first n Fibonacci numbers and their ith closest neighbors.

3
Table 1.

Rank order of Two Closest ith Neighbors (F6 )2 Product of ith (F6 )2 − (Fn−i Fn+i )
Neighbors (i) Neighbors
First 5 and 13 64 65 -1
Second 3 and 21 64 63 +1
Third 2 and 34 64 68 -4
Fourth 1 and 55 64 55 +9
Fifth 1 and 89 64 89 - 25
.. .. .. .. ..
. . . . .

It is easy to recognize that the difference that were of interest in the investigations,
except for the signs, are squares of the first five Fibonacci numbers. Further investigations
were made on F7 = 13 to validate the above observation.

Table 2.

Rank order of Two Closest ith Neighbors (F7 )2 Product of ith (F7 )2 − (Fn−i Fn+i )
Neighbors (i) Neighbors
First 8 and 21 169 168 +1
Second 5 and 34 169 170 -1
Third 3 and 55 169 165 +4
Fourth 2 and 89 169 178 -9
Fifth 1 and 144 169 144 + 25
.. .. .. .. ..
. . . . .

Fn2 − (Fn+1 )(Fn−1 ) = (−1)n+1 F12 f orn > 1

Fn2 − (Fn+2 )(Fn−2 ) = (−1)n+2 F22 f orn > 2
Fn2 − (Fn+3 )(Fn−3 ) = (−1)n+3 F32 f orn > 3
Fn2 − (Fn+4 )(Fn−4 ) = (−1)n+4 F42 f orn > 4
Fn2 − (Fn+5 )(Fn−5 ) = (−1)n+1 F52 f orn > 5
..
.
Fn2 − (Fn+i )(Fn−i ) = (−1)n+i Fi2
for n > i where i = 1, 2, 3, ...(closest neighbors).

Theorem 1. (General Formula)

The difference between the square of a Fibonacci number, Fn2 , and the product of its
ith closest neighbors Fn−i and Fn+i is (−1)n+i Fi2 , that is, Fn2 − Fn+i Fn−i = (−1)n+i Fi2 for
n > i, i = 1, 2, 3, ....

4
Proof:
Step 1: Show that Fn2 − Fn+i Fn−i = (−1)n+i Fi2 for n > i is true for i = 1.
For i = 1, n > 1. Let n = 2. Thus, Fn2 − Fn+1 Fn−1 = (−1)n+1 F12 .
i) Show that it is true for n = 2.

F22 − F3 F1 = −F12

(1)2 − (2)(1) = −(1)2

−1 = −1(T rue)
ii) Assume that it is true for n = k, that is, (Fk )2 − Fk+1 Fk−1 = (−1)k+1 F12 .
iii) Show that it is true for n = k + 1, that is,

(Fk+1 )2 − F(k+1)+1 F(k+1)−1 = (−1)(k+1)+1 F12

(Fk+1 )2 − Fk+2 Fk = (−1)k+2 F12

Proof:
Since Fk+1 = Fk + Fk−1 and Fk+2 = Fk + Fk+1 , then

(Fk+1 )2 − Fk+2 Fk = Fk+1 (Fk + Fk−1 ) − (Fk+1 + Fk )Fk

= Fk Fk+1 + Fk+1 Fk−1 − Fk Fk+1 − Fk2
= −Fk2 + Fk+1 Fk−1
= −[(−1)k+1 F12 ]
= (−1)k+2 F12 .

Step 2: Assume that Fn2 − Fn+k Fn−k = (−1)n+k Fk2 is true for i = k.
Step 3: Show that Fn2 − Fn+(k+1) Fn−(k+1) = (−1)n+(k+1) Fk+1
2
for n = k + 1.
Proof:
Let s = k + 1.

Fn2 − Fn+(k+1) Fn−(k+1) = Fn2 − Fn+s F n − s

= (−1)n+s Fs2
= (−1)n+(k+1) Fk+1
2
.

Therefore, Fn2 − Fn+i Fn−i = (−1)n+i Fi2 for n > i, i = 1, 2, 3, ....

3 Further Explorations
In the light of the findings made on the difference between the square of the Fibonacci
number and its closest neighbors, the researcher explored further on some relationships.
One investigation made was on the relation of four consecutive Fibonacci numbers.

5
 Given four consecutive Fibonacci numbers Fn−1 , Fn , Fn+1 , Fn+2 , the researcher investi-
gated the values resulting from the expression

Fn Fn+1 − Fn−1 Fn+2

representing the difference between the product of two consecutive Fibonacci numbers
(Fn Fn+1 ) and the product of their first closest neighbors from the left and from the right
(Fn−1 Fn+2 ). It is easy to check that the difference oscillates between −1 and +1. Further
exploration on the their second closest neighbors from the right and from the left, that is,

Fn Fn+1 − Fn−2 Fn+3

result to −2 and +2,

Fn Fn+1 − Fn−3 Fn+4
oscillates between −6 and +6, while

Fn Fn+1 − Fn−4 Fn+5

resulted to −15 and +15.

The results were summarized and synthesized into the following general statements:

Fn Fn+1 − Fn−1 Fn+2 = ∓1 = ∓(1)(1) = ∓F1 F2

Fn Fn+1 − Fn−2 Fn+3 = ∓2 = ∓(1)(2) = ∓F2 F3

Fn Fn+1 − Fn−3 Fn+4 = ∓6 = ∓(2)(3) = ∓F3 F4
Fn Fn+1 − Fn−4 Fn+5 = ∓15 = ∓(3)(5) = ∓F4 F5
Fn Fn+1 − Fn−5 Fn+6 = ∓40 = ∓(5)(8) = ∓F5 F6
..
.
Fn Fn+1 − Fn−i Fn+(i+1) = ∓Fi Fi+1
As observed from the pattern above, a rule was derived and stated as Lemma 6.

Lemma 6. The difference between the product of two consecutive Fibonacci numbers, Fn
and Fn+1 , and the product of their ith closest neighbors is (−1)n+1 Fi Fi+1 , that is, Fn Fn+1 −
Fn−i Fn+(i+1) = (−1)n+i Fi Fi+1 , where n > 1 and for i = 1, 2, 3, ....
Proof: (Mathematical Induction)
Step1: For i = 1, we will show that

Fn Fn+1 − Fn−1 Fn+(1+1) = (−1)n+1 F1 F1+1 = (−1)n+1 F1 F2

since Fn+1 = Fn + Fn−1 , Fn = Fn+1 − Fn−1 and Fn−1 = Fn − Fn−2 ,

Fn Fn+1 − Fn−1 Fn+2 = (Fn+1 − Fn−1 )Fn+1 − (Fn − Fn−2 )Fn+2

2
= Fn+1 − Fn−1 Fn+1 − Fn Fn+2 − Fn−2 Fn+2

6
(by Lemmas 1 and 2)
2
= (−1)n+1 F12 − Fn2 + Fn2 − (−1)n+2 F22 + Fn+1 − Fn−2 Fn+2

(by Lemma 1)

= (−1)n+1 (F12 + F22 ) + (−1)n+2 F22

= (−1)n+1 (F12 + F22 − F22 )
= (−1)n+1 F12
= (−1)n+1 F1 F2

Step 2: Assume that Fn F n + 1 − Fn−k Fn+(k+1) = (−1)n+k Fk Fk+1 is true for i = k.

Step 3: Show that

Fn F n + 1 − Fn−(k+1) Fn+(k+1)+1 = (−1)n+(k+1) Fk+1 F(k+1)+1

Fn F n + 1 − Fn−k−1 Fn+k+2 = (−1)n+k+1 Fk+1 Fk+2

Proof:
Since Fn−k = Fn−k−1 + Fn−k−2 and Fn+k+2 = Fn+k+1 + Fn+k ,

Fn Fn+1 − Fn−k−1 Fn+k+2 = Fn − Fn+1 − (Fn−k − Fn−k−2 )(Fn+k+1 + Fn+k )

= Fn Fn+1 − Fn−k Fn+k+1 − Fn−k Fn+k − Fn−k−2 Fn+k+2

(by inductive hypothesis)

= (−1)n+k Fk Fk+1 − Fn−k Fn+k − Fn−k−2 Fn+k+2

(by Theorem 1)

= (−1)n+k Fk Fk+1 + (−1)n+k Fk2 − Fn2 + Fn2 − (−1)n+(k+2) Fk+2

2

= (−1)n+k (Fk Fk+1 + Fk2 − Fk+2

2
)
n+k 2
= (−1) [Fk (Fk + Fk+1 ) − Fk+2 ]
= (−1)n+k (Fk Fk+2 − Fk+2
2
)
n+k
= (−1) [−Fk+2 (Fk+2 − Fk )]
= (−1)n+k (−Fk+2 Fk+1 )
= (−1)n+k+1 Fk+2 Fk+1

Therefore, Fn Fn+1 − Fn−i Fn+(i+1) = (−1)n+i Fi Fi+1 , where n > 1 and for i = 1, 2, 3, ....
With the observations on the relationship between two consecutive Fibonacci numbers
and its ith -closest neighbors, the researcher extended to discover other relationship from

7
the difference between the product of Fn and Fn+2 , Fn and Fn+3 , Fn and Fn+4 and Fn and
Fn+5 and the product of its ith -closest neighbors, where n > 2 and i = 1, 2, 3, .... The
following lemmas were observed:
Lemma 7. The difference between the product of the two Fibonacci numbers, Fn and
Fn+2 , where n > 2 and their ith -closest neighbors is (−1)n+i Fi Fi+2 , that is, Fn Fn+2 −
Fn−i Fn+(i+1) = (−1)n+i Fi Fi+2 where n > 2 and for i = 1, 2, 3, ....

Lemma 8. The difference between the product of the two Fibonacci numbers, Fn and
Fn+3 , where n > 3 and their ith -closest neighbors is (−1)n+i Fi Fi+3 , that is, Fn Fn+3 −
Fn−i Fn+(i+1) = (−1)n+i Fi Fi+3 where n > 3 and for i = 1, 2, 3, ....

Lemma 9. The difference between the product of the two Fibonacci numbers, Fn and
Fn+4 , where n > 4 and their ith -closest neighbors is (−1)n+i Fi Fi+4 , that is, Fn Fn+4 −
Fn−i Fn+(i+1) = (−1)n+i Fi Fi+4 where n > 4 and for i = 1, 2, 3, ....

Lemma 10. The difference between the product of the two Fibonacci numbers, Fn and
Fn+5 , where n > 5 and their ith -closest neighbors is (−1)n+i Fi Fi+5 , that is, Fn Fn+5 −
Fn−i Fn+(i+1) = (−1)n+i Fi Fi+5 where n > 5 and for i = 1, 2, 3, ....
Finally, the above generalizations were synthesized into what seemed to be a general
formula.
Fn Fn+1 − Fn−i Fn+(i+1) = (−1)n+i Fi Fi+1
Fn Fn+2 − Fn−i Fn+(i+2) = (−1)n+i Fi Fi+2
Fn Fn+3 − Fn−i Fn+(i+3) = (−1)n+i Fi Fi+3
Fn Fn+4 − Fn−i Fn+(i+4) = (−1)n+i Fi Fi+4
Fn Fn+5 − Fn−i Fn+(i+5) = (−1)n+i Fi Fi+5
..
.
Fn Fn+j − Fn−i Fn+(i+j) = (−1)n+i Fi Fi+j
where n > 1 for i = 1, 2, 3, ... and j = 1, 2, 3, ....

Based on the above presentation, the researcher inferred his generalization on the Fi-
bonacci numbers and its their closest neighbors. This is Theorem 2.

Theorem 2. (The Generalization)

The difference between the product of two Fibonacci numbers, Fn and Fn+j , and the
product of their ith closest neighbors is (−1)n+i Fi Fi+j that is Fn Fn+j − Fn−i Fn+(i+j) =
(−1)n+i Fi Fi+j where n > 1 for i = 1, 2, 3, ... and j = 1, 2, 3, ....
Proof: (Mathematical Induction on j)

Step 1. Show that for j = 1, Fn Fn+1 − Fn−i F(n+1)+i = (−1)n+i Fi Fi+1 is true.
Proof: (induction on i)

8
 i. Show that it is true for i = 1, that is,

Fn Fn+1 − Fn−1 F(n+1)+1 = (−1)n+1 F1 F1+1 = (−1)n+1 F1 F2 .

Since Fn+1 = Fn + Fn−1 ,

Fn Fn+1 − Fn−1 Fn+2 = (Fn+1 − Fn−1 )Fn+1 − (Fn − Fn−2 )Fn+2

2
= Fn+1 − Fn−1 Fn+1 − Fn Fn+2 − Fn−2 Fn+2

(by Lemmas 1 and 2)

= (−1)n+1 F12 − Fn2 + Fn2 − (−1)n+2 F22 + Fn+1

2
− Fn−2 Fn+2

(by Lemma 1)

= (−1)n+1 (F12 + F22 ) + (−1)n+2 F22

= (−1)n+1 (F12 + F22 − F22 )
= (−1)n+1 F12
= (−1)n+1 F1 F2

ii. Assume that it is true for i = k, that is,

Fn Fn+1 − Fn−k F(n+k)+1 = (−1)n+k Fk Fk+1 .

iii. Show that it is true for n = k + 1, that is,

Fn Fn+1 − Fn−(k+1) Fn+(k+1)+1 = (−1)n+(k+1) Fk+1 F(k+1)+1

Fn Fn+1 − Fn−k−1 Fn+k+2 = (−1)n+k+1 Fk+1 Fk+2 .

Since Fn−k = Fn−k−1 + Fn−k−2 ,

Fn Fn+1 − Fn−k−1 Fn+k+2 = Fn Fn+1 − (Fn−k − Fn−k−2 )(Fn+k+1 + Fn+k )

= Fn Fn+1 − Fn−k Fn+k+1 − Fn−k Fn+k − Fn−k−2 Fn+k+2

(by inductive hypothesis)

= (−1)n+k Fk Fk+1 − Fn−k Fn+k − Fn−k−2 Fn+k+2

9
(by Theorem 1)

= (−1)n+k Fk Fk+1 + (−1)n+k Fk2 − Fn2 + Fn2 − (−1)n+(k+2) Fk+2

2

= 2
(−1)n+k (Fk Fk+1 + Fk2 − Fk+2 )
n+k 2
= (−1) [Fk (Fk + Fk+1 ) − Fk+2 ]
= (−1)n+k (Fk Fk+2 − Fk+2
2
)
= (−1)n+k [−Fk+2 (Fk+2 − Fk )]
= (−1)n+k (−Fk+2 Fk+1 )
= (−1)n+k+1 Fk+2 Fk+1

Step 2. Assume that Fn Fn+k − Fn−i F(n+k)+i = (−1)n+i Fi Fi+k is true for j = k.
Step 3. Show that t is true for j = k + 1, that is,

Fn Fn+(k+1) − Fn−i Fn+(k+1)+i = (−1)n+i Fi Fi+(k+1) .

Since Fn+k+1 = Fn+k + Fn+k−1 and Fn+i+k+1 = Fn+i+k Fn+i+k−1 ,

Fn Fn+(k+1) − Fn−i Fn+i+(k+1) = Fn (Fn+k + Fn+k−1 ) − Fn−i (Fn+i+k + Fn+i+k−1 )

= Fn Fn+k + Fn Fn+k−1 − Fn−i Fn+i+k − Fn−i Fn+i+k−1
= (Fn Fn+k − Fn−i Fn+i+k ) + (Fn Fn+k−1 − Fn−i Fn+i+k−1 )

(by inductive hypothesis)

= (−1)n+i Fi Fi+k + Fn Fn+(k−1) − Fn−i Fn+i+(k−1)

(by inductive hypothesis)

= (−1)n+i Fi Fi+k + (−1)n+i Fi Fi+(k−1)

= (−1)n+i (Fi Fi+k + Fi Fi+(k−1) )
= (−1)n+i [Fi (Fi+k + Fi+(k−1) )]
= (−1)n+i Fi Fi+k+1

Therefore,Fn Fn+j − Fn−i Fn+(i+j) = (−1)n+i Fi Fi+j where n > 1 for i = 1, 2, 3, ... and j =
1, 2, 3, ....

10
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11