Paper No.

2, Research eLert, April 2005

Department of Education and Training RESEARCH INTO LEARNING: IMPLICATIONS OR TEACHING Pu!"i#$ed !% t$e Department of Education and Training & State of 'ictoria( )**+ A"" rig$t# re#er,ed- E.cept under t$e condition# de#cri!ed in t$e Cop%rig$t Act /012 of Au#tra"ia and #u!#e3uent amendment#( no part of t$i# pu!"ication ma% !e reproduced( #tored in a retrie,a" #%#tem or tran#mitted in an% form or !% an% mean#( e"ectronic( mec$anica" and p$otocop%ing( recording or ot$er4i#e( 4it$out t$e prior permi##ion of t$e cop%rig$t $o"derAddress inquiries to: Re#earc$ and De,e"opment 5ranc$ Office of Learning and Teac$ing Department of Education and Training Le,e" )( 66 St Andre4# P"ace GPO 5o. 7618 Me"!ourne 6**/ Editorial Staff Sa!d$a C$ar"ton( 5i"" Hannan( Cat$erine Herric9( Mar9 Land%( Sandra Ma$ar

Re#earc$ on Learning: imp"ication# for teac$ing Edited and a!ridged e.tract#

Paper No.2, Research eLert, April 2005

Content# Introduction Trends in learning and pedagogy

Lifelong learning From developmental to sociocultural theories of learning Deep theoretical knowledge and understanding Discipline knowledge and concept formation

4 4
4 5 7 8

ew pedagogical practices
"olla#orative learning $uilding learning communities Interdisciplinarity' rich tasks and fertile (uestions )ssessment practices I"Ts

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"onclusion ,eferences

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Re#earc$ on Learning: imp"ication# for teac$ing Edited and a!ridged e.tract#

Paper No.2, Research eLert, April 2005

Introduction
T$i# paper i# a #ummar% of t$e 9e% finding# of t4o report# recent"% commi##ioned Learning and Teac$ing- T$e acu"t% of Education at Mona#$ and t$e Au#tra"ian Centre in t$e acu"t% of Education at Me"!ourne ;ni,er#it% #canned t$e "iterature "earning to identif% t$e ma<or trend# re"ating to re#earc$( t$eor% and practice- T$i# t$eir re#earc$ finding#!% t$e Office of :out$ Re#earc$ on teac$ing and i# a #nap#$ot of

T$e paper i# organi#ed into t4o #ection#- T$e fir#t #ection "oo9# at t$e ma<or trend# in pedagogica" t$in9ing= "ife>"ong "earning( c$ange# in t$eorie# of "earning( deep under#tanding and concept formation- T$e #econd #ection identifie# ,ariou# teac$ing and "earning practice# t$at ref"ect t$e#e ne4 4a%# of t$in9ing= co""a!orati,e "earning( "earning communitie#( ric$ ta#9#( a##e##ment practice# and ICT-

Trends in learning and pedagogy

Lifelong learning
Life"ong "earning ? i# concerned 4it$ promoting #9i""# and competence# nece##ar% for de,e"oping genera" capa!i"itie# and #pecific performance in 4or9 #ituation#- S9i""# and competence# de,e"oped t$roug$ program# of "ife"ong "earning are ,ita" for 4or9er# performance in t$eir tac9"ing of preci#e <o! re#pon#i!i"itie# and $o4 4e"" t$e% can adapt t$eir genera" and particu"ar 9no4"edge and competence# to ne4 ta#9#- @A#pin A C$apman )**/:/B

inding 4a%# to encourage "ife"ong "earning( t$roug$ 4or9p"ace# and !e%ond forma" "earning conte.t#( i# a gro4ing concern of a"" nation#( inc"uding Au#tra"ia @Internationa" La!our Organi#ation )***B- Life"ong "earning forma""% !egin# in t$e pre>#c$oo" %ear#- Student#C formati,e %ear# are of crucia" importance in "earning $o4 to "earn( #timu"ating t$e moti,ation to engage in furt$er "earning and !ui"ding t$e #9i""# for effecti,e "ife"ong "earning- T$u#( pre>primar% and primar% education are Dcore e"ement# of t$e conceptC @Sc$uetEe A S"o4e% )***://B- Sc$oo"# can pro,ide ric$ and fre3uent opportunitie# for #tudent# to ma9e rea" deci#ion# t$at affect t$eir o4n "i,e# and "earning proce##e#( in order to de,e"op one of t$e 9e% #9i""# of "ife"ong "earner#: ma9ing good <udgement# @5ec9ett A Hager )***BStudent# of toda%
face a future t$at 4i"" !e ,er% different( in unimagined 4a%#( from t$e pre#ent- T$e% 4i"" need to !e f"e.i!"e and cope ea#i"% 4it$ di,er#it% and am!iguit%- T$e% ma% !e a#9ed to function in !ot$ "oca" and g"o!a" communitie#( arri,ing at ? deci#ion# after due con#ideration of e,idence and po##i!i"itie#- T$e% 4i"" !e e.pected to 4or9 in inno,ati,e 4a%# a# mem!er# of profe##iona" "earning team#( acti,e"% re#earc$ing t$eir practice and contri!uting to t$e gro4t$ of t$e#e team# ? T$e pro!"em# t$at t$e% 4i"" encounter ? in ot$er "earning conte.t#( 4i"" re3uire cro##>di#cip"inar% t$in9ing and comp"e. pro!"em>defining and re#o",ing #9i""#@Hi"de!rand et a"- )**/:/B

A# adu"t "earner#( our future "earning citiEen# 4i"" t$erefore $a,e t$eir creati,it% and re#ourcefu"ne## #tretc$ed( and t$e% 4i"" regu"ar"% face et$ica" and mora" di"emma# t$at 4i"" nece##itate t$e ta9ing of an informed po#ition @Duc$ et a"- )**/B- T$i# 4i"" re3uire t$em to fee" a!"e to function a# confident
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Paper No.2, Research eLert, April 2005

and capa!"e "earner# 4$o are a!"e to t$in9 critica""%( creati,e"% and ref"ecti,e"%- According to Ritc$$art @)**/B t$e#e t$ree a#pect# of t$in9ing toget$er encompa## muc$ of 4$at i# ad,ocated a# producti,e and 4ort$4$i"e $a!it# of mind( #uc$ a# #ceptici#m and !eing #trategic @#trand# of critica" t$in9ingB= !eing metacogniti,e( t$at i# a4are of %our o4n 4a% of t$in9ing( and a #ee9er of trut$ @component# of ref"ecti,e t$in9ingB= and !eing open>minded( remaining e,er>curiou# and a#9ing D4$at if ? FC 3ue#tion# @core #trand# of creati,e t$in9ingBIn #$ort( "earning $o4 to "earn $a# !ecome a priorit% in education- Ho4e,er( concei,ing of D"earning $o4 to "earnC a# "arge"% a matter of proce##e# can underp"a% critica" 3ue#tion# a!out 9no4"edge content and re"ation#$ip# !et4een 9no4"edge area#- So too can de!ate a!out in#titutiona" arrangement#( important t$oug$ t$e% ma% !e- A# Game# and 5ec9ett point out in t$e ca#e of Au#tra"ia:
In t$e %ear# fo""o4ing t$e Cand% and Harpin report# t$e concept of "ife"ong "earning centred "e## on curricu"um and more on #tructura" i##ue#- Attention #$ifted I argua!"% narro4ed I to t$e in#titutiona" arrangement# t$at encourage and a""o4 entr% and re>entr% to forma" "earning at ,ariou# #tage# in "ife and career- @)***:/2*B

Life"ong "earning $a# to ta9e account not on"% of t$e mu"tip"e #etting# in 4$ic$ "earning occur# !ut a"#o t$e 4a%# in 4$ic$ t$e#e #etting# inf"uence or determine t$e form# of 9no4"edge- Sc$oo" curricu"a mu#t t$u# ta9e on t$e c$a""enge of de,e"oping %oung peop"eC# confidence and #9i""# to ena!"e t$em to !ecome effecti,e "ife"ong "earner# @ ie"d )***B- Suc$ a re>t$in9ing of #c$oo" curricu"a mig$t in,o",e 4$at t$e Eng"i#$ curricu"um t$eori#t Mic$ae" :oung ca""# Dne4 form# of 9no4"edge re"ation#$ip#C @/002:1B t$at are de,e"oping !et4een di#cip"ine# and #u!<ect#( !et4een #u!<ect and non>#u!<ect 9no4"edge( !et4een t$eoretica" under#tanding and practica" app"ication( and !et4een #c$oo" and non> #c$oo" "earning-

From developmental to sociocultural theories of learning

Since t$e "ate )*t$ centur% t$ere $a# !een a #$ift in t$eoretica" under#tanding# of $o4 peop"e "earnPre,iou#"% t$e emp$a#i# $ad !een on under#tanding and p"anning for c$i"drenC# c$rono"ogica" de,e"opmenta" need#- Toda% t$ere i# an emp$a#i# on under#tanding $o4 de,e"opment i# defined !% c$i"drenC# #ociocu"tura" e.perience# @Lu!ec9 et a"- )**/= "eer )**6a= )**6!B- T$i# trend i# identifia!"e acro## a range of curricu"a from ear"% c$i"d$ood to adu"t "earning( inc"uding t$e updated ,er#ion of t$e American !a#ed De,e"opmenta""% Appropriate Practice @DAPB @5rede9amp A Copp"e /008B( t$e emerging 4or9 in Reggio Emi"ia @Ne4 /002B and in t$e Ne4 Jea"and curricu"um document( Te K$ari9i @Nutta"" )**6BK$i"#t t$e American DAP curricu"um ma9e# reference to #ocio>cu"tura" dimen#ion# of "earning and de,e"opment( t$eoretica" criti3ue of t$i# approac$ argue# t$at t$e curricu"um it#e"f i# e##entia""% de,e"opmenta" in it# orientation( 4it$ t$e #ociocu"tura" component DaddedC or a##imi"ated to t$e e.i#ting de,e"opmenta" !a#i# @Ma""or% A Ne4 /007= "eer /00+= Lu!ec9 /002= Ed4ard# )**6aBHo4e,er( ot$er curricu"um approac$e#( #uc$ a# t$o#e emerging from t$e pro<ect 4or9 in Reggio Emi"ia( Ita"%( #ee9 to recogniEe t$e #ocia" nature of "earning- T$i# increa#ing"% inf"uentia" approac$ po#ition# c$i"dren a# po4erfu" "earner# and argue# t$at education #$ou"d occur 4it$in a democratic conte.t 4$ere c$i"dren are a!"e to participate in deci#ion>ma9ing a!out t$eir educationa" e.perience# @Ed4ard# et a"- /002B- Documenting c$i"drenC# "earning #er,e# to recogniEe t$e #ocia" nature of
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Paper No.2, Research eLert, April 2005

"earning !% pro,iding c$i"dren 4it$ opportunitie# to re,i#it or Dre>"aunc$C t$eir "earning ,ia di#cu##ion 4it$ t$eir caregi,er#( educator# and parent# @Da$"!erg et a"- )***BT$e de,e"opment of t$e Te K$ari9i curricu"um in Ne4 Jea"and i# anot$er #tri9ing e.amp"e of internationa" inno,ation 4$ere t$e cu"tura" nature of de,e"opment i# ref"ected 4it$in a !i>cu"tura" approac$ to curricu"um= one t$at aim# to ,a"ue !ot$ t$e Maori and Pa9e$a e.perience#( !e"ief# and e.pectation# 4it$ re#pect to c$i"drenC# de,e"opment @Ritc$ie )**6BE,idence of t$e #$ift from de,e"opmenta" curricu"a #uc$ a# DAP to a #ociocu"tura" mode" of "earning in Au#tra"ia i# mo#t c"ear"% #een in di#cu##ion# regarding t$e need to con#ider ear"% c$i"d$ood education 4it$in a cu"tura" conte.t @Ki#e A San#on )***B- T$e#e de,e"opment# find practica" e.pre##ion in t$e Lueen#"and and Ke#tern Au#tra"ian ear"% c$i"d$ood curricu"um guide"ine#- Recent"% Ne4 Sout$ Ka"e# $a# a"#o re"ea#ed a #et of curricu"um guide"ine# for ear"% c$i"d$ood education 4$ere t$e #ociocu"tura" rat$er t$an de,e"opmenta" per#pecti,e i# emp$a#iEedSociocu"tura" t$eor% $a# t$erefore !een an important cata"%#t for re>t$in9ing curricu"um and pedagog%- T$e#e de,e"opment# are in "ine 4it$ a genera" 4or"d4ide trend in education:
T$ere i# a gro4ing intere#t in 4$at $a# !ecome 9no4n a# D#ociocu"tura" t$eor%C and it# near re"ati,e Dacti,it% t$eor%C- 5ot$ tradition# are $i#torica""% "in9ed to t$e 4or9 of L-S- '%got#9% and !ot$ attempt to pro,ide an account of "earning and de,e"opment a# mediated proce##e#@Danie"# )**/:/B

Sociocu"tura" t$eor% pro,ide# re#earc$er# and practitioner# 4it$ Dmet$odo"ogica" too"# for in,e#tigating t$e proce##e# !% 4$ic$ #ocia"( cu"tura" and $i#torica" factor# #$ape $uman functioningC @Danie"# )**/B'%got#9%C# "egac% a# a #ociocu"tura" #c$o"ar $a# re#u"ted in a !urgeoning !od% of t$eoretica" 4riting and ne4 opportunitie# for pedagogica" re#earc$ in education- A# $i# interpreter #ugge#t#:
T$e#e de,e"opment# in #ocia" t$eor% are creating ne4 and important po##i!i"itie# for practice# of teac$ing and "earning in #c$oo"# and !e%ond- T$e% pro,ide u# 4it$ t$eoretica" con#truct#( in#ig$t# and under#tanding# 4$ic$ 4e can u#e to de,e"op our o4n t$in9ing a!out t$e practice# of education- @Danie"# )**/:)B

In Mind and Society '%got#9% 4rote t$at( D<u#t a# a mou"d gi,e# #$ape to a #u!#tance( 4ord# can #$ape an acti,it% into a #tructureC @/082:)2B- T$e traditiona" de,e"opmenta" approac$ to education $a# mou"ded and #$aped t$e re#u"tant approac$ to o!#er,ation( p"anning and curricu"um- Sociocu"tura" t$eor% $a# "i9e4i#e produced ne4 curricu"a and 4a%# of t$in9ing a!out education( 4$ic$ differ from t$e dominant di#cour#e and 4or"d ,ie4- T$e finding# of "eer and Ro!!in# @)**6a= )**6!= )**7B and Ed4ard# @)**6!B from Au#tra"ia are con#i#tent 4it$ re#earc$ u#ing #ociocu"tura" t$eor% underta9en in ot$er Eng"i#$ #pea9ing countrie# inc"uding t$e ;H @Ed4ard# /000= )***= )**/= )**)a= )**)!= Anning )**7= Sira<>5"atc$ford )**7= Kood )**7B( Ne4 Jea"and @Cu""en )**7= Nutta"" )**7B and t$e ;S @Lu!ec9 /001= /002BK$i"#t t$e dominant di#cour#e# #urrounding t$e domain# of "earning @#uc$ a# DAPB $a,e !een en#$rined in 3ua"it% a##urance proce##e# @ "eer A Henned% )***B( #cope e.i#t# for teac$er# and re#earc$er# to con#ider ne4 t$eoretica" per#pecti,e# and pedagogica" practice# deri,ed "arge"% from
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Paper No.2, Research eLert, April 2005

#ociocu"tura" t$eor%- T$e#e emp$a#i#e t$e need to ac9no4"edge c$i"dren in t$eir pre#ent "i,e# a# acti,e mem!er# of different communitie# 4$o de,e"op t$eir 9no4"edge of t$e 4or"d 4it$in t$e conte.t of t$eir #ocia" and cu"tura" re"ation#$ip#-

Deep theoretical knowledge and understanding

Surface 9no4"edge and "earning $a# !een c$aracteri#ed !% Me%er @)***B a# unref"ecti,e #tud%ing of a fragmented curricu"um( unt$in9ing acceptance of te.t# or ot$er aut$oritie# and memoriEing 4it$out under#tanding- Deep 9no4"edge and "earning( !% definition( #ee9# to re,er#e t$e#e practice#- It re3uire# time to #tud% in dept$ a "imited num!er of topic# and #u!<ect#- It demand# an en3uiring and ana"%tica" approac$ to information and interpretation#( and it re3uire# #u!<ect e.perti#e on t$e part of teac$er#T$e mo#t #ignificant de,e"opment in )/#t centur% pedagog% i# "i9e"% to !e t$e #$ift to4ard curricu"a( teac$ing and a##e##ment t$at fa,our deeper t$eoretica" 9no4"edge and "earning- A# Keiga" argue#:
Ke ma% 4e"" !e in t$e initia" #tage# of a re,o"ution in "earning t$at com!ine# ric$ne## 4it$ acce##i!i"it% and in #o doing part# compan% 4it$ t$e dominant educationa" motif of #urface "earning- @)**6:.i,B

Nonet$e"e##( #urface "earning continue# to pre,ai" in man% #u!<ect fie"d#- De#pite t$e ad,ance# t$at $ad a"read% !een made to4ard# deep "earning in mat$ematic#( t$e American re#earc$er Go$n 5ruer #ugge#ted in t$e ear"% /00*# t$at:
Man% #tudent# donCt 9no4 4$% t$e mat$ procedure# t$e% "earn in #c$oo" 4or9 ? Too often( mat$ in#truction produce# #tudent# 4$o can manipu"ate num!er #%m!o"# !ut 4$o donCt under#tand 4$at t$e #%m!o"# mean- @/006:2/B

T$e American 4riter Gean Sc$mittau( in a criti3ue of !a#ing mat$ematic# on t$e acti,it% of counting( argue# t$at #pontaneou# and empirica" concept# need to !e rep"aced !% t$e more #cientific concept of mea#urement( Dnot on"% to ena!"e #tudent# to gra#p mat$ematic# at a deep conceptua" "e,e"( !ut to de,e"op t$eir a!i"it% to t$in9 t$eoretica""%C @)**6:)6)BRe#earc$ in t$e fie"d of #cience education $a# found t$at a"t$oug$ o"der #tudent# can u#e more #cience term# t$an %ounger #tudent#( t$e% ma% dec"ine in t$eir under#tanding of fundamenta" concept#5ui"ding on t$e#e criti3ue#( Grae##er et a"- note t$at D4$at i# mi##ing are t$e deep( co$erent e.p"anation# t$at organiEe t$e #$a""o4 9no4"edge and fortif% "earner# for generating inference#( rea#oning( and app"%ing t$eir 9no4"edge to practica" #ituation#C @)**):66BT$ere i# mounting e,idence a!out t$e po#iti,e impact of deep "earning #trategie# and met$od# on #tudent performance- Longitudina" re#earc$ conducted !% Ne4mann et a"- @)**/B $a# in,o",ed "arge co$ort# of #tudent# from nineteen different #c$oo"# in di#ad,antaged area# in C$icago ;SA- T$e finding# #$o4ed t$at a##ignment# offering aut$entic inte""ectua" c$a""enge# to #tudent# contri!uted mar9ed"% to #tudent#C performance in !a#ic #9i""# te#t#- Lo4 e.pectation# of #tudent# and concentration on D!a#ic#C at t$e co#t of #tudent inte""ectua" de,e"opment 4ere detrimenta" to #tudent#C #ucce##Deep t$in9ing and "earning a"#o $a,e a #ocia" and emotiona" dimen#ion- T$at i#:
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Paper No.2, Research eLert, April 2005

Emotion# function cogniti,e"% on"% 4$en t$e% em!ed !e"ief#- or e.amp"e( an emotion #uc$ a# DfearC cannot !e genuine if one doe# not !e"ie,e in dangerAn emotion pro,ide# a frame of reference- or e.amp"e( parenta" "o,e i# a frame4or9 4it$in 4$ic$ one organiEe# a #et of fee"ing#( attitude# and action#Emotion# can $e"p or di#tract our focu#Emotion# can ma9e t$ing# #tand out !% $eig$tening our a4arene## and redirecting our attention- @E"gin cited in Lipman )**6:/)0B

T$e a!i"it% to recogni#e emotiona" re#pon#e# in one#e"f and ot$er# can a"#o "ead to #e"f>contro" !ot$ #ocia""% and educationa""%- T$i# i# a"#o t$e centra" me##age in t$e "iterature 4$ic$ focu#e# on #ocia" and emotiona" "earning referred to in t$e "iterature a# SEL( a term adopted in ;SA t$roug$ t$e net4or9 CASEL @t$e Co""a!orati,e for Academic( Socia" and Emotiona" LearningB-

Discipline knowledge and concept formation

Re"ated to 3ue#tion# of #urface and deep "earning i# t$e fact t$at "earner# a"read% $a,e t$eir o4n idea# and concept# t$at t$e% !ring to !ear on ne4 "earning- E,er%da% or #pontaneou# idea# and concept# are ac3uired t$roug$ a "earnerC# o4n ref"ection# on e,er%da% "ife- T$e American t$eori#t Ho4ard Gardner note# t$e pedagogica" pro!"em of t$e Dt$e po4er of ear"% t$eorie#C= t$at i#( t$o#e t$eorie# !% 4$ic$ c$i"dren and %oung peop"e #pontaneou#"% de,e"op intuiti,e t$eorie# of matter( "ife( mind( and $uman re"ation# @)**7:+7>++B- Suc$ t$eorie#( $e o!#er,e#( ma% $a,e Da #urface p"au#i!i"it% to t$emC( !eing !a#ed on t$e e,idence of t$e #en#e# and appearing to !e ,a"idated from time to time @+1B- T$e% ma% a"#o contain man% profound in#ig$t# and trut$#- Ho4e,er( e,en if erroneou#( #uc$ t$eorie# are Ddifficu"t to c$ange( and ear"% t$eorie# pro,e e#pecia""% difficu"t to a"terC @+8B- Depending on a "earnerC# !ac9ground and !e"ief#( t$e meeting of #cientific concept# 4it$ e,er%da% and #pontaneou# t$eorie# ma% e.tend from ear"% c$i"d$ood 4e"" into adu"t "ifeIn term# of content ac3ui#ition @particu"ar"% t$at a##ociated 4it$ "iterac% and numerac%B( c$i"drenC# capacit% to "earn t$e "and#cape of #c$oo"ing i# furt$er comp"icated !% t$e need to "earn t$e "anguage and frame of reference of eac$ di#cip"ine area @Greeno /00/B- Sociocu"tura" #tudie# 4it$in #c$oo" conte.t# $a,e demon#trated t$at #u!<ect domain# a"#o $a,e t$eir o4n "anguage:
Tec$nica"it% and a!#traction are too"# 4$ic$ @are u#edB to e.p"ore t$e #u!<ect area# of t$e curricu"um- T$e #tudent t$erefore $a# to "earn to mar#$a" t$e "anguage of tec$nica"it% and a!#traction in 4a%# appropriate to eac$ di#cip"ine ? Hno4"edge of #pecia"i#ed regi#ter# i# a po4erfu" mean# of acce## in #ociet% and t$erefore need# to !e taug$t a# t$i# gi,e# t$e #tudent con#ciou# contro"( at "ea#t to #ome degree( of t$e#e tec$no"ogie#- @ o"e% cited in Danie"# )**/:/+0>1*B

T$e a##ertion t$at c$i"drenC# acce## to educationa" genre# i# conditioned !% t$eir #ociocu"tura" e.perience# i# #trengt$ened furt$er !% '%got#9%C# premi#e t$at 4$i"#t #cientific or di#cip"ine 9no4"edge and e,er%da% t$in9ing are different( reciprocit% !et4een t$em i# e##entia" for "earning to occur- '%got#9% argued t$at e,er%da% or em!edded conte.t# are important pat$4a%# to4ard under#tanding di#>em!edded or D#cientific t$oug$tC-

Re#earc$ on Learning: imp"ication# for teac$ing Edited and a!ridged e.tract#

Paper No.2, Research eLert, April 2005

T$i# per#pecti,e "ead# to t$e #ugge#tion offered !% Danie"# @/001B( t$at teac$er# #$ou"d mo,e !e%ond a #imp"e focu# on #tud%ing concept# in i#o"ation to e.amining c$i"drenC# conceptua" under#tanding# 4it$in an em!edded and ric$"% !a#ed conte.t- or e.amp"e( e.amining $o4 "iterac% and numerac% are fo#tered and de,e"oped 4it$in $ome# and communitie# a# 4e"" a# in #c$oo"# and centre#( can "ead to in#ig$t# not on"% into c$i"drenC# "earning( !ut a"#o into difference# !et4een 4a%# in 4$ic$ "iterac% and numerac% ma% de,e"op in t$e ,ariou# conte.t of a "earnerC# "ife- In t$i# 4a% it i# po##i!"e to #ee $o4 e,er%da% and #cientific t$in9ing in "iterac% and numerac% are introduced( framed and #upported I 4$et$er intentiona""% or notC"o#er #c$oo" "in9# to t$e #tudent#C communitie# and t$e 9no4"edge t$at t$e#e communitie# $o"d i# t$u#
t$e mo#t important re#ource for reorgani#ing in#truction in 4a%# t$at Dfar e.ceedC t$e "imit# of current #c$oo"ing ? T$e#e #ocia" connection# $e"p teac$er# and #tudent# to de,e"op t$eir a4arene## of $o4 t$e% can u#e t$e e,er%da% to under#tand c"a##room content and u#e c"a##room acti,itie# to under#tand #ocia" rea"it%- @Mo"" A Green!erg /00*:67+>71B

An e.c$ange of cu"tura" 9no4"edge !et4een #c$oo"# and fami"ie# 4ou"d t$erefore contri!ute ,a"ua!"% to c$i"drenC# "earning e.perience#- or e.amp"e( Rogoff @)**6B found t$at c$i"dren gro4ing up in "o4 #ocio>economic circum#tance# continue to !e di#ad,antaged in #c$oo"#( #ince t$e cu"tura" capita" t$e% $a,e ac3uired prior to forma" #c$oo"ing i# not 4e"" under#tood !% t$e education communit%A##umption# $e"d !% teac$er# 4or9ing 4it$ c$i"dren from "o4 #ocio>economic circum#tance# regarding t$eir pre>#c$oo" e.perience# !rand c$i"dren a# deficient in "iterac% and numerac%- T$i# finding i# con#i#tent 4it$ ot$er #tudie# t$at $a,e e.amined t$e #c$oo"ing e.perience of "o4 #ocio> economic communitie# @Hi"" et a"- /002B-

"eer and Ro!!in# @)**7B a"#o #$o4 t$at teac$er# do not routine"% e.amine t$e "earning "and#cape of t$eir #tudent#( and t$at c$i"dren 4$o are D#"o4 to 4arm upC in t$e ne4 "earning "and#cape of #c$oo" ma% !e <udged !% teac$er# a# deficient in t$eir "iterac% and numerac% #9i""#- T$roug$ e.amining t$e "earning "and#cape of fami"ie#( it i# more "i9e"% t$at t$e D#"o4 #tart to #c$oo"C c$i"dren 4i"" !e ,ie4ed a# e.periencing a mi#matc$ !et4een #c$oo" di#cour#e and practice# and t$eir e.perience 4it$in t$e fami"%-

ew pedagogical practices
T$e fo""o4ing #ection out"ine# #ome #trategie# t$at #upport #ociocu"tura" t$eorie# of pedagog%( inc"uding concept# of deep 9no4"edge and "ife"ong "earning-

Collaborative learning
Co""a!orati,e "earning $a# !een practi#ed in #c$oo"# for man% decade#- T$ere i# muc$ profe##iona" e.perti#e and e.perience in de,e"oping #trategie# for co""a!orati,e "earning- T$ere i# a ro!u#t re#earc$ tradition addre##ing a m%riad of i##ue# to do 4it$ co""a!orati,e "earning( from t$e pioneering 4or9 of '%got#9% and ear"% re#earc$er# to #tudie# in,e#tigating t$e "in9# !et4een ne4 pedagog% and information tec$no"og%- Ho4e,er( t$ere are "imitation# in t$e re#earc$: on"% a fe4 #tudie# #ugge#t t$at 4or9ing in a #ma"" team ac$ie,e# cogniti,e outcome# t$at cannot !e matc$ed or e.ceeded !% t$e mo#t
Re#earc$ on Learning: imp"ication# for teac$ing Edited and a!ridged e.tract#

Paper No.2, Research eLert, April 2005

capa!"e group mem!er @Sc$4artE )**/:/08B- Nonet$e"e##( co""a!orati,e "earning $a# !een #$o4n to !e a more effecti,e 4a% of "earning t$an indi,idua"iEed or competiti,e "earning @S"a,in /026= Go$n#on A Go$n#on /028B- T$e American re#earc$er# Go$n#on and Go$n#on conc"uded t$at:
If #tudent>#tudent interdependence i# #tructured carefu""% and appropriate"%( #tudent# 4i"" ac$ie,e at a $ig$er "e,e"( more fre3uent"% u#e $ig$er "e,e" rea#oning #trategie#( $a,e $ig$er "e,e"# of academic moti,ation( !e more intrin#ica""% moti,ated( de,e"op more po#iti,e interper#ona" re"ation#$ip# 4it$ eac$ ot$er( ,a"ue more t$e #u!<ect area !eing #tudied( $a,e $ig$er #e"f>e#teem( and !e #9i""ed interper#ona""%- @/028:0B

Go$n#on et a"- @)***B $a,e recent"% #ugge#ted t$at t$ere i# no ot$er pedagogica" practice t$at #imu"taneou#"% generate# #uc$ di,er#e po#iti,e outcome# a# co""a!orati,e "earning-

Building learning communities

A 9e% c$a""enge for educator# in rea"i#ing '%got#9%C# #ocia" "earning t$eor% i# to conceptua"i#e t$e domain# of "earning a# part# of a 4$o"e I to recogni#e t$at 9no4"edge and ,a"ue# ari#e 4it$in #pecific educati,e communitie#( and t$e "arger communitie# to 4$ic$ t$e% !e"ong- Neit$er 9no4"edge nor #ocia" re"ation#$ip# de,e"op in i#o"ation- Hno4"edge and ,a"ue# are ac3uired and t$eori#ed 4it$in an indi,idua"C# particu"ar communit%: name"% fami"%( neig$!our#( friend#( and co""eague#( 4$o participate to ,ar%ing degree# in communitie# of intere#t and in "oca"( et$nic( regiona" and nationa" communitie#T$e American t$eori#t T-G- Sergio,anni #ugge#t# t$at #$ared conception# a!out curricu"um are e##entia" to de,e"oping a communit% of mind among teac$er# and !et4een t$em and ot$er# @/007BAc9no4"edging t$at t$ere are man% different t%pe# of "earning communitie# Ga!e"nic9 et a"- @/00*B #ugge#t t$at "earning communitie# are principa""% ne4 9ind# of more co""a!orati,e curricu"ar #tructure# 4it$in in#titution# t$at "in9 different di#cip"ine# and #u!<ect area# around common t$eme# or 3ue#tion#- T$e% argue t$at "earning communitie#
purpo#e"% re#tructure t$e curricu"um to "in9 toget$er cour#e or cour#e 4or9 #o t$at #tudent# find greater co$erence in 4$at t$e% are "earning a# 4e"" a# increa#ed inte""ectua" interaction 4it$ facu"t% and fe""o4 #tudent#- @Ga!e"nic9 et a"- /00*:+B

Con#i#tent 4it$ t$i# definition( Ga!e"nic9 et a"- maintain t$at t$e#e communitie# are u#ua""% a##ociated 4it$ co""a!orati,e and acti,e approac$e# to "earning( #ome form of team teac$ing( and interdi#cip"inar% t$eme#- T$e% add t$at( !% promoting t$e integration of 9no4"edge( "earning communitie# counteract t$e i#o"ating tendencie# of education and t$e curricu"ar Ddi#>integrationC t$at re#u"t# 4$en 9no4"edge i# compartmenta"iEed into competing di#cip"ine# and i#o"ated cour#e#- T$u#( "earning communitie# offer an a"ternati,e to an educationa" en,ironment 4$ere "o%a"t% to oneC# di#cip"ine #eparate#( e.c"ude#( and i#o"ate#-

Interdisciplinarity: rich tasks and fertile questions

T$e Eng"i#$ curricu"um t$eori#t( Mic$ae" :oung( imagine# a curricu"um of t$e future t$at o,ercome# di,i#ion# !et4een academic and ,ocationa" 9no4"edge and !rea9# t$e in#u"arit% of t$e o"d academic #u!<ect di,i#ion#- T$i# curricu"um ari#e# from Ddeeper c$ange# in t$e form of #pecia"iEation not <u#t a# it appear# in t$e curricu"um !ut in t$e 4ider di,i#ion of "a!our and occupationa" #tructure of #ociet%C

Re#earc$ on Learning: imp"ication# for teac$ing Edited and a!ridged e.tract#

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Paper No.2, Research eLert, April 2005

@/002:8*B- :oung doe# not propo#e a mo,e a4a% from #pecia"iEation !ut rat$er more integrati,e or connecti,e form# of #pecia"iEation- In curricu"ar term#( :oung #ugge#t# t$at:
T$e c$ange i# not a4a% from #pecia"iEation !ut to4ard# ne4 form# t$at can @at "ea#t in princip"eB free #pecia"iEation from it# a##ociation 4it$ #e"ection and in#u"ation- The separation of specialization from its association with divisions and the insulation of subject areas is the key basis for distinguishing between a divided curriculum or curriculum of the past and a curriculum of the future. @/002:87( emp$a#i# in t$e origina"B

Suc$ a curricu"um( :oung note#( 4ou"d need to !ui"d on and #pecif% t$e princip"e# of !readt$ and f"e.i!i"it%( connection# !et4een !ot$ core and #pecia"i#t #tudie# and genera" @academicB and app"ied @,ocationa"B #tudie#( opportunitie# for progre##ion and credit tran#fer( and a c"ear #en#e of t$e purpo#e of t$e curricu"um a# a 4$o"e @/002:80BIn t$e ood!ork "roject( Ho4ard Gardner and ot$er# at t$e Har,ard Graduate Sc$oo" of Education are #ee9ing to e#ta!"i#$ Dparameter# for a pedagog% of interdi#cip"inarit%C( inc"uding t$e de,e"opment of #trategie# t$at teac$er# and #tudent# can u#e to Dintegrate 9no4"edge from t4o or more di#cip"ine# to create product#( #o",e pro!"em#( or produce e.p"anation#C @)**6:/B- In t$i# conte.t( t$e notion of Dric$ ta#9#C( a# propo#ed !% a re#earc$ and de,e"opment team at Education Lueen#"and( i# an intere#ting de,e"opment @)***B- It i# a"#o con#i#tent 4it$ ot$er re#earc$ #uc$ a# in3uirie# into Daut$entic ac$ie,ementC @Ne4mann /001B and Daut$entic inte""ectua" 4or9C @Ne4mann et a"- )**/BRic$ ta#9# dra4 on 9no4"edge( #9i""# and practice# acro## di#cip"ine#( and for t$i# rea#on are #aid to !e Dtran#di#cip"inar%C- To #ome e.tent t$e% "end #u!#tance to t$e contro,er#ia" a##ertion of t$e 5riti#$ t$eori#t# Gi!!on# et a"- @/007B t$at di#cip"ine# are "o#ing t$eir #ignificance- ;nfortunate"%( di#cour#e a!out t$i# concept tend# to !e i"">defined and in muc$>di#puted term#: cro##>di#cip"inar%( inter> di#cip"inar%( tran#>di#cip"inar% and mu"ti>di#cip"inar%( not to mention t$e term Ddi#cip"ineC it#e"f( 4$ic$ $a# an uncertain #tatu# in t$e de#ign of #c$oo" curricu"aNonet$e"e##( e,en if not a"4a%# #tated e.p"icit"% in #ome of t$e "iterature( ric$ ta#9# 3ue#tion o"d a##umption# a!out Ddept$-C Common"% Ddept$C i# e3uated 4it$ di#cip"inar% 9no4"edge( 4$erea# a ne4 9ind of dept$ i# emerging- Ac9no4"edging t$at Dmuc$ interdi#cip"inar% 4or9 run# t$e ri#9 of "ac9 of dept$ rat$er t$an "earning a!out fie"d# and #u!>fie"d# of 9no4"edgeC( t$e Lueen#"and Ne4 5a#ic# Pro<ect in#i#t# t$at ric$ ta#9# mu#t #tre## Dt$e need for dept$ of 9no4"edge in !ot$ traditiona" and non> traditiona" operationa" fie"d# and di#cip"ine#C @Education Lueen#"and )***:06B-

ssessment practices
Critica" to an% initiati,e in teac$ing and "earning are t$e accompan%ing a##e##ment practice#: Da##e##ment i# fre3uent"% t$e engine t$at dri,e# pedagog% and t$e curricu"umC @Hi"de!rand /001:/70BIt #$ape# "earner#C moti,ation( t$eir #en#e of prioritie# and t$eir "earning tactic#- A##e##ment practice# #$ou"d not !e tac9ed on a# addenda( !ut integrated into t$e teac$ing>"earning>curricu"um de#ign proce##Stiggin# @)**/B pre#ent# a ca#e for #tudent# to !e acti,e"% in,o",ed in t$eir o4n a##e##ment in order to en$ance t$eir "earning- Ne4mann @/001B goe# furt$er 4$en $e define# aut$entic ac$ie,ement a# t$at 4$ic$ in,o",e# #ignificant and meaningfu" 4or9 t$at produce# ne4 9no4"edge( not mere"% reproducing recei,ed 4i#dom- He argue# t$at 4$ere #tudent# $a,e opportunitie# to engage in rea"
Re#earc$ on Learning: imp"ication# for teac$ing Edited and a!ridged e.tract#

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Paper No.2, Research eLert, April 2005

4or9( re"e,ant to t$eir "i,e#( teac$er# 4i"" !e Dmore "i9e"% to moti,ate and #u#tain #tudent# in t$e $ard 4or9 t$at "earning re3uire#C @Ne4mann /001:)8B- Arter and McTig$e a"#o #ugge#t t$at teac$er# #$ou"d "earn $o4 to de,e"op and u#e more e.p"icit performance and #coring criteria 4$ic$ can !e
po4erfu" in#tructiona" too"# for impro,ing t$e ,er% ac$ie,ement t$at i# a"#o !eing a##e##ed ? T$e idea i# #imp"e I teac$ #tudent# t$e criteria for 3ua"it% and $o4 to app"% t$em to t$eir o4n 4or9 to ma9e it !etter- @Arter A McTig$e )**/:2)B

or t$e#e rea#on#( t$ere i# current"% 4or"d>4ide intere#t in #$ifting a4a% from con,entiona" a##e##ment practice# t$at $a,e "ed to #uperficia" "earning and "o4 "e,e"# of engagement 4it$ "earningT$e Eng"i#$ 4riter P-G- 5"ac9 argue# t$at #c$oo"# mu#t mo,e from a##e##ment of "earning to a##e##ment for and a# "earning @5"ac9 et a"- )**6= Ear" )**6B- 5"ac9 @/002B argue# t$at one of t$e mo#t important #tep# teac$er# can ta9e to impro,e #tudent outcome# i# to underta9e more formati,e a##e##ment- A focu# on #ummati,e a##e##ment can !e counter>producti,e if our aim i# to en$ance deep "earning and t$e de,e"opment of "ife"ong "earning #9i""# #uc$ a# metacognitionToda%( pre#enting and under#tanding oneC# o4n "earning i# an e##entia" component of "ife"ong "earning and in,o",e# a "e,e" of #e"f>a##e##ment t$at can !e practi#ed in #c$oo"# @Ki"#on A King Gan /002B- 5ot$ formati,e and #ummati,e c"a##room a##e##ment #$ou"d t$erefore p"a% an important part in an% c$ange# to curricu"um reform or to t$e introduction of ne4 "earning t$eorie# to c"a##room teac$ing @S$epard )**/B-

IC!s
T$ere i# a gro4ing !od% of e,idence #ugge#ting t$at particu"ar app"ication# of ICT# in educationa" conte.t# can ad,antage "earner# and faci"itate teac$ing- Con#idera!"e di#cu##ion a!out ne4 pedagogie# #ee9# to identif% #ome 4$o"e#a"e c$ange# in t$e 4a%# t$at educator# oug$t to frame t$eir 4or9( and 4$i"e #uc$ a t$eoretica" #ummar% 4ou"d !e u#efu"( it i# c"ear t$at t$e ad,antage# to #tudent# u#ing ICT# can !e #een in #pecific #ituation#- O,era""( #tudie# $a,e #$o4n t$at: Hig$er order t$in9ing #9i""# impro,e 4it$ $ome and #c$oo" acce## to computer#= Student co""a!oration t$roug$ #oft4are app"ication# can impro,e pro!"em #o",ing( and t$e 3ua"it% of di#cu##ion#= ICT# pro,ide different and effecti,e opportunitie# for communication( and de,e"oping communication #9i""#= ICT# u#ed 4it$in t$e proce## of 9no4"edge con#truction( programming( and ref"ection pro,ide particu"ar rea#oning and pro!"em #o",ing c$a""enge# t$at are re"e,ant and effecti,e-

rom t$e point of ,ie4 of curricu"um( t$ere are t4o principa" i##ue#: "earning a!out ICT#( and "earning 4it$ ICT#- T$e fir#t of t$e#e inc"ude# "earner under#tanding# of t$e 4a%# t$at ICT# impact #ociet%( and $o4 ,a"ue# and po4er are imp"ied and communicated t$roug$ tec$no"og%- T$i# i# a departure from t$e ,ie4 t$at tec$nica" #9i"" and 9no4"edge of t$e 4or9ing of mac$ine# i# t$e e.tent of t$i# domainT$e #econd i##ue "ocate# ICT# 4it$in t$e pedagogie# of ot$er fie"d#- To #ome e.tent t$ere are generic a#pect# 4$ic$ inc"ude communication( pro<ect management( pu!"i#$ing( managing digita" artefact# and pro!"em #o",ing 4it$ ICT#- T$ere are a"#o imp"ication# for #pecific ICT# in #ome curricu"um area# t$at inc"ude #imu"ation( demon#tration( and programming- An opening up of t$e curricu"um to
Re#earc$ on Learning: imp"ication# for teac$ing Edited and a!ridged e.tract#

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Paper No.2, Research eLert, April 2005

#upport cro##>age and cro##>di#cip"ine "earning acti,itie# pro,ide# good opportunitie# to e.p"ore t$e#e i##ue#( and #o( approac$e# to t$i# #t%"e of 4or9 need# re#earc$ and e.ten#i,e documentationTeac$er profe##iona" de,e"opment a!out and t$roug$ ICT# i# a comp"e. area 4$ere #ignificant re#earc$ $a# !een conducted- It i# 4ort$ noting t$at t$o#e profe##iona" de,e"opment initiati,e# 4$ic$ feature em!edded proce##e# for ref"ection( action re#earc$( and profe##iona" communit% offer fine mode"# for re#earc$ 4it$ tangi!"e and re4arding outcome#-

"onclusion
T$e demand# of a 9no4"edge econom% $a,e prompted a rene4ed focu# on "earning and teac$ing- A# a re#u"t t$ere are a"ternati,e pedagogica" mode"# 4$ic$ c$a""enge "earning and teac$ing a# in#titutiona"iEed in #c$oo"#- T$e#e mode"# #tre## t$e importance of t$e #ocia""% #ituated nature of "earning= po#itioning "earner# a# co""a!orating in t$e creation of ne4 9no4"edge and t$e de,e"opment of ne4 #9i""#- 5% #$aring e.perience# and con#tructing 9no4"edge 4it$ ot$er#( "earner# are de,e"oping #ignificant form# of #ocia" and academic competence- A focu# on t$e #ocia" nature of "earning i# integra" to a ,i#ion of a democratic #ociet% and an acti,e"% engaged citiEenr%- Acro## a"" "earning #ector#( re#earc$ i# emp$a#i#ing t$e importance of de,e"oping ne4 approac$e# t$at in,o",e deep t$eoretica" 9no4"edge and under#tanding and t$e cogniti,e and affecti,e a#pect# of teac$ing and "earning-

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Paper No.2, Research eLert, April 2005

,eferences

Re#earc$ on Learning: imp"ication# for teac$ing Edited and a!ridged e.tract#

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