Chapter 6 : Metabolism Energy and Enzyme 6.

1 Energy
Energy

Energy is the ability to do work or bring about a change Kinetic energy is the energy of motion Potential energy is stored energy Chemical energy in food is converted into mechanical energy when an animal moves

Two laws of Thermodynamics

1. The first law of thermodynamics states the energy cannot be created nor destroyed 2. The second law states the energy cannot be changed from one form to another without

the loss of usable energy. As energy is converted from one form to another it eventually becomes heat which dissipates in the environment Cells and Entropy

Entropy is a measure of disorder. To achieve the order in the organization of organisms that requires an input of energy. Eventually this energy is converted to heat (high entropy) and dissipates. Therefore, a continual input of energy is necessary to maintain organisms

6.2 Metabolic Reactions and Energy Transformations

Metabolism Involves Reactants
Metabolism consists of

Exergonic

chemical reactions that use reactants and result in products. Free energy is the energy available to do work after a reaction Exergonic reactions release energy

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 Endergonic reactions have

to have an input of energy in order to occur ATP: Energy for Cells: Structure of ATP
Adenosine Triphosphate

Endergonic

(ATP) ATP is adenine plus three phosphate groups. ATP is a high energy molecule because the third phosphate group is easily removed.

Section 6.1~6.2 [Questions]

1) What is metabolism?

2) Under what conditions do reactions occur spontaneously?

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3) What is free energy? And how is it ' better' than entropy when considering reactions?

4) Use - and + and mention which ones go with exergonic and endergonic reactions. Add in the correct letter and symbol for free energy.

5) What are some benefits of using ATP over glucose in terms of energy?

6) How are exergonic and endergonic reactions related to coupled reactions? Relate this to ATP.

7) What are 3 functions of ATP in terms of work?

8) What is a coupled reaction?

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6.3 Metabolic Pathways and Enzymes

Metabolic Pathways

Metabolic Pathways are linked reactions that begin with a reactant and end with a product An enzyme is a protein that speeds chemical reactions because it causes substrates to react A pathway involving A->B->C would require an enzyme to help A -> B and another enzyme to help B->C
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Energy of Activation

Energy that must be added to cause molecules to react is called the energy of activation. (Ea) Enzymes lower the energy of activation, making it more likely that substrates will meet

Exergonic
Enzyme - Substrate Complexes

Endergonic

The equation + + shows that the enzyme and substrate form a complex. Enzymes are named for their substrate because they are specific the shape of the substrate are complementary to one another. A process called induced fit assures that an enzyme - substrate complex will form.

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Coupled Reactions

In coupled reactions, an exergonic reaction drives an endergonic reaction. The breakdown of ATP drives many coupled reactions.

Cellular Respiration

Photosynthesis

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Functions of ATP

ATP breakdown releases energy that drives reactions in cells, e.g., synthetic reactions, muscle contraction, nerve conduction

Factors Affecting Enzymatic Speed: 1) Substrate Concentration

As substrate concentration increases, there are more collisions between substrate molecules and enzyme

2) Temperature and pH

Both a warm temperature and an optimal pH speed an enzymatic reaction. Usually a boiling temperature and an extreme pH cause a protein to denature and the reaction stops

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3) Enzyme Concentration

When genes are active more enzyme is present to speed a reaction. Enzyme are often activated when kinases phosphorylate them.

Nearly every enzyme activity regulated by feedback inhibition A product molecule may occupy the active site in competitive inhibition
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The end product may also bind to an allosteric site; when the end product occupies this site, the shape of the active site changes and the substrate cannot fit there and no more product is formed.

Enzyme cofactors include inorganic ion cofactors and nonprotein organic coenzymes. Vitamins are often components of coenzymes needed by enzymes to carry out their reactions. Coenzymes, unlike enzymes, participate in the reaction

Homework questions: 1) Q: Draw a metabolic pathway that begins with a reactant, has 5 intermediate steps, and ends with a final product. Use letters and numbers to symbolize your pathway. Include enzyme at each step. A: E1 E2 E3 E4 E5
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2) Q: What is the induced fit model of enzymes? A: It refers to the active site undergoing a slight change in order to accommodate its corresponding substrate. 3) Q: Why are enzymes named for their substrate? A: This is to show their specificity. A specific enzyme is used to react with different substrate. Examples: Lipid Lipase Urea Urease Maltose Maltase Ribonucleic acid Ribonuclease Lactose Lactase 4. Q: Adding more substrate with a fixed amount of enzyme past a certain point no longer increases the rate of reaction. Why? A: When enzymes active sites are filled almost continuously with substrate, the enzymes rate of activity cannot increase any more. As a result, maximum rate has been reached. 5. Q: Draw 3 graphs: label the Y axis with reaction rate and the X axis with substrate concentration, temperature and enzyme concentration. Then draw an appropriate graph and . (The rest is trivial). A: Refer to graphs on P 4~5 of this note package. 6: Q: What is feedback inhibition, and how does it work? Discuss a simple and then a more complicated example of it. A: Feedback inhibition occurs when the substrate is unable to bind to the active site of an enzyme. The activity of almost every enzyme in a cell is regulated by feedback inhibition. In the simplest case, when there is plenty of product, it binds to the enzymes active site, and then the substrate is unable to bind. These are competitive inhibitors. In a more complex example, the end product of an active pathway binds to a site other than the active site of the first enzyme. The binding changes the shape of the active site and therefore the substrate is unable to bind to the enzyme, and the pathway shuts down. Hence no more product is produced. These are non-competitive inhibitors. 7. Q: Why do bacteria die yet humans do not when penicillin is administered?

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A: Penicillin is an antimicrobial agent that blocks the active site unique for bacteria; therefore, penicillin is a poison for bacteria but not human. 8: Why do we need vitamin? (Imagine this is a Plattners type of 4 -5 marks test question and you lose marks severely if you are missing points.) A: Vitamins are: 1) Components of coenzymes 2) Required in trace amounts in our diet and in diets of other animals for synthesis coenzymes that affect health and physical fitness 3) Becomes part of the coenzymes molecular structure.

6.4 Oxidation-Reduction and the Flow of Energy

The redox reaction Oxidation is the loss of elections Reduction is the gain of electrons In cells, redox reactions often involve the oxidation of substrates by removal of hydrogen atoms and the reduction of others by the gain of hydrogen atoms.

Photosynthesis A REDUCTION (gain electron) reaction Carbon dioxide is reduced to glucose and water is oxidized to oxygen. Reduction of carbon dioxide to form a mole of glucose stores 686 kcal in the chemical bonds of glucose.

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Cellular Respiration An OXIDATION (lose electron) reaction Glucose is oxidized to carbon dioxide and oxygen is reduced to water. The oxidation of a mole of glucose releases 686kcal in energy and this is used to synthesize ATP.

Organelles and the flow of energy Chloroplasts capture the energy of the sun and carry on photosynthesis to produce carbohydrates. Mitochondria carry out aerobic cellular respiration that break glucose down; the energy released produces ATP molecules. Cycling molecules between chloroplasts and mitochondria allows a flow of energy from the sun through all living things.

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