CONTENTS CONTENTS

2188

Electrical Tec n!l!g"

67898 67898 Bipolar Junction ransistor ransistor ransistor 67898 67898 Bipolar Junction ransistor ransistor T%e transistor as in0ente! b' a tea& of t%ree scientists at Bell #aboratories: ;(/ in 9<478 67898 Bipolar Junction T

/lt%oug% t%e first transistor as not a bipolar .unction !e0ice: 'et it as t%e beginning of a tec%nological re0olution t%at is still continuing in t%e t ent' first centur'8 /ll of t%e co&ple= electronic !e0ices an! s'ste&s !e0elope! or in use to!a': are an outgro t% of earl' !e0elop&ents in se&icon!uctor transistors8 T%ere are t o basic t'pes of transistors > #1$ t%e bipolar .unction transistor ?BJT) %ic% e ill stu!' in t%is c%apter an! t%e fiel!-effect transistor ?4ET) %ic% is co0ere! in c%apter 9@8 T%e bipolar .unction transistor is use! in t o broa! areas of electronics > #1$ as a linear a&plifier to boost an electrical signal an! #2$ as an electronic s itc%8 Basicall': t%e bipolar .unction transistor consists of t o bac$-tobac$ P-N .unctions &anufacture! in a single piece of a se&icon!uctor Learning Objectives cr'stal8 T%ese t o .unctions gi0e rise to t%ree regions calle! emitter % base an! collector & /s s%o n in 4ig8 6789 ? a ) .unction transistor is si&Bipolar Junction Transistor pl' a san! ic% of one t'pe of se&icon!uctor &aterial bet een t o la'Transistor Biasing ers of t%e ot%er t'pe8 4ig8 6789 ? a ) s%o s a la'er of N-t'pe &aterial Currents san!Transistor ic%e! bet een t o la'ers of P -t'pe &aterial8 +t is !escribe! as a Circuit ConfiguraPNPTransistor transistor8 4ig8 6789 ? b ) s%o n an NPN A transistor consisting of a tions la'er of P -t'pe &aterial san! ic%e! bet een t o la'ers of N -t'pe &aterial8 CB Configuration T%e e&itter: base an! collector are pro0i!e! it% ter&inals %ic% CE Configuration are labelle! E : B an! C 8 T%e t " o .unctions are > e&itter-base ? E 5B ) Relation as bet een a an! Bipolar .unction transistor .unction collector-base ? C5 B ) .unction8 CC an! Configuration T%e s'&bols PNP an! Relation bet eene&plo'e! Transistor for NPN transistors are also s%o n in 4ig8 (tructure Currents E C 67898 T%e arro %ea!in isaal a's at t%e e&itE&itter Collector #ea$age Currents , 2 , ter ?not at t%e collector) an! in eac% case: Transistor E C its !irection in!icates t%e conventional !iT%er&al Runa a' B Base B rection of current flo 8 4or a PNP tranTransistor (tatic C%aracteris? a) sistor: arro %ea! points fro& e&itter to tics baseCo&&on &eaning t%at e&itter is positi0e it% Base Test Circuit respect to base ?an! also it% respect to Co&&on Base (tatic E C 2 , 2 collector) ' 4or NPN transistor: it points C%aracteristics E C fro& base to e&itter &eaning t%at base Co&&on E&itter (tatic B ?an! collector as ell) ' is positi0e it% C%aracteristics ?b ) B respect to t%e e&itter8 Co&&on Collector (tatic 1& E(itter C%aracteristic +t is &ore %ea0il' !ope! t%an an' )ifferent *a's of )ra ing of t%e ot%er regions because its &ain Transistor Circuits function is to suppl' &a.orit' c%arge carT%e Beta Rule ries ?eit%er electrons or %oles) to t%e base8 +&portance of V 2& Base CE Cut-off an!t%e (aturation +t for&s &i!!le,oints section of t%e BJT -perating Regions transistor8 +t is 0er' t%in ?90 A6 &) as co&Bipolar .unction transistor is use! in t o /cti0e Region 1o!el of pare! to eit%er t%e)C e&itter or collector broa! areas as a linear a&plifier to boost BJT an! is 0er' lightly-doped & ? c ) an! as an or a&plif' an electrical signal BJT ( itc%es )& C!llect!r electronic s itc% *ig& +,&1 2or&al )Cfunction 3oltage Transistor +ts &ain ?as in!icate! b' +n!ications its na&e) is to collect &a.orit' c%arge carriers co&ing fro& t%e e&itter an! passing t%roug% t%e base8

+0)26-4

#%

BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR

Transistor 4ault #ocation ' +n a transistor: for nor&al operation: collector an! base %a0e t%e sa&e polarit' it% respect to t%e e&itter 2otation ?/rt8+ncrease5)ecrease 678@)

CONTENTS CONTENTS

Bi.!lar J/ncti!n Transist!r

218-

+n &ost transistors: collector region is &a!e p%'sicall' larger t%an t%e e&itter region because it %as to !issipate &uc% greater po er8 Because of t%is !ifference: t%ere is no possibilit' of in0erting t%e transistor i.e. &a$ing its collector t%e e&itter an! its e&itter t%e collector8 4ig 6789 ? c): s%o s t%e picture of C9B96 ?front an! t%e bac$ 0ie ) transistor8

+,&2& Transist!r Biasing

4or proper or$ing of a transistor: it is essential to appl' 0oltages of correct polarit' across its t o .unctions8 +t is ort% %ile to re&e&ber t%at for nor&al operationC 1& e&itter-base .unction is al a's for ar!biase! an! 2& collector-base .unction is al a's re0erse-biase!8 T%is t'pe of biasing is $no n as FR biasing8 +n 4ig8 6782: t o batteries respecti0el' pro0i!e t%e !c e&itter suppl' 0oltage V an! EE collector suppl' 0oltage V for properl' biasing CC t%e t o .unctions of t%e transistor8 +n 4ig8 6782 ? a ): P ositi0e ter&inal of V is connecte! to P -t'pe e&itEE ter in or!er to repel or P us% %oles into t%e base8 T%e negati0e ter&inal of V is connecte! CC to t%e collector so t%at it &a' attract or pull %oles t%roug% t%e base8 (i&ilar consi!erations appl' to t%e NPN transistor of 4ig8 6782 ? b )8 +t &ust be re&e&bere! t%at a transistor ill ne0er con!uct an' current if its e&itter-base .unction is not forar!-biase!8 ' /lso refer to t%e picture s%o n in 4ig8 6782 ? c)8

+ E 3 EE

+ ,2 2 ,, 2 C + B

+ E 3 EE

+C 3CC

3 CC

+B /

+ E 3 EE + B

+C 3 CC

+ +B /

3 EE

3 CC

? a) ?

b)

?c )
*ig& +,&2

+,&)& I(.!rtant Biasing R/le

4or a PNP transistor: bot% collector an! base are negati0e it% respect to t%e e&&itter ?t%e letter N of 2egati0e being t%e sa&e as t%e &i!!le letter of PNP )8 -f course: collector is more negative t%an base D4ig8 678@ ? a)E8 (i&ilarl': for NPN transistor: bot% collector an! base are positi0e it% respect to t%e e&itter ?t%e letter P of P ositi0e being t%e sa&e as t%e &i!!le letter of N PN )8 /gain: collector is more positive t%an t%e base as s%o n in 4ig8 678@ ? b )8
F F

CC 3 CB

++ EE + + 3EB

,2, 2,2 FF
F

C ++ 3CB

3BC BB 3
EB

,2, 2,2 3 + EE b)
*ig& +,&) *ig& +,&0
BE

BC

3 BE

BB

?a)?

T%ere oul! be no current !ue to &a.orit' c%arge carriers8 Ho e0er: t%ere oul! be an e=tre&el' s&all current !ue to &inorit' c%arge carriers %ic% is calle! lea$age current of t%e transistor ?/rt8 67892)8

21-1

Electrical Tec n!l!g"

+t &a' be note! t%at !ifferent potentials %a0e been !esignate! b' !ouble subscripts8 T%e first subscript al a's represents t%e point or ter&inal %ic% is &ore positi0e ?or less negati0e) t%an t%e point or ter&inal represente! b' t%e secon! subscript8 4or e=a&ple: in 4ig8 678@ ? a ): t%e potential !ifference bet een e&itter an! base is ritten as V ?an! not V ) because emitter is positive with EB BE respect to base & 2o : bet een t%e base an! collector t%e&sel0es: collector is &ore negati0e t%an base8 Hence: t%eir potential !ifference is ritten as V an! not as V 8 (a&e is t%e case it% BC CB 0oltages &ar$e! in 4ig8 67848

+,&0& Transist!r C/rrents

T%e t%ree pri&ar' currents %ic% flo in a properl'-biase! transistor are I : I an! I 8 +n 4ig8 E B C 6786 ? a) are s%o n t%e !irections of flo as ell as relati0e &agnitu!es of t%ese currents for a PNP transistor connecte! in t%e co&&on-base &o!e8 +t is seen t%at again: I II +I
E B C

+t &eans t%at a s&all part ?about 9J2%) of e&itter current goes to suppl' base current an! t%e re&aining &a.or part ?<BJ<<%) goes to suppl' collector current8 1oreo0er: I flo s into t%e transistor %ereas bot% I an! I flo out of it8 E B C 4ig8 6786 ? b ) s%o s t%e flo of currents in t%e sa&e transistor %en connecte! in t%e co&&on-e&itter &o!e8 +t is seen t%at again: I II + I E B C B' nor&al con0ention: currents flo ing into a transistor are ta$en as positi0e %ereas t%ose flo ing out of it are ta$en as negati0e8 Hence: I is positi0e %ereas bot% I an! I are negati0e8 E B C /ppl'ing Kirc%%offLs Current #a : e %a0e I + ?A I ) + ?A I ) I 0 or I A I A I I 0 or I II +I
E B C E B C E B C

, 900% +E 3
+E

2
+B

,
+C

<B%
+

900% +

,2,

?a)

<B% 3 + B
2%

3 + B 2%

EE

CC

3 EE

CC

<B% +
+C
C

<B%
+C

,
,2,

+ B ?b) 3BB 2%

+B

+B

CC

2% +E

CC

,
3 BB +E

900%

+
E

900%

*ig& +,&+

T%is state&ent is true

regardless of transistor type or transistor configuration

&

Bi.!lar J/ncti!n Transist!r N!te 8 4or t%e ti&e being: e %a0e not ta$en into account t%e lea$age currents %ic% e=ist in a transistor ?/rt8 67892)8

21-1

67868 67868 (u&&ing (u&&ing ;p ;p 67868 67868 (u&&ing (u&&ing ;p ;p T%e four basic gui!eposts about all transistor circuits are > 67868 (u&&ing ;p
1& con0entional current flo s along t%e arro 2& E/B .unction is al a's for ar!-biase!C )& C/B .unction is al a's re0erse-biase!C

%ereas electrons flo against itC 0& +

E

II + I 8
B C

67868 67868 T ransistor ransistorCir Cir cuit cuit Conf Conf igura tions 67868 67868 ransistor Cir cuit cuit Conf Configura igura tions Basicall': t%ere are t%ree t'pes of circuit connections ?calle! configurations) for operating a 67868 ransistor Cir igura tions transistor8 Circuit igurations tions 1& ransistor co&&on-base ? Conf CB ): 2& co&&on-e&itter ? CE ): )& co&&on-collector ? CC )8
T%e ter& Mco&&onN is use! to !enote t%e electro!e t%at is co&&on to t%e input an! output circuits8 Because t%e co&&on electro!e is generall' groun!e!: t%ese &o!es of operation are freOuentl' referre! to as groun!e!-base: groun!e!-e&itter an! groun!e!-collector configurations as s%o n in 4ig8 6786 for a PNP A transistor8 (ince a transistor is a @-ter&inal ?an! not a 4-ter&inal) !e0ice: one of its ter&inals %as to be co&&on to t%e input an! output circuits8

67878 67878 CB CB Configuration Configuration 67878 CB Configuration

+n t%is configuration: e&itter current I is t%e input current an! collector current I is t%e E C output current8 T%e input signal is applie! bet een t%e e&itter an! base %ereas output is ta$en out fro& t%e collector an! base as s%o n in 4ig8 6786 ? a )8 T%e ratio of t%e collector current to t%e e&itter current is calle! !c alp%a ? a ) of a transistor8
!c

aI '
dc

A IC IE

T%e negati0e sign is !ue to t%e fact t%at current I flo s into t%e transistor %ereas E of it8 Hence: I is ta$en as positi0e an! I as negati0e8 E C I I A a 8I
C !c E

I flo s out
C

+f e rite a!c si&pl' as a '' : t%en a I I 5 I E C +t is also calle! for ar! current transfer ratio ?A h )8 +n h : subscript F stan!s for for ar! an! FB FB B for co&&on-base8 T%e subscript !8c8 on a signifies t%at t%is ratio is !efine! fro& !c 0alues of I C an! I 8
E

CC

+5, B ? a) ?

-5, -5, -5,

BB +5, +5, E b) ?
*ig& +,&2

C c)

T%e a of a tranistor is a &easure of t%e Oualit' of a transistor C %ig%er t%e 0alue of a : better t%e transistor in t%e sense t%at collector current &ore closel' eOuals t%e e&itter current8 +ts 0alue ranges
G 1ore accuratel':

aI dc

GG 2egati0e sign %as been o&itte!: since e are %ere concerne! it% onl' &agnitu!es of t%e currents in0ol0e!8

II CCBO IE

888/rt867892

21-2

Electrical Tec n!l!g" CB configuration of a transistor8 /s seen fro& I I I A a I I ?9 A a ) I

B E E E

fro& 08<6 to 08<<<8 -b0iousl': it applies onl' to abo0e an! 4ig8 67878 I I a I 8 2o :
C E

*ig& +,&,

+nci!entall': t%ere is also an a8c8 a for a transistor8 +t refers to t%e ratio of current to t%e change in e&itter current8 aI
ac

change in collector

- I C I
E

+t is also: $no n as s%ort-circuit gain of a transistor an! is ritten as A upper case subscript M FB N in!icates !c 0alue %ereas lo er case subscript M 4or all practical purposes: a Ia I a8
dc ac

h 8 +t &a' be note! t%at fb fb N in!icates ac 0alue8

E3a(.le +,&1& Following current reading are obtained in a tran i tor connected in CB configuration ! I " # $% and I " #& $%. Co$'ute the (alue of a and I 8 E B C #Electr!nics4II% P/njab Univ& 1--2$ S!l/ti!n& I I I A I I 2 P 90 C E B a I I 5 I I 98<B52 I
C E A@

A 20 P 90 1&--

A6

I 1&-8 (A

678B8 678B8 CE CE Configuration Configuration 678B8 678B8 CE CE Configuration Configuration Here: input signal is applie! bet een t%e base an! e&itter an! output signal is ta$en out fro& 678B8 CE Configuration

t%e collector an! e&itter circuit8 /s seen fro& 4ig8 6786 ? b ): I is t%e input current an! I is t%e B C output current8 T%e ratio of t%e !8c8 collector current to !c + + C base current is calle! !c beta ? " ) or .ust "of t%e ,2, 2,2C dc transistor8 + +B " I A I 5A I I I 5 I or B C B C B I I "I J 4ig8 678B ? a) +E + C B E +t is also calle! co&&on-e&itter !8c8 forward transfer ratio an! is ritten as h 8 +t is possible FE for " to %a0e as %ig% a 0alue as 6008 ?a)? b) *%ile anal'sing ac operation of a transistor: e use ac " %ic% is gi0en b' " I I 5 I 8 *ig& +,&8 ac C B +t is also ritten as h 8 fe T%e flo of 0arious currents in a CE configuration bot% for PNP an! NPN transistor is s%o n in 4ig8 678B8 /s seen I I I + I I I + " I I ?9 + " ) I
E B C B B B

678<8 678<8 Relation Bet een 678<8 678<8 Relation Bet een IC "I 678<8 Relation Relation Bet Bet een een an! IB Relation Bet een

a an! Ian! aI C an! IE an! an!

"" " "

" I IE a I B

J onl' nu&erical 0alue of

Bi.!lar J/ncti!n Transist!r III "I I - CCE IEC I II A55 II EECE 5 or 9 a

21-)

2o :

I I I AI
B E

"I -a

Cross-&ultipl'ing t%e abo0e eOuation an! si&plif'ing it: e get " ?9 A a) I a or " I a ?9 + " ) or a I " 5 ?9 + ") +t is seen fro& t%e about 2 eOuations t%at 9 A a I 95?9 + ")

678908 678908 CC CC Configuration Configuration 678908 CC Configuration

+n t%is case: input signal is applie! bet een base an! collector an! output signal is ta$en out fro& e&itter-collector circuit D4ig8 6786 ? c)E8 Con0entionall' spea$ing: %ere I is t%e input current B an! I is t%e output current as s%o n in E 4ig8 678<8 T%e current gain of t%e circuit is II IC "" E E III 8 5?9 ) III a"+" BCB I ?9 + " )

+ ,2, 2,2E + +C
B

+E

+B

?a)?
*ig& +,&-

b)

T%e flo pat%s of 0arious currents in a CC configuration are s%o n in 4ig8 678<8 +t is seen t%at I I I + I I I + " I I ?9 + " ) I E B C B B B output current I ?9 + ") P input current8

678998 678998 Rela tions Bet een ransistor ransistorCurr Curr ents 678998 678998 Rela tions Bet een ransistor Curr ents *%ile !eri0ing 0arious eOuations: follo ing !efinitions s%oul! be $ept in &in!8 678998 Rela Rela tions Bet een ransistor Curr ents Relations tions Bet Bet een een T ransistor Currents ents I I " a
aI I
C E

"I

aI)+" ?9

"I an! ?9 ) -a

#i $ #iii $

I I " I I 9 aI+" II EE
C B

"

#ii $

II CE II II I-a BE "+" 9

?9 )

II 9 +" ?9 ) ?9 ) CB I III II I+" ECB a" -a

#iv $ T%e t%ree transistor !8c8 currents al a's bear t%e follo ing ratio I >I > I > > 9 > ?9 A a)> a E B C +nci!entall': it &a' be note! t%at for ac currents: s&all letters

' i : i an! i are use!8

e b c

678928 678928 #ea$age Curr ents in a Curr 678928 #ea$age #ea$age Curr Currents inents a in a TT T ransistor Transistor #a $ CB Circ/it ransistor ransistor Consi!er t%e CB transistor circuit ransistor

,2,

+ I0 E -,E2

EC B +

s%o n in 4ig8 678998 T%e e&itter current ?!ue to &a.orit' carriers) initiate! b' t%e for ar!-biase! e&itter base .unction is split into t o parts > #i $ ?9 A a ) I %ic% beco&es base E current I in t%e e=ternal circuit an! B #ii $ a I %ic% beco&es collector current
E

3 EE

+CB-

3CC

CB-

CC

(9
?a) ?

(2
*ig& +,&11

b)

I in t%e e=ternal circuit8

C

'

+t re&in!s us of t%e po er !istribution relations%ip in an in!uction &otor8

21-0

Electrical Tec n!l!g"

/s &entione! earlier ?/rt8 6782): t%oug% C/B .unction is re0erse-biase! for &a.orit' c%arge carriers ? i.e 8 %oles in t%is case): it is for ar!-biase! so far as t%er&all'-generate! &inorit' c%arge carriers ? i.e. electrons in t%is case) are concerne!8 T%is current flo s e0en %en e&itter is !isconnecte! fro& its !c suppl' as s%o n in 4ig8 67890 ? a ) %ere s itc%: ) is open8 +t flo s in t%e same 9 !irection ' as t%e collector current of &a.orit' carriers8 +t is calle! lea$age current I 8 T%e subCBO scripts CBO stan! for MCollector to Base it% e&itter -pen8N 3er' often: it is si&pl' ritten as I 8
CO

*ig& +,&11

+t s%oul! be note! t%at #i $ I is e=actl' li$e t%e re0erse saturation current I or I of a re0erse-biase! !io!e !iscusse! CBO ) & in /rt8 67898 #ii $ I is e=tre&el' te&perature-!epen!ent because it is &a!e up of t%er&all'-generate! CBO &inorit' carriers8 /s &entione! earlier: I !oubles for e0er' 90QC rise in te&perature for *e an! CBO 6QC for )i 8 +f e ta$e into account t%e lea$age current: t%e current !istribution in a CB transistor circuit beco&es as s%o n in 4ig8 67899 bot% for PNP an! NPN t'pe transistors8 +t is seen t%at total collector current is actuall' t%e su& of t o co&ponents > #i $ current pro!uce! b' nor&al transistor action i.e. co&ponent controlle! b' e&itter current8 +ts 0alue is a I an! is !ue to &a.orit' carriers8 E #ii $te&perature-!epen!ent lea$age current I !ue to &inorit' carriers8
CO

I " aI +
C E

CO

(ince I R I : %ence CO C #iii $(ubstituting t%e 0alue of I I? I + I )+ I

C C B

CO
CO

IE a I 5I C E I I ? I + I ) in EO8 ? i ) abo0e: e get E C B or I ?9 A a ) I a I + I

C B

888? i )

aI

II C CO

CO

aI B 99 IC I+ -a -a

#iv $ Eli&inating I fro& EO8 ?i) abo0e: e get C ? I A I )I a I + I or

E B E CO

I I ?9 A a ) I A I
B E

CO

# b $ CE Circ/it +n 4ig8 67892 ? a ) is s%o n a co&&on-e&itter circuit of an

G

NPN transistor %ose base lea! is

/ctuall': electrons ? %ic% for& &inorit' c%arge carriers in collector) flo fro& negati0e ter&inal of collector batter': to collector: t%en to base t%roug% C 5 B .unction an! finall': to positi0e ter&inal of Ho e0er: con0entional current flo s in t%e opposite !irection as s%o n b' !otte! lien in 4ig8 67890 ?

V 8 CC a)

Bi.!lar J/ncti!n Transist!r

21-+

open8 +t is foun! t%at !espite I I 0: t%ere is a lea$age current fro& collector to e&itter8 +t is calle! B I : t%e subscripts CEO stan!ing for MCollector to E&itter it% base -penN8 CEO Ta$ing t%is lea$age current into account: t%e current !istribution t%roug% a CE circuit beco&es as s%o n in 4ig8 67892 ? c)8 I I "I + I I" I + ?9 + " )I I " I + I 5?9 A a )
C B CEO B CO B CO

#i $

99 IC I+

aI

-a -a

CO

*ig& +,&12

2o :

" I I a I 8 (ubstituting t%is 0alue abo0e: e get: B E I Ia I + I 8 /lso: I I I AI C E CEO B E C (ubstituting t%e 0alue of I fro& abo0e: e %a0e C #ii $ I II A a I A I I ?9 A a ) I A I
B E E CEO E CEO

6789@8 6789@8 T%er T%er &al Runa a' 6789@8 6789@8 T%er &al Runa a' /s seen fro& /rt8 67892: for a CE circuit 6789@8 T%er &al Runa a' IRuna I " I a' + ?9 + " )I T%er&al &alRuna a' C B CO

T%e lea$age current is e=tre&el' te&perature-!epen!ent8 +t al&ost !oubles for e0er' 6QC rise in te&perature in *e an! for e0er' 90QC rise in )i 8 /n' increase in I is &agnifie! ?9 + ") CO ti&es i.e 8 @00 to 600 ti&es8 E0en a slig%t increase in I ill affect I consi!erabl'8 /s I increases: CO C C collector po er !issipation increases %ic% raises t%e operating te&perature t%at lea!s to furt%er increase in I 8 +f t%is succession of increases is allo e! to continue: soon I ill increase C C be'on! safe operating 0alue t%ereb' !a&aging t%e transistor itselfJa con!ition $no n as thermal runaway 8 Hence: so&e for& of stabiliSation is necessar' to pre0ent t%is t%er&al runa a'8 E3a(.le +,&2& +he re(er e aturation current of an NPN tran i tor in co$$on-ba e circuit i ,#.- .%. For an e$itter current of # $%/ collector current i ,.01 $%. 2eter$ine the current gain and ba e current. #Electr!nics41% 56ali!r Univ& 1-88$ S!l/ti!n& Ti0en > I I IaI +I
C E B E CBO

I 9286 U/C
II - W aI I IC CBO I
E

I I 2 &/:
E

I I 98<7 &/ C
C
-@

a I V: I I V
B

98<7 9286 90 2

CBO C

I I I A I I 2 A 98<7 I

1&1) (A 8

08<7B 08<7B 08<7B 08<7B 08<7B

E3a(.le& +,&) 8 2eri(e an e3're ion for forward current gain and lea4age current of co$$on-e$itter configuration in ter$ of current gain and lea4age current of co$$on-ba e configuration. If a " &.05/ I " - $%/ calculate b and ICEO. #Electr!nics4I% 7"s!re Univ& 1--1$
CBO

S!l/ti!n&

"I a 5 ?9 A a ) I 08<B5?9 A 08<B) I

0-

21-2

Electrical Tec n!l!g" I

CEO

I ?9 + " ) I

CO

I ?9 + 4<) P 6 I 260
B

U/I 1&2+ (A 8 " &.05 and I

CO

E3a(.le +,&0 8 For a tran i tor/ I I and I 8

C E

" ,&& U%/ a

dc

" - U %. Find the (alue of

aP I ICO I+ +I S!l/ti!n& /s seen fro& /rt8 67892: 08<B I900 6 IB C 99 -a908<B908<B -a - I I I + I I 6896 + 900 P 90
E C B A@

+&1+ (A

I +&2+ (A 8

E3a(.le +,&+ 8 % tran i tor o'erating in CB configuration ha I " #.05 $%/ I " 6.&& $% C E and I " &.&, $%. 7hat current will flow in the collector circuit of thi tran i tor when connected CO in CE configuration with a ba e current of 6& U% 8 #Electr!nics4II% 7&S& Univ& 8a9!9ra 1--1$ S!l/ti!n& 4or CE configuration: I I " I + ?9 + " ) I C B CO #et us fin! t%e 0alue of " fro& !ata gi0en for CB configuration8 4or suc% a circuit I I aI + C E or 28<B I a P @ + 0809C a I 08<< C " I a 5?9 A a ) I 08<<5?9 A 080<) I <<8 CO 4or CE circuit: + I << P 080@ + ?9 + <<) P 0809I )&-, (A 8 C E3a(.le +,&2 8 For a certain tran i tor/ I " -.-&- $%/ IB " -& $%/ I " - $%. 2eter$ine C CO (i) (alue of a / " and I (ii) the new le(el of I re8uired to $a4e I " ,& $%. I
E B C

S!l/ti!n& ?i ) I I " I + ?9 + ") I or 68606 P 90 @ I " P 60 + ?9 + " ) P 6 " I 900 C B CO 2o : I I I + I I 68606 + 60 P 90 A@ I +&+++ (A 8 E C B /lso: I I a I + I C 68606 I a P 68666 + 6 P 90 A@ a I 68600568666 I 1&-C E CO ?ii ) /s seen fro& /rt8 7892: I I " + + ?9 + " ) I 90 I900 I + 909 P 6 P 90 A@ C I I 080<4<6 &/ I -0&-+ UU UA 8 B B UU E3a(.le& +,&, 8 2i cu the o'eration of a PNP tran i tor 8 +he re(er e aturation current in a PNP ger$aniu$ tran i tor t9'e OC 1, i 5 .%. If the tran i tor co$$on ba e current gain i &.010/ calculate the collector and e$itter current for :& .% ba e current. 7hat i the collector current when ba e current i ;ero V #Electr!nics41% 56ali!r Univ& 1-82$ S!l/ti!n& Ti0en > I I B U/ I 0800B U /: a I 08<7< C CO +n a CE circuit> I I" I + I I " I + I 5?9 A a )8 2o :
C C C B CO

I I 40 U/ I 0804 &/
B

"

Ia 5?9 A a ) I 08<7<5?9 A 08<7<) I 4686 1&- (A C I I I + I I 98< + 0804 I 1&-0 (A

E C B

CEO

I I 4686 P 0804 + ?9 + 4686) P 0800B I

+,&10& Transist!r Static C aracteristics

T%ere are t%e cur0es %ic% represents relations%ip bet een !ifferent !8c8 currents an! 0oltages of a transistor8 T%ese are %elpful in stu!'ing t%e operation of a transistor %en connecte! in a circuit8 T%e t%ree i&portant c%aracteristics of a transistor are > 1& +nput c%aracteristic: 2& -utput c%aracteristic: )& Constant-current transfer c%aracteristic8
EC + E 3EE R2 3BE + C 3CB R9 3 CC

*ig& +,&1)

Bi.!lar J/ncti!n Transist!r

21-,

67896 67896 Co&&on Base TT est est Cir Cir cuit 67896 67896 Co&&on Base TTest est est Cir Circuit Cir cuit T%e static c%aracteristics of an NPN transistor connecte! in co&&on-base configuration can 67896 Co&&on Base T cuit be !eter&ine! b' t%e use of test circuit s%o n in 4ig8 6789@8 1illia&&eters are cuit
inclu!e! in series it% t%e e&itter an! collector circuits to &easure are connecte! across E an! B to &easure 0oltage V an! BE across C an! B to &easure V 8 T%e t o potentio&eter resisCB tors R an! R suppl' 0ariable 0oltages fro& t%e collector , # an! e&itter !c supplies respecti0el'8
E C

I an! I 8 (i&ilarl': 0olt&eters

Te (i

&/ B 6 + E

678968 678968 Co&&on Co&&on Base Base (tatic (tatic C%aracteristics C%aracteristics 678968 678968 Co&&on Co&&on Base (tatic (tatic C%aracteristics C%aracteristics (a) In./t C Base aracteristic 678968 +t Co&&on s%o s %o Base I (tatic 0aries C%aracteristics it% V %en 0oltage
E BE

+ %el! constant8 T%e &et%o! of !eter&ining t%is c%aracteristic E 2 is as follo s > 3BE 4irst: 0oltage V is a!.uste! to a suitable 0alue it% CB 0 t%e %elp of R ?4ig8 6789@)8 2e=t: 0oltage V is increase! in , BE 082 084 086 08B3 a nu&ber of !iscrete steps an! correspon!ing 0alues of I E 3 BE are note! fro& t%e &illia&&eter connecte! for t%e purpose8 *%en plotte!: e get t%e input c%aracteristic s%o n in 4ig8 *ig& +,&10 67894: one for *e an! t%e ot%er for )i 8 Bot% cur0es are e=actl' si&ilar to t%e for ar! c%aracteristic of a P-N !io!e %ic%: in essence: is %at t%e e&itter-base .unction is8 T%is c%aracteristic &a' be use! to fin! t%e input resistance of t%e transistor8 +ts 0alue is gi0en b' t%e reciprocal of its slope8 R I V 5 I J V constant8

CB

is

(ince t%e c%aracteristic is initiall' nonlinear: R ill 0ar' it% t%e point of &easure&ent8 +ts in 0alue o0er linear part of t%e c%aracteristic is about 60 but for lo 0alues of V : it is consi!erabl' BE greater8 T%is c%ange in R it% c%ange in V gi0es rise to !istortion of signals %an!le! b' t%e in BE transistor8 T%is c%aracteristic is %ar!l' affecte! b' c%anges eit%er in V or te&perature8 CB #b $ O/t./t C aracteristic +t s%o s t%e a' I 0aries it% V %en I is %el! constant8 T%e &et%o! of obtaining t%is C CB E c%aracteristic is as follo s> 4irst: &o0able contact: on R ?4ig8 6789@) is c%ange! to get a suitable 0alue of V an! %ence 2 BE t%at of I 8 *%ile $eeping I constant at t%is 0alue: V is increase! fro& Sero in a nu&ber of steps E E CB an! t%e correspon!ing collector current I t%at flo s is note!8 C 2e=t: V is re!uce! bac$ to Sero: I is increase! to a 0alue a little %ig%er t%an before an! t%e CB E %ole proce!ure is repeate!8 +n t%is a': %ole fa&il' of cur0es is obtaine!: a t'pical fa&il' being s%o n in 4ig8 678968 1& T%e reciprocal of t%e near %oriSontal part of t%e c%aracteristic gi0es t%e output resistance R of t%e transistor %ic% it oul! offer to an input signal8 (ince t%e c%aracteristic is linear o0er out &ost of its lengt% ?&eaning t%at I is 0irtuall' in!epen!ent of V )8 R is 0er' %ig%: a t'pical 0alue C CB out being 600 $ 8 VC B Ro IV I II 9 ut 5 CCB C +t is seen t%at I flo s e0en %en V I 08 4or e=a&ple: it %as a 0alue I 98B &/ correspon!ing C CB to V I 0 for I I 2 &/ as s%o n in 4ig8 678968 +t is !ue to t%e fact t%at electrons are being CB E in.ecte! into t%e base un!er t%e action of for ar!-biase! E/B .unction an! are being collecte! b' t%e collector !ue to t%e action of t%e internal .unction 0oltage at t%e C/B .unction ?/rt8 6782)8 4or re!ucing I to Sero: it is essential to neutraliSe t%is potential barrier b' appl'ing a C s&all for ar! bias ac-ross C/B .unction8

in

BE

CB

2&

21-8
)&

Electrical Tec n!l!g"

Brea$ )o n Region

0&

/not%er i&portant feature of t%e c%aracteristic is t%at a s&all a&ount of collector current flo s e0en %en e&itter current I I 08 /s e E $no ?/rt8 67892): it is collector lea$age current I 8 CBO T%is c%aracteristic &a' be use! to fin! a of t%e tranac sistor as s%o n in 4ig8 678968 aI I ac IC2E IBC E
+C

&/ B) 6E
B

+E IB &/

6&/

4&/

4-

2II08<6 Cut--ff 682 48@ / 0 2 Region +CB+& /not%er point ort% noting -4 -2 0 2 4 6 B 90 923 is t%at alt%oug% I is practiC (aturation 3CB call' in!epen!ent of V Region CB o0er t%e or$ing range of *ig& +,&1+ t%e transistor: 'et if V is CB per&itte! to increase be'on! a certain 0alue: I e0entuall' increases rapi!l' !ue to a0alanc%e C brea$!o n as s%o n in 4ig8 678968 #c $ C/rrent Trans:er C aracteristic +t s%o s %o I 0aries C it% c%anges in I %en V is &/ &/ E CB 3CB Constant 3 CB Constant %el! constant8 4or !ra ing t%is 6 6 c%aracteristic: first V is set to a + CB C con0enient 0alue an! t%en I is E 4 4 + increase! in steps an! correC + + C C spon!ing 0alues of I note!8 / C +E t'pical transfer c%aracteristic is 2 2 +E s%o n in 4ig8 67896 ? a)8 4ig8 + CB67896 ? b ) s%o s a &ore !etaile! 00 6 90 &/ 0 6 90 &/ 0ie of t%e portion near t%e ori++ E E gin8 b) ?a) ? /s seen: a &a' be foun! ac fro& t%e eOuation *ig& +,&12 a I I 5 I ac C E ;suall': a is foun! fro& output c%aracteristic t%an fro& t%is c%aracteristic8 ac +t &a' be note! in t%e en! t%at CB connection is rarel' e&plo'e! for au!io-freOuenc' circuits because (i) its current gain is less t%an unit' an! (ii) its input an! output resistances are so !ifferent8

2&/

+,&1,& C!((!n E(itter Test Circ/it

T%e static c%aracteristics of an NPN transistor connecte! in CE configuration &a' be !eter&ine! b' t%e use of circuit !iagra& s%o n in 4ig8 678978 / &illia&&eter ?or a &icroa&&eter in t%e case of a lo -po er transistor) is connecte! in series it% t%e base to &easure I 8 (i&ilarl': a B &illia&&eter is inclu!e! in t%e collector circuit to &easure I 8 / 0olt&eter it% a t'pical range of C 0 A9 3 is connecte! across base an! e&itter ter&inals for &easuring V 8
BE

Bi.!lar J/ncti!n Transist!r

+B B
3

21--

C +C 3 3

E
BB

RR
2

3B E

CE

CC

*ig& +,&1,

,otentio&eter R connecte! across !c suppl' V is use! to 0ar' I an! V 8 / secon! 0olt&e2 BB B BE ter it% a t'pical range of 0A20 3 is connecte! across collector-e&itter ter&inals to &easure t%e output collector-e&itter 0oltage V 8
CE

6789B8 6789B8 Co&&on Co&&on E&itter E&itter (tatic (tatic C%aracteristics C%aracteristics 6789B8 6789B8 Co&&on Co&&on E&itter E&itter (tatic (tatic C%aracteristics C%aracteristics #a $ In./t C aracteristic 6789B8 Co&&on E&itter (tatic C%aracteristics

+t s%o s %o I 0aries it% c%anges in V %en V is %el! constant at a particular 0alue8 B BE CE To begin it%: 0oltage V is &aintaine! constant at a con0enient 0alue an! t%en V is CE BE increase! in steps8 Correspon!ing 0alues of I are note! at eac% step8 T%e proce!ure is t%en reB peate! for a !ifferent but constant 0alue of V 8 / t'pical input c%aracteristic is s%o n in 4ig8 6789B8 CE #i$e CB connection: t%e o0erall s%ape rese&bles t%e for ar! c%aracteristic of a P-N !io!e8 T%e reciprocal of t%e slope gi0es t%e input resistance R of t%e transistor8
in

Ri n IV II I

9 5 B BE B

VBE

&/ 76

)ue to initial non-linearit' of t%e cur0e: R 0aries in consi!erabl' fro& a 0alue of 4 $ near t%e origin to a + 60 0alue of 600 o0er t%e &ore linear part of t%e cur0e8 B (b) O/t./t !r C!llect!r C aracteristic + B +t in!icates t%e a' in %ic% I 0aries it% c%anges C 26 3BE in V %en I is %el! constant8 CE B 4or obtaining t%is c%aracteristic: first I is set to a B con0enient 0alue an! &aintaine! constant an! t%en V is 0 CE increase! fro& Sero in steps: I being note! at eac% step8 089 082 08@ 0843 C 3BE 2e=t: V is re!uce! to Sero an! I increase! to anot%er CE B con0enient 0alue an! t%e %ole proce!ure repeate!8 +n t%is *ig& +,&18 a': a fa&il' of cur0es ?4ig8 6789<) is obtaine!8 +t is seen t%at as V increases fro& Sero: I rapi!l' increases to a near saturation le0el for a CE C fi=e! 0alue of I 8 /s s%o n: a s&all a&ount of collector current flo s e0en %en I I 08 +t is calle! B B I ?/rt8 67892)8 (ince &ain collector current is Sero: t%e transistor is sai! to be c/t4!:: 8 CEO +t &a' be note! t%at if V is allo e! to increase too far: C/B .unction co&pletel' brea$s !o n CE an! !ue to t%is a0alanc%e brea$!o n: I increases rapi!l' an! &a' cause !a&age to t%e transistor8 C *%en V %as 0er' lo 0alue ?i!eall' Sero): t%e transistor is sai! to be saturate! an! it operCE ates in t%e saturation region of t%e c%aracteristic8 Here: c%ange in I !oes not pro!uce a correspon!B ing c%ange in I 8 C T%is c%aracteristic can be use! to fin! " at a specific 0alue of I an! V 8 +t is gi0en b' " ac B CE ac I I 5 I 8
C B

2211

Electrical Tec n!l!g" *e &a' select an' t o points % an! B on t%e I I 60 U/ an! 40 U/ lines respecB ti0el' an! &easure correspon!ing 0alues of I fro& t%e !iagra& for fin!ing I 8 (ince I C C B I ?60 A 40) I 20 U/: " can be easil' foun!8 ac T%e 0alue of output resistance R ?I V 5 I ) o0er t%e near %oriSontal out CE C part of t%e c%aracteristic 0aries fro& 90 $ to 60 $ 8 # c $ C/rrent Trans:er C aracteristic +t in!icates %o I 0aries it% c%anges C in I %en V is %el! constant at a gi0en B CE 0alue8 (uc% a t'pical c%aracteristic is s%o n in 4ig8 67820 ? a)8 +ts slope gi0es " I I 5 I
ac C B

*ig& +,&1-

4ro& 4ig8 67820 ? b): it is seen t%at a s&all collector current flo s e0en %en I I 08 +t is t%e co&B &on-e&itter lea$age current I CEO I ?9 + " ) I 8 #i$e I : it is also CO CO !ue to t%e flo of &inorit' carriers across t%e re0erse-biase! C/B .unction8

+,&1-& C!((!n C!llect!r Static C aracteristics

*ig& +,&21

/s s%o n in 4ig8 67829: in t%is case: collector ter&inal is co&&on carrier to bot% t%e input ? CB ) an! output ? CE ) carriers circuits8 T%e output c%aracteristic is I 0ersus V for se0eral fi=e! 0alues of I 8 (ince I I : t%is E CE B C E c%aracteristic is practicall' i!ential to t%at of t%e CE circuit an! is s%o n in 4ig8 67822 ? a)8 (i&ilarl': its current gain c%aracteristic I C + E 0ersus I for !ifferent 0alues of V is si&ilar to FF / B CE F 2 t%at of a CE circuit because I I 8 C E 3 T%e CC input c%aracteristic is a plot of V BE CB +B 0ersus I for !ifferent 0alues of V an! is s%o n B CE / -utput 9 3 in figure 67822 ? b )8 +t is Ouite !ifferent fro& t%ose + for CB or CE circuit8 T%is !ifference is !ue to 3 +nput t%e fact t%at input 0oltage V is largel' +C CB + !eter&ine! b' t%e 0alue of CE 0oltage8 Consi!er ++ t%e input c%aracteristic for I I 900 U/ an! B *ig& +,&21 V I 2 38
CE CB

CE

V I V A V I 2 A 087 I 98@ 3 J for (i &aterial CB CE BE 1oreo0er: as V is increase!: V is re!uce! t%ereb' re!ucing CB BE 2o : consi!er t%e 0alues V I 4 3 an! I I 900 U / CE B V I 4 A 087 I @8@ 3 CB /gain: as V increases: I is !ecrease!8
CB B

I 8
B

Bi.!lar J/ncti!n Transist!r

2211

*ig& +,&22

+,&21& ;i::erent <a"s !: ;ra6ing Transist!r Circ/its

+n 4ig8 6782@ ? a) is s%o n a CB transistor circuit %ic% !eri0es its 0oltage an! current reOuire&ents fro& t o in!epen!ent po er sources i.e. t o !ifferent batteries8 Correct batter' connections can be !one b' re&e&bering t%e transistor polarit' rule ?/rt8 6782) t%at in an NPN transistor: bot% collector an! base %a0e to be ,ositi0e it% respect to t%e e&itter8 -f 3 3 E E I + 903 I F 263 CC course: collector is a little bit more positi0e t%an base %ic% &eans t%at +E RE ,2, R# + +C +E C bet een t%e&sel0es: collector is at 20K 90K a slightly higher positive potential R R 20K 90K E # it% t%e respect to t%e base8 Con3EB 3BC 3CC ,2, 3EE 0ersel': base is at a little lo er po+ EC 263 B 903 tential it% respect to t%e collector8 F + ,utting it in a slig%tl' !iffer3 3 EB BC B ent a': e can sa' t%at collector + B is positi0e 8r8t8 base an! conF + 0ersel': base is negati0e 8r8t8 col? a) ? b) lector8 T%at is %': potential !ifference bet een collector an! base in *ig& +,&2) ritten as V ?an! not V ) beCB BC cause ter&inal at %ig%er potential is &entione! first8 (a&e reasoning applies to V 8 4ig8 6782@ ? b ) BE s%o s anot%er an! &ore popular a' of in!icating po er suppl' 0oltage8 -nl' one ter&inal of t%e batter' is s%o n: t%e ot%er ter+3 +3 CC R + BB &inal is understood to be # C + + C 2,2 90 K grounded so as to provide a B + R R complete path for the current. B B 91 R 90K # B 4or e=a&ple: negati0e 91 + 2,2 3C E 3 CC ter&inal of V an! positi0e CC 3 BE ter&inal of V are suppose! to 903 203 3 BB EE +E be groun!e! ?as is t%e base) 3 CE F e0en t%oug% not s%o n as suc% 3BE + E in t%e !iagra&8 4ig8 67824 ? a) s%o s an NPN transistor connecte! in b) ? a) ? CE configuration it% 0olt*ig& +,&20

2212

Electrical Tec n!l!g"

ages an! currents !ra n fro& t o in!epen!ent po er sources8 /s seen: batter' con-nections an! 0oltage &ar$ings are as per t%e rule gi0en in /rt8 67828 4ig8 67824 ? b ) s%o s t%e &ore popular a' of in!icating po er suppl' 0oltages8 /s seen: bot% collector an! base are positi0e it% respect to t%e co&&on electro!e i.e 8 e&itter8 Hence: a single batter' can be use! to get proper 0oltages across t%e t o as s%o n in 4ig8 678268
3
CC

I203

+ E 2,2 + B RB
+ F

RE

+
B

+E
B

RB

R#

R 3CE + C
++

RE 2,2
F

3BB

3CB
++

3EE + 3CB

+ C ++

3CE
++

*ig& +,&2? a)?

b)

*ig& +,&2+ *ig& +,&22

4ig8 67826 ? a ) s%o s t%e CC configuration of an sa&e circuit !ra n !ifferentl'8

NPN transistor an! 4ig8 67826 ?

b ) s%o s t%e

& ulas ulas 678298 Co&&on Base 4or && ulas ulas 678298 Co&&on Base 4or #et us fin! t%e 0alues of !ifferent 0oltages an! currents for t%e circuit in 4ig8 6782@ ? 678298 Co&&on Co&&on Base Base 4or 4or&
si!er t%e circuit up ar!s: e get # a$ <EB< 8 /ppl'ing Kirc%%offLs 0oltage la an! starting fro& point VV EE BE
E

b )8 ConB ?or groun!)

AV

BE

AI R +V
E E

EE

' I 0 or I V

IE RI

%ere V I 08@ 3 ?for *e ) an! 087 3 ?for )i ) BE (ince: generall': V X V : e can si&plif' t%e abo0e to EE BE ?4ig8 6782@)8 Ta$ing V into account an! assu&ing silicon transistor
BE E

EE

5 R I 90 3520 K I 086 &/

E

I # b$ I V
C

I ?90 A 087) 3520 K I 08466 &/ Ia I A, V II

E

I 086 &/ neglecting lea$age current8 A I R I 26 A 086 P 90 I 20 3 ?

E =

# c$ 4ro& circuit
CB

NCBN : e get V
CC

I V

CC

I
=

I )
E CB

E3a(.le +,&8& S!l/ti!n& I I 2o : V RI I

=

In the circuit of Fig. -1.#1

EE E

? a ): %at 0alue of

R causes V

I 6 3V

5 R I 90 3590 K I 9 &/
E

I a I
CR=

I I 9 &/
E

CC

+V

CB

VV CCCB C

I 20 6

-I 9&/

1+=
E

V
G

BC

E3a(.le& +,&-& " ,& V 8

For the circuit hown in Fig. -1.#1 >b?/ find the (alue of R

which cau e

+t is ta$en positi0e because e are going fro& t%e negati0e to t%e positi0e ter&inal of t%e e&itter batter'8

Bi.!lar J/ncti!n Transist!r

3EE I -903 + E 90$ 2,2 3CC I 203 +C R
#

221)
VV
CC BC

203 -203 +E R
E

S!l/ti!n&
+ C R ,2,
#

IC RI

20$

-I I 20 90 086 &/ 20K 2o : I I I 5a

E C

I I 086 &/
C

+ B

3CB I 63 3

3 EB

+B

BC

I 903

+f e neglect V : t%en entire V BE EE I 20 3 %as to be !roppe! across R 8 E 086 R I 20

E

or
?a) ?
*ig& +,&2,

I 205086 &/ I 40 K

b)

678228 678228 Co&&on E&itter 4or ulas ulas ulas 678228 678228 Co&&on E&itter 4or ulas Consi!er t%e CE circuit of 4ig8 6782B8 Ta$ing t%e e&itter-base circuit: e %a0e 678228 Co&&on Co&&onE&itter E&itter4or 4or ulas Co&&on 4or& VV E&itter V+3 I 903 +3
IBRR I
B B BE BB

BB

CC

I 963

BB

I V

CE

I "I J neglecting lea$age current C B IV AI R

CC C = B

B 91

CEO

RB
C E

R# I900

90$

E3a(.le +,&11& For the circuit of Fig. -1.#5/ find and (iv) V . Neglect V 8
CE BE

(i) I (ii) I (iii) I

V II BB S!l& # i $90 IBR<

B

11 UU UA
3BE +E

CE

#ii $ I I " I I 900 P 90 U/ I 1 (A C B #iii $ I I I + I I 9&/+ 90 U/I 1&11 (A E B C # iv $ V IV AI I 96 A 9 P 90 I + 8 CE CC CRC E3a(.le +,&11& Find the e3act (alue of e$itter current I two- u''l9 e$itter bia circuit of Fig. -1.#0.

in the

*ig& +,&28

#Electr!nics41% Bangal!re Univ& 1-8-$ S!l/ti!n& #et us appl' Kirc%%off Ys 0oltage la to t%e loop containing R : R an! V 8 (tarting B E EE fro& e&itter an! going cloc$- ise: e get 3CC A I R + V A I R AV I0
E E EE B B B BE

or 2o

I R +I R IV
E E B

EE

AV

BE

888 # i$ I
B

+C R
#

"I I 5 I
C

I 5I
E

I 5"
E

(ubstituting t%is 0alue in EO8 I R +

E E

#i $ abo0e: e get or

IR VV
EB

"

I-

EE BE

+B RB

+ 3 BE

VV I +"E E BE 5 IERR
EB

RE
F3

(ince: in &ost cases: ? R 5") R R B E I I ? V A V )5 R V

E EE BE E

+E

EE

EE

5R

*ig& +,&2-

2210

Electrical Tec n!l!g" /lso: I

B

II

5?9 + " )

I 5"
E

E3a(.le& +,&12& and ta4e " " ,&&. II S!l& # i $ @0IERR

In the circuit of Fig. -1.6&/ find V

EB

(i) I / (ii) I / (iii) I and (iv) V

E B C

CE

. Neglect V

BE

+" + 5 @0 20 5 900

EE

1 1 (A

#ii $ I I 5" I 95900 I 1&11 (A B E #iii $ I I I A I I 9 A 0809 I 1&-- (A C E B #iv $ V I V A I R I @0 A 90 P 08<< I 21&1 8 8
CE CC C =

CC

I @03
RE +C RB +E 3CE + + +
C

C #

R
I900 B E +E R 3
E

90K
C

RB

+E
B

+B RB 20K

@0K I F@03 *ig& +,&)1 *ig& +,&)1

3BB

3C C

3BB

3CC

EE

?a)?

b)

6782@8 6782@8 Co&&on Collector 4or ulas ulas 6782@8 6782@8 Co&&on Collector 4or ulas T%e CC circuit it% its4or proper 0oltage sources is s%o n in 4ig8 678@9 ? 6782@8 Co&&on Co&&on Collector Collector 4or !8c8 biasing ulas circuits gi0en in 4ig8 678@9 represent Co&&on Collector 4or&t%e sa&e t%ing8 ulas
+ R
B B

a )8 T%e t o

+3
C

CC

C R B E
+2 B

+3

CC

3 3
o ut

3
E

o ut

?a )? *ig& +,&)2

b)

/not%er a' of !ra ing t%e sa&e circuit is s%o n in 4ig8 678@2 ? a ) %ere onl' one batter' %as been use!8 +t s%oul! be note! t%at loa! resistor is not in t%e collector lea! but in t%e e&itter lea! as s%o n8 4ig8 678@2 ? b ) &a$es t%e circuit connection Ouite clear8 +nput is bet een base an! collector ter&inals %ereas output is bet een e&itter an! collector ter&inals8 +t is seen t%at C I I "I
C

VV CCBE IERR I +"

EB

C V

CC

IV

CE

VV CC BE I +" + I R C IERR
E E
EE

E3a(.le +,&1)& #e $ V 8
B

In the CC circuit of Fig. -1.66/ find I 087 38

#a $ I : # b $ I :
B E

#c $ V

CE

: # d $ V an !
E

Ta$e " I 4< an! V

BE

Bi.!lar J/ncti!n Transist!r VV I ++" CC BE #a $ IBRR ?9 ) BE II 900 60 +P2 #b $I # c$ V CE #d $ V #e $ V

E B E

221+
3CC +C <3

S!l/ti!n 8

RB

900K +B 3CE

<80 087 -

I ?9 + " ) I

IV AI R CC E E II R IV
E E BE

I 60 P 4986 I

01&+ U A U

2&1,+ (A +&8+ 8 0&1+ 8 0&8+ 8

3B RE 2K +E 3E

I < A 28076 P 2 I I 28076 P 2 I I 087 + 4896 I

+I

*ig& +,&))

T%e Beta Beta Rule Rule 678248 678248 T%e 678248 T%e T%e Beta Beta Rule Rule

/ccor!ing to t%is rule: resistance fro& one part of a transistor circuit can be referre! to anot%er of its parts ?as e !o it% t%e pri&ar' an! secon!ar' in!ing i&pe!ances of a transfor&er)8 4or e=a&ple: resistance R in t%e collector circuit can be referre! to t%e base circuit an! vice versa. = (i&ilarl': R can be referre! to t%e base circuit an!: reciprocall': R can be referre! to t%e e&itter E B circuit8 (ince current t%roug% R is I ? I " I ): %ence " -factor co&es into t%e picture8 (i&ilarl': = C B current t%roug% R is I %ic% is ?9 + " ) ti&es I : %ence ?9 + " ) or appro=i&atel' " -factor co&es E E B into t%e picture again: ;se of t%is M "-ruleN &a$es transistor circuit calculations Ouite Ouic$ an! eas'8 +t &a$es t%e calculation of I Ouite si&ple8 B T%e M "-ruleN &a' be state! as un!er > 1& *%en referring R or R to t%e base circuit: (/lti.l" it b' "8 *%en referring R to t%e = C B collector circuit: 9ivi9e it b' "8 2& *%en referring R to base circuit: (/lti.l" it b' ?9 + ") or .ust " ?as a close appro=i&ation)8 E )& (i&ilarl': %en referring R to e&itter circuit: 9ivi9e it b' ?9 + ") or " 8 B Before 'ou appl' t%is rule to an' circuit: 'ou &ust re&e&ber one 0er' i&portant point ot%erise 'ou are li$el' to get rong ans ers8 T%e point is t%at only those resistances are transferred which lie in the path of the current being calculated & 2ot ot%er ise8 T%e utilit' of t%is rule ill be !e&onstrate! b' sol0ing t%e follo ing proble&s8 E3a(.le +,&10& Calculate the (alue of V S!l/ti!n& *e ill use "-rule to fin! I in t%e follo ing t o a's8 C #i $ *irst 7et !9 Here: e ill transfer R to t%e base circuit8
= CE

in the collector tabili ation circuit of Fig. -1.6:

20 90 &/ +" + 9000 900?90) I I " I I 900 P 90 I 9000 &/ I 9 / IBRR II I

C B CC B=

CE

CC

A I R I 20 A 9 P 90 I
C =

11 8

#ii $ Sec!n9 7et !9 2o : e ill refer

II ICRR
=B

R to collector circuit8
B

VC C +" + 5 90 90005 900)

20 9&/
*ig& +,&)0

V I V A I R I 90 3 J as abo0e CE CC C = +t as a si&ple circuit because R I 0 an! R as connecte! to E B V t%roug% R an! not !irectl' ?in %ic% case: R oul! not lie in t%e pat% of CC = = consi!er t%e case %en R is present an! R !oes not lie in t%e pat% of I 8 E3a(.le +,&1+&
E = B

I )8 2o : e ill
B

Calculate the three tran i tor current in the circuit of Fig. -1.6-

2212

Electrical Tec n!l!g"

S!l/ti!n& # i $ *irst 7et !9 (ince R lies in t%e pat% of E V I +" C C I RR

B =E

J neglecting 1&1+ (A

BE

II

90 900 200?086) +

I I " I I 200 P 0806 I 11 (A : I I I + I I 11&1+ (A C B E B C #ii $ Sec!n9 7et !9 2o : e ill transfer R to e&itter circuit an! fin! I !irectl'8 B E V 90 90&/ II I C C IERR J as before +" + 5 086 9005 200
*ig& +,&)+

I I I 5"
B C

EB

905200 I

1&1+ (A

E3a(.le +,&12& S!l/ti!n& +f e neglect

I RR II
E EB

Calculate I V

in the circuit of Fig. -1.6@ 8 #Electr!nic > C!((/&% Ranc i Univ& 1--1$

BE

: t%en as seen fro& t%e circuit of 4ig8 678@68

90

VEE +" + 5 90 905 900

I 1&-- (A

678268 678268 +&portance +&portance of of VV V CE 678268 678268 +&portance +&portance of of VV CE T%e 0oltage Vof is 0er' i&portant in c%ec$ing %et%er t%e transistor is CE 678268 +&portance CE CE

#a $ !efecti0e: #b $ or$ing in cut-off: CE #c$ in saturation or ell into saturation ?E=a&ple 67897 an! 6789B) *%en V I V : t%e transistor is in cut-off i.e. it is turne! -448 CE CC *%en V I 0: t%e transistor is in saturation i.e. it is turne! full' -28 CE *%en V is less t%an Sero i.e 8 negati0e: t%e transistor is sai! to be ell CE into saturation8 +n practice: bot% t%ese con!itions are a0oi!e!8 4or a&plifier operation: 9 VV I C E CC 2 i.e. transistor is operate! at appro=i&atel'

*ig& +,&)2

tions in I in eit%er !irection ill control I in bot% !irections8 +n ot%er B C or!s: %en I increases or !ecreases: I also increases or !ecreases8 B C Ho e0er: if I is -44: I is also -448 -n t%e ot%er %an!: if collector %as B C been turne! full' -2: &a=i&u& I flo s8 Hence: no furt%er increase in C I can be reflecte! in I 8
B C

9 -28 +n t%is 2

a': 0aria-

E3a(.le +,&1,& For the CE circuit of Fig. -1.61/ find the (alue of V . +a4e A" ,&& and neglect V . I the tran i tor wor4ing in cut-off CE BE or aturation V I I 905900 I 089 / B I I " I I 900 P 089 I 90 / C B V I V A I R I 90 A 90 P 9 I 0 CE CC C = -b0iousl': t%e transistor is operating .ust at saturation an! not ell into saturation8 S!l/ti!n&

*ig& +,&),

E3a(.le +,&18& Find out whether the tran i tor of Fig. -1.65 i wor4ing in aturation or well into aturation. Neglect V 8 #Basic Electr!nics% B!(ba" Univ&$
BE

S!l/ti!n&

I I90590 I9 / B I I900 P 9 I900 /

C

Bi.!lar J/ncti!n Transist!r -b0iousl': I cannot be t%at large because its &a=i&u& 0alue is C gi0en b' V 5 R I 9059 I 90 /8 Ho e0er: let us assu&e t%at I ta$es CC = C t%is 0alue te&poraril'8 T%en: V IV A I R CE CC C = I 90 A 900 P 9 I A <0 3 +t &eans t%at t%e transistor is 6!r?ing 6ell int! sat/rati!n 8

221,

678268 678268 Cut--f f /n! (a tura tura tion , oints 678268 678268 Cut--f f /n! (a tura tion , oints Consi!er t%e circuit of 4ig8 678@< ? a )8 /s seen fro& /rt 67822: 678268 Cut--f Cut--f f /n! (a turation tion , , oints V IV AI R 8 Cut--ff f /n! /n! (a tion ,oints oints CE CC (atura C =

(ince: I I 0: I I 08 B C Hence: V I V *ig& +,&)8 CE CC ;n!er t%ese con!itions: t%e transistor is sai! to be cut-off for t%e si&ple reason t%at it !oes not conduct any current & T%is 0alue of V is ritten as CE V 8 +nci!entall': a transistor %en CE ?cut-off) cut-off acts li$e an open s itc%8 +f: in 4ig8 678@< ? b ): 0alues of R an! B R are suc% t%at V co&es out to be Sero: = CE t%en transistor is sai! to be saturate!8 ,utting V I 0 in t%e abo0e eOuation: e get CE 0I V A I R CC C = or I I V 5R C CC = +t s%oul! be note! t%at a transistor: %en saturate!: acts as a close! s itc% of negligible resistance8 *ig& +,&)+t is ob0ious t%at un!er saturation con!ition: #i $ %ole of V !rops across R 8 CC = #ii $ collector current %as &a=i&u& possible 0alue calle! I ? at )8 C 2or&al operation of a transistor lies bet een t%e abo0e t o e=tre&e con!itions of cut-off an! saturation8 E3a(.le& +,&1-& In a i$'le a$'lifier circuit >Fig. -1.:&? with ba e re i tance/ R " -& B/ B R " # B/ R " 6B/ V " ,& V/ h " ,&&/ deter$ine whether or not the ilicon tran i tor i in the E C CC FE aturation and find I and I . E3'lain the aturation region in co$$on-e$itter characteri tic 8 B C #Electr!nics% 7S& Univ& Bar!9a%$ S!l/ti!n& *%et%er t%e transistor is in satu+3 +3 ration or not ill !epen! on t%e 0alue of V 8 BB CC
CE

VV VIERR I RRBB BE BB +" +" 55 EBEB 6II 2&/ 2605900 + I I 2 &/ C I I I 5"I 25900 E B C I 0802 &/ 2o : V I I R +V +I R CC C C CE E E or V I 90 A ?2 P @) ? 2 P 2) I 0 CE -b0iousl': t%e transistor %as entere! saturation8
C R
B

63 903 @K 60K 2K 63 3 903

BB

60K
C

@K

I900 3
CC

2K

*ig& +,&01

2218

Electrical Tec n!l!g"

+,&2,& BJT O.erating Regi!ns

/ BJT %as t o .unctions i.e 8 base-e&itter an! base-collector .unctions eit%er of %ic% coul! be for ar!-biase! or re0erse-biase!8 *it% t o .unctions: t%ere are four possible co&binations of bias con!ition8 # i $ bot% .unctions re0erse-biase!: #ii $ bot% .unctions for ar!-biase!: #iii $ BE .unction for ar!-biase!: BC .unction re0erse-biase!8 #iv $ BE .unction re0erse-biase!: BC .unction for ar!-biase!8 (ince con!ition # iv $is generall' not use!: e ill tabulate t%e re&aining t%ree con!itions belo 8 Table N!& +,&1@ Transist!r O.erati!n Regi!ns BE Jn BC Jn Region RB G 4B GG 4B RB acti0e RB cut-off 4B saturation

GRe0erse-biase!: GG 4or ar!-biase! # a$ C/t4!:: C T%is con!ition correspon!s to re0erse-bias for bot% base-e&itter an! basecollector .unctions8 +n fact: bot% !io!es act li$e open circuits un!er t%ese con!itions as s%o n in 4ig8 67849: %ic% is true for an i!eal transistor8 T%e re0ese B lea$age current ?/rt 67892) %as been neglecte!8 /s seen: t%e t%ree transistor ter&inals are uncouple! fro& eac% ot%er8 +n cut-off: V IV 8 CE CC # b $ Sat/rati!n C T%is con!ition correspon!s to for ar!-bias for bot% E base-e&itter an! base-collector .unctions8 T%e transistor beco&es saturate! i.e. t%ere is perfect s%ort-circuit for bot% *ig& +,&01 B base-e&itter an! base-collector !io!es8 T%e i!eal case is s%o n in 4ig8 67842: %ere t%e t%ree transistor ter&inals %a0e been connecte! toget%er t%ereb' acOuiring eOual potentials8 +n t%is case: V I 08 CE # c$ Active Regi!n E T%is con!ition correspon!s to for ar!-bias for base-e&itter .unction an! re0erse bias for base-collector .unction8 +n t%is: V Z 08 *ig& +,&02
CE

+,&28& Active Regi!n ;C 7!9el !: a BJT

(uc% a &o!el is use! for pre!icting transistor operation in t%e acti0e region8 T%is con!ition is s%o n in 4ig8 6784@ bot% for a PNP an! an NPN transistor8 / base-e&itter .unction 0oltage of 087 3 %as been assu&e! for silicon transistor8 T%e BE .unction is represente! b' a constant 0oltage source since it is for ar!-biase!8 /s seen: in an NPN transistor: base is 087 3 %ig%er t%an t%e e&itter ter&inal8 Ho e0er: in a PNP transistor: base is 087 3 lo er t%an t%e e&itter ter&inal8 *ig& +,&0) To account for t%e effect of base control: a current source of " I is place! bet een collector an! base ter&inals8 +t is calle! a !epen!ent B or controlle! source because it is a function of a 0ariable in anot%er circuit8 +t &a' be note! t%at I I ? I + I ) in bot% cases8
E B C

Bi.!lar J/ncti!n Transist!r

221-

+,&2-& BJT S6itc es

3er' often: bipolar .unction transistors are use! as electronic s itc%es8 *it% t%e %elp of suc% a s itc%: a gi0en loa! can be turne! -2 or -44 b' a s&all control signal8 T%is control signal &ig%t be t%e one appearing at t%e output of a !igital logic or a &icroprocessor8 T%e po er le0el of t%e control signal is usuall' 0er' s&all an!: %ence: it is incapable of s itc%ing t%e loa! !irectl'8 Ho e0er: suc% a control signal is certainl' capable of pro0i!ing enoug% base !ri0e to s itc% a transistor -2 or -44 an!: %ence: t%e transistor is &a!e to s itc% t%e loa!8 *%en using BJT as a s itc%: usuall' t o +3 +3 +3 le0els of control signal are e&plo'e!8 *it% one CC CC CC le0el: t%e transistor operates in t%e cut-off region #oa! #oa! ?open) %ereas it% t%e ot%er le0el: it operates #oa! in t%e saturation region an! acts as a s%ortcircuit8 4ig8 67844 ? b ) s%o s t%e con!ition %en R B control signal ( I 08 +n t%is case: t%e BE .unction i is re0erse-biase! an! t%e transistor is open an!: 3i %ence acts as an open s itc%8 Ho e0er: as 3 I0 3 I3 i i i s%o n in 4ig8 67844 ? c) if ( eOuals a positi0e i ? a) ?b ) ? c) 0oltage of sufficient &agnitu!e to pro!uce saturation i.e 8 if ( I ( t%e transistor acts as a i i *ig& +,&00 close! s itc%8 4ig8 67846 s%o s a for& of series s itc%ing circuit utiliSing an NPN transistor it% a negati0e !c suppl' an! a control signal 0oltage %a0ing le0els of Sero an! A ( 8
i

E3a(.le +,&21& +he circuit of Fig. -1.:@ i de igned to 'roduce nearl9 con tant current through the (ariable collector load rei tance. %n ideal @V ource i u ed to e tabli h the current. 2eter$ine (a) (alue of I and C V / (b) range of R o(er which the circuit will E C function 'ro'erl9. % u$e ilicon tran i tor and a b large enough to Cu tif9 the a u$'tion u ed 8

3i ? a) 0 0

#oa! #oa! #oa! F3

CC

F3 ? b)
ii

CC

F3 ?c )

CC 3i

*ig& +,&0+

#A..lie9 Electr!nics4II% P/njab Univ& 1--)$ S!l/ti!n& #a $ I I I ? 6 A087)56@0 I 11 (A C E V I 6 A 6@0 P ?90 P 90) I +&) 8 8 E T%is 0oltage ill re&ain constant so long as transistor operation is confine! to acti0e region8 #b $ < en R A 1 C V I 92 A 68@ I 687 3 CE +t is certainl' ell it%in t%e acti0e region8 /s R increases: its !rop C increases an! %ence: V !ecreases8 T%ere ill be so&e 0alue of R at %ic% CE C acti0e region operation ceases8 2o : V I92 A 68@ A I R I 687 A I R 3alue of R can be foun! b' puting C>$a3? 0 I 687 A I R
C C ? $a3 ) CE C C

+923
+ R
C C

+ 3CE F + F 63 + 3 E F

CE

I0

*ig& +,&02

or R I 6875 I I 68750809 I 2,1 C ?$a3 ) C Hence: circuit ill function as a constant current source so long as 670 8 *%en R e=cee!s 670 : t%e BD+ beco&es saturate!8
C

R is in t%e range 0 [
C

R [
C

2211

Electrical Tec n!l!g"

678@08 678@08 2or &al )C oltage oltage TT ransistor +n!ica tions 678@08 678@08 2or &al )C oltage TTransistor ransistor +n!ica +n!ica tions 4or a transistor to operate as an a&678@08 2or 2or &al )C oltage ransistor +n!ica tions 9 &al )C )C 3 oltage tions VV T I ransistor +3 plifier: it2or&al is !esirable t%at 8 +n!ications CC
C E CC

Ho e0er: in actual practice: i!e tolerances R# are allo e!8 Tenerall': V 0aries bet een R CE B R 26% to 76% of V 8 /n' transistor a&pli# R CC B fier it% V I V is eit%er open or is op3 CE CC CE erating in cut-off8 *%en operating it% V 3C 3CE 3C CE near cut-off: t%e a&plifier causes lot of !istortion8 (a&e is t%e case %en V is nearl' 3 R CE E E Sero8 Hence: an' transistor a&plifier it% V &ore t%an 76% V or less t%an 26% CE CC V s%oul! be suspecte! of %a0ing a probb) ?a ) ? CC le& an! furt%er in0estigate!8 *ig& +,&0, +n t%e circuit s%o n in 4ig8 67847 ? a ): V s%oul! be in t%e range 26 A76% of V 8 +n t%e circuit of 4ig8 67847 ? b ): V &a' be nor&al but CE CC CE eit%er R or R coul! be s%orte!8 Hence: V an! V s%oul! be &easure! seperatel'8 1oreo0er: V = E C E CE coul! be foun! b' subtracting V fro& V 8 E C 4or t%e circuit of 4ig8 67847 ? b ): t%e nor&al 0olt&eter rea!ings are
VV
C E CC

+3CC

9 2

VV I
E CC

9 4

VV I
E CC

@ 4

+f instea! of

R : t%ere is a lo -resistance coil in t%e circuit: t%en

=

VV I C E CC

9 2

VV I E CC

9 2

V IV
C CC

678@98 678@98 T ransistor ransistor44 ault #oca tion 678@98 678@98 ransistor 4 ault #oca tion 3oltage &easure&ents are e&plo'e! in t%e 0ast &a.orit' of trouble situations because current 678@98 ransistor 4 ault #oca tion &easure&ents are co&parati0el' !ifficult to &a$e8 1agnitu!e of V is of great !iagnostic 0alue in ransistor 4ault ault #oca #ocationtion CE
fin!ing an! locating faults in a transistor circuit8 4ollo ing possibilities are consi!ere! > (a) V A1 ,ossibilities are t%at t%e transistor is 1& s%orte! out: 2&operating in saturation:
I 1 (b) VV CECC 2 203 203
CE

)& !isconnecte! fro&

CC

+t s%o s t%at t%e circuit is operating nor&all' an! is ell-!esigne!8 (c) V AV ,ossibilities are t%at t%e transistor is 1 8 open-circuite!: 2& operating in out-off )& %a0ing all resistors in series it% s%orte!8 V
CE CC

R# # RB

R -pen 3CE RB 3 CE

CE

E3a(.le +,&21& Co$'ute the (alue of for the CE circuit hown in Fig. -1.:5 8 S!l/ti!n 8 (ince t%e collector is !isconnecte! fro& t%e suppl' !ue to MopenN in t%e
CE

*ig& +,&08 *ig& +,&0-

Bi.!lar J/ncti!n Transist!r circuit: V I 08 +t represents fault con!ition 2o8 ? a ) @ in /rt8 678@98 CE E3a(.le& +,&22& 7hat i the (alue of V in the CE circuit of Fig. -1.:0 8 CE S!l/ti!n& (ince R is s%orte! out: I : oul! increase an! probabl' burn out t%e B B But t%is burn out is not in!icate! in t%e Ouestion8 Hence: it% %ig% base current: t%e transistor is operating in saturation so t%at V I 08 CE E3a(.le +,&2)& 7hat i the (alue of V in the circuit of Fig. -1.-& 8 CE S!l/ti!n 8 (ince R is t%e onl' resistor in series = it% t%e transistor an! is s%orte! out: it &eans t%at 203 203 t%ere is no 0oltage !rop an' %ere8 Hence: V IV 8 CE CC +t represents fault 2o8 ? c ) @ state! in /rt8 78@9 abo0e8 E3a(.le +,&20 8 Find the 'o ible (alue of V / CE V and V for the circuit hown in Fig. -1.-, 8 C E S!l/ti!n 8+n t%e circuit of 4ig8 67869: t%ere is neit%er a s%ort nor an open an! t%e 0oltage polarities are correct for an NPN transistor8 +t loo$s li$e a ell-!esigne! circuit operating nor&all'8 Hence: accor!ing to /rt8 678@08
9 VV II CE C C 2 II 11 8 C VV ECC 9 4
R# RB 3CE RB

2211

E/B .unction8

R#

3CE

+8
*ig& +,&+1 *ig& +,&+1

@ II VV 1+ 8 CCC 4 E3a(.le +,&2+& Find the (alue of V

/ V and V
E

CE

in the circuit of Fig. -1.-#

S!l/ti!n 8 (ince I I 0: transistor is cut off8 B Hence: V I1 E /lso V I B 21 8 C an! V I B 21 8 CE E3a(.le +,&22& 7hat would be the (alue of V / V and V for the circuit hown C E CE in Fig. -1.-6 8 S!l/ti!n& (ince e&itter is open: no current flo s in an' part of t%e circuit8 T%e transistor is essentiall' cut off8 *it%out +R !rops: all points abo0e t%e e&itter are at @0 38 V I )1 8 C E V I )1 8 an! C V I 18
CE

-203 +@03 R# R9 -,E2 R2 3CE 3C 3 E R2 -,E2 R#

R9

3CE 3 C 3 E

*ig& +,&+2 *ig& +,&+)

678@28 678@28 (ol0ing (ol0ing ;ni0ersal ;ni0ersal 678@28 678@28 (ol0ing (ol0ing ;ni0ersal ;ni0ersal StabiliCati!n Circ/it 678@28 (ol0ing ;ni0ersal

(uc% a circuit is s%o n in 4ig8 67864 in %ic% appears to be in parallel it% R 8 But accor!E 2 ing to t%e " -rule ?/rt 67824): R is actuall' in parallel it% " R 8 +n a ell-!esigne! circuit: t%e 2 E resistance " R is &uc% larger t%an R 8 Hence: t%eir co&bine! resistance I R \\ " R R 8 -n t%is E 2 2 E 2 assu&ption as ell as anot%er t%at I is practicall' Sero: e can fin! 0oltage !rop across R b' t%e B 2 ,roportional 3oltage 4or&ula8 (ince V is applie! across R A R potential !i0i!er circuit: !rop CC 9 2 across R 8 2 IV 8 R 5? R + R ) CC 2 9 2 +f e neglect V : t%en t%is !rop eOuals V 8
BE E

2212

Electrical Tec n!l!g" R

92

VVRR +
E CC

3 + R
9

CC

963 R

an!

IER

VE
E

90K

6K 3CE

Ha0ing foun! I : ot%er currents an! E 0oltage !rops can be easil' foun!8 V I V A I R AI R EE CC C = E E (ince: I I E C V IV A I R AI R I CE CC E = E E A I ?R + R )
E = E

+B R2 RE

+ E

3E

R2

6K

90K RE 3E

CC

*ig& +,&+0

*ig& +,&++
BE

E3a(.le +,&2, 8 Find V S!l/ti!n&

CE

and V

for the circuit hown in Fig. -1.--. Neglect V

/s e=plaine! abo0e II IPI VVVRR E CC 2

E E E

92

RE +

96 96

+8

I I V 5 R I 6 3590 K I 086 &/ I

C

I I 086 &/: V
E

CE

I V

CC

A I ? R + R ) I 96 A 086 P 96 I
E = E

,&+ 8

678@@8 678@@8 2ota tion tion f f or oltages oltages an! an! Curr Curr ents ents 678@@8 678@@8 2ota tion tion f for or oltages an! Curr ents +n or!er to a0oi! confusion %ile !ealing it% !c an! ac 0oltages an! currents: follo ing 678@@8 2ota 2ota or oltages an! Curr ents notation ill be e&plo'e! > 2otation f or 3 oltages an! Currents
1& *!r 9&c& !r n!n4ti(e4var"ing D/antities *e ill use capital letters it% capital subscripts suc% as I :I :I J for dc currents V :V :V V V
E BE EE E B C

:V :V

CB CC

:V

J for dc 0oltages to groun!

CE BB

J for dc potential !ifferences J for dc source or suppl' 0oltages

:3

2& *!r ac D/antities *e ill use t%e follo ing s'&bols > i:i:i J for instantaneous 0alues of ac currents e b c I:I :I J for r8&8s 0alues of a8c8 currents e b c (:( :( J for instantaneous 0alues of a8c8 0oltages to groun! e b c ( :( :( J for a8c8 0oltage !ifferences be eb ce )& T!tal ac an9 9c v!ltages an9 c/rrents +n t%is case: e ill use a %'bri! notation8 4or e=a&ple: i ill be use! to represent t%e total e&itter current: i.e. su& E ie of !c an! ac currents in t%e e&itter8 4ig8 67866 illustrates t%e notation !iscusse! abo0e8

+ e

ease 2ota 2ota 678@48 678@48 +ncr ease5)ecr ease tion +ncr ease5)ecr 678@48 +ncr +ncrease5)ecr ease5)ecrease ease 2ota2otation tion

T%is notation is 0er' %elpful in anal'sing transistor operation %en ac signal is applie! to it8 +t is si&pl' t%is> &eans increases an! &eans !ecrease8

Ti&e
*ig& +,&+2

Bi.!lar J/ncti!n Transist!r /s an illustration: consi!er t%e transistor circuit of 4ig8 678678 +f V ere increase! ? ): I oul! increase ? )8 T%is oul! BB B increase I ? ) because it eOuals " I 8 T%e !rop I R oul! inC B C = crease ? ) an!: %ence: V ill !ecrease ? ) because V I 3 A CE CE C I R 8 C = ;sing increase5!ecrease notation: t%e abo0e seOuence of c%anges can be ritten as V : I : I : I R V BB B C C = CE /t one loo$: e can straig%t a a' sa' t%at as input 0oltage is increase!: output 0oltage is !ecrease!8
+C

221)

R# +B R B

3C E

3C C

3B B

+E

/ppl'ing /C 678@68 678@68 /ppl'ing /ppl'ing C C to to a a )C )C Biase! Biase! T 678@68 /ppl'ing /

(uppose e ant to appl' an ac signal to t%e input e&itter-base circuit of a properl'-biase! transistor s%o n in 4ig8 6786B8 +f e appl' t%e a8c8 source !irectl' across t%e EBD as s%o n in 4ig8 6786B ? a ): it ill upset t%e !8c8 bias8 +t s%oul! be $ept in &in! t%at &ost ac signal sources are nearly a short to dc & Hence: nearl' %ole of I oul! pass t%roug% a8c8 source rat%er t%an t%e base t%ereb' B spoiling t%e transistor bias8 +n or!er to connect t%e ac source an! at t%e sa&e ti&e not upset t%e !8c8 bias: t%e ac source is connecte! 0ia a coupling capacitor C as s%o n in 4ig8 6786B ? b )8 T%is capacitor acts as an MopenN for !c but al&ost a s%ort for ac source pro0i!e! it is of sufficientl' large capacitance8
+ R
B B

T ransistor Transistor ransistor ransistor

*ig& +,&+,

R#

R +
C

C 3
CC

CC

? a) ?
*ig& +,&+8

b)

678@68 678@68 TT ransistor / C5)C /nal'sis 678@68 ransistor ransistor C5)C C5)C /nal'sis +n 4ig8 6786< is s%o a CE a&plifier circuit %a0ing an ac signal 0oltage ransistor / n C5)C /nal'sis /nal'sis

( ' applie! across its be E/B .unction8 T%is 0oltage ill be a!!e! to t%e !c 0oltage V as if t%e t o ere connecte! in series8 BE T%e resultant 0oltage is s%o n in 4ig8 6786< ? b ) %ic% s%o s ac 0oltage ri!ing t%e !8c8 le0el8 T%e 0ariations in t%e resultant output 0oltage V D4ig8 6786< ? b )E can be e=presse! in ter&s of t%e inCE crease5!ecrease notation8 +t ill be assu&e! t%at V is suc% as to bias V at V %en no a8c8 signal BE CE CC is applie!8 #i $ *irst E/arter C"cle +n t%e first Ouarter-c'cle of t%e input signal: bot% V an! V increase t%ereb' gi0ing rise to t%e BE BE follo ing seOuence of c%anges > V : i : i : i R V BE B C C = CE Hence: output 0oltage !ecreases as s%o n in 4ig8 6786< ? c) #ii $ Sec!n9 E/arter C"cle Here: V as ell as V !ecrease8 Hence:
bc BE

V
G

BE

C
i

i R
C

: V

CE

2or&all': e ill use t%e notation

or cin or ci

%ile !iscussing a&plifiers

&

2210

Electrical Tec n!l!g"

RB C
+

R# 3 CE 3BE
F00

3 3 BE CE 3BE 3CC 3 BE 3 CE 3 CE

3BE

?a) ?
*ig& +,&+-

b) ?

c)

/gain: V !oes t%e opposite CE of V 8

BE

(a&e c%anges ill %appen in t%ir! Ouarter c'cle as %appene! in t%e first Ouarter-c'cle an! so on8 +t is seen fro& 4ig8 67860 ? c ) t%at output ac 0oltage is 9B0Q out of p%ase it% t%e input 0oltage8 E3a(.le +,&28 8 Calculate the (alue of V in the circuit of Fig. CE -1.@& >a? if a.c. ignal (oltage i inu oidal with a 'ea4 (alue of &.&, V. +a4e (oltage gain % of the cir( cuit a ,&& and " " ,&&. 2e'ict the wa(efor$ of the out'ut (oltage e'aratel9 8 S!l/ti!n& V I R II C IC
B B

*ig& +,&21

20 089/ 200

I I " I I 900 P 089 I 90 /

C B

V (

CE

I V

CC

A I R I 20 A 90 P 9 I 90 3C
C = BE

CE

I % (
V

I 900 P 0809 I 90 3

*ig& +,&21

T%e co&bine! output 0oltage ( CE is t%e su& of ( an! ( an! is s%o n CE CE grap%icall' in 4ig8 67860 ? b )8 +t is seen t%at 900 ti&es a&plifie! ac signal ri!es t%e !c 0oltage8 E3a(.le +,&2-& Find ( in the CE circuit of Fig. -1.@, >a? and 4etch it wa(efor$. +a4e % " ,&& and " " ,&& u and 'ea4 in'ut ignal (oltage a &.&- V 8 S!l/ti!n& I I 205200 I 089 / C I B C I 900 P 089 I 90 / C V I 20 A ?90 P 2) CE I 08

Bi.!lar J/ncti!n Transist!r

221+

-b0iousl': t%e transistor %as been biase! at saturation as s%o n in 4ig8 67869 ? b )8 T%e a!!ition of ( an! ( : is s%o n grap%icall' in 4ig8 67869 ? b )8 )uring t%e positi0e %alfCE CE c'cle of t%e signal: t%e transistor co&es out of saturation an! lets pass t%e %alf-c'cle8 Ho e0er: !uring t%e negati0e %alf-c'cle of input signal: transistor is furt%er !ri0en into saturation8 (ince it is alrea!' biase! at V Y &ost negati0e li&it ?0 0olt): it cannot furt%er go negati0e8 Hence: t%e negaCC ti0e %alf-c'cle of t%e signal is lost in saturation8

T/t!rial Pr!ble(s N!& +,&1

1& 2& )& / CB -connecte! transistor %as / CB -connecte! transistor %as / CE -connecte! transistor %as a I 08<6 an!
B

I I 2 &/8 4in! its

E E

I an! I 8
C B

F1&-2 (A% 81 a an! I 8

C

U AG

I I 20 U/ an! I I 2 &/8 Co&pute t%e 0alue of a I 900 an! I I 60 U/8 Co&pute t%e 0alues of
B

F1&--% 1&-8 (AG a : I an! I 8

C E

F1&-- H + (A H +&1+ (AG 0& +& T%e follo ing Ouantities are &easure! in a I 8
E

CE transistor >

I I 6 &/ C I I 900 U/8 )eter&ine " an! C B F1&-8 H +1 H +1 (AG I an! I 8

C E

/ transistor %as

a I 08<B:

CBO

I 6 U/ an! I I 900 U/8 4in! t%e 0alues of

B

F+&1+ (A H +&2+ (AG 2& ,& 4ollo ing &easure&ents are &a!e in a transistor C pute t%e 0alues of a : " an! I 8
E

I I 68202 &/:
C

I I 60 &/: I I 2 &/8 Co&B CBO F1&-- H 111 H +&2+2 (AG

4ollo ing &easure&ents ere &a!e in a certain transistor > I I 68202 &/C
C

I I 60 &/ C I
B E

CBO

I 2 &/8 I reOuire! to &a$e

B

)eter&ine ? i ) a : " an! I ? ii ) ne 0alue of

I I 90 &/8
C

F# i $ 1&-- H 111 H +&2+2 (A # 8& -& 11& 11& 4or t%e CB circuit of 4ig8 67862: fin! t%e 0alue of +n t%e CB circuit of 4ig8 6786@: %at 0alue of
E

ii $ -,&-8 AG
BE

CB

8 2eglect .unction 0oltage

BC

V V
EB

F+ 8G F+ =G

R causes V

I 90 3V 2eglect

4or t%e CE circuit of 4ig8 67864: calculate t%e 0alues of V 8

BE

I : I : I an! V 8 Ta$e " I 60 an! neglect B C E CE F111 U A% + (A% +&1 (A% ,&+ 8G
CE

+n t%e circuit of 4ig8 67866: calculate

I : I : I an! V
B C E

8 Ta$e transistor

" I 60 an! neglect

F111 U A% + (A% +&1 (A% +8G

BE

*ig& +,&22

*ig& +,&2)

*ig& +,&20

*ig& +,&2+

12& 1)& 10&

+n t%e CC circuit of 4ig8 67866: co&pute t%e 0alues of +n t%e CC circuit of 4ig8 67867: fin! +E: +n t%e circuit of 4ig8 6786B: fin! t%e !rop across I : I an! V
B C

I : I : I an! V
E B C

CE

F1&2+ (A% 2&08 8 2eglect V 8 BE F1&2+ (A% 2&08 " I 9008

CE

8 2eglect V

U A% 1&208 (A% + 8G U A% 1&208 (A% + 8G F+ 8G

BE

R 8 T%e transistor
=

2212

Electrical Tec n!l!g"

*ig& +,&22

*ig& +,&2,

*ig& +,&28

*ig& +,&2-

1+&

4in! t%e 0alue of

F1)&+ 8G 12& (i) T%e re0erse saturation current for t%e Te transistor in 4ig8 67870 is 2 U/ at roo& te&perature ?26QC) an! increases b' a factor of 2 for eac% te&perature increase of 90QC8 Bias 0oltage 3 I 638 4in! BB t%e &a=i&u& allo able 0alue for R if t%e transistor is to re&ain cutoff at a te&perature of 76QC8
B

CE

for t%e uni0ersal stabiliSation circuit of 4ig8 6786<8

R +C -

+ 3 A R
B CC

A 089 3 +

BB

*ig& +,&,1

? ii ) +f 3 I 9803 an! R BB co&es out of cut-off 1,&

I 60 $-o%&: %o %ig% &a' t%e te&perature increase before t%e transistor (Electronic !evices and Circuits "agpur #niversity $ummer% 2&&') V CE in t%e circuit s%o n in 4ig8 67879 /ssu&e

Calculate t%e e=act 0alue of e&itter current an! transistor to be silicon an! " I 9008

(Electronic !evices of Circuits% "agpur #niversity $ummer% 2&&')

3 I963
CC

9$* 90 $*

6$*

2$*

*ig& +,&,1

Bi.!lar J/ncti!n Transist!r

221,

OBJECTI8E TESTS B +,
1& T%e e&itter of a transistor is generall' !ope! t%e %ea0iest because it ? a) %as to !issipate &a=i&u& po er ? b) %as to suppl' t%e c%arge carriers ? c ) is t%e first region of t%e transistor ? d) &ust possess lo resistance8 4or current or$ing of an NPN bipolar .unction transistor: t%e !ifferent electro!es s%oul! %a0e t%e follo ing polarities it% respect to e&itter8 ? a) collector +0e: base A0e ? b) collector A0e: base + 0e ? c ) collector A 0e: base A0e ? d) collector + 0e: base +0e (elect t%e C-RRECT alternati0e8 +n a bipolar transistor ? a) e&itter region is of lo 5%ig% resisti0it' &atterial %ic% is lig%tl'5 %ea0il'-!ope!8 ? b) collector region is of lo er5%ig%er con!ucti0it' t%an e&itter region ? c ) base region is of %ig%5lo resisti0it' &aterial %ic% is onl' lig%tl'5 %ea0il' !ope!8 +n a properl'-biase! NPN transistor: &ost of t%e electrons fro& t%e e&itter ? a) reco&bine it% %oles in t%e base ? b) reco&bine in t%e e&itter itself ? c ) pass t%roug% t%e base to t%e collector ? d) are stoppe! b' t%e .unction barrier8 T%e follo ing relations%ips bet een a an! " are correct E]CE,T ? a) "I -a ? b) positi0e an! [ 9 ? c ) negati0e an! Z 9 ? d) negati0e an! [ 98 T%e EBD of a gi0en transistor is for ar!- biase! an! its CBD re0erse-biase!8 +f t%e base current is increase!: t%en its ? a) I ill !ecrease C ? b) V ill increase CE ? c ) I ill increase C ? d) V ill increase8 CC T%e collector c%aracteristics of a CE - connecte! transistor &a' be use! to fin! its ? a) input resistance ? b) base current ? c ) output resistance ? d) 0oltage gain8 *%ic% of t%e follo ing appro=i&ations is often use! in electronic circuits V ? a) I I ? b) I I C E B C ?c ) I I ? d) I I +I B E E B C *%en a transistor is full' s itc%e! -2: it is sai! to be ? a) s%orte! ? b) saturate! ? c ) open ? d) cut-off +f a c%ange in base current !oes not c%ange t%e collector current: t%e transistor a&plifier is sai! to be ? a) saturate! ? b) cut-off ? c ) critical ? d) co&ple&ente!8 *%en an NPN transistor is saturate!: its V CE ? a) is Sero an! I is Sero C ? b) is lo an! I is %ig% C ? c ) eOuals V an! I is Sero ?!) eOuals V an! I is %ig%8 CC C *%en an NPN transistor is cut-off: its V CC ? a) eOuals V an! I is %ig% CC C ? b) eOuals V an! I is Sero CC C ? c ) is lo an! IC is %ig% ? d) is %ig% an! I is lo 8 C +f: in a bipolar .unction transistor: I I 900 U / B an! I I 90 &/: in %at range !oes t%e 0alue of C its beta lie V ? a) 089 to 980 ? b) 9809 to 90 ? c ) 9089 to 900 ? d) 90089 to 90008 +n a BD+ : largest current flo occurs ? a) in t%e e&itter ? b) in t%e collector ? c ) in t%e base ? d) t%roug% CB .unction8 +n a properl'-connecte! BD+ : an increase in base current causes increase in ? a) I onl' ? b) I onl' C E ? c ) bot% I an! I ? d) lea$age current8
C E CC C

11&

2&

11&

)&

12&

1)&

0&

10&

+&

a "

? b) aI -"

"

1+&

9
9 12&

? c ) aI +" 9 2&

? d?

99 -aI +"

,&

8&

-&

T%e 0alue of total collector current in a CB circuit is ? a) I I a I ? b) I I a I + I C E C E CO ?c) I I a I A I ? d) I I a I 8 C E CO C E +n a .unction transistor: t%e collector cut off current + re!uces consi!erabl' b' !oping t%e C B? a) e&itter it% %ig% le0el of i&purit' ? b) e&itter it% lo le0el of i&purit' ? c ) collector it% %ig% le0el of i&purit' ? d) collector it% lo le0el of i&purit' +n a transistor a&plifier: t%e re0erse saturation current I C? a) !oubles for e0er' 90QC rise in te&perature ? b) !oubles for e0er' 9QC rise in te&perature ? c ) increases linearl' it% t%e te&perature ? d) !oubles for e0er' 6QC rise in te&perature +n t%e case of a bipolar transistor: a is ? a) positi0e an! Z 9

1,&

18&

1-&

2218
21&

Electrical Tec n!l!g"

20& +n t%e circuit s%o n in 4ig8 67874: if K : t%en t%e 0alue of V ill be
&

21&

22&

*%en a BD+ operates in cut-off ? a) V I 0 CE ? b) V I V CE cc ? c ) V %as negati0e 0alue CE ? d) I is &a=i&u&8 C *%en a BD+ is in saturation ? a) I I 0 C ? b) I controls I B C ?c) V I 0 CE ? d) V %as positi0e 0alue8 CE T%e best appro=i&ation for V in t%e circuit C s%o n in 4ig8 64872 ill be ?assu&e " to be %ig%) ? a)4 3 ? b) 68B 3 ? c ) B87 3 ? d) 9087 3

R IR I
= C

+3 I63
CC

R R 3
in

*ig& +,&,0 48@ $ + 963

2+&

3 786 3 68B $

22&
*ig& +,&,2

2)&

/ssu&e I 087 3 an! " I 60 for t%e transistor in t%e circuit s%o n in 4ig8 6787@8 4or I 23: t%e 0alue of R is
B

+923

2,&
R
B

6$

3 BE

CE

*ig& +,&,)

? a) 200 ? c ) 2B@

? b) 242 ? d) @00

? a) 4866 3 ? b ) 286 3 ?c ) 9 3 ? d ) Sero / transistor is operate! as a non-saturate! s itc% to eli&inate ? a) storage ti&e ? b) turn-off ti&e ? c ) turn-on ti&e ? d) !ela' ti&e Earl'-effect in BJT refers to ? a) a0alanc%e brea$ !o n ? b) t%er&al brea$ !o n ? c ) base narro ing ? d) Sener brea$-!o n (#($C Engg. $ervices 2&&2) ? Iint& Earl' effect also calle! base- i!t% &o!ulation) is t%e 0ariation of effecti0e base i!t% b' t%e collector 0oltage) / bipolar .unction transistor ?BJT) is use! as po er control s itc% b' biasing it in t%e cut-off region ?-44 state) or in t%e saturation region ?-2 state)8 +n t%e -2 state: for t%e BJT8 ? a) bot% t%e base-e&itter .unction an! basecollector .unctions are re0erse biase! ? b) t%e base-e&itter is re0erse biase!: an! t%e base-collector .unction is for ar! biase! ? c ) t%e base-e&itter .unction is for ar! biase!: an! t%e base-collector .unction is re0erse biase! ? d) bot% t%e base-e&itter an! base-collector .unctions are for ar! biase!8

ANS<ERS
1& 8& >a? >a? 2& -& >d? >d? )& >a? lo : %ea0il' >b? lo er >c? %ig%: lig%tl' 0& >c? 11& >c? 11& >c? 12& >a? 1)& >b? 10& >a? 1+& >b? 21& >c? 22& >d? 2)& >d? 20& >b? 2+& >a? 22& >c? +& >b? 12& >b? 2,& >d? 2& >b? 1,& >b? ,& >d? 18& >a?

1-& >c?

21& >b?

T- To 4+R(T