Treatment of Jewish Themes in Slovak Schools by Peter Salner and Eva Salnerova The third in a series of reports available

in English and Slovak, prepared for the American Jewish Committee's Central and East European Curriculum Review Project. The first two reports dealt with Poland and the Czech Republic.

Bio & Foreword Dr. Peter Salner is a researcher at the Institute of Ethnology of the Slovak Academy of Sciences. He is president of the Bratislava Jewish Religious Community. Dr. Eva Salnerova works as a political specialist. She is a board member of the Bratislava Jewish Religious Community. Dr. Peter Salner and Dr. Eva Salnerova's The Treatment of Jewish Themes in Slovak Schools, which is being published simultaneously in English and Slovak, is the third in a series of reports prepared for the American Jewish Committee's Central and East European Curriculum Review Project. The first two reports dealt with Poland and the Czech Republic. This project focuses on countries that have recently emerged from Communist rule. How are Jews likely to fare in these postcommunist societies? A key determinant, most certainly, will be the educational system, which crucially shapes the outlook of the younger generation. What do children in the postcommunist countries of Central and East Europe learn in the classroom about Judaism, Jewish history, the Holocaust, and Israel? Does an exposure to the school curriculum enhance their understanding of Jews and Jewish life, or does it reinforce negative perceptions of Jews? Do students gain some sense of the richness of Jewish history, especially as it relates to their own history? Do they come to appreciate Judaism as a religious phenomenon spanning the ages? Is both the enormity and uniqueness of the Nazi genocide of the Jews made clear to them? Do students become acquainted with the history of modern Israel and contemporary world Jewry in an objective manner? Dr. Salner and Dr. Salnerov consider these questions in the context of the Slovak school system. Future publications in the series will deal with educational curricula in Hungary,

Ukraine, Russia, Croatia, and elsewhere. By making clear what exists in the educational sphere at present, the Curriculum Review Project seeks to spur curriculum reform where appropriate. Certainly, education should encourage intergroup understanding and not intergroup hostility. David Singer, Director Department of Research Introduction Before 1938 the Jewish community formed an integral part of Slovak society. The Holocaust and the subsequent Communist regime changed this situation. It seemed as if Jews had ceased to exist, both physically and culturally. Under the Communist regime, Slovak elementary- and secondary-school students only rarely came across topics related to Jewish history, the Holocaust, and Israel, and mostly in negative terms. Since November 1989, the system of instruction in Slovakia has been undergoing slow but extensive revision. In Slovakia (as in Czechoslovakia previously), school attendance is obligatory until age 15. Because all citizens are required to finish elementary school, it is there that they acquire basic knowledge, as well as significant elements of their social and political outlook. This study, therefore, focuses primarily on elementary education (students in grades 5-9, aged 11-15 years). Less attention is given to secondary schools (gymnasiums and technical high schools) because secondary education is optional and pursued only by limited numbers of young people. In general, it is more difficult to document trends in secondary education because new textbooks are lacking in many areas, and teachers are forced to fall back on a variety of supplementary materials. Under Communist rule (1948-89), elementary education centered on memorizing subject matter. Emphasis was placed on the progressive character of the working class and its "scientific and progressive worldview" (i.e., atheism) as opposed to "reactionary and retrograde" religion (including Judaism). Events or personalities that did not conform to Communist ideology were either ignored or distorted. This method produced students who possessed a certain amount of information, but lacked motivation to think independently. The revolution that overthrew Communism affected both the method and the content of education. Particularly in the elementary schools, new textbooks were issued that strived for greater objectivity. These new textbooks, especially after Slovakia became independent in 1993, focused heavily on developments in the country. Our analysis of the treatment of Jewish themes in Slovak schools will focus on textbooks in geography, literature, civic education, and history. With regard to history, attention will also be given to books that are recommended for teachers and students, but not prescribed. Our analysis of school materials was supplemented by interviews with teachers in elementary and secondary schools in Bratislava and other Slovak cities.

In general, the words Jew and Jewish appear very infrequently in Slovak textbooks. For example, a newly published literature textbook designed for grade 8 of elementary schools, provides the following synopsis of Rudolf Jasik's novel about the tragic love of a Jewish girl and Christian boy during the Holocaust: "The novel entitled Saint Elisabeth's Square describes the problems arising in the life of young people in the fascist Slovak state controlled by clergy." In general, Slovak textbooks fail to identify many Jewish writers and artists as such. Some part of the "anonymity" of Jewish personalities in Slovak textbooks is due to the fact that it is not customary in Slovakia to mention an individual's religion; instead, the focus is on ethnicity or citizenship. Thus, a history textbook for grade 8 of elementary schools emphasizes the significance of the theory of relativity, which "influenced almost all areas of human activity in the 20th centuryscience, philosophy, culture, and arts." Its originator, Albert Einstein, is described as follows: "German mathematician and physicist, who is a symbol of science and human knowledge of the 20th century. In 1933, upon the rise of Hitler to power, he emigrated to the USA, where he served as a university professor. In 1939 Einstein warned President Roosevelt about the danger of Nazi nuclear research for military use." The State of Israel is rarely touched upon in Slovak textbooks, and some of the references are negative. Elementary Schools Students encounter subject matter about Jews in grade 5 history and geography classes. A more concrete picture of Judaism is offered in grade 6 civic education. According to the curriculum, the Holocaust is treated in grade 8, particularly in history classes. Israel is taught in geography. From grade 5 on, students encounter various aspects of these subjects. However, because of the nature of the teaching materials, the knowledge acquired lacks coherence and is decidedly fragmentary. Geography The textbook Man on the Earth: Geography for Grade 5 (Bratislava, 1996) indicates that "the most significant religions on earth are Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, and Buddhism," making no mention of Judaism. Students in grade 6 learn about Israel in the chapter on Southwest Asia in the textbook Geography 6 (Bratislava, 1993). In addition to describing the natural conditions in the region, the chapter provides some information about population: "The population of Israel is rather small, but it is increasing quite rapidly. Apart from the Arabs, there are Turks and Persians [in Southwest Asia] too. A common trait of almost all inhabitants is their Muslim religion. The only exception is the Jewish state of Israel." Other details about Israel are offered in the chapter "Survey of Other States," where Israel is ranked among the "economically developed states of Southwest Asia." The authors add that Israel "is a very attractive country for tourists. Not only because of the beautiful sights,

but also due to its religious history." There is also a description of a kibbutz: "One of the types of rural settlements in Israel is called a kibbutz. Its inhabitants run farms jointly, work in gardens. They also process many agricultural products. For their work they get a small salary, but they do not have to pay for food and services on the kibbutz." The chapter concludes: "The majority of the population consists of Jews. Their religious distinction, but also the political conditions (the Israeli occupation of Arab territoriesfig. 66) are sources of conflict between Israel and Arab countries, but also within Israel itself. One part of the capital, Jerusalem, is situated on occupied territory. Abroad, Tel Aviv has been recognized more frequently as the capital of Israel." Figure 66, just mentioned, shows a colored map of Israel with the following legend: "Yelloworiginal territory of Israel; brownterritory occupied or controlled by Israel; greenterritory controlled by UN units." Relations with the Palestinians are described as follows: "During almost 50 years of its existence, Israel has considerably extended its territory to the detriment of its neighbors. For some time, Israel occupied even the Sinai Peninsula." The chapter ends with five questions, two of which relate to Israel. The second asks students to locate the two largest Israeli cities. The first question characterizes Israel in negative terms: "What countries are Israel's neighbors? Which of them do not have any of its territories occupied by Israel?" Literature Some literature textbooks now in use were published before 1989, so it is not surprising that they fail to mention Jewish themes or authors. Literature for Grade 5 (Bratislava, 1997), in a section called "Legends," pre-sents the biblical account of creation. In their introduction, the authors inform students that "The books of the Old Testament were originally written in Hebrew." At the same time, however, they encourage students to read "how the holy book of Christians, the Old Testament, describes the creation of world." The authors identify Jesus as a Jew, but then continue: "By his teaching he upset the Jewish religious officials, who asked the Roman prosecutor Pontius Pilate to sentence Jesus to death. However, Pilate found him innocent and wanted to release him. The crowd requested his death yet and thus had him crucified." Civic Education In grade 7 of elementary schools students are taught about the principal world religions and emphasis is placed on "the need for tolerance among people with different world outlooks." A new textbook, entitled Civic Education for Grade 7 of Elementary Schools (Bratislava, 1997), provides objective information about Judaism, which is listed first among other religions. There is a definition of the Torah and explanations of God's covenant with Abraham, the 613 commandments, the chosenness of the Jewish people, and the expectation of the messiah. The role of the synagogue is described in these terms: "The synagogue, in which Jewish services take place, is the center of religious life. Marriages are entered there and also a ceremonial acceptance of Jewish boys among the

adults. Jews consider a family and family relations to be very important; thus many Jewish holidays are at the same time family holidays." The text also includes information about the most significant holidaysRosh Hashanah, Yom Kippur, Pesach, Shavuot, Sukkot, Hanukkah, Purim. History After November 1989 it was necessary to replace the old Communist history textbooks. The first new books, issued in 1990, were intended for temporary use, while more recent ones are marked by attractive layouts, and graphics. These new textbooks, in contrast to those of the Communist period, pay varying degrees of attention to Jewish history and the Holocaust. Particularly after the breakup of Czechoslovakia in 1993 the record of the wartime Slovak state began to be discussed. The critical issue dividing the country was not the Holocaust, but the Slovak national uprising of 1944. While most individuals and political parties view the uprising as an act that joined Slovakia to Western democratic forces in World War II, others consider it a treasonous attack against Slovak statehood. August 29, the anniversary of the uprising, was a national holiday in former Czechoslovakia and still is in Slovakia. Most political parties support this legacy. However, the Slovak National Party, which was a member of the government coalition from 1994 to 1998, views the wartime Slovak state in positive terms and has condemned the uprising. Since the Slovak National Party controlled the Ministry of Education, it consistently attempted to inject its view into the history curriculum. The party worked to prevent the introduction of a textbook entitled History 4: Slovakia in the New Century, despite its positive evaluation by reviewers, and sought to put in its place a controversial book with an anti-Jewish orientation, Milan S. Durica's The History of Slovakia and the Slovaks. The second edition of Durica's work was published by the Ministry of Education with the aim of having it serve as a mandatory textbook in both elementary and secondary schools. The following ten history textbooks for elementary schools are analyzed here: (l) P. Dvok, I. Mrva, and V. Kratochvl, Slovakia in the Middle Ages and in the New Age (1997); (2) D. Kov, V. Kopan, and V. Kratochvl, Slovakia at the Turn of the New Age (1995); (3) D. Kov and L. Liptk, Teaching Texts from History, 1939-1945 (1990); (4) D. Kov, I. Kamenec, and V. Kratochvl, History 4: Slovakia in the New Century (1997); (5) R. Letz, Slovakia in the Twentieth Century (1997); (6) H. Tkadlekov and V. Kratochvl, History 4: The World in the New Century (1995); (7) H. Tkadlekov, M. Skladan, and V. Kratochvl, At the Threshold of the Modern World (1995); (8) V. Michovsk, History: Prehistory and Ancient Times (1997); (9) V. Mcska, M. Skladan, and V. Kratochvl, Europe in the Middle Ages (1996); (10) V. Kratochvl, J. Cangr, and D. Kov, Methodical Handbook to History for Elementary Schools (1994). Jewish History In Slovakia, the teaching of ancient history focuses on Egypt, Greece, and Rome. In textbook 10, the chapter on ancient states of the Near East and Mediterranean briefly

describes the origin of an independent Jewish state threatened by both Egypt and Mesopotamia. Further on, the Bible is mentioned as containing "tales from Jewish history and Jewish religious rules." According to the authors, "it became a holy book of both the Jewish and Christian religions. Until now it has been considered a noteworthy work of art as well as a significant source for Jewish history." Textbooks that deal with the early periods of both Slovak and world history mention Jews, at best, only in passing. For example, in textbook l, designed for grade 6 of elementary schools, the chapter "Slovaks, Neighbors, Foreigners" indicates that in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries the territory of old Hungary was inhabited by Magyars, Croats, Slovaks, Ruthenians, Serbs, Greeks, Armenians, and Jews. The following is noted about Jews: "In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries the number of Jews increased too. They earned their living mainly by trading and handling money." Textbook 2, designed for grade 7 of elementary schools, notes with regard to the Edict of Toleration of 1782: "Joseph II realized that tolerance is useful for the state. Therefore, he issued the Toleration Edict which granted religious freedom to all Christians. It also allowed the Jews to enter the monarchy freely, which was reflected in economic revival." Slovak textbooks fail to mention Jews in connection with significant historical events, thus depriving students of a significant learning opportunity. For some students, the absence of classroom information can be compensated for, in part, by visits to the Museum of Jewish Culture in Bratislava and a smaller museum in the eastern Slovak town of Presov. For most students, however, Jewish historical experience prior to the Holocaust remains largely a blank. The Holocaust The Holocaustthe systematic extermination of European Jewrywas not mentioned in Czechoslovak textbooks written under Communist auspices. At most, Jewish victims of the Nazis were included in the overall number of people killed in the various countries in World War II. The concentration camps were described as places where antifascist fighters, particularly Communists, suffered. In addition, history textbooks avoided any general assessment of the Slovak Republic (1939-45), presenting only a one-sided criticism of its clerical and anti-Communist character. Slovak students encounter the Holocaust for the first time in grade 8 of elementary school (ages 14-15). Textbook 3 was published in 1990 shortly after the fall of Communism and prior to the breakup of Czechoslovakia. A second revised edition, published in 1992, was used until 1997. The text is divided into seven chapters: (1) "The Second World War"; (2) "The Slovak Republic"; (3) "Occupied Slovak Territories"; (4) "The Wartime Czech Republic and Moravia"; (5) "Antifascist Resistance"; (6) "The Slovak National Uprising"; (7) and "The Liberation of Slovakia." The authors of textbook 3 are attentive to the place of Jews in the events described. The introductory chapter includes the following statement: "The Nazis in the occupied

territory terrorized the local population. They started to implement their evil plan of wiping out entire peoples, particularly the Slavs. The local population was to be turned into slaves with no rights, laboring for the ruling German nation. Jewish citizens particularly were subjected to a dreadful terror and mass murders in concentration camps and gas chambers." Chapter two of textbook 3, "The Slovak Republic," describes the activity of the Slovak People's Party and concludes: "The character of the political system of the Slovak Republic was reflected in the most tragic chapter of that periodin the persecution and murdering of the Jewish population." This dimension is amplified in chapter 5, which includes a section on "Persecution of Jews." It begins: "German Nazis considered Jews, like Slavs and blacks, an inferior race. Jewish citizens were persecuted, deprived of their human dignity and property, and finally physically liquidatedmurdered." The authors add: At the beginning of 1942 the government in Bratislava accepted the Germans' offer to deport Jews for labor in occupied Poland. In March 1942 the first railway transports carrying men, women, small children, the sick and elderly set off for extermination camps. Most of the deported died in gas chambers or from exhaustion, starvation, or forced labor. Both the highest church officials and the Vatican protested to the Slovak government about the persecution of Jews and their deportation, calling it inhuman. When deportations were stopped in October 1942, it was too latemost of the deported Jews were no longer alive. The countries of the anti-Hitler coalition considered the persecution of the Jews to be a crime against humanity, and its perpetrators were tried and punished after the war. The persecution and murder of the Jews clearly evidences the fascist character of the political system existing in the Slovak Republic. Four questions relate to this text: (1) "What reasons were given to justify the anti-Jewish measures? Why are these views false?" (2) "What is Aryanization?" (3) "What restrictions on Jewish human rights were introduced in the Slovak Republic after 1939?" (4) and "When and where were the Jews transported from Slovakia? What fate awaited them?" Textbook 3 is quite short and includes no photographs or maps. Despite its temporary character and poor layout, however, it represents an important step forward in making students aware of the Jewish dimension of events in Slovakia during World War II. The authors present an unambiguously negative portrait of the pro-Nazi Slovak state and provide a clear sense of contemporary attitudes toward Jews. The authors of textbooks 4 and 6, which replaced textbook 3, rank among the most prominent Slovak historians. Textbook 4 was ready to go to press in 1994. However, a new government coalition came to power at that time and the Slovak National Party took control of the Ministry of Education. It attempted to prevent the publication of this book because in its view the authors did not sufficiently emphasize the struggle for Slovak state sovereignty. The Slovak National Party also objected to the authors' approach to the Slovak Republic and the Holocaust, implying that the Slovak national uprising was

neither Slovak nor national. The Ministry's views started a controversy among teachers and historians that was taken up in the media and elsewhere. Finally, after more than two years, textbook 4 was approved by the Ministry of Education and distributed to schools in 1997-98. Textbook 4 differs from previous ones in its attractive layout. The text is richly illustrated with maps and photographs. Every event discussed gets identical spacea double page. The left margin includes a "Gallery of Personalities" (profiles of prominent contemporary figures), while the right margin contains contemporary photographs. The title of each subchapter is followed by two or three significant dates. Then the text followsusually one page. The next page consists of a section providing excerpts from old documents and photographs or maps. Also included is a brief dictionary of two or three elementary terms. A section called "Let's Think and Discuss" poses several questions. The authors encourage the students to express their own views and ideas, something unknown in the Communist period. The Holocaust is treated in chapter 3, "Slovakia in the Years 1936-45," which is divided into seven subchapters: (1) "Clouds over Czechoslovakia"; (2) "From Autonomy to Independence"; (3) "Founding of a New State"; (4) "The Slovak Republic on the Map of Europe"; (5) "Life in the Slovak Republic"; (6) "The Slovak National Uprising"; (7) and "What Was the Slovak Republic Like?" In subchapter 4, in a section entitled "What Do the Old Documents Tell Us?," there is an excerpt from a diplomatic note from the Vatican to the Slovak government on the implementation of the so-called Jewish Codex: "The Holy See has learned with anguish that in Slovakia too the country, whose people enjoy the best Catholic tradition, issued a government edict on September 9, 1941 that implements a detailed racial legislation, comprising various measures which seem to be in contradiction with Catholic principles." In subchapter 7 two of the three dates refer to the Holocaust: "1941, government edict No. 198/1941, the so-called Jewish Codex, was issued containing anti-Jewish legislation"; "1942, deportations of Jewish citizens took place from March to October." The authors provide the following general statement about the fate of the Jews: Violation of civil and human rights was most noticeably displayed in the so-called solution of the Jewish question. Jews were gradually deprived of property, stripped of their elementary political, civil and finally human rights. They were excluded from schools, lost their jobs and displaced from their residences. They were concentrated in numerous labor camps and were obliged to wear a degrading labela yellow star. Although thousands of Jewish citizens received various working, religious, and presidential exceptions, these could not prevent the tragedy. In 1942 the Slovak government forcibly deported 58,000 Slovak Jews to "death camps." Another 13,000 were deported by the Germans after they seized Slovakia in the fall of 1944. Even sympathy and assistance to Jews by some of the Slovak population could not change the impact of the inhuman anti-Jewish government legislation.

Also included in the section "What Do Old Documents Tell Us?" are two other Jewishrelated items. The first is a warning in a Hlinka Guard leaflet of 1940: "We will not be cheated by a silly phrase that Jews are also human. The Jews are representatives and agents of the devil. Jews are not created by God, but by the devil and therefore Jews are not human, even if they look human. Those who offer protection or support to Jews in any way will not escape God's punishment." The second item is a letter from Slovak rabbis to the president in March 1942: "A large number of Jewish citizens in Slovakia are threatened by deportations to a foreign country. Wartime deportation equals extermination. In this last crucial hour we appeal to your Christian and human conscience and turn to you with a desperate request: Use your influence to prevent this mode of a people's annihilation." The photographic supplement to this material includes an anti-Jewish cartoon headed "Jews Are Our Enemies," a copy of the constitutional law of May 15, 1942 displacing Jews, a photo made in a labor camp, another of a deportation, and a picture of the yellow star. In the section "Let's Think and Discuss" two of four questions refer to the Holocaust: (3) "When and where were the Jews deported from Slovakia and what was their fate?" (4) "From whom did Tiso have to protect his own citizens when granting exceptions?" Textbook 5 was approved by the Slovak National Party-controlled Ministry of Education as an alternative to textbook 4. In discussing the Slovak state the author makes clear his sympathies for President Tiso, who is contrasted to radicals such as Prime Minister Tuka and Interior Minister Mach. It is the latter who are held responsible for the destruction of Slovak Jewry: "After a secret agreement with Germany, without informing the president and other cabinet members, Tuka and Mach launched deportation of the Jews from Slovakia to German camps in Polish territory." The section entitled "Let's Think and Discuss" includes question 4: "What was the status of Slovak Jews during the Slovak Republic? What was their fate? Could it have been avoided?" The section labeled "Let's Update Our Vocabulary" defines "Aryanization" as the "transfer of Jewish property into the hands of non-Jews'Aryans'"; and "deportation" as "the forced displacement or dislocation from certain territory." There is a photograph showing the deportation of Slovak Jews, while the recommended literature includes Jozef Lanik's What Dante Did Not See, the testimony of a Slovak Jew who managed to escape from Auschwitz. The author of textbook 5 points out positive aspects of the Slovak state, stressing "the high degree of the courts' independence," presidential and ministerial exemptions for Jews, and assistance provided to Jews by the Slovak population and church. In textbook 6, chapters 2 and 3 relate to the issues at hand. Chapter 2, "Europe Between Two Wars," includes two subchapters ("Mussolini and His Black Shirts" and "Hitler against Europe") which trace the origins of Italian Fascism and German Nazism and their paths to power. The section dealing with Italian Fascism does not mention Jews at all. In "Hitler against Europe," it is stated:

Hitler proceeded as Lenin did in Russia and Mussolini in Italy. He prohibited all political parties, associations, organizations, and clubs. The state bodies, education, science, culture, and courts Hitler put under his party control. Secret police flooded the whole country. Opponents of the regime were put in jail and in concentration camps. That was his way of government, which is common to all dictators. The German dictatorship had, however, two more specific features. It instituted racial laws and divided the people into valuable and less valuable groups. Themselves, as the so-called Nordic race, they put above all. The German nation, so-called Ubermensch in their view, must turn othersi.e., Slavs, Jews, and Romainto modern slaves or destroy them. The section of textbook 6 entitled "Small Gallery of Personalities" mentions Hitler, Goebbels, and Himmler. "What Do Old Documents Tell Us?" offers excerpts from the Nuremberg Laws: "Jews cannot be citizens of the Reich. They do not have the right to vote, cannot hold public positions . . . . Jew is defined as a person at least one of whose grandparents going down to the third generation is of racially pure Jewish origin." Also included is an illustration of F. Nussbaum's painting Self-Portrait with a Jewish Passport, indicating that the artist died in Auschwitz. The chapter of textbook 6 entitled "The Second World War" contains significant information about the Holocaust. It is organized into four subchapters: (1) "Europethe Victim of Dictators"; (2) "Life in Occupied Europe"; (3) "Superpowers against Hitler"; (4) and "Finally Peace". In subchapter 2, all three introductory dates refer to the Holocaust: "1933, concentration camps were established in Germany"; "1942, a conference was held in Wannsee which adopted measures for a systematic annihilation of Jews and following which several extermination camps or "death factories" were set up, e.g. in Auschwitz, Treblinka, Majdanek, etc."; "1939-45, about 6 million Jews were exterminated in the course of World War II." Nazi plans for the destruction of European Jewry are described as follows: In every state, whether occupied or a satellite, Nazis singled out two groups of people destined for death. In 1941 Nazi leaders adopted the decision to launch the deportation of Jews to concentration camps from all over Europe. Most camps were built in Poland. Here the Jews were allowed to starve to death and were exposed to all kinds of torture. Moreover, the Nazis invented special death camps designed for the extermination of Jews, later followed by Roma. Only Denmark, Bulgaria, and Italy refused to accept this ruling. Although Jews were persecuted there too, they were not sent to death. Death threatened other nations and ethnic groups that openly withstood the Nazi tyranny. The section entitled "It Will Interest You" explains: "The murdering of Jewish citizens in World War II is also called the Holocaust. In ancient Greece this term denoted a burnt offering (Holokaustumto burn entirely)." The text is supplemented by a table which

indicates that 800,000 Jews died in the course of deportations and 3 million were murdered in concentration camps. Photographs show the Warsaw ghetto, deportations, and Auschwitz. The section "What Do Old Documents Tell Us?" provides excerpts from the memoirs of a German political prisoner in a concentration camp, indicating that the Germans treated Jews more cruelly than other prisoners. Textbooks 4 and 6 provide significant coverage of the Holocaust, while allowing students the opportunity for discussion and personal reflection. The latter element is certainly welcome from an educational point of view, but it can also lead to problems, since opinion in Slovakia is divided about the wartime Slovak state. This is especially the case since some teachers use auxiliary classroom material that positively evaluates the Slovak Republic. Secondary Schools As noted above, it is more difficult to analyze instruction in secondary schools than in elementary schools. There are new textbooks in some subject areasfor example, social science and literaturebut hardly any in others, most especially history. Teachers, therefore, are forced to rely on older books or other materials. To get a better sense of what actually takes place in secondary school classrooms, the authors of this report conducted interviews with teachers in Bratislava and other Slovak cities. Geography The geography textbook for the first year of gymnasium refers to Israel in a number of chapters, mostly in a positive manner. The references, however, are not sufficient to allow any clear sense of the country to emerge. Additional information is offered in Geography for the Second Year of Gymnasium, Part One (Bratislava, 1991). Here Israel serves as a model of religious conflict: "The Jewish element in the Muslim world is the cause of unrest between Israel and its Arab neighbors. A conflict between Hindus and Muslims resulted in the secession of Pakistan and Bangladesh from India." Further on, Israel is ranked with Japan and Turkey among developed countries. There is a positive characterization of the Jewish state: "Small Israel originated in 1948 following a 2000-year-old claim of Jews for their own territory. The Jews built an economically prosperous state, the GDP of which per capita is four times higher than those of its Arab neighbors." The authors stress that "Israel is the most effective utilizer of water worldwide," and is characterized by high levels of education: "Israel is the only Asian state in which the number of educated people is higher than needed by science and the economy, so that many of them are unable to find jobs." Both Tel Aviv and Jerusalem are listed as capitals of the country. Geography for the Second Year of Gymnasium, Part Two (Bratislava, 1991) includes a chapter on the religious structure of the world population. Judaism is classified as an ethnic type of religion and it is characterized as "a complex of religion and social ethics." The authors claim 18 million followers of Judaism worldwide. Scattered comments provide students with at least a basic sense of the nature of Judaic faith. Particular stress

is placed on the concept of monotheism: "God is almighty, invisible, and inconceivable, who created the world out of nothing and who directs it himself. Judaism is based on the Bible and Talmud: faith in free human thinking, belief in good and evil, resurrection of the dead, eternal life, and the wrath of God." Regrettably, Judaism is not listed in the denominational classification of the Slovak population according to the 1991 census. Literature Literature 3 for the Third Year of Gymnasium and High Schools (Bratislava, 1995) and Literature 4 for the Fourth Year of Gymnasium and High Schools (Bratislava, 1997) cover twentieth-century world literature. Both mention Jewish authors and issues, though not in a systematic fashion. A Jewish element is first encountered in Literature 3 in connection with the writings of Thomas Mann. The author, students are informed, "emigrated to Switzerland in order to escape from Nazism. Later Mann left for the USA, where he wrote a historicalphilosophical tetralogy, Joseph and His Brothers, in which he connected a biblical story with contemporary times. Through the biblical Jew Joseph, the author protested against anti-Semitism and racism." The Jewish origin of Franz Kafka is not mentioned in a relatively extensive presentation of his works. However, when introducing the Russian writer Issac Babel, the authors make the following comment: "Lyricism but also irony were used by Babel in his book Odessa Stories (1931), in which he described his childhood and the Jewish environment of Odessa." Czech author Ivan Olbracht's writings on Jewish topics are cited, but no details are given. Gejza Vmo, one of the few Slovak Jewish writers of the period, is touched upon, with students being told: "His novel Broken Branch is characterized by autobiographic features. . . . It focuses on the problem of a 'broken branch'Jews and their coexistence with the majority population." In their fourth year, gymnasium students learn about the contemporary world and Slovak literature. Saul Bellow's novel Herzog, which receives significant attention, is characterized in the following manner: "Like the author, Moses Herzog spent his childhood in Chicago, to which his ancestors went from Russia." When listing Joseph Heller's books, Good as Gold is mentioned. In regard to Arthur Miller's plays, Broken Glass is characterized as depicting American Jewish society at the time of Kristallnacht. Books by Czech Jewish authors are associated mainly with the Holocaust. Thus Jan Oen's novel Romeo, Julia and Darkness is described as "a love story between student Paul and a Jewish girl Ester which has a tragic end. Ester is shot by Germans and Paul's soul is full of despair." Also mentioned are Ludvik Akenzy and Ivan Klima; about the latter students are told: "When still a child, he survived three years in Terezin concentration camp and his work reflects these experiences." While Jewish themes find expression in post-1945 Slovak literature, they are not discussed in Literature 4. Leopold Lahola's Jewish origin is not directly mentioned, but students are told that "he could not finish his studies due to racial reasons. He was detained in the labor camp Novaky. He managed to escape from there and join the

partisans." Social Education Social education seeks to acquaint students with the basic elements of select fields philosophy, law, economics, political science, psychology, and religion. Judaism figures only in religious ethics, a second-year course whose goal is to promote religious tolerance"accepting people with different worldviews." With respect to Judaism, its monotheistic character is stressed. According to the curriculum outline, "every teacher can adjust the extent of the teaching material." Thus if a teacher wishes to focus exclusively on Christianity, he or she may do so. Still, students claim that they get at least some exposure to Judaism. History There are hardly any new history textbooks for secondary schools, while those issued under Communist auspices are completely inadequate. 1997 saw the publication of a new history textbook for technical and vocational high schools written by a team of authors: History Textbook for Technical and Vocational High Schools, vol. 1, From Primeval Times to the Modern Era (Bratislava, 1997) and vol. 2, History of the Modern Era to the Revolutionary Years 1848-1849 (Bratislava, 1997). These volumes, however, contain little information about Jewish history. The first reference to Jews is in the chapter dealing with ancient civilizations, where it is stated: "Its most prominent ruler, Nebuchadnezzar, conquered Jerusalem, the capital of HebrewJews, and in 587 B.C. he took the Jews as his captives." In a chapter entitled "The Culture of River Civilizations," students are informed: "On the territory of Palestine there appeared a faith in a single God, Yahweh, which laid the grounds of the Jewish and later of the Christian religions. Their holy book, the Old Testament (part of the Bible) is more than 3000 years old and consists of 40 volumes. It belongs to the cultural heritage of mankind." When dealing with the rise of Fascism and Nazism, teachers can make use of two books by Josh Brooman, Italy and Mussolini: Italy 1900-1945 (1985) and Hitler's Germany: Germany 1933-1945 (1985), both translated into Slovak by the Slovak Teachers' Association. Fortunately, in dealing with the period of the Holocaust, an important resource is available, namely D. Kov's and L. Liptk's History Chapters for High Schools (Bratislava, 1990; 2d ed. 1992), which has the same temporary character as the textbook for elementary schools that the authors published (see above). The authors describe Nazi policy toward the Jews as follows: In this "great German living space" there was supposed to rule a "higher" German race. The "inferior nations"Slavs and Jewshad to be decimated or entirely annihilated,

others had to be turned into a crowd with no rights designed to do the dirty and unqualified labor for the "lordly nation." These mad plans did not remain on paper only, but began to be implemented systematically with the help of the great organizational and economic potential of Hitler's empire. The murder of 6 million Jews and 3 million Poles, as well as of other nationalities in the concentration camps, ghettos, or occupied regions, testifies to the above statement. Europe's prospects in case of a Nazi victory is the criterion that should be applied when considering the history of Slovakia during the World War II. Kov and Liptk devote considerable space to Slovak state ideology, making clear the role of the Slovak Republic in implementing Nazi policy toward the Jews: The pro-Nazi government had already adopted anti-Jewish measures during its autonomy (on March 14, 1939, the Slovak Republic was established), but after March 14 one new measure was followed by another. First, the Jews started to be systematically deprived of their property and jobs. Jewish industrial companies, businesses, craft shops, and houses were transferred to "Christian" companies or to former competitors at minimal cost, or they were seized by members of politically prominent families. A great number of Jewish artists, lawyers, and physicians were liquidated. Jews were banned from certain jobs e.g., as editors, teachers, officers. They were fired from all public offices and institutions. Legislation prevented Jews from acquiring higher education. They could not attend any schools but elementary ones, and these had to be special Jewish schools. There was a limit on hiring Jewish youths as apprentices and for vocational training. Thus the proHitler government in Slovakia implemented the same barbaric measures against Jews as those applied by the Nazise.g., in Poland, where they had to ensure German dominance over the "lower Slavic race." History Chapters for High Schools includes yet another paragraph describing anti-Jewish measures: The law prohibited and punished any intimate relation between "Aryans" and Jews, including visiting each other. To facilitate monitoring them, Jews had to wear a distinctive sign in publicthe yellow star. They were not allowed to live on main streets, to go to movies, theaters, or coffeehouses, to attend exhibitions, to walk in parks, to go to swimming pools, or to own cameras, binoculars, bicycles, or telephones or to use them. Their letters and applications had to be labeled with a star, they could travel only in marked cars and with official permission. They could stay out and go shopping only at predetermined times. In the summer of 1941, the government started to assemble more than 100,000 impoverished and dislodged Jews in ghettos. The authors mince no words in describing the end of Slovak Jewry: From March 25, 1942, when the first transport left from Poprad, until October 1942, 58,000 Jews were expelled by force from Slovakia. Almost all of them died. Only a small number of "economically important" Jews survived, others escaped abroad, and some were granted a "presidential exception."

When the transports were organized, the selected victims were rounded up at night. The Hlinka Guards and the police committed burglaries; all those scenes, full of violence and brutality, are difficult to describe. The racist legislation and later the deportation of the Jews were met with protests that the Vatican made to Tiso. The authors conclude with a powerful indictment of the Slovak Republic: "The active participation of the Bratislava government in the annihilation of Jewish citizens made it a prisoner of its German protector, to whom they clung until the last days of the war. Persecution of the Jews was connected with so much violence and brutality that it ultimately cut off the road of the Hlinka Party to Europe." To supplement scarce reading material on the Holocaust, schools in several cities of central and eastern Slovakia (Martin, Preov, Bansk Bystrica) make annual visits to Auschwitz. This however, is not the rule in Bratislava. Trips to concentration camps usually come about as a result of initiatives among students and teachers and are, as a rule, voluntary. Various organizations provide significant support in this respecte.g., the Milan Simeka Foundation. In 1995 this foundation organized a trip to Auschwitz for former prisoners together with high school students. Other Sources for Jewish History We have stressed that contemporary Slovak society is divided on the issue of the former Slovak state and its functioning, and this shows itself in the publication of textbooks and the recommendation of other materials for classroom use. So far the most serious conflict in this regard has centered on The History of Slovakia and the Slovaks by Milan S. Durica. Durica, who emigrated from Slovakia shortly after the Communists took over in 1948, is a professor of Central and East European history at Padua University in Italy, and also professor of ecclesiastic history at the Theological Faculty of Comenius University in Bratislava. The first edition of his book, issued by Slovak Pedagogical Publishers in 1995, did not arouse any public response. This changed, however, when the second edition was published in 1996 with the help of the Ministry of Education, using a grant provided by the European Union. This edition of 90,000 copies was distributed to all Slovak elementary and secondary schools as a recommended book that was seen as providing the "official" view on Slovak history. Slovak students were expected to form their opinions about the Holocaust with the help of The History of Slovakia and the Slovaks. While The History of Slovakia and the Slovaks covers Slovak history from the first centuries of the common era to the present, more than a quarter of the book is taken up with the period from the declaration of Slovak autonomy in October 1938 until the liberation of Czechoslovakia in May 1945. Durica uses every means available to minimize the participation of the wartime Slovak state in the liquidation of Slovak Jewry and to excuse President Tiso's behavior in this regard. A key element of his strategy is to

blame Prime Minister Tuka and Interior Minister Mach for what happened to the Jews. Thus, Durica writes of events on May 25, 1940: "The German ambassador to Bratislava, Hans Bernard, reported to Berlin that Alexander Mach visited President Tiso and urged him to adopt the radical solution of the Jewish issue, which Tiso rejected. Therefore, Tuka asked Berlin for instructions and moral support." Anti-Jewish measures, which began to be implemented at the end of 1938, are mentioned for the first time by Durica in connection with constitutional law No. 210 of September 3, 1940, "which for a one-year term authorized the Slovak government to resolve the issues related to the Aryanization of Jewish property and businesses. By adopting such legislation, the parliament limited its own powers, and also the power of the president, while strengthening the position of the government." Durica notes the adoption of the Jewish Codex on September 9, 1941 in this way: "The Slovak government issued edict No. 198/1941 on the legal status of Jews ('Jewish Codex'). It represented almost a faithful copy of the German anti-Jewish laws. However, article 255 endowed the president with the right to make exemptions from this governmental decree which had the same force as a law. President Tiso never signed the legislation." Durica indicates that at the beginning of 1942 there were 64 Jewish schools in Slovakia previously there had been 24attended by about 8,000 students. Unmentioned, however, is the fact that the boom in Jewish schools was due to the expulsion of Jewish children from the public schools. Durica stresses German pressure to deport Slovak Jews and the alleged resistance of the Slovak parliament and President Tiso: The leadership of the Hlinka Party headed by Dr. Jozef Tiso decided to resolve the Jewish question in accordance with Christian moral principles. They proposed to build labor camps for Jews in Slovakia and to tax Jewish property. Following this decision, labor camps for Jews were set up in Novaky, Sered, Vyhne; later, labor centers were established in Zilina, Ilava, Deges, and Nitra. These were more or less facilities of an economic character run on the basis of state orders. The cabinet-making shops in Sered were the most modern and efficient facilities of their kind in Slovakia. Every camp had its own agricultural section with cattle-breeding for the camp's own supply. There were schools established for children, vocational training for apprentices. During vacations children could spend some time outside the camps in those Jewish families that were free. Jewish physicians cared for the health conditions of camp inhabitants. Dentists were provided with gold for dentures, which at that time most Slovaks could not afford at all. Chiefs of economic sections were often permitted to travel across Slovakia, a privilege they often misused to organize illegal actions. As to the actual deportation process, it is described as follows: March 25, 1942: The first transport of Slovak Jews left from Poprad through Zilina to the

former Poland. It consisted of approximately 1000 young girls capable of work. In the following transports approximately 8000 Jewish youths, both girls and boys, were deported. The displacement of Jews and especially their harsh treatment by some Slovak Hlinka Guards raised sharp criticism and resistance of many Slovak citizens, church officials, and the state council. The main objection was that family ties were broken among deported individuals. Therefore, Tuka and Mach requested the German officials to take the older family members as well. The chief of the fourth department B4 of the Chief Reich Security Office (RSHA) in Berlin, Adolf Eichmann, first refused to comply with their wish, but later he changed his view. Thus, beginning April 11, there started the deportation of entire families. The president's office intervened in these governmental actions by granting presidential exceptions according to article 255 of the government Act 198/1941. Similarly, ministries provided special passes to many Jews, claiming that they were economically irreplaceable, which exempted them from deportation. Such passes protected approximately 35,000 Jews. Given its attempt to explain away the complicity of the Slovak state in the destruction of Slovak Jewry, it is not surprising that Durica's book was attacked in many quarters. Among those protesting the effort to make it an official textbook were the Federation of the Jewish Communities in Slovakia, B'nai B'rith, Protestant church officials, various political parties, and the Helsinki Committee and other human rights organizations. Another volume that was meant to make up for the shortage of new history textbooks is the Lexicon of Slovak History (1997), compiled by a team of authors. It is divided into two parts: "The Calendar," which lists historical events chronologically, and "The Vocabulary," which is encyclopedic in character. Unfortunately, the sections of the volume dealing with the Holocaust lean heavily on Durica's book. The deportation of Slovak Jews is described as follows: On March 25, 1942 the deportations of Jews to the German concentrations camps began. The deportations were ordered by the prime minister V. Tuka after an agreement with Germany without parliament's and president's knowledge as well as of other members of the government. Slovakia was the first independent state that displaced most of its Jews in this way. It was also the first state that stopped the deportations in October 1942 after it learned about the annihilation of Jews (until the end of 1942, 58,000 Jews were deported). The deportations were renewed only in October 1944 when the German army invaded Slovakia. Approximately 70,000 Jewish citizens were deported, of whom 67,000 died in the German concentration camps. Under the heading "Labor Camps" the following information is provided: Centers for Jews and persons avoiding work. In Slovakia they began to be built in 1941. They were designed for that part of the Jewish population that lost its civil rights after the adoption of the Jewish Codex. The deportations of Jews from Slovakia to German concentration camps in Poland beginning March 25, 1942, speeded up the construction of labor camps to save Jews from deportations. Persons selected for deportation were held in

gathering camps temporarily. The labor camps for Jews were established by the Interior Ministry's act of April 4, 1942, which required a general labor duty. In Slovakia there were established three labor camps, which acquired the character of state enterprises. The camp in Sered (1700 persons) specialized in joinery work and it ranked among the most modern and efficient companies in Slovakia. The camp in Novaky (1300 persons) specialized in clothing production and the camp in Vyhne (400 people) on construction works. All of them were guarded by the Hlinka Guards. Apart from a strict camp regime, they had their own self-administration, social and cultural facilities (hospital, nurseries, schools, libraries, theaters). Besides the labor camps for Jews, there were also Jewish working centers which were smaller working groups dispersed all across Slovakia (approx. 700 people). The labor camps for Jews ceased to exist when the uprising burst out in 1944. The entry under "Jewish Codex" is worth quoting in full: The Jewish Codex is a governmental decree on the status of Jews. After the first Slovak Republic came into being on March 14, 1939, the authorities began to seek a solution to the so-called Jewish question that would resolve the economic, political, and cultural situation of the Jewish population. In Slovakia, where assimilation among Jews was less than in Hungary or the Czech Republic, the Jews were viewed as a foreign element. This was due to previous historical experience and prejudices, contemporary ideas, and the lack of mutual tolerance and knowledge. Tiso's government attempted to proceed according to the so-called 4-percent method (proportion of the Jewish population to the majority population). In 1940, 88,951 Jews lived in Slovakia. The first governmental act that restricted Jewish rights was issued on April 18, 1939. It defined the term "Jew" on religious rather than racial grounds and limited their participation in certain free professions. Until September 1940, 47 governmental rulings restricting the rights of Jews were issued; however, most of them allowed for exceptions. Gradually, their properties began to be confiscated (e.g., land reform of February 29, 1940, the first Aryanization legislation of April 15, 1940). These laws very flagrantly affected the economic prosperity of Jews; however, they were not entirely excluded from the economic life of the country. From March 1939 until the end of 1941, 6194 Slovak Jews left Slovakia. The Salzburg negotiations of July 28, 1940, brought a turning point on the Jewish issue. Upon A. Eichmann's proposal, D. Wisliczeny came to Bratislava as an adviser on the Jewish issue to the Slovak government with the aim of depriving the Jews of their property and displacing them. The new prime minister V. Tuka and interior minister A. Mach requested a fast solution of the so-called Jewish question. On September 3, 1940, the parliament authorized the government to take all measures necessary for the Aryanization of Jewish propertyi.e., its complete transfer into non-Jewish hands. Jewish property was registered and counted. According to that registration, 54,667 individuals owned property amounting to Sk 4 billion 322 239,000 and their debts accounted for Sk 1 billion 134 582,000. The Jewish Codex was issued as the governmental ruling on September 9, 1941, following the model of the so-called Nuremberg racial laws. The Codex, which consisted of 270 articles, was monitored by H. Globke, the author of extensive commentaries to the Nuremberg Laws. The term "Jew" was defined by racial criteria: it was a person who had at least three Jewish grandparents. Half-Jewish persons were

considered non-Jews. Intermarriages between Jews and gentiles were forbidden. Jews had to be labeled. Their personal freedom was radically restricted. President Tiso enforced article 255 in the Jewish Codex according to which he could grant an exception or partially exempt a person from this ruling. There began the construction of labor camps for Jews. The confidential conference of German politicians at Wannsee on January 20, 1942 determined the "final solution of the Jewish question" by annihilation of the Jews. When Germany requested an increase in the number of Slovak workers designated for labor in Germany, the Slovak Interior Ministry offered 20,000 Jews from Slovakia as a substitute for the requested labor force. Germany systematically enforced the solution of the so-called Jewish question by displacement of Jews. Without informing the government and President Tiso about his plans, V. Tuka made an agreement with Germans to dislodge the Jews from Slovakia. The deportations started on March 25, 1942. The government paid DM 500 for each deported Jew.

Another supplement to textbooks was published in 1997 under the title The History Book. It is intended to help gymnasium students pass their graduation examinations. The chapter "The Slovak Republic (1939-1945)" includes a sixteen-line section entitled "Persecution of Jewish Citizens" which provides accurate information about the Holocaust. A listing of restrictions imposed on Jewse.g., they could not practice certain professions, they had to wear the yellow star, communication between "Aryans" and Jews was prohibitedpaves the way for the following statement: "On the pretext that the Jews were to be conscripted for labor in the territory of former Poland, Tuka and Mach elicited from the government the deportation of the Jews from Slovakia. From March 25 when the first transport left Poprad until October 1942, 58,000 Jews were forced out of Slovakia. Some Jews escaped abroad, others obtained the so-called presidential exception. The racist legislation and displacement of Jews met with a strong protest from the Vatican addressed to Tiso. The deportations were stopped only in the fall of 1942." We talked to several secondary-school teachers about how they coped with the shortage of quality history textbooks and the use they made of the recommended supplemental books. A history teacher at a Catholic high school in Bratislava showed us a number of books that she used for reference. Among them were two of Durica's books. When asked if she actually used them in class, she replied that students should know both sides of a controversial issue before making a final judgment. She used Durica's books for reference on the early history of Slovakia, but used other sources in dealing with the Slovak Republic. At the time of our interview, she was teaching World War II and the Holocaust to third-year students. She indicated that she had invited several historians to talk to her students and on a number of occasions went with them to the Jewish Museum in Bratislava, although she complained that she had very little time for such extra activities. A history teacher at another Bratislava gymnasium made it clear that she focuses on antiSemitism, indicating that it is neither a new nor a peculiarly German phenomenon. She considered Durica's book to be tendentious and, when using it, added appropriate commentary. She made it clear, however, that some of her colleagues viewed things quite

differently. The wartime Slovak Republic is often a source of sharp dispute in the classroom, she reported. In the fourth year of history instruction at her school, there is an optional seminar on the Holocaust. In 1997-98, approximately 50 studentsout of a total of 130 fourth-year studentsenrolled in it. Students seem to show increasing interest in this issue, she stated. Even if they do not participate in the seminar, they ask her to tell them the truth about the wartime Slovak Republic and President Tiso. Another history teacher told us that her family had suffered as a result of xenophobia, and that she therefore wanted her students to understand the atrocities of the Holocaust. After a great deal of effort, she was able to organize a trip to Auschwitz for her students, stressing the point that nothing equals direct contact with the reality of the concentration camps. She planned to continue such trips if funding is available. Many teachers use the Lexicon of World History, written by a team of authors, as a teaching aid, and it provides some coverage of Israel, both ancient and modern. The book is divided into two parts, one containing dates and the other entries. The first part refers to ancient Israel as follows: 1250 B.C.: Palestinethe first nomadic Hebrew tribes come here, and around 1025 B.C. establish the first Jewish state (King David). 1010-970 B.C.: Palestinewas ruled by King David, who strengthened the Jewish state and expanded its territory. Jerusalem became the capital. 972-930 B.C.: Palestinethe rule of King Solomon, the son of king David. He reinforced his empire both politically and economically. He maintained friendly and peaceful relations with his neighbors. In Jerusalem he built a large temple of Yahweh. After his death, the Jewish state split into southern and northern kingdoms. 166-137 B.C.: Palestineuprising broke out that was headed by members of Hasmonean familyMathias and Judah Maccabee (thus it gets to be known as the Maccabee uprising) against the Syrian Seleucids. After victorious fights the cult of Yahweh, worshiped in the main Jerusalem temple, was renewed. In 142 B.C. an independent state, ruled by the Hasmonean dynasty, was established. The modern State of Israel has several entries in the Lexicon of World History, along the lines of the following: "Israel, Tel Aviv, May 14, 1948declaration of the state of Israel. The next day the first Arab-Israeli war broke out due to disapproval of the Arabic population with the division of Palestine into two independent states." The 1956 war is presented along with the Six-Day War and Yom Kippur War. The language of all these entries is neutral. However, a separate entry, entitled "Israeli-Arab Wars" has a slightly negative tone. Thus, the 1948 victory is evaluated in the following words: "It helped Israel to ensure its existence and expand its military bases. No Palestinian state was established, and there occurred a new exodus of refugees." As a result of the Six-Day War, according to the Lexicon, "Israel got under its control all occupied territories inhabited by Arabs. However, it lost a great deal of its reputation."

Institutions In recent years, several institutions have been founded in Slovakia to educate the public about Jewish life and culture. In 1994 a department on Jewish culture at the Slovak National Museum was transformed into the Museum of Jewish Culture. The permanent exhibition includes a memorial to the Holocaust. Temporary exhibits focus mainly on the arts and events of the recent past. Visited by groups of elementary- and secondary-school students from all parts of the country, the museum also sponsors professional conferences and publishes a series entitled Acta Judaica Slovaca. A smaller museum in the eastern Slovak city of Presov recently opened an exhibit of the Barkany collection of Judaica. In 1996 an Institute of Judaic Studies was opened at the Comenius University in Bratislava to teach Hebrew, Jewish history, Jewish philosophy, and other subjects. Its initial public lectures met with a positive response. The Institute has published a Hebrew textbook and a Hebrew-Slovak dictionary and organized conferences on "Jews in Interaction" (1997) and "Bioethics in Judaism" (1998). The Institute of History and the Institute of Ethnology of the Slovak Academy have shown new interest in Jewish themes, as has the Museumof the Slovak National Uprising in Bansk Bystrica. The Federation of Jewish Communities in Slovakia and the Jewish Community Center (JCC) of Bratislava have devoted much attention to the Holocaust and have provided support for Jewish institutions. The Bratislava JCC has organized several academic events and published the proceedings, among them, "Jewish Identity Yesterday, Today and Tomorrow" (1995) and "The Jews in Bratislava" (1997). The JCC also organizes educational events for high school students. Conclusion Since the overthrow of the Communist regime in 1989, Jewish-related themes have begun to appear in Slovak textbooks. This development is most welcome, but it remains a fact that most students continue to be largely ignorant of Jewish history, religion, and culture. In part, of course, the lack of awareness of things Jewish reflects the legacy of the Communist past, when Jewish themes were either consciously ignored or treated in a negative light. Another operative factor, however, is the strong current of Slovak ethnocentrism. Slovaks do not think of their society as being pluralistic. Inevitably then, textbooks focus on events and personalities connected with the Slovak people, while largely ignoring others. Moreover, it is the case that Jews played less of a role in the development of Slovak culture than in the surrounding areasin the Czech lands, Austria, Germany, Hungary, etc.

The one aspect of the Jewish experience that finds significant play in Slovak textbooks is the Holocaust, and this is related to the controversy surrounding the wartime Slovak state. The Slovak Republic is a flashpoint of conflict; some embrace it as the first expression of Slovak statehood, while others reject it as antidemocratic and as bearing responsibility for the deportation and murder of tens of thousands of Slovak Jews. If nothing else, the clash of opinion surrounding the wartime Slovak state has made students aware of a Jewish dimension to Slovak history. This awareness needs to be expanded upon in the future to take in the full sweep of Jewish history, Judaism as a living faith, and the modern State of Israel. Postscript. This study was completed prior to the September 1998 elections in Slovakia. The newly appointed minister of education, Milan Ftacnik, is a member of the Party of the Democratic Left, which has always condemned the wartime Slovak state and its antiJewish policy. Hopefully, this will lead to a more positive orientation toward Jewish themes in Slovak schools.