Australian Bushcraft. Richard Graves.

Devised and produced by Taylor-Type Type Publications (Australia) Pty Ltd This revised and updated edition published in 1984 by Dymoc s Publishin! Pty Ltd 1" #learvie$ Place% &roo vale% '() "1**

+ ,ichard -raves 1984

This boo is copyri!ht. Apart /rom any /air dealin! /or the purposes o/ private study% research% criticism or revie$% as permitted under the #opyri!ht Act% no part may be reproduced by any process $ithout $ritten permission. 0n1uiries should be addressed sed to Dymoc s Publishin! Pty Ltd.

'ational Library o/ Australia #atalo!uin!-in in-Publication data -raves% ,ichard% 1898-1931. 1931. Australian &ushcra/t. Previously published as2 The 1* bushcra/t boo s. (ydney% Dymoc s 193*. 0(&' * 9*98"4 45 5. 1. 6utdoor li/e - Australia. ". #ampin! 7 Australia. 4. 8i in! - Australia. 4. )ilderness survival - Australia. 0. -re!ory% ,ichard. 00. -raves% ,ichard% 1898-1931. 1931. The 1* bushcra/t boo s. 000. Title. 09. Title2 The 1* &ushcra/t boo s. 39:.5

Desi!ned by ;. D. #amp

Typeset by <verysi=e Typeart% (ydney

Printed in 8on! >on!

#ontents 0ntroduction 3

1 ,opes and cords 9

" >nots and lashin! 44

4 8uts and thatchin! 3*

4 #ampcra/t 1*8

5 ?ood and $ater 134

: ?ire ma in! ""5

3 Animal habits "49

8 Travel and $eather ":8

9 Time and direction "9* &iblio!raphy 41: 0nde@ 418

0ntroduction ,ichard -raves% $ho died in 1931% /irst published The 1* &ushcra/t &oo s in 195*. A cousin o/ poet and author ,obert -raves% he $as an enthusiastic bush$al er% s ier and a pioneer o/ $hite-$ater canoein!. Durin! the (econd )orld )ar he realised that no$in! the bush helped to save lives% particularly those o/ men stranded behind enemy lines in the island Aun!les o/ the Paci/ic =one. 8e /ounded and led the Australian Bun!le ,escue Detachment% assi!ned to the ?ar <ast Cnited (tates Air ?orce. This detachment o/ :* specially selected A.0.?. soldiers success/ully carried out more than 4** rescue missions durin! the period o/ the $ar. ;ost o/ these missions $ere in enemy-held territory. All $ere success/ul% and no lives $ere lost.

The ey to the success o/ these rescue missions in $ild and inhospitable country $as survival. 0t $as then% durin! the Aun!le trainin! school period% that he started to compile the notes /or the ori!inal 1* bushcra/t volumes.

-raves later revised the notes and a/ter the $ar conducted a school in bushcra/t /or almost t$enty years.

0n his introduction to the collection o/ these boo s -raves stated2

DThe practice o/ bushcra/t sho$s many une@pected results. The /ive senses are sharpened and conse1uently the Aoy o/ bein! alive is !reater.

The individualDs ability to adapt and improvise is developed to a remar able de!ree. This in turn leads to increased sel/con/idence.

D(el/-con/idence and the ability to adapt to a chan!in! environment and to overcome the di//iculties is /ollo$ed by a rapid improvement in the individualDs daily $or . This in turn leads to advancement and promotion.

D&ushcra/t% by developin! adaptability% provides a broadenin! in/luence% a necessary counter to o//set the narro$in! in/luence o/ modern specialisation.

D?or this $or o/ bushcra/t% all that is needed is a sharp cuttin! instrument2 ni/e a@e or machete. The last is the most use/ul. ?or the $or % dead materials are most suitable. The practice o/ bushcra/t conserves and does not destroy $ildli/e.D

1 ,opes and cords 6ne o/ the basic s ills needed in bushcra/t is the ability to Aoin or tie poles or stic s to!ether. The only method available is to use lashin!s. Althou!h the ready availability these days o/ cheap li!ht$ei!ht and e@tremely stron! nylon ropes have made their inclusion almost automatic in any DsurvivalD bush it% emer!encies can arise. Cnder these circumstances ropes made /rom bush materials can be the ey to survival.

The ability to spin or plait ?ibres into ropes or cords is one o/ the oldest o/ all primitive s ills. The basic method is simple and has remained unchan!ed /or thousands o/ years.

Eou can /ind the material /rom $hich to spin or plait ropes or cords almost any$here in the bush. Any /ibrous material $hich has reasonable len!th% moderate stren!th and is /le@ible or pliable can be used. These three properties are the ones to loo /or $hen selectin! materials. They can be /ound in many vines% !rasses% bar s% palms and in the hair o/ animals.

The brea in! strain o/ handmade ropes and cords varies !reatly $ith di//erent materials. &ecause o/ this variation it is essential that the rope or cord be tested be/ore bein! actually put to use.

The list o/ uses to $hich handmade ropes and cords can be put is almost endless.

The ma in! o/ ropes and cords Almost any natural /ibrous material can be spun into !ood% serviceable rope or cord. ;any materials $hich have a len!th o/ 4* to :* cm or more can be plaited or braided.

,opes o/ up to 5 and 1* cm diameter can be DlaidD by /our people% and brea in! strains /or bushmade rope o/ 5 cm diameter ran!e /rom 5* ! to as hi!h as 1*** !.

&rea in! strains Ta in! a three-lay rope o/ 4 cm diameter as standard% the /ollo$in! list o/ brea in! strains !ives an idea or !uide to the !eneral stren!ths o/ various bush materials. ?or sa/etyDs sa e al$ays re!ard the lo$est /i!ure as the actual brea in! strain unless tests have sho$n other$ise.

-reen !rass 5* -1** !

&ar /ibre "**- 3** !

Palm /ibre 4**-1*** !

(ed!es 9**- 1*** ! Lianas (mon ey vines) "5*- 4** !

La$yer vine (#alamus) 5** !

(1* mm diameter% uns inned)

Principles o/ selectin! rope-ma in! materials To discover $hether or not a material is suitable /or rope-ma in! it must have /our essential 1ualities.

F 0t must be reasonably lon! in the /ibre

F 0t must have stren!th

F 0t must be pliable

F 0t must have adhesion or !rip so that the /ibres $ill bite into one another

There are three simple tests to /ind out i/ any material is suitable.

?irst pull on a len!th to test it /or stren!th. 0/ it does not immediately snap or pull to pieces% it should be t$isted bet$een the /in!ers and the /ibres should be rolled to!ether. 0/ it $ill stand this and not snap apart% tie a not in the material and slo$ly and !ently ti!hten it. 0/ the material does not cut in on itsel/ and you can pull the not reasonably ti!ht% it is suitable /or rope-ma in!% providin! it $ill bite or !rip to!ether and does not slip apart instantly.

Eou $ill /ind these 1ualities in all sorts o/ plantsG in !round vines% in most o/ the lon!er !rasses% in some o/ the $ater

$eeds and rushes and in the inner bar o/ many trees and shrubs.

(ome me !reen% /reshly !athered materials may be sti// or unyieldin!. 8o$ever% they still may be suitable /or rope rope-ma in!. Pass them over the /lames o/ a hot /ire /or 4* seconds or so. The heat $ill o/ten cause the sap to burst throu!h some o/ the cell structures es ma in! the material pliable.

Apart /rom /ibre sources in the plants mentioned above some sea$eeds can be use/ul sources /or rope-ma rope in! material as can members o/ the lar!e aloe /amily.

-atherin! and preparin! materials 0n some plants there may be a hi!h hi!h concentration o/ ve!etable !um. This can o/ten be removed by soa in! in $ater (such as the bac -eddy eddy o/ a stream or in a $aterhole) /or several hours until the material is cleaned. A runnin! stream is suitable only i/ the material can be anchored or secured. secured. Lar!e stones are use/ul /or this. 0/ lar!e enou!h containers are available the material can be boiled. A third method is to dry it out thorou!hly in the sun and then tease the /ibres out.

(ome materials have to be used !reen i/ any stren!th is re1uired. re1uired. Those that should be used !reen include the sed!es% $ater rushes% !rasses and liana vines. -rasses% sed!es and $ater rushes should be cut and never pulled out o/ the !round. #uttin! above !round level $ith a sharp ni/e or

machete is harvestin!. &ut pullin! it out destroys the root structure and ills the plant.

)hen harvestin!% $or over as $ide an area as possible. Do not completely clear any one site. ,emember to leave at least some stands o/ the plant to !o to seed to allo$ /or re!ro$th. Thus $ith $ith the sed!es and !rasses be particularly care/ul $ith your harvest. #ut $hat you re1uire above !round level and ta e only /rom the bi!!est clumps.

Palm /ibre in tropical or sub-tropical tropical re!ions used to be re!ularly harvested as a matter o/ course and $as p put to many uses. 0t is /ound at the Aunction o/ the lea/ and the palm trun . 0t can also be /ound lyin! on the !round beneath many species o/ palm. 0t is one o/ the best rope rope- and cord-ma in! materials available.

The la$yer vine or #alamus must be approach approached ed $ith some caution. 'ormally /ound in the rain/orest areas o/ northern Hueensland it can also be obtained (althou!h it is rarer) in similar areas in the southern part o/ that (tate and in northern 'e$ (outh )ales. The leaves o/ the la$yer vine have needle-li needl li e pric les and the DbranchesD are armed $ith sharp hoo s 7 once much used by the Abori!ines to catch /ish.

6nce the di//icult process o/ strippin! o// the leaves and the hoo s themselves is completed% the la$yer vine% i/ the outer bar is not removed% $ill be /ound to have enormous stren!th. 0n the past it has been used /or ma in! cables to haul lo!s% as ri!!in! /or boats% in suspension brid!es and in the ma in! o/ /ish traps and bas ets.

0n /avourable circumstances individual vines up to 1** metres in len!th are not uncommon.

0n temperate areas /ibrous matter /rom the inner bar o/ certain trees and shrubs is an e@cellent source o/ rope-ma in! material. 0t is most suitable $hen the tree is dead and the material has dried out. The inner bar o/ many eucalypts possess this use/ul /ibre. 0/ the tree is dead $hen the /ibre is teased and separated the natural !um $ill have dried out and $ill separate /rom the material as a /ine po$der.

Do not use the bar /rom !reen trees or shrubs unless it is

absolutely essentialG even then cut o// branches rather than /ell the $hole tree. 'ever cut do$n a complete tree simply because you $ant some o/ its bar /or a len!th o/ cord.

0/ there is no alternative to !reen timber% test be/ore you cut. (lice a small section about 1* cm in len!th and about 5 cm $ide /rom the selected branch. This sample should be cut throu!h to the sap$ood. Peel it o// the tree and then test the di//erent layers. 0/ it is not oo=in! !um it probably $ill be suitableG but it should still be soa ed in $ater /or some time and then sun dried.

0n the case o/ !reen lianas and vines only the outer s in is usually stron!. This $ill split o// easily i/ the main stal is bent a$ay /rom the s in. This principle applies to palm lea/ stal s and most other !reen material. 0/ a split starts to run o//% the material must be bent a$ay /rom the thin side. 0t $ill then !radually !ain in si=e and come bac to an even thic ness $ith the other split side.

To ma e cord by spinnin! $ith the /in!ers Cse any material $ith lon!% lon!% stron! threads or /ibres $hich have been tested

previously /or stren!th and pliability. -ather the /ibres into loosely held strands o/ even thic ness. <ach o/ these strands is t$isted cloc $ise. The t$ist $ill hold the /ibre to!ether. The strands should be /rom 1 mm do$n$ards do$n$ards7/or a rou!h and ready rule there should be about 15 to "* /ibres to a strand. T$o% three or /our o/ these strands are later t$isted to!ether and this t$istin! to!ether or Dlayin!D is done $ith an anti-cloc anti oc $ise motion% $hile at the same time the separate strands $hich have not yet been laid up are t$isted cloc $ise. <ach strand must be o/ e1ual t$ist and thic ness.

The person $ho t$ists the strands to!ether is called the DlayerD. 8e must see that the t$is t$istin! is even% that the strands are uni/orm and that the tension on each strand is e1ual.

0n layin! he must $atch that each o/ the strands is evenly Dlaid upD% that is% that one strand does not t$ist around the other t$o. This invariably happens the /irst time t rope-ma ma in! is attempted. 0t should be stressed here that rope rope-ma in! is a s ill that is not ac1uired at one !o.

)hen spinnin! /ine cords /or such thin!s as /ishin! lines% considerable care must be ta en to eep the strands uni/orm and the lay even. ?ine ne thin cords capable o/ ta in! a strain o/ up to 1* ! can be made by the e@perienced spinner but not by the be!inner.

'ormally t$o or more people are needed to spin and lay

IJ

up the strands /or cord. 0t is a community e//ort% in other $ords.

(ome people% $hen spinnin! cord% do so unaided% t$istin! the material by runnin! the /lat o/ the hand alon! the thi!h% $ith the /ibrous matter bet$een hand and thi!h. )ith their /ree hand they /eed in /ibre /or the ne@t spin. &y this means one person can ma e lon! len!ths o/ sin!le strands.

8o$ever% this method is slo$ i/ any considerable len!th o/ cord is re1uired.

A simpler and easier $ay to ma e len!ths o/ rope /rom 5* to 1** metres or more in len!th is to ma e a rope$al and set up multiple spinners in the /orm o/ cran s.

0n a rope$al each /eeder holds the material under one arm and $ith one /ree hand /eeds it into the strand $hich is bein! spun by the cran . The other hand li!htly holds the /ibres to!ether until they are spun. As the li!htly spun strands are increased in len!th they must be supported on cross lays. They should not be allo$ed to lie on the !round.

(trands o/ bet$een "* and 1** metres can be spun be/ore layin! up. Do not spin the material too thic ly. Thic strands do not help stren!th in any $ayG rather they tend to ma e a $ea er rope.

(ettin! up a ,ope$al )hen spinnin! ropes o/ 1* metres or lon!er it is necessary to erect crossbars every " or 4 metres to carry the strands as they are spun. 0/ crossbars are not set up the strands or rope $ill sa! to the !round and some o/ the /ibres $ill entan!le themselves $ith !rassG t$i!s or dirt. The sa!!in! can also either interrupt or stop completely the t$istin! o/ the /ree end. The strand then $ill be uneven or lumpy.

The easiest $ay to set up crossbars /or the rope$al is to drive pairs o/ /or ed sta es into the !round at the re1uired intervals. The crossbars must be smooth and /ree /rom t$i!s and loose bar that can Aam the spinnin! strands.

Loo in! at the illustration overlea/% the crossbar A is supported by t$o upri!hts and pierced to ta e the cran s% K.

These cran s can be made out o/ natural stic s% morticed slab and pe!s% or% i/ available% thic bent $ire. The connectin! rod% #% enables one man to turn all cran s cloc $ise simultaneously. #rossbars supportin! the strands as they are spun are sho$n in /i!.D. A similar cran handle to L is supported on a /or ed stic at the end o/ the rope $al . This handle is turned in a reverse direction (ie. anti-cloc $ise) to the cran % #% to t$ist the connected strands to!ether. These are laid up by one or more o/ the /eeders.

Al$ays ma e it a rule to turn the /irst strand cloc $ise. Then the layin! up o/ the strands $ill be done anti-cloo $ise and the ne@t layin! $ill a!ain be cloc $ise.

0/ your rope is $ell made the individual /ibres $ill lie len!th$ays alon! the rope.

0n the process o/ layin! up the strands the actual t$istin! to!ether or layin! $ill ta e some o/ the ori!inal Dt$istD out o/ the strand $hich has not yet been laid. There/ore it is necessary to eep t$istin! the strands $hile layin! to!ether.

)hen ma in! a rope too lon! to be spun and laid in one piece% a section is laid up% and coiled on the !round at the end o/ the rope$al /urthest /rom the cran s. (trands /or a second len!th are spun and these strands are married or spliced into the strands o/ the /irst section. Then the layin! up o/ the second section continues the rope.

The actual marryin! o/ the strands is done only in the last lay $hich% $hen completed% ma es the rope. The ends $here the strands are married should be sta!!ered in di//erent places. &y this means rope can be made and e@tended in sections to a !reat len!th.

A/ter the complete len!th o/ rope is laid up pass it 1uic ly throu!h a /ire to burn o// loose ends and /ibres. This $ill ma e it smooth and pro/essional loo in!.

Layin! the strands The strands lie on the crossbars as they are spun. )hen they have been spun to the re1uired len!th% $hich should be no more than about "5 metres% they are Aoined to!ether by bein! held at the /ar end. They are then ready /or layin! to!ether.

The turner% $ho is /acin! the cran s% t$ists the ends to!ether anti-cloc anti cloc $ise% at the same time eepin! his /ull $ei!ht on the rope end $hich is bein! laid up. The layer advances% placin! the strands side by side as they turn.

)hen the layer is e@perienced this can be done 1uic ly.

0t is important to learn to /eed the material evenly and lay up slo$ly thereby !ettin! a smooth and even rope. Do not attempt to rush rope-ma ma in!. 0/ you do% all that $ill result is a me mess ss o/ uneven badly spun strands and u!ly lays% resultin! in poor rope.

(peed in rope-ma ma in! comes only $ith practice. At /irst it $ill ta e a team o/ three or /our up to t$o hours or more to ma e a "5-metre metre len!th o/ rope o/ three lays% each o/ three stran strands 7 a total o/ nine strands /or a rope $ith a /inished diameter o/ about "5 cm. &ut $ith practice the same three or /our people can ma e a similar rope in /i/teen or t$enty minutes. These times do not% o/ course% include the period spent in searchin! /or material.

0n /eedin! the /ree ends o/ the strands t$ist in the loose material pushed in by the /eeder. The /eeder must move bac $ards at a speed !overned by the /eedin! rate. As he moves bac $ards he must eep a sli!ht tension on the strands.

;a in! rope $ith ith a sin!le spinner T$o people can ma e rope usin! a sin!le cran .

A portion o/ the material is /astened to the eye o/ the cran (as $ith the multiple cran handle) and the /eeder% holdin! the /ree ends o/ this strand a!ainst the bundle o/ loose material under his arm% /eeds in $al in! bac $ards. (upportin! crossbars% as used in a rope$al % are re1uired $hen a len!th o/ more than 5 metres is bein! spun.

?eedin! 0/ the /eeder is holdin! material under his le/t arm% his ri!ht hand is en!a!ed in continuously pullin! material /or$ard to his le/t hand /rom $here it is /ed into the turnin! strand. These actions% done simultaneously and continuously as the /eeder $al s bac $ards% !overn the thic ness o/ the strands. 8is le/t hand% li!htly closed over the loosely turnin! material% must /eel the /ibres Dbitin!D or t$istin! to!ether.

)hen the /ree end o/ the turnin! strand% $hich is a!ainst the loose material under his arm% ta es in too thic a tu/t o/ material he closes his le/t hand and so arrests the t$ist o/ the material bet$een his le/t hand and his bundle. This allo$s him to tease out%the over/ull DbiteD% $ith his ri!ht hand. 0n proceedin! in this manner the /eeder maintains a uni/orm thic ness in the spinnin! strand.

There is a de/inite nac in /eedin!. 6nce a person has mastered it he can move bac $ards and /eed $ith considerable speed.

Thic ness o/ the strands <1ual thic ness /or each o/ the strands throu!hout their len!th and e1ual t$ist are important. The thic ness should not be !reater than is necessary /or the material bein! used. ?or !rass rope the strand should not be more than 5 mm in diameter% /or coarse bar or palm not more than 4-4 mm% and /or /ine bar % hair or sisal /ibre not more than 4 mm.

?or /ine cords the strand should be no more than " mm in diameter.

?ine cords cannot be made /rom !rass unless the /ibres are separated by beatin! out and combin!.

The correct amount o/ t$ist is $hen the material is hardG that is% $hen the t$ist /eels ti!ht to the touch.

#ommon /aults There is a tendency /or the be!inner to /eed unevenly. Thin% $ispy sections o/ strand are /ollo$ed by thic hun s. (uch /eedin! is useless. ,ope made in such a manner $ill brea $hen less than a 1uarter o/ its brea in! strain pressure is applied.

The be!inner should t$ist and /eed slo$ly and ma e re!ular and even strands% rather than rush the Aob.

Thic strands do not help. 0t is useless to attempt to spin up a rope /rom strands "5 mm or more thic . (uch a rope $ill brea $ith less% than hal/ the potential strain o/ the material. 0t may save time but the rope $ill be both $ea and dan!erous.

Plaitin! 6ne person alone may need a considerable len!th o/ rope. &ut ma in! such a len!th by oneDs sel/ is an arduous and slo$ process.

8o$ever one may be luc y enou!h to have at hand a considerable amount o/ material that is reasonably lon! 7 say bet$een 4* cm and 1 metre or more.

This material can be plaited or braided into a suitable rope len!th. The normal three plait ma es a /lat rope% $hich $hile 1uite !ood does not have the /inish or shape o/ a true rope. 'either is it as ti!ht as the lariat or /our plait.

At other times it may be necessary to plait broad bands /or bolts or /or shoulder straps. There are many /ancy plaits or braids and one can develop /rom these. &ut these three are basic and are essential /or practical $or .

A !eneral rule /or all plaits is to $or /rom the outside into the centre.

0n learnin! to plait or braid there is no need to D!o bushD%

as it $ere% nor to even use bush materials. The s ills can be ac1uired usin! standard ropes and t$ines or leather strips.

6nce the s ill is ac1uired $ith these more mana!eable and /amiliar materials then trials can be conducted $ith various bush products to see $hich plait or braid is most suited to $hat is at hand.

Three plait Ta e the ri!ht-hand strand and pass it over the strand to the le/t.

Ta e the le/t-hand hand strand and pass it over the strand to the ri!ht and repeat alternately /rom le/t to ri!ht.

?lat /our plait Lay the /our strands side by side. Ta e the ri!ht-hand ri!ht strand as in ?i!. 1 and lay it over the strand to the le/t.

'o$ ta e the outside le/t-hand hand strand as in ?i!. " and lay it under the ne@t strand to itsel/ and over $hat $as the /irst strand.

Ta e $hat is no$ the outside ri!ht-hand hand strand% and lay it over the /irst strand strand to its le/t.

Ta e the outside le/t strand and put it under and over the ne@t t$o strands respectively movin! to$ards the ri!ht.

Therea/ter your ri!ht-hand hand strand !oes over one strand to the le/t% and your le/t-hand le/t hand strand under and over to the ri!ht% as sho$n in ?i!. 4.

&road plait To commence. Ta e si@% seven or more strands% and hold them /lat and to!ether.

Ta e a strand in the centre and pass it over the ne@t strand to the le/t% as in ?i!. 0.

Ta e the second strand in the centre to the le/t and pass it to$ards the ri!ht over the strand you /irst too so that it points to$ards the ri!ht as in ?i!. ".

'o$ ta e the ne@t strand to the /irst one and $eave it under and over as in ?i!. 4.

)eave the ne@t strands /rom le/t and ri!ht alternately to$ards the centre as in ?i!. 4%5%:.

The /inished plait should be ti!ht and close as in ?i!. 3.

To /inish o// Ta e one o/ the centre strands% and lay it bac upon itsel/ as in ?i!. 1.

'o$ ta e the /irst strand $hich it enclosed in bein! /olded bac % and $eave this bac upon itsel/ as in ?i!. ". -

Ta e a strand /rom the opposite side% and lay it bac and $eave it bet$een the strands already plaited.

All the strands should be so $oven bac that no strands sho$ an uneven pattern% and there should be a re!ular unde underover-under o/ the alternatin! $eaves.

0/ you have plaited ti!htly there may be a di//iculty in $or in! the loose ends bet$een the plaited strands.

This can be done easily i/ you sharpen a thin piece o/ $ood to a chisel ed!e% and use this to open the strands su//iciendy to allo$ the ends bein! /inished to pass bet$een the $oven strands.

,oll under a bottle to $or smooth a/ter /inishin! o//.

,ound or r lariat plait% /our strands Lay the /our strands to!ether side by side% as in ?i!. 1% and cross the ri!ht ri!ht-hand centre strand over% and then around the le/t-hand hand strand.

Ta e the le/t-hand hand outside strand% and pass it over the t$o crossed strands% and the then n under the ri!ht ri!ht-hand one o/ the t$o% so that it is pointin! to$ards the le/t% as in ?i!. ".

Ta e the /ree ri!ht-hand hand strand% and pass it over the t$o t$isted strands to the le/t and completely round the le/t-hand le/t one o/ the t$o% as in ?i!. 4.

,epeat this $ith the outside le/t-hand hand strand as in ?i!. 4.

,epeat $ith the ri!ht-hand hand strand as in ?i!. 5.

The /inished plait should loo li e ?i!. :.

Tyin! split canes and vines to!ether These bush materials $ill only tie $ith special nots. As a sa/ety rule ti tie e $ith the outside o/ the slan on the outside bend o/ the not. 0/ you try to tie $ith the inside o/ the material on the outer sur/ace o/ the bend it is probable that the material mater $ill either crac or snap o// /orcin! you to come to the conclusion that the material is useless.

)hen pullin! the not taut% do so !ently. 0/ you snap the Aoinin! not the material $ill either cut itsel/ or brea .

0/ the canes or vines are brittle throu!h !reenness% try the heat treatment mentioned previously.

The nots $hich are most suitable /or tyin! canes and vines to!ether are as /ollo$s.

Boinin!2 sheet bend% ree/ not% /ishermanDs not

(ecurin!2 timber hitch

?or descriptions on ho$ to tie these nots see #hapter "% >nots and Lashin!s.

Csin! bush ropes /or climbin! &e/ore entrustin! your li/e to a bush-made made rope it should be tested.

The simplest $ay o/ doin! this is to tie one end o/ your intended heavy-duty rope securely to a tree. Three or /our people should then !et hold o/ the other end o/ the rope. They should ta e the strain !ently at /irst. They should slo$ly increase this strain until all their combined $ei!ht is on it. 0/ it does not brea then it is sa/e /or one person at a time to use to ascend or descend a roc or cli// /ace.

)hen climbin! up a bush-made rope al$ays use the /oot-loc and $hen descendin! never slide do$n it. #limb do$n% usin! the same /ootloc .

The /ootloc o//ers a measure o/ sa/ety and the climber is so secure that he can actually stand on the rope and rest $ithout his body $ei!ht bein! carried entirely on his arms.

To prove this use the /ootloc and clasp the rope to your body $ith your arms.

The /ootloc is made by holdin! onto the rope $ith both hands% li/tin! the nees and ic in! the rope to the outside o/ one /oot. The /oot on the opposite side to the rope is DpointedD so that the toe pic s up the rope $hich is pulled over the /oot $hich $as a!ainst the rope and under the instep o/ the /oot $hich Dpic edD it up.

The t$o /eet are brou!ht to!ether and the rope is no$ over the instep o/ one /oot and under the ball o/ the other. Then% to secure the !rip and loc the rope% the /eet are placed one on top o/ the other so that it is clamped do$n by the /oot on top.

&y strai!htenin! the nees and raisin! the hands the body is li/ted and a /resh !rip ta en /or the ne@t rise.

0n descendin!% the body is bent% the hands lo$ered and the /ootloc released. A /resh !rip is then ta en $ith the /eet at a lo$er level on the rope.

This method o/ descendin! is much sa/er than slidin!. 0n slidin! there is !rave ris o/ bad rope burns to both hands and le!s.

Another method o/ descendin! a roc /ace is by usin! the abseil. 0n some cases it also can be used /or ascent.

0n the abseil the body is upri!ht but the le!s are stretched out and the /eet pressed a!ainst the roc /ace.

The rope passes do$n bet$een the thi!hs% around one thi!h arid dia!onally up and across the upper hal/ o/ the body and over the shoulder opposite to the le! under $hich it passes. The rope may be !ripped $ith one hand.

0n descendin! the /ree hand pulls the rope over the shoulder. This leaves a loop belo$ the thi!h and the /eet are D$al in!D do$n the roc /ace until the thi!h is a!ain snu! in the loop. Csin! the abseil /or descendin! ma es it practically impossible to /all.

0n ascendin! a roc /ace $hich has an e@treme slope but is not vertical the /eet are D$al edD up the incline% the body is pulled up the rope and the slac % han!in! belo$ the le!s% is pulled up in its turn by one hand and /ed over the shoulder. &y this means the climber can sit on the rope and rest.

)hen usin! the abseil it $ill be /ound that bare /eet% sandshoes or ones $ith ripple rubber soles made especially /or such a purpose !ive a better !rip than plain leather soles.

6ther uses ?or bush-made ropes &ush ropes have many other uses other than /or descendin! or climbin! roc and cli// /aces. The /ollo$in! are but a /e$ e@amples o/ uses to $hich they can be put.

(in!le rope ladder $ith stic s A sin!le rope ladder is made by openin! the lays o/ the rope and insertin! sturdy cross stic s about "*-"5 cm lon! $ith an e1ual amount protrudin! on either side. They must be secured to the rope by lashin!s both above and belo$. The distance bet$een these ladder holds should be bet$een 4* and 5* cm% dependin! on the a!ility o/ the climber.

To climb such a ladder hold the rope $ith both hands% bend the nees and dra$ both /eet up to!ether and lay them $ith even pressure on the cross stic s. )hen your /ootin! is secure raise the hands and continue the action.

&ush sin!le rope ladders have the advanta!e o/ bein! able

to be used by people $ho have di//iculty in climbin! by ordinary means. They provide a relatively easy $ay o/ ascendin! a roc /ace or a loo out.

(in!le rope ladder $ith choc s This type o/ ladder ladder has the advanta!e o/ bein! portable and 1uic ly made. The choc s o/ hard$ood should be about 15 cm in diameter and 5 cm deep. They are suitably bored to ta e the diameter o/ the rope.

(plice an eye at the top end and sei=e in a thimble to lash the rope head securely. To secure the choc s put t$o strands o/ sei=in! bet$een the strands o/ the rope and then $or a $all not.

,ope brid!e A rope brid!e is no easy underta in!. 0t should be made only i/ there is no other possible $ay o/ cros-

sin! a river or a ravine and secondly% only i/ the crossin! is intended to be a semi-permanent one.

At the outset t$o ropes are spun. They must be very stron! and thorou!hly tested. They are anchored to either side o/ the river either to convenient trees or sta es.

)hen the ropes have been stretched taut% li!ht DAD /rames are made. The number re1uired depends on the len!th o/ the brid!e dec in!.

The /irst A /rame is hoo ed onto the rope and pushed /or$ard $ith a lon! pole. The /ootin!% a strai!ht saplin!% is dropped do$n onto the crotch o/ the /rame. The brid!e builder $al s out alon! this and hoo s on the ne@t A /rame% pushes it out to the re1uired distance and repeats the process until the /ar ban is reached.

Durin! buildin!% rope brid!es must not be overloaded 7 one $or r er at a time is the rule.

6nce the base poles have been e@tended to the /ar ban crossbars should be lashed to the A /rames above the base buildin!D pole. (hort len!ths o/ /lat split timber are then lashed to these poles to provide a secure dec in!.

0/ lianas or #alamus (la$yer vines) are available% ma e the support ropes /rom these. They are much stron!er than any spun rope and can support /our to si@ people on the brid!e at a time.

To provide e@tra stability and to stop violent s$ayin! $hen people are crossin! $ith heavy loads% the rope brid!e can be DanchoredD by attachin! a heavy stone to a cord and suspendin! it /rom the middle o/ the brid!e span. This anchor should be $ell above the no$n heavy rain /loodin! level o/ the river crossin! other$ise it $ill be dra!!ed by the current and tear the brid!e in hal/.

0n some cases the ori!inal buildin! support pole can be used as the permanent brid!e /oot$al $ithout /urther top slat dec in!. &ut in this case ma e sure that the bottom A /rame lashin!s are e@tr e@tremely emely stron! and secure.

To measure the distance across a river or !or!e (elect a site on the opposite ban A and then drive a sta e on the near ban K. )al at ri!ht an!les /or a no$n number o/ paces and then put another mar er sta e L and continue an e1ual number o/ paces and put in a third mar er D.

Turn at ri!ht an!les a$ay /rom the river and eep movin! bac until the centre mar er sta e and the mar on the other side are in line at <.

;easure the distance /rom the third or last mar er pe! D to this this point < and this distance $ill e1ual that o/ the $idth o/ the river crossin!.

To !et a rope across a deep narro$ river ?asten a stout stic to the end o/ the rope. The rope must be in the middle o/ the stic . (elect a /or ed tree on the opposite ban % thro$ thro$ the /ree end o/ the coiled line $ith the stic across the river to the tree. )hen it has cau!ht on the tree test it $ith t$o or three people to ma e sure the line is secure.

?asten your (or the near) end o/ the rope to a convenient anchor.

Then the person crossin! the line 7 usually the li!htest member o/ the party 7 han!s onto it% li/ts his le!s and hoo s them over the rope $ith his /eet to$ards the opposite ban .

&y this means he can $or himsel/ across the river% /asten the rope absolutely securely and allo$ the rest o/ the party to cross in a similar manner.

(a/ety line /or a river crossin! A bush rope can be spun to serve as a sa/ety line /or crossin! /ast or /looded rivers. 6nce made% the hardest part is !ettin! the /irst member o/ the party acr across $ith the rope.

The method is similar to that used $ith the beltman in sur/ li/esavin!. 6ne end o/ the rope is /irmly anchored to the ban and the other tied around the $aist o/ the stron!est s$immer in the party. 0/ possible he or she should be provide provided $ith somethin! to aid buoyancy% such as a partially

in/lated air mattress or air pillo$. As the person enters the $ater the other members o/ the party should ta e hold o/ the line and pay it out slo$ly. 8e or she $ill undoubtedly be $ashed do$nstream to some de!ree and the rope should be made lon! enou!h to allo$ /or this. 6n no account should this be attempted i/ the river is runnin! /ull /lood and is /ull o/ lar!e /loatin! masses o/ debris.

6nce on the other side% the line should be anchored so it han!s above $ater level. The /irst person crossin! the%line should stand on the do$nstream side o/ the rope and /ace upstream. 8e then crosses by movin! his /eet side$ays one step at a time% holdin! on to the rope at all times to maintain balance.

0/ the current t is so stron! that the person crossin! loses /ootin!% the !rip on the line $ill prevent him or her /rom bein! $ashed do$nstream. 0/ necessary any pac or other ba!!a!e should be abandoned. The ban can be made in sa/ety by holdin! onto the line and $or in! ! hand over hand until a secure /ootin! is a!ain possible.

The 1-"-4 4 anchor This anchor is used $hen there are no supportin! trees or tree stumps available to securely anchor a rope.

A very stout sta e is driven into the !round at an an!le o/ 45M. The ma main in rope to be anchored is /astened to the /oot o/ this. T$o ropes are secured to the head o/ this sta e and

these are /astened to the /oot o/ t$o sta es to the rear. The heads o/ these sta es are% in turn% /astened bac to the /oot o/ three other sta es. This anchor $ill hold securely in almost any conditions.

Anchorin! a pe! in sand or sno$ The only $ay to anchor a rope into so/t sand or sno$ is to attach it to a pe! and bury the pe!.

(crape a trench in the sand (or sno$) to a depth o/ bet$een 4* and 5* cm. 0t can be deeper i/ $indy or stormy $eather is e@pected. Pass the rope around the centre o/ the pe! and scratch a channel /or it at ri!ht an!les to the pe! trench.

?ill in the trench and rope channel and /asten the /ree end o/ the rope to the standin standin! ! end $ith a stopper hitch (see #hapter " >nots and Lashin!s) and pull taut. The buried pe! should hold a tent rope in sand or sno$ under all normal conditions.

The bush $indlass A bush $indlass% capable o/ ta in! a very heavy strain on a rope% can be made by selectin! a site $here a tree has its /or lo$ to the !round% $ith the /or /acin! the direction in $hich the pull is re1uired. Alternatively a stout /or can be driven in and anchored $ith the 1 1-"-4 method.

The $indlass portion is a /or ed lo!. The /or /o s are

notched to ta e the lever (up to 1 metre lon!). The rope is passed around the roller a /e$ times so that it loc s upon itsel/. Alternatively i/ the /or o/ the roller is lon! and rather narro$ the rope may pass throu!h the /or .

This type o/ bush $indlass has many uses.

" >nots and Lashin!s The ability to Aoin t$o pieces o/ natural material to!ether and so increase their len!th !ives man the ability to ma e 1uite complicated constructions in the bush% or indeed any$here.

(ailors $ere al$ays the leaders in the tyin! o/ nots because /or them it $as necessary to tie securely but also to be able to untie rapidly% o/ten in the dar and in apallin! $eather $ith rain-ti!htened ropes.

0n bushcra/t $or probably hal/ a do=en nots $ould su//ice. &ut once started% not tyin! can become /ascinatin! /or itsel/.

>nots and lashin!s ta e the place o/ nails /or much bush$or . A brie/ description is !iven in this chapter o/ the uses o/ the various nots.

'ote that the letter ? means the /ree or untied end o/ the rope and the letter ( the standin! or secured end.

>nots /or rope ends or /or !rips on thin rope Thumb not This not is used to ma e a stop on a rope end% to prevent the end /rom /rayin! or to stop the rope slippin! throu!h a sheave.

6verhand not 6verhand d not may be put to the same use as the thumb not. 0t ma es a better !rip not% and is easy to undo.

?i!ure ei!ht This not is used as the thumb not. 0tDs easy to undo% and more ornamental.

>nots /or Aoinin! ropes (heet bend This is used to Aoin or bend t$o ropes o/ une1ual thic ness to!ether. The thic er rope is the bend.

Double sheet bend This is similar to sin!le sheet bend% but !ives !reater securityG it is also use/ul /or Aoinin! $et ropes.

#rossover sheet bend This holds more securely than either the sin!le or double sheet bend and has occasional real uses such as /astenin! the eye o/ a /la! to its halyard $here the /lappin! mi!ht undo the double sheet bend.

,ee/ not To securely Aoin t$o ropes o/ e1ual thic ness to!ether. 'otice the di//erence in position o/ the /ree and standin! ends bet$een this and the thie/ not.

Thie/ not This is used to tie t$o ropes o/ e1ual thic ness to!ether so that they $ill appear to be tied $ith a ree/ not% and $ill be retied $ith a true ree/ not. This not $as o/ten used by sailors to tie their sea chests% hence the name.

#arric bend This bend is /or the secure /astenin! o/ t$o ropes o/ even thic ness to!ether. 0t is particularly suitable /or ha$sers and steel cables. 0t can be readily undone and does not Aam% as do many other bends and nots.

(topper hitch This is used to /asten a rope to another rope (or to a spar) on $hich there is already strain. )hen the hitch is pulled ti!ht the attached rope $ill not slip% and the tension on the main rope can be ta en on the attached rope. Also use/ul /or a climbin! hitch.

?lemish not or double overhand not Csed /or securin! t$o ropes or cords o/ e1ual thic ness to!ether.

?ishermanDs not Csed /or Aoinin! t$o sprin!y materials to!etherG suitable /or $ire% /ishin! !ut or vines. T$o thumb nots (one on each rope) pulled ti!ht. The nots loc to!ether.

6verhand /ishermanDs not (imilar to /ishermanDs notG /or !eneral uses. ;ore positive /or !ut /ishin! lines and nylon.

>nots to ma e loops in rope

&o$line This is used to /orm a loop that $ill not slip on a rope end.

&o$line on a bi!ht Csed to ma e a double loop that $ill not slip on a rope end. Also called a boDsunDs chair.

?ishermanDs eye not This is the best method o/ ma in! a loop or eye in a /ishin! line. The strain is divided e1ually bet$een the t$o nots.

(lip not Csed /or /astenin! a line to a pier or a pole or any other purpose $here strain alone on the standin! end is su//icient to hold the not.

6verhand eye not This method o/ ma in! an eye or loop is satis/actory and 1uic % but it sometimes Aams and becomes di//icult to untie.

?lemish eye not Csed /or all purposes $here a loop is re1uired% less li ely to Aam than overhand eye not.

-rabbins hitch This eye not% thou!h not very $ell no$n% is one o/ the stou stoutest test eye nots. 0t has not the tendency to cut itsel/ out or pull out common to some o/ the other eye nots. 0t also ma es a use/ul runnin! not.

;anharness not This is a most use/ul not /or ma in! a series o/ non-slip loops in a rope /or the purpose o/ harnessin! men /or a pull. The marlinspi e hitch is made as in lo$er s etch and then the loop is dra$n under and over the other t$o ropes as indicated. The $hole not is then pulled taut.

;idshipmanDs hitch This is an old-/ashioned hitch o/ten used to /asten a bloc or sheave to a ropeDs end.

Bury not or true loverDs not This not is primarily /or a mast head% to /orm loops by means o/ $hich the mast may be stayed. 0t is called a Aury not because in sailin! ship days it $as o/ten used to ri! a temporary or Aury mast. Three hitches as in top s etch are /ormed. The loop L is pulled under K and over A. D is pulled over < and under ?. - is pulled strai!ht up /or the third loop. 8 is made by splicin! the t$o /ree ends to!ether.

&o$ thon! hitch Csed by y 'e$ -uinea natives /or securin! the end o/ the split cane bo$ thon! to the pointed end o/ the bo$. Also use/ul /or /astenin! rope over the tapered end o/ a spar.

>nots /or ?astenin! ,opes

(lippery hitch 9ery use/ul because o/ the ease $ith $hich it can be released in emer!ency. 0t holds securely so lon! as there is a strain on the standin! end.

#love hitch ?or securin! a rope to a spar. This hitch% i/ pulled taut% $ill not slip up or do$n on a smooth sur/ace A use/ul start /or lashin!s.

&oat not This is a method o/ securin! a rope to a pin or other small piece o/ $ood on a boat. 0t is 1uic ly released.

Double boat not A bi!ht is simply passed throu!h the rin! and a marlin spi e or other round piece o/ $ood is put bet$een the bi!ht or the rope. )ithdra$al o/ the spi e 1uic ly releases the not.

,ollin! hitch To /asten a rope to

a spar. This is a very secure /asten-D in!Timber hitch ?or securin! a rope to s1uared timber% round lo!s% etc. A !ood startin! not /or all lashin!s. The standin! end must pull l strai!ht throu!h the loop% not bac $ards% or the rope may cut upon itsel/.

8alliard hitch ?or /astenin! a rope to a spar. The s etch sho$s the hitch open. )hen pulled taut% and the hitches closed% it ma es a very neat and secure /astenin!.

&lac $all hitch h A 1uic $ay to secure a rope to a hoo . The strain on the standin! end $ill hold the rope secure to the hoo .

'oose hitch This is a 1uic and easy method o/ securin! a rope to a spar or beam. 0/ desired% the rope can be made more secure by means o/ the over-hand not sho$n in ?i!. ".

#atDs pa$ hitch ?or securin! a rope to a hoo or a spar. 0t is most use/ul because it is so easily tied.

Lar Ds head This is an easy method o/ securin! a rope to a rin! or hoo . 0/ desired to ma e more secure% it can be stoppered% as sho$n% $ith an overhand or thumb not.

#rossover lar Ds head Csed /or same purpose as the Lar Ds head.

Double lar s head The bi!ht is /irst made. The ends passed throu!h it. This not is very secure.

Triple lar s head The apparently complicated not is easily made by ta in! the bi!ht o/ the rope throu!h the rin!% the ends are passed throu!h the bi!ht and up throu!h the rin!% then do$n throu!h its o$n bi!ht. Li e the double lar Ds head% this not is absolutely secure.

(ailorDs bac hand not Csed to secure a rope to a rin! or hoo . This is very similar to the rollin! hitch and sailorDs bac hand not.

(ailors bac hand not (Alternative variation) Csed to /asten a rope securely to a spar.

(ailorDs not (imply t$o hal/ hitches round the standin! end e o/ the rope.

-unnerDs not This is simply a carric bend and used to hold t$o shac les or rin!s to!ether.

#atspa$ This not is used /or attachin! a rope to a hoo . The t$o bi!hts are rolled t$o or three times and then put over the hoo .

>ellic hitch Csed /or /astenin! a stone (/or a ellic in lieu o/ an anchor)% that $ill hold in roc y sea bottoms $here an anchor mi!ht /oul. 0t is a timber hitch /inished o// $ith a hal/ hitch.

Tom /oolDs not ?ormed by ma in! a clove hitch as t$o loops not e@actly overlayin! each other. The inner hal/ o/ each hitch or loop is pulled under and throu!h the outer side o/ the opposite loop% as indicated by arro$s.

This not can be used to improvise a handle /or a pitcher by pullin! the centre not ti!ht around the lip o/ o the pitcher and usin! the loops as handles.

(heepshan This is a convenient not to 1uic ly shorten a rope.

6ne method o/ securin! the end.

(heepshan to!!led The insertion o/ a to!!le in the end bi!hts secures the sheepshan a!ainst slippin!.

Drum slin! A slip not is made as indicated. The drum% can or barrel is placed in the slip not and the /ree end is secured $ith a stopper hitch to the standin! end.

#hain not )hen a rope is too lon! /or its purpose one means o/ shortenin! it is the chain not. ,emember to put a marlinspi e or to!!le throu!h the last lin be/ore you put a strain on the rope.

Double chain not This is the most ornamental o/ all the rope shortenin!s. A turn is ta en round the standin! end and the /ree end is passed throu!h the loop so /ormed. 0n doin! this a loop is /ormed throu!h $hich the /ree end is brou!ht. The end is thus passed /rom one side to the other throu!h the loop precedin!. 0t may be pulled taut $hen su//iciently shortened and $ill loc upon the last loop.

T$ist not This is another easy method o/ shortenin! a rope. The rope is laid as sho$n and then the strands are plaited or braided to!ether. A marlinspi e or to!!le is placed bet$een the ropes in the centre to secure the hold o/ the plait.

?ancy >nots )all not Cnlay the rope a /e$ inches and then pass each strand throu!h the bi!ht o/ the strand in /ront. 0llustration sho$s the $all not ready to be pulled taut.

(topper not &rin! the ends o/ the $all not round a!ain and up in the centre o/ the not and pull each one taut separately.

#ro$nin! not #ommence the cro$nin! as sho$n here.

The cro$nin! is no$ ready to be pulled taut. The strands can be bac spliced to permanently secure the end o/ the rope a!ainst ravellin! or /rayin!. #ro$nin! may also be used $ith other /ancy nots such as cro$nin! /irst% then pullin! on a $all not or a ;athe$ )al er.

;anrope not This is a /ancy not to put a stop on the end o/ a rope. Top s etch sho$s the cro$nin! (in the centre)% the lo$er s etch sho$s the man-rope not pulled taut.

Double-double cro$nin! not This not is started the same as the manrope% but not pulled taut. The ends are laid /or a second cro$n above the cro$n (similar to the manrope not) and $ith the spi e the bends o/ the lo$er cro$n are opened% and the strands brou!ht throu!h these bends and pulled taut.

;athe$ $al er The strands are laid as in the dia!ram (top) and then each in turn is pulled taut till the not is close and ti!ht. The not itsel/ is rolled up sli!htly to lay the t$ist evenly. Pull the strands ti!ht a!ain a/ter this.

The ;athe$ )al er /inished and rolled ti!ht ?i!. ".

The ;athe$ )al er is reputed to be one o/ the most di//icult o/ all nots to undo. The ;athe$ )al er can also be made some distance /rom the end o/ the rope and the strands then relaid.

Diamond not Li e the ;athe$ )al er% the diamond not is ornamental 7 can be made same distance alon! the rope. The rope is unlaid care/ully. <ach strand is brou!ht do$n alon!side the standin! end% as illustrated (top). The strands are then put throu!h the loops /ormed by the other strands in centre s etch. The strands are hauled taut. The rope relaid. (ho$s the /inished diamond not.

Double diamond not This is made as /or the sin!le diamond not% but the strands /ollo$ the lead o/ the sin!le not throu!h t$o sin!le loops. The last strand comes throu!h t$o double loops. The strands come out throu!h the centre $hen

the not is pulled d taut. All these stopper nots can be used /or the ends o/ lanyards% halyards% yo e lines and also as stoppers on cleats% and /or r pe buc ets.

Tur Ds head This is a hi!hly ornamental not $hich% instead o/ bein! made $ith the rope strands o/ the rope its itsel/% is /ormed $ith smaller corda!e on the rope.

A clovehitch is made as in ?i!. 1 -This is made slac ly to allo$ the e@tra strands to be $or ed throu!h it. Pull the bottom part o/ the hitch above the top part and put the /ree end under and up (?i!. "). The bottom strand is pulled above the top part and the /ree end no$ over and do$n. This repeat till the circle is complete. The /ree end /ollo$s round three times. The completed Tur Ds head is sho$n in ?i!. 4.

(hamroc

not This may be /ormed the same $ay as the true loverDs not% but the bottom loop is not spliced. 0t may be

used to /orm three loops /or stays /or a mast. 0t may also be /ormed by ma in! a not as top s etch. The loop L is dra$n up throu!h loop D and the loop K is dra$n up throu!h the loop at A. These /orm the side loops and the top loop is /ormed naturally at <.

&utton not ?orm t$o crossover hitches% as ?i!. 1. Pass the loop end to the le/t and $ith the /ree end /orm another loop as sho$n. 'o$N $ith the /ree end% /ollo$ the lay as indicated in ?i!. " and lay the strands side by side as /or the Tur Ds head. )hen three to /ive lays have been put throu!h% $or the not ti!ht and use the /ree ends to /asten the button to the !arment. A bootlace ma es an e@cellent button.

(elved!e To secure a bloc to a standin! spar. The middle o/ the selved!e is laid on the spar and the t$o ends are crossed over in turns until the bi!hts at the ends come to!ether. The hoo o/ the bloc is then put throu!h these t$o bi!hts.

Pointin! a rope The rope is unlaid and a tie put on to prevent it unlayin! /urther. The strands are thinned do$n !radually% and relaid a!ain. The end may be sti//ened $ith a small stic or piece o/ $ire. The end can be /inished o// $ith any o/ the cro$n or $all nots.

>notted rope ladder The len!th o/ rope is coiled in a series o/ hal/-hitches and the end o/ the rope is passed throu!h the centre% as in the illustration on ri!ht (e@cept that the coils are held closer to!ether as /or a coiled rope $hen it is to be thro$n). The coil o/ hal/-hitches $ith the end passed throu!h the centre is turned inside out% that is% the succeedin! coils are pulled over each other. The coil is no$ thro$n% and as it pays out a series o/ overhand nots are made at /airly e1ual intervals. 0n ma in! a not ladder this is the 1uic est and most e//icient method.

Lashin!s (1uare lashin! This is used to Aoin poles at ri!ht an!les.

(tart $ith a timber hitch or a clove hitch belo$ cross bar. 0/ usin! a timber hitch see that the pull is strai!ht throu!h the eye and not bac /rom it. Pullin! bac $ill cut the lashin! material.

Put lashin! material ti!htly around upri!ht and cross bar about /our complete times.

?rappin! turns7;a e about t$o or three /rappin! turns. These are turns that !o round the lashin! and pull it taut. These pull the lashin! ti!ht. (ecure end o/ /rappin! turns either by hal/-hitches or by passin! bet$een lashin! at the crossover and secure $ith a hal/-hitch.

Dia!onal lashin! This is used /or bracin! or Aoinin! spars at irre!ular an!lesO

(tart $ith a timber hitch or a clove hitch and ta e about three or /our /ull turns vertically.

Pass rope under top spar and ma e about three or /our /ull turns hori=ontally.

;a e t$o or three /rappin! turns and either secure by t$o hal/-hitches on pole or by passin! the end bet$een the lashin! and the pole and use hal/-hitches on the lashin!.

(heer lashin! This is used to Aoin t$o poles end to end. (tart $ith a clove hitch or timber hitch and lash ti!htly around the t$o spars /our to si@ times. Pass /ree end under lashin!s and dra$ ti!htly t$o or three times. (ecure by passin! it throu!h itsel/.

There should be at least t$o lashin!s i/ spars are bein! Aoined to!ether.

(plices (hort splicin! Cnlay the strands and marry them to!etherG butt hard up to each other. The strand D /irst !oes under the standin! end o/ A% but oyer strand K and over L on the standin! end. Thus each strand at either end !oes over one strand o/ the standin! end on the opposite side and under the ne@t strand% so that there is a strand o/ the standin! end bet$een each short side o/ the splice. #ontinue $or in! the /ree strand o/ each end /our or /ive times into the strands o/ the standin! end.

Lon! splicin! The strands are unlaid /or a considerable len!th and then married as /or the short splice. Then the one strand is unlaid and its married counterpart is laid alon! its place in the rope.

The t$o centres are simply held $ith a cross-over not% and the strands thinned do$n and spliced as /or a short splice. The end strands areG /inished $ith a crossover not arid a!ain the strands are thinned do$n and /inished as /or a short splice. This lon! splice does not appreciably thic en a rope $hich may be thus spliced to !o throu!h a sheave.

Loop splice $ithout a /ree end The rope is unt$isted to the re1uired place% as in top illustration. The /ree ends so /ormed are then spliced bac alon! the rope a/ter the loop has been /ormed.

<ye splice A neat eye splice can be made in a rope end b by y an ordinary short splice a/ter the loop or eye has been /ormed.

Loop splice The strands are unlaid and laid side by side till the looop is the re1uired len!th. The strands o/ the /ree ends are spliced into the ropes o/ the standin! ends as /or a short splice. sp

To!!le and eye 7 sho$in! one application o/ splicin! and $hippin!. To!!le is spliced and eye is $hipped in s etch.

)hippin! &e/ore the /inish o/ the bindin! a loop /ormed /rom the end is laid under the bindin! at the start. This end is bent bac to /orm a loop and the last si@ to t$elve turns bind over this loop. At the last turn o/ the bindin! the cord is put throu!h the loop and the /ree end o/ the loop is pulled ti!htly% thus dra$in! the end o/ the bindin! beneath the last turn.

Another method is to pull the bindin! taut% and then the t$o /ree ends are cut close in. The $hole bindin! is smooth and neat.

'ettin! 8ammoc s and nets are made by the use o/ nettin! needles and a mesh stic . The nettin! needles (as sho$n in the illustration) can be made /rom a thin piece o/ hard$ood or bamboo. The needles themselves can be /rom "* to 4* cm lon! and "* to "5 mm $ide. The mesh stic can be about 14 cm lon!% oval and /rom 5 to "** mm $ide. The nettin! cord is put onto the nettin! needles as /or an ordinary shuttle. )ith needle K and $ith needle A the cord is looped around the pin in the centre o/ the eye.

At one end o/ the strin!% tie a loop and place the not on a conveniently hi!h nail or hoo . The mesh stic is put under the loop and the needle $ith cord passed throu!h as in ?i!. " . The needle and cord are passed in /ront o/ the loop /ormed in ?i!. 4 and under the ori!inal loop% $hile at the same time the other end o/ the cord is held on the mesh stic $ith the thumb o/ the le/t hand. The not is pulled taut.

A succession o/ these loops are /ormed until the re1uisite $idth is reached% then this /irst series o/ loops are placed throu!h a rod or cord% and the loops are netted on to them until the re1uisite len!th is reached.

4 8uts and Thatchin! &ecause o/ the li!ht$ei!ht nylon tent revolution over the past t$enty years /e$ people deliberately embar on a bush tre $ithout a roo/ over their heads. These manu/actured shelters are e@traordinarily li!ht. ?or instance a t$o t$o-person tent $ith coverin! /ly% plus its s aluminium poles and pe!s% can $ei!h as little as 1.5 !.

-iven this /act it is ine@cusable% not to say% in a conservation sense% stupid% to ma e a bush material shelter under normal circumstances. &ut sometimes circumstances are not normal. Then the ability to construct a $eatherproo/ temporary hut may save oneDs li/e.

Little s ill is needed to ma e a com/ortable% thatched% $eatherproo/ hut usin! materials at hand in any sort o/ country outside o/ the stony desert re!ions o/ Australia.

The buildin! o/ a thatched hut /rom local materials is a creative e@ercise. Desi!n must provide /or the anticipated $eather conditions. Althou!h /indin! suitable materials almost any $here presents no problem% considerable or!anisation is re1uired to collect this material. And /or the actual structure itsel/% !ood team$or is needed.

0t should be remembered that many o/ the early $hite settlers lived hal/ their lives in bush structures $hen clearin! their o$n land. There is a lesson here /or AustraliaDs ne$ bac -to-the-earthers and smallholders. Althou!h some local councils /ro$n on these temporary d$ellin!s% a bush house or hut $ill o/ten !ive valuable service once the reason /or its in iaberection has ended. And% unli e an old municipal bus or a stripped caravan% it $ill blend into the environment o/ the bloc .

Thatched 8uts The ma in! o/ huts and shelters /or occasional or continuous use /rom e@clusively local materials and $ithout the aid o/ any man-made e1uipment is not di//icult. 0n place o/ nails% lashin!s (either o/ vine% bar strips or other /ibrous material) are used. ?rame$or is o/ round poles. )eatherproo/ roo/in! is provided by thatchin! $ith lon! !rass /erns% reeds% palm leaves% sea$eed% bar sheets% split shin!les or even sods o/ heavy clay tur/.

The material used depends on the 0deation. The shape% si=e and details o/ the hut are li e$ise !overned by the len!th o/ intended occupation% the number o/ people that have to be sheltered% the local climatic conditions and% o/ course% the time available /or construction.

0/ there are one or t$o people to be sheltered /or a /e$ ni!hts only in a temperate climate% a simple lean-to thatched shelter $ill su//ice. This can be built in one to three hours. &ut i/ there are ei!ht or ten in your party and they re1uire shelter /or a /e$ months a!ainst cold and bad $eather% then a semi-permanent hut complete $ith doors% $indo$s and a /ireplace /or heatin! and built-in bun s $ill be re1uired. To ma e such a structure properly $ill re1uire $or over t$o to three $ee s 7 even lon!er i/ one is usin! rammed earth or pise.

0n ma in! any d$ellin! it has to be assumed that a !ood ni/e% a machete and an a@e are available to every member o/ the $or in! party and that all the $or ers are% o/ course% $illin!.

The structures discussed here are merely e@amples o/ $hat can be done. )hen it comes to plannin! your o$n hut you are your o$n architect and builder. 0/ there are several people in the party or!anise the labour so that no hands are idle. 8ave one or t$o people cuttin! poles% another carryin! them to the site% a /ourth strippin! bar /or lashin!s and set the others !atherin! material /or thatchin!. . #ollect all the material /or the structure be/ore you start to build. Then stac it in orderly piles as close as possible to

the cleared buildin! site. Eour main poles should be in one pile% the battens /or thatchin! in another% the bar strips or vines shredded do$n /or immediate use in a third% and your thatchin! material in several piles.

0n the meantime the buildin! site should be thorou!hly cleared o/ !round cover and% i/ necessary% levelled. Cnder normal conditions spades and mattoc s are the rule. &ut in an emer!ency di!!in! tools may have to be improvised by usin! bush timber.

6nce you are ready to start buildin!% have every person in the team on the site. 6r!anise the erection o/ the main /rame$or arid then brea your team up into small !an!s /or lashin! on the battens and completin! the /rame$or . This $ay you $ill save hours o/ labour and you $ill succeed in buildin! a better hut.

There is nothin! to it really e@cept intelli!ence. Plan and or!anise to eep everbody busily en!a!ed.

Desi!n There are three main desi!ns o/ huts2 a simple lean-to% lean to% suitable /or /ine% $arm $eatherG an enclosed round hut or pyramid% suitable /or cold conditionsG nsG and a lon! hut suitable /or sub sub-tropical tropical and tropical climates i/ le/t open% or% i/ completely $alled% suitable /or cold conditions.

,e/inements such as doors and $indo$s may be added as needed. And $hen the hut is completed there is the allall important matter o/ /urnishin! it. &ut /irst let us loo at $hat the bush d$eller can build as the /irst protective shelter.

(ectional lean-to huts (mall one- and t$o t$o-person person huts can be easily constructed in an hour or t$o by ma in! and thatchin! t$o or three /rames% /rom "-4 4 metres in len!th and 1-1.5 1 metre in depth.

These /rames% built o/ battens% are lashed onto t$o /or ed stic s. The /or s are in the /orm o/ hoo s at the upper end. The /rame$or is simple to construct.

0t is important to ensure that the end o/ / the top /rame proAects /or$ard beyond the /or and the rid!e. This protects the /ront /rame and saves the $or o/ rid!e thatchin!. 0/ raised bun s (see #hapter 4 #ampcra/t) are bein! put in% it is advisable to have the bottom o/ the thatch about 5*-:* 5* cm above !round level. This raises the rid!e hei!ht bet$een 4*5* cm. The len!th o/ the side poles in this instance is increased to 4 metres.

Permanent lean-to to huts The permanent lean lean-to to hut usin! a tree /or bracin! is simple and 1uic to erect.

The rid!e pole is raised a!ainst the tree by the means o/ the t$o end-/or ed poles to the re1uired hei!ht o/ about 4 metres% dependin! on the $idth o/ the structure. The end-/or ed poles should be at an an!le o/ not less than 45M. 0/ the len!th o/ the rid!e is more than 4 metres it is advisable to put in another one or t$o /or ed poles about hal/$ay alon!.

6nto the end-/or ed poles lash a crossbar (A in the illustration) and lash it a!ain to the upri!ht tree. This crossbar has lashed to its /ront end% a pole (&)% connectin! and lashed to the rid!e and also the /ront eaves% pole (#)% plus the /ront thatchin! battens.

Thatchin! battens are lashed onto the t$o rear /or s. The distance apart /or the thatchin! battens varies. 0t may be anythin! /rom 15-4* cm% dependin! on the len!th o/ the thatchin! material bein! used. A !eneral !uide is that battens should be spaced apart about one-/ourth o/ the avera!e len!th o/ the thatchin! material.

An upri!ht in the /orm o/ a li!ht /or may be placed under the /ront corners to the /ront eave pole. )all thatch battens are lashed hori=ontally /rom the rear /or ed poles to this upri!ht. )all pe!s are driven in alon! the rear at $hatever hei!ht is re1uired and to these $all pe!s thatchin! battens are also lashed.

?or ed poles should not be less than 3-1* cm in diameterG the rid!e pole should be about the same and thatchin! battens should be 4-5 cm in diameter.

Cse dry or dead timber $herever possible. 0t is li!hter to handle and its use avoids any destruction o/ the bush. )hen ma in! $all pe!s% bevel o// the head. They can be driven in $ithout splittin!.

,ound hut To ma e a standard round thatched hut cut or !ather /our poles each about 5 metres in len!th and bet$een 1*-15 cm thic . They should be as strai!ht as possible.

Lash these to!ether in the shape o/ a tepee or pyramid% stand them upri!ht and then sin them into prepared holes in the !round 7 a depth o/ 4*-5* cm is usually ample dependin! on the /irmness o/ the soil. 0n sandy conditions the depth may have to be !reater to ensure stability.

The distance bet$een the dia!onal poles should be about P metres to ensure a roo/ slope o/ about 45M. This is the best /or sheddin! rain$ater /rom the yet-to-be-constructed roo/.

Another ei!ht poles% $hich can be some$hat li!hter% are added to the initial pyramid. They should be spaced evenly

around the circle. These should be lashed to the roo/ poles a/ter bein! driven into the !round. These main structure poles should then be stren!thened by cross battens and the inside $all supports constructed $ithin the circle (see illustration). (pace can be le/t /or a tall or lo$ entrance$ay as desired (the lo$ one is easiest).

The hut should then be thatched $ith any materials that are available.

Pyramidal huts The pyramidal hut% havin! a s1uare base% is particularly use/ul $here it is desired to ma e the /ullest possible use o/ $all and /loor space.

The pyramid and circular hut have similar construction techni1ues. 0n the pyramidal hut% $hen tyin! on the thatchin! battens% it is more e//icient to ma e one lashin! at each corner secure on the thatchin! battens. )hen the span bet$een the /or ed poles becomes less than " metres it is best to lash only onto the corner poles% omittin! any e@tra tyin! to the intermediate poles. 0/ the span bet$een the corner poles is !reater than " metres it is necessary to lash battens to the intermediate poles.

Lon! hut The end portion o/ this structure is basically the same as a one hal/ section o/ the pyramidal hut. The len!th can be e@tended to any re1uired distance by len!thenin! len!thenin! the rid!e pole and by usin! additional supportin! /or ed poles. 0/ the rid!e is e@tended in t$o or more len!ths% they should be lashed to!ether. 0t is also advisable to notch the rid!e so it $ill sit snu!ly in the interloc in! /or s.

)all pe!s should be driven in at a convenient $all hei!ht and t/iatchin! battens are lashed do$n. ,e/inements% such as li/t-up sections /or li!ht and ventilation% can be added i/ re1uired.

Poles and structures All slopin! sides on any hut must be completely $aterproo/ and should be at an an!le o/ not less than 45M (althou!h a 4*M slope $ill shed $ater). A slope o/ 45M $ill also !ive !ood headroom in the lar!er huts.

The diameter o/ the timber inside the bar can be rou!hly calculated by allo$in! a minimum o/ "-4 cm diameter at the butt /or each 1"*-15* cm o/ len!th. Thus i/ a pole is 4 metres lon! the diameter o/ $ood clear o/ bar at the butt should not be less than : cm% or% i/ the pole is : metres lon!% the diameter at the butt should not be less than 1"-14 cm.

0/ the span is relatively $ide or the timber used is relatively li!ht% stren!then the structure and prevent sa!!in! or in$ard bendin! o/ the main poles by puttin! across ties or collar ties so that the thrust or $ei!ht is thro$n /rom one pole on to the pole opposite.

&racin! 0/ lon! or lean-to huts are bein! built and there is no stron! support% such as a !ro$in! tree% it is advisable to lash in dia!onal braces that e@tend i/ possible /rom the !round at one end to the rid!e at the other. These bracin!s $ill ma e even a li!ht hut stormproo/.

Doors and $indo$s ,e/inements such as doors and $indo$s are completely practical and also possible in thatched huts. 9ery little e@tra $or is involved.

)indo$s are simply t$o or three /or ed stic s cut o// short belo$ the /or $ith the lon! end proAectin!.

Thatch battens are lashed to these /or ed stic s and the /rame$or is li/ted up and hun! on one o/ the battens o/ the hut itsel/.

0n the !eneral thatchin! o/ the hut this $indo$ space is le/t clear. The $indo$ /rame is itsel/ thatched separately as a complete unit.

0t is best to ma e the $indo$ /rame $ider than the $indo$ openin! o/ the hut itsel/. 0t can be propped open by the use o/ one or t$o stic s. 8o$ever% i/ it is very $ide more props may be needed.

There should be at least 15 cm overlap o/ the $indo$ and

the roo/ thatch at the sides. The loose ends o/ the thatchin!

above the $indo$ /rames should be allo$ed to come on to

the $indo$Ds o$n thatch and should completely cover the se$in! at the top.

Doors are also made and thatched separately. The hin!e o/ the door can be made by several methods (see illustration). 0n construction they are similar to a !ate /rame $ith the addition o/ t$o upri!hts lashed across the /or . To these t$o upri!hts the hori=ontal thatchin! battens are secured.

Tree s$in! shelter 0n s$ampy country or in areas $hich are badly sna e in/ested a very simple s$in!in! bun can be made by one person in a day.

The /or ed pole that supports the bun must be very stron!. <ither a cane or a vine loop may be used at the top

section. 0t is also advisable to have a vine or cane rope as additional support stretchin! /rom the end o/ the main /rame as hi!h up the tree (pre/erably to a /or ) as is practicable.

The /rame poles /or the thatch battens are lashed separ separately% ately% $ith a s1uare lashin!% to the bottom o/ the /or ed /rame pole. 0n order to !ive ri!idity a short% cross stic is lashed hori=ontally to each o/ the opposite sides o/ the /rame poles.

)hen thatchin!% $or one ro$ alon! one side and then the ro$ on the the opposite. This $ill help stren!then the /rame$or and eep it correctly balanced%

The bun is made separately and then attached to the supportin! /or ed pole.

0ts main /rame is simply /our poles lashed to!ether to /orm a rectan!le about a metre $ide and a metre or more lon! / dependin! on the body len!th o/ the person usin! it). The space bet$een the poles can be either $oven or made $ith crossed stic s.

Thatchin! materials ;aterials suitable /or thatchin! ran!e /rom lon! !rass% reeds% rushes% most o/ the lon! stal ed /erns (such as brac en)% palm leaves o/ all types and% as a last resort% many pliant% lea/y branches.

Lon! !rass and reeds ma e a hi!h 1uality roo/ $hen they are used dried rather than in their !reen state. 0t is advisable $hen usin! these materials to cut and stoo them at the very start o/ your buildin! proAect 7 particularly i/ it is a lar!e Aob spread out over t$o or more $ee s. This enables the material to dry out be/ore bein! used.

0/ placed on the roo/ supports in their !reen state% !rass and reeds $ill shrin and curl% allo$in! rain to enter. All !reen materials shrin and this $ill a//ect the thatchin! stitches as $ell% causin! them to become loose. The thatch can then slip out o/ the stitches and in the /irst hal/-decent $ind it $ill blo$ a$ay.

0/ the materials are $ell-seasoned the stitches $ill not slac en because there is very little shrin a!e% and the thatch $ill stay do$n securely.

)ith most o/ the brac ens it is advisable to use the material $hen it is !reen and se$ it do$n ti!htly. This also applies i/ you are /orced by circumstances to use !reen branches.

-reen branches do not ma e a very e//icient roo/ and their use is not recommended e@cept in an emer!ency .

0n a !eneral $ay usin! brac en and reeds /or thatchin! is !ood service to the land.

&rac en destroys pasture and reeds cho e $atercourses. Cn/ortunately simply loppin! both has no e//ect on their !ro$th. They have to be du! up completey.

0/ branches o/ trees or shrubs are to be used see out a dead branch $ith some o/ the leaves still on it. (ha e the branch. 0/ the leaves immediately /all o// the material is useless and $ill only serve /or a day or t$o. 0/ the leaves $ithstand this sha in! the plant $ill probably serve your purpose /airly e//ectively. (ome trees and shrubs drop their leaves $ithin a /e$ hours o/ bein! cut. These are also useless.

Palm leaves are best /or thatchin! $hen they are dead and dry. 0t is 1uite usual to /ind lar!e 1uantities o/ them scattered at the base o/ the tree. They are e@cellent material but can be some$hat brittle and inclined to brea at the hei!ht o/ summer.

The best time to collect dead palm leaves /or thatchin! is either early in the mornin! $hen the leaves have o/ten been so/tened by an overni!ht de$% or a/ter rain. 0t is also advisable to $et them do$n i/ possible be/ore se$in! them on the thatchin! battens. This so/tens the brittle leaves% ma es them lie /lat and ensures that you !et a better covera!e.

Thatchin! methods There are almost as many di//erent methods o/ thatchin! as there are di//erent materials. <ach method has its o$n peculiar advanta!e and application /or certain types o/ material.

The methods you are most li ely to /ind o/ use are t$o simple ones. 0n the /irst the material is se$n on to the battens. This is called se$n thatchin!. The second method is to attach it in bundles. This is called tu/t thatchin!.

0nstead o/ se$in! the thatch onto the battens it mi!ht be more convenient to tie a pliant stic onto them at convenient intervals. The pressure o/ this stic ti!htly tied to the batten holds the material securely. This is no$n as stic thatchin!.

There are several methods by $hich the materials can be secured to the battens on the !round. The battens are then laid onto the /rame$or overlappin! rather li e lon! tiles.

)ith some o/ the palms% the stal itsel/ may be used either as the thatch batten or to hold the lea/ itsel/ in the desired position.

Principles o/ $atershed in thatchin! Thatchin! may be either to !ive shade or to !ive protection a!ainst rain. Thatchin! /or shade presents no problems. 0/ it is thic enou!h to brea up the sunDs rays that is su//icient.

Thatchin! /or protection a!ainst $ind or rain ho$ever% $ill be e//ective only i/ certain principles are observed. 0t is instructive to $atch the behaviour o/ drops o/ $ater on a thatched roo/. The drops run do$n the topmost strands until they come to the very ed!e o/ the blade o/ !rass or other

material. There they increase in si=e and $hen they are bi! enou!h /all o// onto the blade immediately beneath.

0/ the stitchin! interrupts the smooth% continuous course o/ the $ater droplets they $ill /ollo$ its line because it is at a steeper an!le. The drops $ill creep alon! the stitch and $hen they reach its lo$est point on the underside o/ the thatchin! each droplet et $ill a!ain increase in si=e until it is too heavy to remain attached to the se$in! material. The roo/ then% o/ course% lea s. Thatch $ill never lea i/ the stitchin! material is properly covered.

0t is the 1uality o/ Dcovera!eD% rather than the thic nes ness s o/ the thatch% that ma es a natural roo/ $aterproo/.

)indproo/in!% on the other hand% depends lar!ely on the Dti!htnessDand thic ness o/ the thatchin!.

(e$n thatchin! (e$n thatchin! is started by stitchin! at the bottom o/ the /irst layer o/ thatch on the lo$est thatchin! batten. The second layer must lie on top and cover the stitchin! o/ the /irst ro$ and include the top section o/ the underneath layer o/ the actual stitch.

0t is better to have each layer held by three ro$s o/ stitchin!. The stitchin! o/ every ro$ must be completely covered by the /ree ends o/ the layer above it.

To se$ thatchin!% ma e a thatchin! needle by cuttin! a dead% strai!ht-!rained stic about 4 cm thic and about 5* cm lon!. (harpen one end and rub it as smooth as possible on a Qtone. 'arro$ the other end until it is about 5 mm thic . &e/ore doin! this% ho$ever% cut an eye in this end. 0/ you cut the eye /irst it $ill not split out $hen the end is pared do$n.

Lay the thatchin! material $ith the butts to$ards the roo/

and the lo$er end on the lo$est batten. (ecure one end o/ the se$in! material $ith a timber hitch (see #hapter "% >nots and Lashin!s) to the batten% thread the other end throu!h the eye o/ the needle and se$ the material in the ordinary manner to the batten.

To avoid holes $here the se$in! may tend to bunch the thatchin! to!ether% pass the needle throu!h the thatch at an acute an!le. Then push the thatch over the crossin! o/ the stitches.

(tic thatch )ith the stic thatch% ties about :* cm apart are /astened onto the thatchin! batten. The thatchin! stic is tied at one end% the material placed under it and $hen the tie% /i@ed on the batten is reached% the thatchin! stic is tied do$n thus bindin! the material to!ether. This method o/ securin! thatchin! is use/ul $hen lon! len!ths o/ material /or se$in! are not available.

As $ith se$n thatchin!% the !eneral principles o/ overlappin! the layers to cover the thatchin! stic (rather than the thatchin! thread) are /ollo$ed. This $ill ensure a rainproo/ roo/. 8o$ever% this is !enerally not as ti!ht as se$n thatchin!.

Tu/t thatchin! This is an e@cellent method i/ the material is /airly lon! 7 bet$een :*-3* 3* cm and 1 metre 7 and pliable. 0t is very suitable /or reeds and sed!es. The material is !athered into small sheaves about about 4 cm or so thic . The butt end is bent over the thatchin! batten. A /e$ strands are then t$isted around the shea/ a /e$ times and pushed throu!h the bunched up material to hold the end secure.

The tu/t is then slipped alon! the batten and the procedure is continued until the batten is completed.

This thatch ma es a very neat Aob /rom the inside. 0t is secure in all $eather and re1uires no tyin! material. 0/ sed!es or sharp s$ord !rasses are bein! used% protect your hands $ith a pair o/ soc s to avoid cuts cuts i/ !loves are not available.

0t is important that the lon!% /ree ends o/ each tu/t bundle overlap the t$o or three precedin! ro$s. Do not push the Aoinin! or not end o/ these tu/ts up too ti!htly to!ether. There can be some space (say up to " cm) bet$een bet$ee the bentover ends on the battens. This space $ill be covered by the /ree ends o/ the ne@t ro$ o/ tu/ts.

(tal thatch Any type o/ palm lea/% complete $ith stal % can be used /or this type o/ thatchin!. 0t is both 1uic and e//icient.

The stal s o/ the palms are $oven throu!h the thatch battens. The stal s are literally Aammed bet$een the battens and the natural pressure on them provides su//icient pressure to hold the thatchin! leaves in position.

(plit stal thatch This thatch is suitable /or lon! pinnate pinnate leaves (such as those /ound on date palms). The centre rib o/ each /rond is split len!th$ays. The split ribs are tied to!ether and secured to the rid!e poles o/ the hut in an overover

lappin! /ashion. This eliminates the need /or thatchin! battens unless e@tra stren!th is re1uired in the roo/ structure.

)oven thatch This is an alternative to the split stal thatch i/ a number o/ $or ers are available and the time /actor is not important.

The pinnate /ronds are laid /lat on the !round and the leaves leaves /rom one side are laid over one another and $oven bet$een the leaves opposite them. The stal is then tied onto the /rame$or o/ the hut% observin! the same principle o/ overlappin! used in all other thatchin! methods. )oven thatch is particularly suitable suitable /or $all construction and !ives the hut a very neat /inish.

(e$n batten thatch )ith lon!% broad-leaved leaved materials% the se$n batten method can be used to !ive !ood results.

The leaves are bent over battens on the !round and a thin sliver o/ split cane or other suitable material used to pin the t$o sections to!ether. The stic s are then tied to the /rame$or o/ the hut as in split-stal split stal thatchin!.

0/ !reen material is used% ma e sure be/ore startin! the Aob that it does not curl as it dries out by testin! it i in stron! sun /or hal/ a day.

,id!e thatchin! 0n thatchin! the rid!e o/ any hut it is essential to cover or cap the topmost ro$ o/ stitchin! or /astenin!s. 0/ this is not done the roo/ $ill lea alon! the rid!eline.

This cap there/ore must curl completely ely over the rid!e pole or% better still% over a /alse rid!e pole. Alternatively it may stand up /rom the rid!e. 0/ bound ti!htly% this $ill ma e an e//icient $atershed. ?or pyramidal and circular huts this is the best method.

(e$n rid!e thatch )ith very lon! material t$o heavy poles or strai!ht branches may be slun! over the rid!e pole so that they lie on either side o/ it and hold the ed!es o/ the thatch do$n% (see illustration).

Another method is to tie t$o battens to the last line o/ thatchin!. The ends ends o/ the thatchin! material is then se$n to the battens so that it overhan!s the stitchin! o/ the thatch proper.

An alternative method is to se$ rid!e material on to three poles% one o/ $hich acts as a /alse rid!e and the other t$o% se$n to the ends o/ the e material% han! do$n about 5* cm on either side. This can be made on the !round and then hoisted up to cover the rid!e pole.

Another method is to ma e a simple cro$n o/ thatch $ithout poles and cover the top layer o/ thatchin!.

-utterin! Cnder some conditions itions it may be necessary to put a DvalleyD in the roo/. This $ill re1uire !utterin!. <//icient !utterin! can be made /rom $ide sheets o/ bar inverted so that they lie $ith the hollo$ side in the roo/ valley.

0n tropical areas an alternative (althou!h a laborious one) is the use o/ hollo$ed out palm trun s. 9ery $ide leaves o/ some o/ the palms can be laid so that they overlap one another.

#onsiderable care must be ta en $ith this !utterin! i/ a $aterti!ht roo/ is the prime consideration.

<nd drip !utters rs can be made /rom bar pieces or tu/ts o/ overlappin! thatch. They are o/ten needed on the $eather side o/ the hut so that rain$ater does not blo$ bac /rom the last thatch overhan! and throu!h the $alls.

?lashin! 0/ a livin! tree is bein! used as one o/ the supports /or the hutDs rid!e pole% /lashin! may be re1uired. This also applies i/% /or one reason or another% one or more o/ the structural support poles also proAect above the thatchline o/ the roo/.

0/ /lashin! is needed spin up a len!th o/ thin rope rope /rom !rass or other /ibrous material (see #hapter 1% ,opes and #ords) and use it to bind e@tra thatchin! around the tree or the pole. #ontinue this bindin! several centimetres above the last o/ this e@tra thatchin! to ensure that the $ater runs o// and do$n the roo/% rather than do$n the tree trun or pole and into the hut.

,ammed <arth #onstruction Althou!h /ibre buildin!s $ill last /or many years an even more permanent structure can be made out o/ rammed earth. This type o/ buildin! can also be roo/ed $ith thatch.

&ecause o/ the lar!e amount o/ time ta en to construct a buildin! out o/ rammed earth the method is not suitable /or a campsite. 0t is ho$ever use/ul /or oneDs o$n bush bloc % either as an initial shelter or secure stora!e shed.

Althou!h the attitudes o/ many councils to$ards earth and pise constructions has become more rela@ed in recent years% a buildin! o/ the type described here $ould not pass the test as a permanent house. There are no$ a number o/ specialised publications available on the buildin! o/ sophisticated earth houses (plus a number o/ contractors $ho specialise in their construction). (o i/% strictly spea in!% you are plannin! a more ambitious structure than a solid shed% these publications should be consulted. The local council buildin! inspector should also be contacted as to the speci/ic re!ulations /or your particular area.

<arth buildin!s can either be constructed by ma in! /orms to contain the material or by rammin! it in bloc s% $hich loo li e lar!e bric s% and layin! these in courses.

The only material re1uired /or the $alls o/ the buildin! is earth. 0t should contain a proportion o/ clay% sand or other

!ritty particles. 0t should also be /ree /rom or!anic material such as shrub and tree roots.

?oundations A rammed earth buildin! must have a solid base. The /oundations% or /ootin!s% can be made /rom lar!e stones set in a clay base.

A trench :* cm deep by 4* cm $ide% lined all over $ith a 4 cm clay plaster is su//icient to bear the $ei!ht o/ the $alls. Lar!e stones are then set into this clay and the /ootin! continued $ith more clay and more stones until a pac ed $all has been made that stands about "* cm above !round level.

As lon! as the materials are at hand this is a no-cost operation. #lay is also an e@cellent medium into $hich to set the /oundation stones because it is lar!ely impervious to moisture once tramped in and the buildin! $ill re1uire no damp course.

?oundations can also be made $ith stones and concrete but in this case some sort o/ dampcourse $ill have to be constructed.

The purpose o/ e@tendin! the /oundations "* cm above !round level is to prevent $ater run-o// /rom reachin! the rammed earth section o/ the $all. Thus i/ the area is subAect to occasional /lash /loodin! the /oundations may have to be built hi!her. <arth ban s and drains can also be cut around the buildin! to divert $ater /lo$ i/ necessary. )ide% overhan!in! roo/ eaves also prevent dama!e to the earth $all on the $eather side o/ the buildin!.

#hoose the site care/ully. )atch the $eather patterns and consider ho$ the buildin! can be best protected /rom the $eather be/ore erectin! it.

(oil 1ualities Any heavy loamy soil is suitable /or rammed earth construction. The soil must also have the ri!ht moisture content. To /ind out $hether it is suitable% roll some earth into a ball about the si=e o/ a !ol/ ball bet$een the palms o/ the hands and drop it /rom a hei!ht o/ about 4* cm. 0/ it brea s up on contact it is too dry and moisture must be added be/ore rammin!.

0/ it holds to!ether a/ter bein! dropped /rom this hei!ht apply a second test. 8old the same ball above your head and drop it a!ain. 0t should shatter into small /ra!ments. 0/ it doesnDt the material is too $et and should be allo$ed to dry out.

The soil should then be tested /or its clay-silt-sand ratio. Althou!h the ratios are /airly elastic not all soils are suitable /or rammin!. There should not be more than 3* per cent sand and not less than 4*. &y the same to en there should not be more than 3* per cent clay and silt and not less than 4* per cent sand.

?or proper earth bric s that $ill last many years the ideal proportions are 5* per cent clay material and 5* per cent sand. 6n any area o/ land soils can vary !reatly. The intendin! builder should ta e samples /rom various parts o/ the bloc . 0t may also be necessary to combine soils /rom one or t$o locations to !et the desired mi@.

(oil 1ualities can be 1uite easily determined. Ta e a !lass tube 1* cm lon!. Dry some o/ the test earth% crumble it to po$der and /ill the tube. Then empty it into a dish and $ash thorou!hly in slo$ly runnin! $ater until all the clay and silt particles have been /loated out over the rim. Dry out $hat remains in the bottom o/ the dish and place it bac in the tube. This /inal level in the tube $ill !ive you the proportion o/ clay to sand.

(oil $ith too hi!h a clay content $ill crac . &ut on the other hand i/ there is too much sand the bloc $ill crumble.

(tren!thenin! material Althou!h earth $alls can be made $ith plain soil% 1uite o/ten a bindin! a!ent is included to !ive it e@tra stren!th. Dried !rass or stra$ is the most suitable binder. 0/ the bric s are bein! made in individual moulds it should be cut in short len!ths to /it the container. 0/ usin! the $all /rame$or method o/ construction any reasonable len!th $ill do% althou!h the shorter it is the better it $ill mi@ $ith the clay-sand material.

6ther suitable material includes small stones or river !ravel% $hich may be contained in the soil $hen it is du!.

0/ mi@in! either stra$ or !ravel% a number o/ test bloc s should be made usin! varyin! 1uantities o/ the additives. They should then be allo$ed to thorou!hly dry and season and then compared /or !eneral stren!th% crac in! and crumblin!. &ut remember to note do$n $hat 1uantities you added to $hat particular /orm. 6ther$ise the test $ill mean nothin!.

?orms and moulds ?orms can be made /rom a series o/ boards $hish are bolted to!ether to allo$ the rammed earth $all to be built directly onto the /ootin!s o/ the buildin!.

Alternatively% moulds can be made ade and the earth rammed into them to ma e bloc s. A/ter dryin!% these bloc s are laid in the manner o/ lar!e bric s.

0/ /orms are used the most convenient si=e /or /illin! is about 1 metre hi!h and about " metres in len!th. At the /irst level they are clamped onto the top o/ the /ootin! by the use o/ bolts or% alternatively% held /ast by poles driven into the earth and secured at the top.

)hen rammin! shovel in about 1* cm o/ earth alon! the len!th o/ the /orm and ram it do$n until it Drin!sD. This is 1uite a de/inite sound and is 1uite di//erent to the so/t DthudD% o/ the /irst stro es.

,ammin! is hard% tirin! $or . The person operatin! the ram should be relieved at /re1uent intervals. )hen the /irst layer is Drin!in!D throu!hout its len!th the process is repeated.

0t should be noted that separate ri!ht-an!le /orms are needed /or the corners o/ the buildin! and particular care should be ta en that the earth on these sections is rammed e@tremely hard.

<ach level o/ the $all should be allo$ed to cure /or several days be/ore the moulds are removed and the ne@t level attempted.

Door /rames and $indo$s should be allo$ed /or. The timber /rames /or both should be incorporated in the buildin! as the earth is rammed into position.

,ammers% usually $ith a /lat% round% hard$ood head% should $ei!h bet$een " and 4 !% $ith a lon! handle /or easy !raspin!.

?or a $all ".5 to 4 metres in hei!ht% the thic ness o/ the earth itsel/ needs to be bet$een "5 and 4* cm. ?or $alls hi!her than 4 metres% the thic ness should be around round 4* cm.

0/ moulds are used they should be desi!ned so that once a Dbric D has been rammed in them they can be noc ed do$n 1uic ly and easily to proceed $ith the ne@t bric . The bric s are allo$ed to cure $ithout support. 0t should be stressed that the e ma in! o/ earth $alls or bric s is a dry $eather activity. 0/ it rains tarpaulins should be used to protect the bric s until they are properly cured.

6nce the $alls have been erected and the house or shed has been roo/ed% e@tra protection /or the outside $alls can be provided a!ainst heavy rain (apart /rom the above-mentioned overhan!in! eaves) by several methods. These include $hite$ash% lime-$ash% a co$ dun!7mud render mi@% $allpaper si=e% a late@ based paint% bituminous paint or a cement render made o/ one portion o/ cement to t$o o/ sand applied in an e@tremely li1uid /orm.

,ammed earth buildin!s% properly constructed% have been no$n to stand /or 1** years or more.

Lo! #abins )here timber is plenti/ul and $hite ants do not present a problem% a lo! cabin can be built /or a permanent shed or house.

#onstruction is simple. The lo!s should be cut to $ithin a /e$ centimetres o/ the re1uired len!th. Lay the bed lo!s% $hich should be the heaviest% in their re1uired position. ;a e sure that they are s1uare. )here the end lo!s lie across the bac and /ront ones% halve or Dscar/ the sites. (D(car/in!D cuts the lo!s into one another.)

The remainder o/ the construction /ollo$s e@actly the same pattern. The lo!s are DcarvedD into one another.

0n scar/in! lo!s /or buildin!% the /lat sur/ace o/ the bottom lo! al$ays D/allsD out$ards so that $hen any rain$ater blo$s in it $ill not /ind a place /or easy lod!ment but $ill drain a$ay because o/ the natural slope. #hin s bet$een the lo!s should be /illed $ith clay on the inside o/ the buildin!.

Cse/ul 8ints ;aterials /or lashin!s Althou!h in buildin! lar!er structures% manu/actured items% such as rope% t$ine% special tools and perhaps even nails and some dressed timber% $ill be used% in some circumstances these are not readily available.

There/ore improvisation is necessary. ?or lashin!s% se$in! and tyin! any !round or tree vine $hich has len!th% stren!th and pliability $ill serve. Len!th is visible and easily assessed. &ut tests /or stren!th and pliability should be made. The test /or stren!th is simply to e@ert a steady% strai!ht pull on the material. 0/ it snaps easily it is useless.

The test /or pliability is to tie a thumb not in the vine and !ently pull it ti!ht. 0/ it snaps or cuts in upon itsel/ it lac s pliability and should be discarded.

0n addition to the vines% the outer s in o/ lon! leaves o/ most palms may be used /or ties. To harvest these nic the hard outer shell $ith a cut 5 mm $ide and about 1 mm or less deep (Aust a nic do$n$ards in other $ords). Then !ently split the t$o sur/aces apart bendin! the thic part a$ay /rom the thin.

This principle o/ bendin! a$ay to revent runnin! o// or splittin! out applies to all canes% palms% vines% bamboos and bar s.

The inner bar o/ many shrubs and trees% alive or dead% also ma es e@cellent lashin! material. (trip do$n to the re1uired thic ness but $atch /or $ea spots $here it is li ely to /ray a$ay.

(pecial nots ;any o/ the sed!es have len!th and stren!th

and may be used /or lashin! and se$in! $or . 'early all the bullrushes can serve as lashin!s.

These !reen materials re1uire special nots. The customary start o/ a s1uare lashin! is $ith a clove hitch (see #hapter "% >nots and Lashin!s)% but such a hitch on !reen bush material is useless. The natural sprin!iness in it $ill cause the start o/ the not to open. Al$ays start a lashin! $ith a timber hitch. Al$ays see that the /ree end passes strai!ht throu!h the eye and does not come bac a!ainst it. 0/ it does it $ill probably cut throu!h itsel/.

A/ter startin! your lashin! $ith a timber hitch (?i!. 1)% ma e three complete turns around the t$o poles and $or them to!ether as you ti!hten the lashin! at each turn (?i!.

"). The /rappin! turns then /ollo$ (?i!.4). These Trappin! turns close the lashin! in and ti!hten the $hole. ?inish o// by passin! the /ree end o/ the material throu!h an openin! in the lashin! and /inish $ith a couple o/ hal/ hitches pulled ti!ht.

Boinin! !reen materials The best not /or Aoinin! !reen materials is either the sheet bend or the ree/ not. &oth are illustrated in #hapter "% >nots and Lashin!s.

4 #ampcra/t A com/ortable temporary or permanent camp is easy to set up and maintain $ith a little common sense and no$-ho$% plus a /e$ basic tools.

As mentioned in #hapter 4% 8uts and Thatchin!% modern li!ht$ei!ht materials plus structures that telescope into almost nothin! have meant that most people% !iven a vehicle% can ta e the city into the bush $ithout havin! to improvise. 0n some cases this has led to $hat mi!ht be !ently termed over-e1uippin! onesel/ /or the ri!ours o/ outdoor li/e. 6ne recently published list o/ DessentialsD included 95 items (includin! toothpic s o/ all thin!s) $ithout $hich it $as impossible to survive. This list did not include /ood.

)hile there is no e@cuse /or destroyin! bushland% !iven a ni/e% an a@e or machete% and dead timber and other bush materials% everythin! one needs /or a bed% table% seats and chairs% coo in! and li!htin! can usually be /ound 1uite close to the chosen campsite.

There is no need /or a camper to be uncom/ortable i/ he or she e@ercises a little in!enuity. A properly made camp bed can be as rest/ul as an inner-sprin! mattress. And no /ood has more /lavour than $hen coo ed out o/ doors.

6nce learned% these s ills can also be o/ !reat use in emer!ency situations.

(ettin! up #amp Pe!s and sta es )hen settin! up a camp a constant supply o/ small pe!s and sta es is needed /or many purposes. They must be cut properly or they $ill not drive cleanly into the

!round and% instead% $ill split or t$ist. The $ood selected should he as strai!ht as possible. 0t should then be cut into the re1uired len!ths and the head should be bevelled. The DtoeD should be sharpened all round% in the same manner as a lead pencil is sharpened. 0/ it is simply cut dia!onally it $ill not drive cleanly.

?or s The best sort o/ /or is one $ith a per/ectly strai!ht drive /rom the head to the toe and $ith the /or itsel/ comin! o// at an an!le. Li e a sta e the head should be bevelled and the toe sharpened all round.

8oo s 8oo s re1uire less ss care in their selection% unless they are to be driven into the !round. 0/ they are to be% then once a!ain% they must be strai!ht. 0n choosin! material /or any o/ these items ma e sure be/ore usin! it that the $ood% thou!h dead% does not have a rotten core. 2

Drivin! sta es and /or s (ta es and /or s can be driven into the !round by usin! either the bac o/ an a@e as a sled!ehammer or% i/ this implement is not available% a lar!e stone held by both hands. The stone should have a /lat drivin! sur/ace. Also% a club can be /ashioned $ith a heavy ni/e.

#amp itchens and coo in! To ma e li/e com/ortable /or the coo % the camp itchen should be sited so that the prevailin! $inds o/ the area do not blo$ into his or her /ace.

0/ settin! up camp in an un no$n area it is not al$ays possible to /ind out $hat the prevailin! $ind is. &ut certain !en-

eral conditions prevail the $orld over and no$in! them helps.

6n the coast% because% durin! the daytime hours the sea is cooler than the land% about mid-a/ternoon a sea bree=e /lo$s to$ards the land mass. As the land cools in the evenin! the /lo$ is reversed and the $ind blo$s /rom the land to the sea.

0n hilly inland areas the mornin! bree=e% no$n as an anabatic $ind% blo$s up the valley as the sun heats the eastern sides o/ the hills. 0n the late a/ternoon and evenin! the bree=e blo$s do$n the hillslopes to the valley /loor as the sides cool. This is no$n as a atabatic $ind.

)ith this no$led!e the /ire can be set side$ays to these !enerally prevailin! $ind patterns% so avoidin! smo y coo in!. 0n the valley situation the /ire should be /aced neither up valley nor do$n valley% but side$ays% allo$in! the smo e to blo$ past the coo at any time o/ day.

The camp itchen area should al$ays be sited on a sli!ht rise i/ possible so that in the event o/ a heavy do$npour it $ill not be /looded. 0n a badly drained area it should be built up about 1* cm above !round level% by pilin! up earth and stampin! it do$n to a /lat sur/ace or collectin! a set o/ reasonably even roc s /or a rou!h pavement.

0ll

?ireplaces There are many di//erent types o/ sa/e and e//icient camp /ireplaces. Their construction depends on the materials at hand.

0/ lar!e stones are available build a $all to enclose the /ire on three sides. Almost any hei!ht $ill do% dependin! on the si=e o/ the stones% but a $all o/ around "5 cm provides a !ood !ood-si=ed si=ed coal and ash bed in $hich to coo potatoes or to place a camp oven.

As a !eneral rule do not ta e roc s /rom a stream or river bed to ma e a stone /ireplace. The These are o/ten hi!hly unstable and $ill e@plode as the /ire !ets hot.

A second method is to di! a trench and stac the soil or oblon! tur/s to each side. This method is $idely used in outbac areas $here the soil is heavy and conditions are usually dry. 0t i is s virtually $indproo/. 0t $or s best $here the soil is mostly heavy clay and the !round is absolutely dryO0t is useless in damp or bo!!y areas.

(imple Done-stopD stopD campin! /ires can be made by layin! the $ood directly on the !round and usin! a series o/ co constructed props and sta es to hold coo in! implements (see illustrations).

The sta e and pole method o/ suspendin! coo in! pots over /ires can be as uncomplicated or complicated as one $ishes. ?or a sin!le ni!ht camp it is a $aste o/ time to be over-elaborate over orate (a billy $ill a/ter all boil reasonably 1uic ly i/ placed at the ed!e o/ the /ireplace itsel/ or directly on top o/ a bed o/ coals).

The best method o/ all in a permanent camp calls /or a sin!le% strai!ht sta e to be driven into the !round at one side o/ the /ireplace. ?rom this sin!le sta e a s$in!in! !antry is hun!. The hei!ht o/ the !antry on the upri!ht sta e can be adAusted to any hei!ht above the /ire.

0t $ill s$in! /ree o/ the /lames and the billy can be ta en o// $ithout the ris o/ burnt /in!ers.

0n /looded country% or in marsh or s$ampland% it may be impossible to /ind a dry area on $hich to li!ht any sort o/ /ire. 6ne $ay to overcome this is to build a raised plat/orm $ith its /loor above the $ater level. The stic s $hich ma e the base o/ the plat/orm are covered $ith a thic layer o/ mud. This should be allo$ed to dry as much as possible. Then a /ire can be lit on this base and the meal coo ed.

0n the absence o/ stones and $here !reen $ood is o/ no value 7 such as suc er !ro$th 7 it can be used to ma e a re/lector /ireplace. The re/lector% made by drivin! /our sta es into the !round and stac in! cut len!ths o/ !reen $ood up it to a hei!ht o/ about 5* cm % should be on the $ind$ard side o/ the /ire. The $ind% passin! over the top o/ the re/lector% dra$s the /lames up$ards and so increases the stren!th o/ the /ire.

0/ you $ant to boil a billy 1uic ly in an open space in a very hi!h $ind% the /lames $ill be blo$n a$ay i/ the billy is suspended. &ushmen have a tric that is $orth rememberin! under such circumstances. Place the billy on the !round and build the /ire to $ind$ard and around t$o sides o/ the container. The $ind $ill blo$ the /lames around the sides o/ the billy and it $ill boil 1uic ly.

&illy hoo s and /ire ton!s All methods o/ suspendin! suspendin! containers over a /ire are made easier by the use o/ billy hoo s. These can be made by cuttin! a /e$ hoo ed stic s 1 cm or less in diameter in varyin! len!ths 7 dependin! on the hei!ht o/ the suspension pole and the depth o/ the container above the t /lames.

G At the end /arthest /rom the hoo a sin!le deep nic is cut into the stic so that it $ill hold the handle o/ the billy. This Th nic should be made on the side opposite the hoo /or stren!th.

&illy hoo s can also be made o/ $ire and can be made adAustable in hei!ht. As these are li!ht they are easily sto$ed /or carryin! to the campsite.

Apart /rom billy hoo s% camp itchen e1uipment that can be made on the site include /ire ton!s. These can be made o/ a pair o/ stic s bound to!ether at one end $ith $i bush t$ine or

ordinary strin! or a /or ed stic $ith a sin!le stic throu!h the /or (see illustration).

)oodshed 0/ a permanent camp is bein! made% a $oodshed is a very use/ul item to protect both lar!e lo!s and indlin! /rom rain.

The $oodshed should uld be to the $ind$ard o/ the /ireplace so that spar s $ill not be blo$n onto dry bar or other tinder. 0t can be o/ any dimensions and should be thatched $ith reasonably durable material.

?ire$ood and /ire in rain )ood pic ed up /rom damp !round a/ter heavy heavy rain is useless /or startin! a /ire. 0nstead% pull dead branches o// trees. These $ill be much drier and $ill burn relatively easily.

A/ter rain a /ire can be started relatively easily $ith small material% plus the dead tree branches% by pic in! a lar!e lar hand/ul o/ thin% dead t$i!s /rom bushes. These should be made into a bundle and a match applied to the /rayed ends. >eep on t$istin! and turnin! this bundle until it is $ell ali!ht and then place under a pile o/ small t$i!s. Lar!er pieces can be added later.

8o$ever% i/ the t$i!s are too $et% D/u==D stic s can be made. (elect several pieces o/ dead $ood on a shrub or tree and brea them into len!ths o/ about "5 cm. They should be about 1 1-" " cm thic . #ut a$ay any damp outer $ood and trim the dry $ood do$n in D/eathersD. Three or /our o/ these D/u==D stic s can start a /ire.

?or real $et-$eather $eather emer!encies at the start o/ a trip a banda!e (made o/ cotton) can be soa ed in erosene and

pac ed into a round% lea proo/ container. 6nce ali!ht this banda!e $ill start a /ire under almost any conditions.

)hen cuttin! branches% $hether $et or dry% /or use in a /ire% deep cuts should be made opposite one another on either side. Then hold the branch by one end and brin! it do$n sharply on a convenient roc or lo lo! $ith the cut area at the point o/ impact. 6ne sharp blo$ $ill !enerally brea the $ood% savin! the trouble o/ cuttin! it completely throu!h.

&oilin! and ba in! $ithout utensils 0n an emer!ency the camper may $ant to boil $ater to either sterilise it to some de!ree or to coo /ood% but have no $ater-holdin! $ater vessel available.

A shallo$ hole can be scraped in the !round and lined $ith a !roundsheet% ne$spaper (i/ it is available)% bar % or any material in /act that $ill hold li1uid.

&uild a hot /ire and heat at a number o/ small stones in it. ?ill the lined hole $ith $ater and $hen the stones are almost red hot li/t them /rom the /ire one at a time $ith a pair o/ improvised bush ton!s and put them !ently into the $ater-/illed $ater hole.

0/ the operation is carried d out care/ully the stones $ill not burn the cloth% paper or bar and a litre or sli!htly more o/ $ater can be brou!ht to the boil in a /e$ minutes.

The $ater can be maintained at the boil by placin! ne$ stones in the $ater as the ones that have lost their heat are removed.

&ar dish or coolamon An improvised boilin! container can be made out o/ bar . A /lat piece o/ bar o/ a species that does not split easily is stripped /rom a livin! tree. Ta e o// a small piece at /irst and test it by so/tenin! it in your yo hands and /oldin! it.

0/ it does not crac % /old it into the shape (more or less) o/ a shoe bo@% much as you $ould $ith $rappin! paper. Attach t$o short stic s to the ends o/ the container and tie them $ith t$ine or /ibrous bush material.

The bar o/ AustraliaDs straliaDs native ?icus (/i!) species is especially suitable /or ma in! these containers% no$n to the Abori!ines /or centuries as coolamons.

6ther hi!hly suitable container bar s come /rom the paperbar subspecies o/ eucalypts. They are pliable and can be b stripped o// in lar!e sheets.

8ot stone ba in! ;eat can be !rilled on hot stones by placin! a lar!e /lat roc in a /ire until it is almost red hot% $his in! in the ash o// it and then ra in! it out o/ the /ire 7 or at least to one side. The meat can then be placed directly on the sur/ace o/ the stone. A /or ed stic ma es the per/ect barbecue tool.

(tone ovens are easily constructed by placin! a lar!e roc as a lid over an open stone /ireplace. Li!ht a lar!e /ire in the cavity and $hen the roc s are e@tremely y hot% dra$ the /ire out and place the /ood to be coo ed in the heated cavity.

Leave the coals and ashes ra ed out o/ the /ireplace in /ront o/ the openin! to provide some additional /rontal heat to prevent the temperature droppin! too rapidly.

An old drum or a lar!e tin% i/ available% can also be made into a very e//ective oven. The drum can be either set /lat on

the !round and coated $ith clay o/ earth and the /ire li!hted inside it% or it can be placed over a trench and the /ire ept burnin! underneath it. The soil or clay acts as insulation. 0/ usin! the D/lat on the !round methodD% build the /ire in the drum% ra e out the ashes and coals $hen it has burned do$n and heap them on top o/ the container.

6ther methods A hollo$ lo! or an old stump can ma e a moderately e//ective enclosed oven. Li!ht a /ire in the hollo$ and $hen it has burned do$n and the stump itsel/ is smoulderin!% enclose the /ood you $ish to coo completely and place it in the cavity.

0t must be $atched closely because the ?ire $ithin the lo! may /lare up. 0/ this happens damp it do$n $ith a little $ater.

6ne o/ the best methods o/ ba in! is the a!e-old a!e old method o/ enclosin! /ood to be coo ed in clay. 'ot only $as it used by the Abori!ines but it $as also a standard method o/ coo in! in m many any other parts o/ the $orld.

The best results% in usin! this method% are !ained i/ a pit /ire is made and allo$ed to burn do$n until it is a mass o/ hot ash scattered throu!h $ith live coals.

The /ood to be coo ed 7 $hether it is a lar!e piece o/ meat% a !ame bird or a /ish 7 is completely enclosed in a thic coverin! o/ clay and buried in the ashes. 0/ the /ire is not built up a!ain the /ood can be le/t /or up to si@ hours $ithout comin! to any harm.

0n the case o/ $ild /o$l the bird is neither pluc ed% nor !utted% but encased $hole in the clay. A/ter it is removed /rom the /ire% $hen the clay is bro en the /eathers $ill pull a$ay /rom the /lesh and the intestines $ill have shrivelled up inside th the carcass.

0n the same manner /ish can also be coo ed $hole% $hole% the scales comin! a$ay in the clay coatin!.

Another method /or this type o/ coo in! is to di! a hole and line it $ith lar!e round (or at least semi-round) semi stones. The hole is then D/iredD by buildin! a /ire in the usual manner so that the stones are thorou!hly thorou!hly heated. )hen the /ire has died do$n the ash should be $his ed o//G the meat and ve!etables to be coo ed $rapped in leaves and then placed on the stones. The hole should be mounded over $ith earth and le/t to coo /or several hours. The $rappin!s must mu be dense and secure other$ise the /ood $ill be either charred or covered $ith dirt.

This Abori!inal method o/ coo in! is the simplest version o/ a style that runs throu!h the $hole o/ the Paci/ic 0slands and is even seen in its haute cuisine /orm on the the east coast o/ the Cnited (tates $here it is called a 'e$ <n!land #lamba e.

?or a seashore pit /ire% !ather up a number o/ lar!e roc sG stac them to!ether $ith indlin! and dri/t$ood in a lar!e pile. 0n the meantime !ather a lar!e 1uantity o/ sea$eed. 0n 0n this country% bull elp is 1uite ade1uate and can be /ound in lar!e 1uantities on sur/ beaches a/ter storms.

Li!ht the indlin!-dri/t$ood-roc roc pile and allo$ the /ire to burn do$n and the roc s to !et red hot. )hen the /ire has been reduced to ashes cover r the hot roc s $ith a thic layer o/ sea$eed.

Ti!htly $rap /ish% shell/ish and crustaceans in individual parcels o/ sea$eed and lay them on this steamin! roc sea$eed bed. #over $ith another layer o/ sea$eed and leave to steam /or several hours. The roc s must be very hot and $hen the /inal coverin! is in place $isps o/ steam must be seen to be escapin! /rom the mass. 0/ there is no visible steam the /ire is a /ailure and the /ood $ill not coo .

A celebratory pit /ire in 8a$aii is called a luau and in 'e$ Re(land a han!i. &ut celebration or not% it is an e@cellent method o/ coo in! /ood. ?or a lar!e party a pit about 1 metre deep% 1 metre $ide and about " metres lon! is du! in

?irm soil. >indlin! and brush$ood is laid on the bottom o/ the pit and roc s placed placed on the top. The /ire is lit and more $ood is piled on top o/ the /lames to the level o/ the soil sur/ace. )hen the /ire has burned do$n and the roc s are almost

red hot% the ash is brushed /rom the sur/ace as much as possible. -reen leaves are then thro thro$n over the hot roc s and /ood in lea/ parcels (ti!htly sealed) is placed on this sur/ace.

The $hole is covered $ith more !reen material and then the earth% previously removed /rom the hole% is shovelled over the $hole. The /ire pit is le/t to steam /or up to si@ hours.

;odern tastes have decreed that the roc s should be heated in a separate area and then cleaned and put into the pit to prevent the /ood tastin! o/ smo e. 0n bush coo in!% smo e can be tolerated and also can be obviated to some de!ree by ti!htly tly sealin! the /ood parcels in their lea/ $rappin!s.

0n a permanent campin! area% $hether inland or on the beach% this method o/ coo in! has many advanta!es. 0/ a party $ants to !o e@plorin!% it can ma e its han!i or luau in the mornin!% seal it completely% completely% no$in! there is no dan!er o/ /ire escapin! and devastatin! the camp or surroundin! countryside% and come home in the a/ternoon to a pleasant meal.

0n tropical and sub-tropical tropical areas the lar!e leaves o/ the taro plant and the banana are usually used as lea/ $rappin!s /or portions o/ /ood. 6n the coast althou!h elp is e@cellent /or the steamin! o/ /ood% li!hter types o/ roc pool sea$eed% !enerally no$n by the all-embracin! embracin! name o/ sea lettuce% should be used /or $rappin!s. 0n the inland near la!oons% lotus lo leaves% traditionally used in #hina /or almost 4*** years% can be pic ed and used /or the same purpose. 0n other areas the Australian bush does not help. 6ne must turn to the supermar et and aluminium /oil% althou!h lar!e leaves o/ the ?icus species can n be used /or small parcels% i/ one can cope $ith the some$hat peculiar taste imparted by these leaves.

&a ed e!!s An e!! can be coo ed by placin! it in the hot ashes o/ the /ire. 8o$ever% the shell must /irst be pierced to allo$ the moisture to escape. 0/ this is not done the e!! $ill blo$ up much in the manner o/ a roc ta en /rom a stream bed.

#leanin! $ater )ater $hich is very muddy% dirty or sta!nant can be clari/ied and made more or less sa/e /or drin in!

by /ilterin! and boilin! $ith hot stones. A !ood /ilter can be made /rom a pair o/ trousers $ith one le! turned inside out and turned inside the other le!. The bottoms are tied and the upper or body ($aist) part held open by three sta es driven $ell into the !round. ?ill the double trouser le! $ith $ith the polluted $ater and then drop in the heated stones !ently. The $ater $ill then /ilter do$n $here it can be cau!ht in a billy or other container. 0t should then be poured bac until it is reasonably clear. 0n usin! this method% an e@perienced $al er $ill $ill add a couple o/ $ater puri/ication tablets /or !ood measure.

#amp ?urniture A com/ortable campsite need not be made out o/ aluminium. A number o/ pieces o/ camp /urniture can be constructed /rom dead$ood on the site. 0t should be remembered in this instant instant a!e that many oi/ the early <uropean outbac settlers did not re!ard these structures as ma eshi/tG they re!arded them as permanent.

Tables A camp table and seats are $orth ma in! i/ there are /ive or si@ people stayin! /or some time in a semi-permanent place. The best type o/ camp table is one $hich also carries the seats. This desi!n has no$ been carried over commercially into the barbecue or patio style o/ /urniture and the construction method is no di//erent.

?or the /rame$or select t$o /or ed sta es at least 8 cm thic and about a metre and a hal/ lon!. The len!th o/ the sta es depends on heaviness o/ the soil and ho$ /ar you $ill have to drive the sta es into the !round to ma e the structure secure. The lo$er end o/ each sta e is Dpencil sharpenedD and the top ends bevelled. The /irst sta e should be driven $ell into the soil so that the lo$est part o/ the crotch o/ the /or is about a metre above the !round. The pron! o/ the /or should be pointin! out /rom the len!th o/ the table. )hen this sta e is set measure o// the len!th you $ant your table to be 7 normally about 1 metre /or com/ort /or si@

people. Then drive in the other sta e% $ith its pron! also pointin! out$ards% to the same depth as the /irst. ;easure their relative hei!hts by eye.

Then cut /our stron!% strai!ht sta es and place these $ith one end in the crotch o/ the /or s at ri!ht an!les to the upri!hts. Drive them in securely as they $ill carry the $ei!ht o/ the table poles. (ecure to the upri!hts $ith lashin!s i/ necessary.

Then lash the table support poles (see illustration) into position.

About 5* cm above !round level t$o strai!ht poles about 1* cm thic and cut to the len!th re1uired are lashed to the central sta es and the E supports at either end o/ the table structure. structure. They must be stron!ly /i@ed because they are !oin! to support the seats.

The /rame$or is no$ /inished. #ut short% strai!ht stic s /or the top o/ the table and lace them to the tabletop poles.

The seats should no$ be assembled. 6n the cross seat poles% poles% braced to the E structure at either end o/ the basic structure% a number o/ poles o/ similar len!th should be placed. )ith bindin! at either end these poles can be used /or seats. 8o$ever cross-slat slat seat stic s can be laid on them. 0/ the seats sho$ si si!ns !ns o/ sa!!in! in the middle construct a cuto// D8D /rame structure $ith lashin!s in the middle o/ each bench.

0/ the !round is so/t or loose the table $ill re1uire bracin!. This can be done simply $ith t$o dia!onal braces /rom the table level o/ the /or ed sta es to the /oot o/ the other. )here the bracin!s cross they should be lashed. An alternative is to cut t$o more /or s about 1.5 metres lon! and brace these so that they DAamD belo$ the /or s o/ the sta es in the !round.

Their o$n butts must be /irmly y seated on the !round and held /rom slippin! by a stout pe! driven $ell into the !round.

0/ all o/ this is too e@haustin! in dry country a trench style o/ DtableD can be constructed.

Di! t$o trenches about a metre apart $ith enou!h room in their bases /or people to place their /eet. The trenches should be about :*-3* 3* cm deep to allo$ campers to place their le!s com/ortably. The /irst sods /rom the trench should be put on each side and used as seats.

?or added com/ort seat cushions can be made o/ bundles o/ !rass and dry bar and /lat pieces o/ dry bar can be laid over the table top /or a tablecloth o/ sorts. The tablecloth bar % $ith one assumes its bush spillin!s /rom various meals% can later be /ed into the camp/ire to eep do$n /lies and other /ood /ood-see in! bush animals.

#amp chairs A camp chair can be made out o/ natural materials in a very short space o/ time and $ill !ive the person sittin! in it hours o/ com/ort 7 /ar better than s1uattin! on the !round.

(elect t$o stout /or ed stic s about 1.5 metres lon!. The /or s o/ these stic s or poles must be at a $ide an!le and cut $ith the strai!hter o/ the t$o pron!s about "5 cm lon!% $ith the other pron! bein! sli!htly lon!er. #ut another stic sli!htly above 1 metre in len!th and leave the t$o pron!s o/ this su//iciently lon! to hold both pron!s o/ the stic s that have been previously cut.

Across the seat portion o/ the chair lash strai!ht stic s about 4 cm thic and continue these up the bac o/ the chair. 6n the seat portion they must be close to!ether% but on the bac o/ the chair they can be spaced /urther apart.

There may be di//iculty in /indin! t$o stic s $ith $ide-an!led pron!s% in $hich case the chair can be made by usin! t$o hoo ed sta es. The crotch o/ the hoo should be about "* cm above the end o/ the stic and the stic s themselves should be Aust over a metre lon!.

The side poles about a metre and a hal/ lon! are laid one each throu!h the hoo ed portion o/ the stic s $hich have

their upper pper ends lashed to!ether. These t$o poles are then in turn bound to one another behind the chair structure and a /or ed pole% leadin! /rom the upper end% $here the hoo ed sta es are lashed% comes bac to these side poles and is lashed a!ain. This !ives the e complete /rame$or .

(ometimes limbs o/ trees are bent in an almost natural seat position and can be utilised $ithout /urther ado.

6/ course one doesnDt have to !o to all this trouble. A /allen lo! or tree trun is e1ually !ood and a com/ortable seat can be made /rom a couple o/ lar!e rather /lat stones.

#amp bench A very com/ortable /ireside camp bench can be made by drivin! t$o short sta es into the !round so that the /or s are pointin! out$ards 7 that is% a$ay /rom the opposite sta e. The bottom o/ the /or s should be about "5 cm Aove !round level.

T$o bac ed /or sta es about a metre lon! are driven into the !round about 4*-45 4* 45 cm behind the t$o short ones. They

should be driven in at a sli!ht an!le leanin! a$ay /rom the /ront /or s. Their /or ed sections should also point out$ards.

All sta es should be about 5 cm thic to enable them to carry $ei!ht $ithout sa!!in!.

#ut t$o cross bars about 1* cm thic and /it them into place in the /or s. Then% alon! the seat% lay a number o/ strai!ht poles. These should be at least 5 cm thic and they should be close t to!ether. o!ether. They should be bound at both ends. Alon! the bac % lash similar poles.

6nce /inished this ma es a very com/ortable /ireside bench /or a permanent camp.

#amp beds There is a ma@im /or people $ho $ant to live $ith the bush that a sound ni!htDs res rest is $orth 1* minuteDs toil. These days $ith li!ht$ei!ht air beds the art o/ bush sleepin! construction has !one out o/ /ashion some$hat. &ut once a!ain there are times $hen there are no air beds 7 nothin! in /act e@cept /or the bare !round $hich is both damp d and /ull o/ stones. 0n cases li e these it is a !reat help i/ you no$ ho$ to ma e your o$n bed and then lie on it in absolute com/ort.

#ut t$o lon! poles about 15 cm thic and about 5* cm lon!er than your o$n body. Lay these t$o poles parallel to each ea other about 1 metre apart. Pe! them in to prevent them /rom rollin!. Then cut a number o/ strai!ht and stron! stic s and lay them across the poles. They should be /airly close to!ether. 6n top o/ these cross stic s lay another t$o poles. These should also be braced by the pe!s.

6n top o/ the $hole structure ma e your bed. This can be o/ dried !rass% /erns or !reen leaves 7 any $aste or !reen stu// in other $ords. ;a e sure that it is deep enou!h to absorb your body $ei!ht. This $ill ensure that you have both a sprin!y and a com/ortable bed.

Above !round camp beds 0n the /irst instance construct a /rame$or similar to the bush tarble already discussed. The /rame$or is then overlaid $ith stic s in a similar /ashion to the !round bed. ;a e the beddin! out o o/ the same available material.

Another alternative is to support the !round pole bed on pillars o/ stones.

A camp bed may also be made by usin! hessian ba!s as the beddin! (see illustration). The ba!s are simply /itted throu!h the poles be/ore they are placed laced in position. The ba!s can be le/t as they are or /illed $ith dried !rass or /erns be/ore the poles are slipped throu!h them.

(tic hammoc A plaited hammoc bed can be made by braidin! bush material into a mat and then se$in! the ends o/ this body-len!th len!th braided mat onto t$o supportin! stron! stic s at least 5 cm thic .

Palm /ronds are the best material /or this sort o/ net althou!h it can be made /rom braided hammoc !rass rope% $hich is a very laborious process.

&ush ladder A bush ladder is easily made. (elect t$o lon!% strai!ht poles cut to e1ual len!th. Lash the thin ends to!ether. (pread the butts or thic ends so that they are at least a metre apart (i/ they are any narro$er the ladder $ill be unstable). To those lash the run!s and ma e certain that the lashin!s are !ood and ti!ht. This ladder $ill be especially

use/ul in the construction o/ bush houses as it enables those thatchin! and tyin! on bracin! poles to climb $ithout puttin! strain on the house structure.

(lush lamp A lamp /or the camp p can be made by /illin! an old tin or small hollo$ piece o/ a tree branch $ith soil that has a heavy clay content. 0t should be pac ed ti!ht at the bottom and come to $ithin about 4 cm o/ the top o/ the container. 0nto this a t$i! $rapped $ith cotton ra! or encased in /inely teased out bar /ibre is inserted. This is the $ic . ?at /rom coo in! is poured on to the top o/ the earth and allo$ed to set. )hen the $ic is lit the DcandleD should burn $ith a clear /lame.

&ottle candle holder An open /lame in a tent tent is dan!erous. A candle holder or !lass cover /or a slush lamp can be made by cuttin! o// the base o/ a clear !lass bottle. This can

be done easily by heatin! a piece o/ $ire until it is red hot. This is then bent around the bottle at the point $here the t cut is re1uired. Alternatively a piece o/ !rease-soa !rease soa ed strin! can be tied around the bottle at that point and set on ?ire. )hen the $ire is in place on the bottle plun!e it into cold $ater. The !lass should brea o// evenly alon! the line o/ encirclin! $ire.

#lothes pe!s #lothes pe!s can be made 1uic ly and easily by !atherin! some hal/ !reen stic s o/ any desired len!th 7 1* cm should do7and and splittin! them a/ter bindin! one end. ?or ed stic s can also be used in this manner 7 the /or han!in! /rom the branch o/ a tree.

#amp broom A bundle o/ strai!ht !reen stic s% each not much thic er than a matchstic % is collected and bound ti!htly to a central handle. The business end o/ the broom is then trimmed o// evenly.

&ush hoe (elect a dead or hal/-dead branch nch o/ hard$ood bet$een 1* and 15 cm thic $ith a side branch lon! enou!h to provide a handle 7 any$here /rom 1 to " metres 7 comin! o// it at a /airly $ide an!le. Trim the side branch so that it is smooth. Csin! a machete or tomaha$ % trim the main branch so that it provides a hoo or hoe blade. (harpen this hoe head rou!hly to a chisel shape. This ma es 1uite an e//icient di!!in! tool% especially i/ the end is hardened in a /ire.

&ush sled An improvised sled can be use/ul in camp /or dra!!in! heavy loads 7 lar!e roc s /or the /ireplace or bush ovenA/or e@ample. Ta e a /or ed branch o/ a tree 7 one in $hich the t$o /or s e@tend up to a metre beyond the main stem. A rope is then /astened onto the stem end and cross stic s lashed to the /or s.

#amp larder A camp larder is simply a plat/orm thatched alon! its sides and at the roo/.

The obAect is to ensure that the interior is both dar and cool. The dar ness helps to eep the /lies a$ay and any lo$erin! o/ temperature helps /ood eep better.

0t can be considerably improved by placin! a tin o/ $ater on top o/ the thatch roo/. A /e$ pieces o/ ra! are inserted in the tin /ull o/ $ater and allo$ed to /all on the roo/ sur/ace. The $ater $ill then slo$ly drip alon! the roo/line and do$n the sides o/ the larder. 0t also helps i/ the larder is positioned so that it catches a re!ular bree=e.

6ther methods o/ storin! /ood in camp to eep it a$ay /rom animals include placin! it in a hollo$ lo! $ed!ed in the crotch o/ a tree% suspendin! it /rom a bou!h or ma in! a plat/orm and han!in! this /rom a branch in a shady position.

0/ ants are a pest% a suspended plat/orm is about the best $ay to eep them a$ay /rom the /ood. 0/ they do /ind the cord they can be prevented /rom travellin! alon! it by tyin! a erosene-soa ed ra! around it. Another method is to

brea a bottle o// above its nec % passin! the cord throu!h its cor and then% a/ter pac in! clay around the rope inside the bottle% /illin! it $ith $ater. )ater% o/ course% $ill soa do$n the rope so the bottle $ill need /illin! /il /rom time to time.

#lothes han!er Csually in camp oneDs travellin! clothes become crushed and soiled. This can easily be prevented by ma in! a simple coat and trousers han!er. 0/ you ta e o// your travellin! clothes immediately on arrival in camp and put them on such a han!er they $ill remain /resh and uncreased.

The s$a! and other improvised !ear The s$a! is the proverbial means o/ carryin! a load and it is one o/ the best methods in e@istence. 0t has the advanta!e o/ bein! e@tremely $ell balanced% t$o-thirds thirds o/ the $ei!ht bein! carried behind the body and about one-third one in /ront.

The result o/ this balance is that the carrier $al s completely upri!ht. #lothes% tent% beddin! and the !ear not $anted /or the dayDs $al are carried in the s$a! at the bac bac % $hile the /ood and coo in! utensils and the dayDs needs are in the DdillyD ba! in /ront.

&ecause o/ this the s$a! is not opened durin! the day but the dilly ba! attached to the /ront is immediately accessible.

The only materials necessary to ma e a s$ s$a! a! are a strap% t$o bindin! straps and the dilly ba!. The s$a! strap% pre/erably o/ so/t leather or li!ht $ebbin!% should be about 1 metre lon! and about 5 cm or more $ide. The t$o bindin! strips

can be o/ any material such as plaited cord or rope. Traditionally the dilly ba! $as an old su!ar or /lour sac % but a nylon $eatherproo/ ba! that allo$s some breathin! (because it is also used to contain the dayDs rations) can be o/ any convenient shape and si=e.

8al/ the nac o/ carryin! a s$a! consists in no$in! ho$

to s$in! it. Lay the roll% $ith the dilly ba! e@tended% in /ront o/ you. Put the arm /arthest a$ay /rom the dilly ba! throu!h the s$a! strap. 8eave the roll to$ards your bac and s$in! the body to$ards the s$a!% so that the dilly ba! /lies up and out.

Duc the opposite shoulder and catch the dilly ba! on it. The strap $ill then lie over one shoulder and the dilly ba! over the other $ith the s$a! roll carried at an an!le across the bac .

An alternative method o/ carryin! the s$a! is to use t$o straps% one about 1 metre lon! and the other about " metres. &oth straps should be about 4 cm $ide and made o/ stron! material% althou!h it should be so/t. The roll is made /or the s$a! and the lon! strap tied securely about 15 cm /rom one end o/ the roll. ?i/teen cm /rom the other end o/ the roll the other strap is /astened% $ith the dilly ba! held in position by this bindin!.

The s$a! is li/ted to the le/t shoulder $ith the dilly ba! in /ront and the roll at the bac % the nec o/ the dilly ba! han!in! over the le/t shoulder. The lon! strap is passed on top o/ the ri!ht shoulder and then under the armpit and around the bac . Then it is tied to a loop at the bottom corner o/ the dilly ba!. This type o/ s$a! prevents the dilly ba! /rom s$ayin!.

To pac and roll the s$a! itsel/% lay your !roundsheet or s$a! cover (traditionally a blan et) on the !round and then /old your other blan ets to a $idth o/ about 8* cm. Lay spare clothes len!th$ays on top $ith your other !ear. ?old in the sides o/ the !roundsheet and roll the $hole /rom the blan et end to the /ree side so that it is ti!ht.

0/ a tent is bein! carried% this Dinner s$a!D is then rolled in it. The t$o bindin! cords are passed throu!h the s$a! strap to stop slippin!. The dilly ba! is then attached to one o/ the bindin! straps at its Aunction $ith the s$a! strap.

The Adirondac pac This D$oodsD pac % ori!inally made by American /ur trappers% is an improvised method o/ carryin! heavy loads.

(elect t$o li!ht% $idely splayed hoo s% $ith the carryin! arms about :* :* cm lon!. The shan portion should be about 1 metre in len!th. 0t is better to use dead $ood $hich is $ell seasoned because it is li!hter. A number o/ short% strai!ht stic s are lashed to the inside ed!e o/ the shan s above the arms and t$o straps are $ov $oven or plaited. These are tied to the lo$er end o/ the shan and a!ain about 5* cm hi!her up. )here the straps are placed at the upper end the distance bet$een the t$o shan s should be about 4*-4* 4* cm.

The load is then tied to this Dopen bas etD. Traditional Traditionally ly a tump line or headband $as also $oven and attached to this sort o/ pac % as $ell as the supportin! shoulder straps to steady the load.

Pannier pac This carryin! bas et is o/ American 0ndian desi!n. The bas et itsel/ can be $oven /rom canes% rushes or any pliable material. T$o $oven straps are attached. The 0ndians% li e the trappers% used a headband or tump line to steady the pac bas et. 0t $as $idely used% because o/ its relatively small si=e and compactness% /or sto$in! !ear in canoes and very little /or overland Aourneys. A canvas imitation o/ this pac bas et% no$n as a Duluth pac (complete $ith tump line)% is no$ used by American canoeists.

,iver crossin!s There are many $ays o/ crossin! a river $ithout the aid o/ a bush suspension brid!e or a r rope line.

As lon! as the river is slo$ movin! and a crossin! point /ree o/ dan!erous sna!s can be /ound it is 1uite easy to s$im over and eep oneDs !ear dry at the same time.

The pac can be $rapped in a !roundsheet $hich has its corners and loose /olds tied to!ether. 0/ it is a /ramed pac it may be necessary to remove it /rom this /rame. This $ill usually support the s$immer% $ho can hold onto it and ic his $ay across the stream.

The $aterproo/ !roundsheet should be tied e@tremely ti!htly at the top to retain air. 0t is al$ays advisable to test the buoyancy o/ the pac be/ore plun!in! ahead. (ome heavy pac s $ill simply sin to the bottom.

Do not attempt to s$im across a river $hile $earin! boots. These should be placed $ith the pac in the !roundshee !roundsheet.

A method o/ improvised $ater travel /or poor s$immers or non-s$immers non s$immers is to use t$o plastic ba!s $hich can be in/lated and used much in the manner o/ $ater $in!s. These $ill support the poor s$immer and he or she can be escorted by other members o/ the party $ho are not encumbered by pac s or other ba!!a!e.

A pair o/ lon! pants can also be used to support a non-s$immer. non s$immer. The trousers are $etted and the bottoms tied in a not. The trousers are then plun!ed into the $ater by the $aist so that air is trapped in the tied le!s. The crutch is put across the chest and the t$o le!s under the arms. 6nce a!ain% the hi er is escorted across the river by t$o stron! s$immers.

,a/ts ,a/ts can be made in many di//erent $ays. 6ne o/ the simplest is to !ather bundles o/ hi!hly buoyant material such as bundles o/ stic s% dried reeds or brush% and roll them in a number o/ !roundsheets $hich must be sealed at both ends (much li e sealin! a bro$n paper parcel).

Three or /our !roundsheets are then Aoined to!ether $ith rope or t$ine and stabilised by t$o or more poles bein! lashed to their top.

These ra/ts% $hich $ill not support too much $ei!ht $ithout submer!in!% can be used to /erry !ear across a stream. Three o/ them $ill normally support one person at a time.

0t !oes almost t $ithout sayin! that in/latable mattresses serve the same purpose as ra/ts. ;any bush $al ers no$ pac these as a matter o/ course.

A stron!er ra/t can be built up /rom dry dri/t$ood. The poles are secured by lashin! and /urther stabilised by cross beams% $hich are also lashed to the supportin! lo!s.

0n usin! the ra/t a /e$ basic rules must be observed. )hen travellin! upstream% i/ the current is stron!% the ra/t must be

to$ed /rom the ban by means o/ a lon! rope. )hen travellin! do$nstream% a D ellic D% made either /rom a lo! o/ hard$ood or a heavy stone% is dra!!ed astern in rapids.

A s$eep or lon! paddle ahead enables the ra/t to be steered. The $ater s$eepin! past the structure travels /aster than the ra/t and this provides Dsteera!e$ayD in reverse.

&ar canoe )here timber is plenti/ul and the destruction o/ a lar!e% !reen tree is permissible a bar canoe can be made.

The bar o/ the chosen tree must not be brittle% but should be reasonably pliable. 0t should also be /ibrous and easily stripped /rom the tree. The barrel or trun o/ the tree itsel/ must be strai!ht and /ree /rom branches and notholes.

The bar is cut around the lo$er portion o/ the tree. Then a ladder is made and it is rin!ed a!ain 5 metres or more above this /irst cut. A series o/ =i!=a! cuts are then made do$n the len!th o/ one side o/ this bar circle.

The entire sheet o/ bar is then li/ted /rom the tree by the use o/ t$o lon! poles% $hich have a chisel shape at one end. These are inserted into the vertical cut and $or ed up and do$n under it. 0t $ill !radually spread out /rom the tree% comin! o// in one sheet. This is a painsta in! operation and it must be conducted $ith some care.

Lay the bar on the !round in the /orm o/ a tunnel. A small /ire o/ leaves is lit alon! the len!th o/ the cylinder. The heat $ill drive the sap% in the /orm o/ steam% throu!h the dry outer bar % ma in! the $hole sheet pliable.

The $hole sheet should then be turned inside out. Do not attempt to do this i/ there is any si!n o/ resistance or splittin!. 0nstead the rou!h outer bar becomes the $ater side o/ the canoe.

The t$o ends are dra$n to!ether as closely as possible. A series o/ holes are then cut spaced bet$een 15 cm and 4* cm /rom the ends $ith a sharp ni/e. They should be in a =i!=a! pattern. 9ine or very tou!h bar strips or other stron! material is laced throu!h the holes. The lacin! is then pulled ti!ht to dra$ the ends to!ether.

6n the inside these ends are pac ed ti!ht $ith clay to ma e them as $aterti!ht as possible. (o/tened eucalypt !um bleeds 7 i/ there is enou!h o/ it about 7 can also be used as a primary caul in! be/ore the clay is applied. This $ill ma e the canoe much more $aterti!ht. 0n /act any tree resin can be used% but collectin! it is a laborious process.

(preaders are re1uired across the centre o/ the canoe to prevent the sides /rom collapsin! in$ards. To /it these% t$o pieces o/ split timber about :* cm lon! and about 1* cm thic are cut. 8oles are made in the bar near the canoeDs centre o/ !ravity. The spreaders are then lashed to the sides $ith vine or other material.

The spreaders are nic ed in the centre. A spreader stic 7 simply a strai!ht and suitable piece o/ $ood 7 is braced in these !rooves.

Paddles can be shaped out o/ any convenient dead timber $hich can be carved into the usual shape.

This type o/ bar canoe must be ept in the $ater at all times. 0/ it is ta en out and then dries out on a ban it $ill usually split. These canoes have relatively short lives and they must be handled delicately.

A /e$ health tips Proper care o/ the /eet is paramount in bush$al in!. 0t ta es almost no time /or a small blister to turn into an u!ly% bleedin! $ound% ma in! pro!ress almost impossible

0/ your /eet sho$ si!ns o/ becomin! tender they can be hardened by rubbin! them $ith methylated spirits. 0n an emer!ency urine also helps.

(tic in! plaster o//ers immediate protection and should be applied as soon as a ra$ spot is noticed% even i/ a blister has not /ormed. The best treatment /or a blister $hen it has /ormed is to thread a piece o/ cotton throu!h the blister. #ut o// the thread on either side o/ the blister. This $ill allo$ the /luid to drain a$ay but prevent air (and thus in/ection) /rom enterin!. #over the blister $ith stic in! plaster.

0n!ro$in! toenails are another cause o/ /oot trouble. 0mmediate relie/ can be obtained by scrapin! the top o/ the toenail% either $ith a ni/e or a /ile% or even a piece o/ bro en !lass. The top o/ the nail should be scraped until it is su//iciently thin to be easily depressed $ith the tip o/ oneDs /in!er.

#orns% o/ course% can be pared do$n but a reputable corn plaster is best. Avoid $earin! ti!ht-/ittin! boots.

0n roc y country t$isted an les are a common ailment.

0/ the an le has not been too severely t$isted the best thin! is to eep on the move% !radually lettin! the an le !et bac into $or in! order. Eou $ill be able to eep !oin! as lon! as the an le is $arm. This at least $ill enable you to ma e camp /or the ni!ht. Eou $ill /ind that once you stop and you cool do$n% the an le $ill sti//en. )al in! may be di//icult or impossible the ne@t day. 0n this case rest is the only cure. )ith a sli!ht sprain you should be able to continue a/ter a dayDs rest% albeit slo$ly.

0/ the t$ist is severe stop immediately. The an le should then he bathed alternately in very hot $ater and then very

cold $ater. This should brin! some relie/. A very ti!ht banda!e should be applied and the $hole /oot ept $arm. 6nce a!ain% a/ter a dayDs rest (assumin! this is a $al o/ some duration) you should be able to travel slo$ly.

)hen $al in! alon! river courses do not remove your boots. ;ost river beds are stony and /re1uently slippery $ith al!ae and other slimy !ro$th. The $ater-rounded stones can also bruise the soles o/ your /eet% ma in! pro!ress pain/ul /or the rest o/ the Aourney.

)ater $ill not dama!e your boots% but dryin! them out by a hot /ire $ill. 0/ you $ant to drain them% drive t$o sta es into the !round and Dhan!D the boots on these improvised trees. The boots $ill be damp the ne@t day but they $ill be supple. A hot /ire causes boots to shrin and crac out o/ shape. 0t also drives out the natural oils in the leather.

0/ your boots become too severely dama!ed to use% you can $al bare/oot on !rass or sandy earth . &ut stony sur/aces $ill spon cut your /eet et to pieces. 0mprovised mocassins can be made by strappin! thic pieces o/ /ibrous bar to the soles o/ your /eet.

The important thin! is to thorou!hly test a ne$ pair o/ boots on short trips be/ore underta in! a lon! tramp. ;ore . hi ers have been crippled ed by ne$ boots than by sprains. There is a tendency also /or the novice $al er to select an e@tremely heavy pair o/ bush boots. 0n most cases this is simply not necessary. Li!ht$ei!ht boots are per/ectly suitable /or all but the most ru!!ed country.

&ush remedy /or stomach and bo$el upsets A very simple remedy /or many abdominal and bo$el upsets is to che$ and s$allo$ a piece o/ charcoal every t$o or three hours. A lump about the si=e o/ a 1* cent coin should !ive some relie/ i/ it is a !astric upset. 'ot so many years a!o charcoal biscuits $ere one o/ the standard prescribed remedies /or bo$el troubles.

A /re1uent cause o/ stomach ache and loose bo$els is the drin in! o/ cold $ater or other /luid $hen the $al er is very hot and tired. 0t is a !ood precaution under these circumstances to drin slo$ly and drin only tepid $ater.

#are o/ the eyes 'ature has provided your eyes $ith a most e//ective !erm iller 7 your tears. A tear $ill ill most bacteria and also acts as an eye$ash.

Despite this natural protection your eyes may su//er /rom !lare or be irritated by dust or sand. To brea the !lare tie a strip o/ dar material or bar across your /ace Aust belo$ your eyes. This $ill brea the !lare /rom the !round and !ive at least some relie/.

Dust can be simply removed by /re1uently dousin! the a//ected eye $ith lu e$arm $ater.

#leanliness and /ood #leanliness o/ eatin! utensils is very important. These should be $ashed immediately a/ter a meal and le/t e@posed in the sunli!ht /or as lon! as possible.

0/ there is any doubt about your /resh meat bein! sa/e to eat% assume it has !one bad rather than ta e the chance. The sa/est $ay to carry meat is to partially coo it be/ore ta in! it on your Aourney. #oo in! $ill destroy the bacteria that cause

decay /or a short time. 0tems such as sausa!es are best coo ed /ully be/ore you leave home% carried in their coo in! /at% and then reheated.

&utter can be carried in the hottest $eather i/ pac ed in a container in the middle o/ a ba! o/ /lour. This acts as an insulator.

#amp toilets and hy!iene 0/ you are camped a$ay /rom civilisation and unless your party is e@tremely lar!e% there should be no need to $orry about an Do//icialD camp toilet or latrine. A hole in the !round is as !ood a place as any and as lon! as human $aste is buried immediately it $ill not attract /lies. 0t $ill also brea do$n reasonably 1uic ly.

?or lon!er stays in a bush environment it mi!ht be necessary to desi!nate an o//icial toilet area. 0n this case a pit about a metre or sli!htly more deep $ith a lo! surround mi!ht be /elt necessary. The soil /rom this pit should be piled on the side

and a/ter every use some o/ it% plus a little bush litter (lea/ mould and other material) should be placed in it. 0t should also be covered $ith sheets o/ bar or brush branches% once a!ain to eep out /lies.

0/ travellin! in a vehicle $here such thin!s are easier to carry% there are certain chemical compounds sold in po$der /orm $hich are claimed to eep such a pit Ds$eetD. 8o$ever% a small sac o/ !arden lime $ill do Aust as $ell and it costs ne@t to nothin!. 'either the po$der nor the lime is essential as lon! as the rules o/ eepin! the pit covered and smotherin! $aste matter $ith bush mould and dry leaves is adhered to.

The pit should not be sited near a $atercourse% drin in! hole or sprin!. 6ne no$s that animals pollute in an absentminded $ay. There is no need /or campers to add to this $ater pollution problem.

&ush$al in! $ith a vehicle &ush$al in! $ith a vehicle% $hether it is conventional or a /our-$heel drive% is no$ probably the $ay that most people !et at least a taste o/ the bush. 0t is% o/ course% bush$al in! in more than modest lu@ury.

<lse$here in the boo re/erence has been made to a number o/ small lu@uries that can be ta en on any campin! trip by the party that does not have to carry everythin! on its bac . Apart /rom other thin!s they include lar!e portable !as or /uel stoves% $hich obviate the necessity o/ !atherin! /ire$ood at any meal stop% air beds% lar!e tents% a variety o/ coo in! e1uipment% includin! re/lector ovens% re/ri!erators and coolbo@es% chairs and tables and in /act almost anythin! that one $ould care to name.

0n decidin! $hat to ta e the !eneral load should be ta en into consideration% especially $here /uel consumption is concerned. The vehicle bush$al er can% in /act% travel as sparsely as the person on /oot and su//er no real discom/ort. Thus% be/ore pac in! the itchen sin % thin $hether it is absolutely necessary.

This can be 1uite crucial $hen travellin! in sparsely populated areas o/ the DrealD outbac $here /uel stops are /e$ and /ar bet$een and $here e@tra petrol and $ater has to be carried in Aerricans as a matter o/ course. The s$a!man tradition has lon! since died in the interior. And even then the s$a!man $as easier to cope $ith. All he $anted $as some tea% su!ar and .a bit o/ meat. The s1uatter could al$ays let the s$a!!ie !o out and ill an old e$e. The problem is some$hat more di//icult to solve $hen that same s1uatterDs !randson is con/ronted $ith a travellin! party that is out o/ petrol. 8is o$n store may be lo$ and it is impossible to !ive the traveller a illin! ni/e and tell him to /ind a petrol e$e in the bac hundred (or ten thousand% as the case may be).

?or any e@tended vehicle travel in the bush% much as the $al er should ensure that his boots are not /allin! apart% so the driver should ma e sure that his vehicle is sound.

Apart /rom the spare parts and a repair it% it should also have a /ire e@tin!uisher% Aerricans /or $ater and e@tra /uel% a hi!h li/t Aac % a steel to$ rope% Aumper leads% an DinstantD $rap-around plastic $indshield% a spade or entrenchin! tool and an a@e or machete /or !ood measure.

Then comes the normal campin! !ear as $ell.

T$o items that can be /itted to the vehicle are very much a matter o/ personal choice. They are a mesh $indscreen protector% $hich is use/ul i/ drivin! almost constantly over unsealed roads% and Droo bars. The Droo bars are not really necessary /or most drivin! situations and they send the petrol consumption up because o/ their $ei!ht% but they seem to !ive some drivers a /eelin! o/ security. 0/ that sense o/ security out$ei!hs the $orry about petrol consumption% by all means /it them. 0t should be remembered that most o/ the lar!er an!aroos and $allabies are encountered only at da$n and dus . &y not drivin! at these times o/ day you can dispense $ith the bars.

0/ /ittin! a roo/ rac % do not load all the heavy e1uipment on it. This $ill thro$ the vehicleDs centre o/ !ravity out o/ balance. ?uel and $ater containers are best ept lo$ do$n $ith the li!hter !oods on top.

Despite the /act that they are not $al in!% car travellers $ill also /ind it convenient to sto$ their !ear in pac s. Pac s are /ar easier to manhandle around a campsite than du//el ba!s or suitcases and are built to ta e hard noc s and !eneral bush rou!hness. Any$ay a couple o/ small ones are essential to carry lunches and other !ear on the inevitable hal/-day ramble $ithout the car.

0n coastal and semi-inland areas the driver $ill not encounter any ha=ards not /ound under normal DhomeD conditions% but once /urther inland matters can chan!e.

6ne o/ the ha=ards /re1uently encountered% especially in dry years% is that o/ travellin! stoc . Althou!h on main roads drovers are re1uired by la$ in some (tates to indicate they have animals alon! the road (much in the same manner as the D)or ers aheadD si!ns)% either they donDt bother or% i/ they do% they simply put up ma eshi/t si!ns and abandon them. Thus the si!n% $ritten in spray paint% statin! DTravellin! stoc aheadD can mean anythin! or nothin!. 0t is al$ays best to be cautious and assume that there are animals 7 and a lar!e number o/ them7in /ront o/ you rather than decide that the notice is lon! /or!otten.

The best thin! to do is to slo$ do$n. 0/ the /loc or herd is comin! to$ards you the animals $ill normally part and you can proceed in lo$ !ear. Do not sound your horn as this $ill usually create complete pandemonium. 0/ the animals are travellin! in the same direction as you are% pro!ress $ill be slo$er because they they simply $ill not part. 0t may ta e hal/ an hour or more to !et throu!h a lar!e mob that is !oin! your $ay.

0n the outbac % stray cattle are one o/ the !reatest ha=ards. They are lar!e% slo$ movin! and very di//icult to see in the dar . ?or this reason alone% ni!ht drivin! in the outbac should be avoided $herever possible.

0n the bird $orld ma!pies and !alahs $ill !ive you the !reatest trouble. ;ost other Australian birds% i/ /eedin! on the road% $ill veer a$ay /rom an oncomin! vehicle. ?or some un no$n reason ma!pies and !alahs do not% o/ten crashin! into your $indscreen. 0n this case use the horn. This usually !ets rid o/ them.

This /act about both birds has been con/irmed by '() Par s and )ildli/e o//icers $ho have stated that neither species ever has seemed to have developed any road sense.

#ree crossin!s also need caution. 0t is al$ays $ise to stop and inspect the depth o/ $ater at a crossin! 7 even i/ it has a built-in cement dip. 0/ in any doubt $al it /irst. 0t is e@tremely hard to Aud!e the depth o/ $ater simply by loo in! at it and it is better to be sure than stuc .

0/ the crossin! appears to be sa/e use lo$ !ear and eep the motor runnin!. And li e the bush$al er on /oot% donDt hesitate or panic hal/$ay across. >eep !oin!. 6n lon! crossin!s it may be $ise to disconnect the /an belt to prevent dama!e to electrical e1uipment.

;ost non-sealed roads in the inland 1uic ly turn into 1ua!mires a/ter heavy rain. This can occur a/ter as little as "5mm in hal/ a day. The only thin! to do is to stop and $ait /or the country to dry out. 0/ the rain is particularly badG attempt to ma e /or risin! !round to at least !ive yourselves a hal/-com/ortable campsite /or the ni!ht. 0/ you have spare /ood and $ater and a portable stove you $ill come to little

harm. 0/ this D/lat /loodin!D% as it can be called% is bad you may have a lot o/ native han!ers on /or the ni!ht% includin! li=ards and sna es and probably the odd co$ or t$o. Try to treat them all $ith consideration. They donDt li e it much either.

At the opposite e@treme is the dust storm. These can be e@pected in drou!ht years but can also be 1uite localised in even !ood years (a/ter heavy broadacre plou!hin!% /or instance). (top the vehicle and sit it out. 9isibility can be poor to hopeless. &esides $hich there can be lar!e dri/ts across the road$ay $hich ma e drivin! impossible.

,i!ht in the interior a speciality no$n as bulldust $ill become no$n to you. This is as /ine as any /ace po$der. 'ot only does it blind you as it rises and seeps throu!h the vehicle% but li e sand it can completely obscure any potholes in the road sur/ace. 0t should be tac led very slo$ly and cautiously. This $ay i/ you hit a deep pothole you are unli ely to dama!e your car.

To end on a $et note% bo!!y roads also re1uire caution and lo$ speeds. 0/ your vehicle does !et stuc the only $ay

to !et it movin! a!ain is to di! it out. 0/ necessary Aac up each drive $heel one at a time% and place a bed o/ any dry scrub material underneath it. Try to ma e a road out o/ brush in /act% a/ter th the e $heels have been Dbrushed upD. 0/ no brush is available use branches or stones. ;ove the car very slo$ly in lo$ !ear $ith everyone else lendin! a helpin! hand on the outside.

This method is no di//erent to that used by coach drivers to !et their carria!es carria!es over blac soil plains 7 in other $ords% everyone out and push. 0nstead o/ horses strainin!% you have your en!ine. 0t doesnDt al$ays $or % one should add. 0n /act the best advice is not to enter bo!!y territory at all.

,oad trains are another ha=ard. They can be up to 5* metres lon! so do not be in a hurry to overta e them. They are capable o/ travellin! at a !ood speed and it is o/ten sa/er to /ollo$ them% eepin! $ell behind to avoid the dust and turbulence. )hen one is approachin!% it is customary /or a smaller vehicle to pull over to !ive the road train /ull use o/ the bitumen or the /ormed trac .

#amp (un #loc (elect a patch o/ bare earth near the camp. 0t must be level and open to the sun all day. (tic a pe! in the centre o/ this patch and% $ith a len!th o/ cord as a loop around the pe!% scratch a circle on the !round.

This must be at least 1.5 metres across. ?rom the pe!% $hich is no$ the centre o/ the circle% care/ully dra$ a line true north. This must be accurately true north and not ma!netic north. north. <@tend this line to cut the southern side o/ the circle% and then dra$ in accurate east-$est $est lines crossin! at the circleDs centre.

Divide the circum/erence o/ the circle into "4 e1ual divisions. <ach o/ these divisions $ill be 15M.

'o$ have a loo at your map and /ind out $hat de!ree o/ latitude you are in. ;easure this de!ree on the outside circle $or in! /rom $here it is cuttin! the east-$est $est line. Put a pe! on each side o/ the circleDs ed!e to mar the latitude de!rees.

&e care/ul to note $hether your latitude is north or south o/ the e1uator. (tretch the cord over the t$o pe!s and mar $here it crosses the north-south line. 'o$ put a pe! on the north-south line $here the cord crosses it. 'e@t put t$o other pe!s at either end o/ the east-$est line so that the Dde!reeD pe!s on the circle are at ri!ht an!les. Tie a cord to each o/ these pe!s and have the cord pass round the pe! on the north-south line. Li/t the cord over the centre pe! and $ith the point o/ a ni/e scratch an ellipse on the !round so that it touches the circle $here the east-$est line crosses and also touches the point on the north-south line $here the pe! is.

#onnect up the 15 de!ree mar s on the circle by means o/ the cord.

)here the cord crosses the ellipse put a small pe! very /irmly into the !round.

There $ill be 14 o/ these pe!s and they $ill /ollo$ the curve o/ the ellipse. These are the hour pe!s% startin! /rom : a.n< on the le/t% $here the $est line cuts the circle% 1" noon on the north-south line and : p.m. on the ri!ht $here the east line cuts the circle.

Eou then determine $here to place the shado$ stic . This depends on the sunDs position north or south o/ the e1uator.

Dra$ another circle inside the bi! circle usin! the same centre. The radius o/ this circle must be e1ual to "4 9" de!rees o/ the bi! one. #ut this inner circle into 1" e1ual divisions and mar Bune at the north side and /ollo$ on $ith Buly% Au!ust and so on cloc $ise. Then divide Bune into /our e1ual divisions and do the same $ith December at the south

end. 6//set all divisions one /ourth in a cloc $ise direction. The north-south line $ill no$ pass throu!h the third division o/ Bune and December. Put pe!s in /or each o/ the 1" monthDs divisions.

To /ind the sunDs position at any time o/ the year dra$ a line /rom the month% and appro@imate day thereo/% to the

This layout% $hen used $ith the sun cloc % can be accurate to $ithin t$o minutes.

north-south line. This must parallel the east-$est line. )here this line cuts the north-south line is $here you place your shado$ stic .

To !et absolutely reliable time /rom the sun% t$o corrections /or lon!itude and /or the De1uation o/ timeD are re1uired (see pa!e 4*").

The Dshado$D readin! $ith these corrections $ill be ri!ht to t$o minutes i/ your north-south line has been accurate.

0/ $est o/ the meridian o/ standard time add /our minutes to sun cloc time /or each de!ree. 0/ east o/ the meridian deduct /our minutes /or each de!ree.

Dra$ a /i!ure 8 near the sun cloc on the !round $ith the top hal/ o/ the D8D Aust less than one third o/ the si=e o/ the bottom hal/. Dra$ a line across the middle o/ the bottom hal/ o/ the D8D and cut it into three e1ual divisions on each side o/ a centre line.

<ach o/ these divisions represents /ive minutes o/ time.

'o$ mar o// the /i!ure D8D into appro@imate divisions (see illustration). Put pe!s in the !round to mar these divisions and also the /ive-minute divisions on the cross line.

Put a minus si!n on the ri!ht hand corner and a plus si!n on the le/t.

;inus means that the sun time is behind cloc time. There/ore you must add. Plus means that the sun time is ahead o/ cloc time.

5 ?ood and )ater

Althou!h it is assumed that every bush traveller $ill carry his or her /ood into the $ilderness areas and $ill ensure that the supply is ade1uate% identi/yin! plants that are edible is interestin! as $ell as bein! an on-the-!round lesson in botany.

The Abori!ines made use o/ thousands o/ $ild plants both /or /ood and /or medicine. These have been mostly /or!otten as the $hite settlers pre/erred to brin! their no$n /ood plants /rom the 6ld )orld $ith them. <@cept in an emer!ency none o/ the native plant sources should be relied on to supplement the diet.

8o$ever the sea and the surroundin! shore still o//ers a $ealth o/ edible material /or the coastal $al er and traveller. 0/ one $ere attemptin! a Dlivin! o// the landD e@periment this $ould be the area o/ Australia to pic . Thin!s $ould still be di//icult but one $ould be hardly li ely to starve.

This chapter also indicates $here it is possible to /ind $ater in emer!encies. &ut the traveller% as has been stressed earlier% should ma e sure that the partyDs supplies are ade1uate be/ore enterin! un no$n country.

Anyone plannin! a $al in! holiday in the bush should care/ully plan out the daily /ood re1uirements and include somethin! e@tra /or emer!encies. )ith the $ide and increasin! ran!e o/ /ree=e dried and naturally dried /oodstu//s no$ available there is no e@cuse /or scanty provisionin!.

The $al er should under no circumstances e@pect to live o// the land. The tribal Abori!ines had this s ill but even the early <uropean e@plorers had little or no ability% once the lushness o/ the seaboard areas o/ the continent $ere le/t behind% to survive $ith any de!ree o/ certainty .

Added to this% outside o/ certain introduced animals classi/ied as vermin% such as the rabbit and the /eral pi!% almost all native species are completely protected. And in national par s and $ildli/e reserves the /lora is totally protected as $ell.

8o$ever% in emer!encies% it may be necessary to stretch out oneDs hi in! rations or live o// the land to some de!ree. 0n this re!ard some no$led!e o/ the edible properties o/ various plants and animals is use/ul.

Althou!h the seashores o/ the continent provide the richest !atherin! !rounds /or the hi er $antin! to supplement his or her diet% inland $aters can also be e@tremely productive. (o no matter $here you $al al$ays pac a /ishin! line and a /e$ hoo s and lures. They $ei!h ne@t to nothin! and you mi!ht Aust be !rate/ul that you too the trouble to thro$ them into your pac at the last minute.

As most people no$% not everythin! on the /ace o/ the earth $as put there /or human consumption. ;any plants are hi!hly poisonous% others can be eaten only a/ter e@tensive treatment (the most usual bein! the action o/ $ater leachin! out al aloids).

The /lesh o/ some /ish is also to@ic. 6nce a!ain% as a !eneral rule the /lesh o/ all land animals% on the other hand% is edible. 0t may not be palatable or even pleasant but it $ill sustain li/e.

All $ild land animals on the other hand can be in/ested $ith parasites either as $orms or e!!s. ;ature /eral pi!s are invariably very badly $orm-ridden. ridden. Thus all meat should be e@tremely $ell coo ed to avoid in/estation. The 1uic est $ay to achieve this is to cut all ll $ild meat in e@tremely thin strips% and coo it at as hi!h a temperature as is possible. The parasites $ill not survive this treatment.

;ethods o/ /ood preservation All methods o/ preservin! /ood are aimed at preventin! it

/rom bein! destroyed by bacterial action 7 ie.% rottin!. T$o a!e-old old methods are sun and $ind dryin! and saltin! or pic lin!. Cnless one is travellin! by vehicle $here e@tra salt can be carried $ithout any inconvenience% this method cannot be used by the bush$al er.

And unless the party y is on a sno$ e@pedition the no$ standard household method o/ /ree=in! is o/ no value% althou!h 1uite obviously it can be made use o/ under these circumstances.

Thus the best $ays o/ eepin! $ild animal /ood /resh under bush conditions are sun dryin! or smo s in!% or a combination o/ both methods.

(un dryin! or smo in! The meat to be smo ed or sun dried must be /reshly illed. #ut o// the /atty portions and use them immediately 7 the meat to be treated should be as lean as possible.

Then slice it into strips ps no thic er than 1 cm and about 4 cm or less $ide. The strips are threaded on to a $ire or cane. They must not touch one another. The air must be able to circulate /reely bet$een the strips.

8an! the canes or $ires holdin! the meat strips above the thin blue smo e o/ a $ood /ire until the outer sur/ace is 1uite dry. Dependin! on the air temperature this may ta e /rom

one hour to a day. Do not han! the meat too close to the sur/ace o/ the /ire or any$here close to the actual /lames% other$ise it $ill scorch rch and coo . 0/ coo ed it $ill not eep.

0/ the meat is to be sun dried the only reason /or this initial smo in! is to protect the /resh cut moist sur/ace /rom /lies. &lo$/lies $ill not lay their e!!s on a dry sur/ace.

The /ire should !ive o// Aust enou!h smo e to eep these /lies a$ay. Do not pile on !reen leaves or other $et material on the assumption that the more smo e there is the better the meat $ill cure. ;oisture and oils /rom $et material $ill condense on the sur/ace o/ the strips renderin! the meat inedible.

A/ter removin! the meat strips /rom the smo e% rememberin! that the sur/ace must /eel 1uite dry to the touch% han! the $ire or stic up in an airy sunny position. Cnder normal conditions it should be 1uite dry and hard a/ter this treatment.

)hen carryin! dried meat pac it in an open mesh ba!.

Do not pac it in plastic $rappin! o/ any ind. 0/ it is completely enclosed it $ill s$eat and !o mouldy.

(un dried meat% i/ properly prepared% $ill eep inde/initely% retainin! all its /ood value. 0t can be eaten as it is7ie. ra$ 7 or coo ed in ste$s. 0/ it is to be coo ed it should be soa ed /or about an hour be/orehand.

Thin /illets o/ /ish can be dried in the same manner as meat. )ith /ish it is essential that the dryin! process be /ast. 0/ the day is cool smo e the /illets thorou!hly over a /ire.

0/ the /lesh is /la y and the /ish $ill not /illet $ithout brea in! up% heat smooth /lat stones until they are 1uite $arm but not hot to the touch.

Lay the pieces o/ /ish on these stones and place in the sun to complete the dryin! process.

Preservin! in /at 0/ the $eather is reasonably cool meat can be preserved /or a /e$ days by sealin! it in its o$n rendered /at. The meat should not be hard /ried% rather it should be !ently simmered in the /at until it is thorou!hly coo ed. 0t is then li/ted out o/ the /at and pac ed into a billy or other container that $ill hold it. Pour the /at over the pieces o/ meat and allo$ it to set hard.

)hen coverin! the meat $ith its o$n /at care must be ta en that no !ravy /rom the coo in! be introduced into the stora!e container as this $ill !o rancid 1uite 1uic ly. &e/ore pac in! the meat test to see that it is thorou!hly coo ed by pric in! it $ith a ni/e. 0/ it sho$s red it cannot be preserved and the coo in! process must be continued until no blood sho$s on testin!.

This method $ill $or only i/ the /at sets completely solid. 0/ the temperature rises suddenly and the sealin! /at becomes li1uid the meat preserved in this manner must be used immediately.

&rinin! As stated earlier brinin! or pic lin! is not much use to the bush$al er $ho is carryin! everythin! on his or her bac . &ut it is o/ use in a permanent camp or $here one is travellin! by vehicle.

;odern brines or pic les are not intended to preserve meat /or any len!th o/ ti time. me. &ut the pic les in every-day every use until about thirty years a!o $ere desi!ned to eep meat inde/initely.

As no one on any sort o/ campin! trip is !oin! to carry the itchen scales $ith them a !ood tip to remember /or ma in! a hard pic le is that the solution tion is stron! enou!h $hen a potato placed in the salt-$ater salt $ater mi@ $ill /loat to the sur/ace.

#ommercial pic les contain saltpetre (potassium nitrate) in small 1uantities in addition to the salt. This !ives the meat its red colour. -amp-salted meat% on the other hand% $ill be !rey in colour 7 not butcherDs shop red.

#omplicated home brines also contain 1uantities o/ bro$n su!ar and spices% but these in!redients are not necessary /or emer!ency bush saltin!% althou!h they improve the /lavour o/ the meat $hen it is /inally coo ed.

)hen saltin! in an emer!ency remember to eep the meat in relatively small pieces 7 not more than about 1 !

in $ei!ht. <ven then i/ the meat is a thic chun or contains bone% slide a sharp ni/e alon! the len!th o/ the bone or cut a poc et and rub dry salt into this cavity be/ore insertin! the piece in the li1uid.

This prevents $hat is no$n in the commercial pic lin! $orld as Dbone stin D 7 decay% in other $ords.

0n cool $eather pieces o/ meat can be sa/ely dry salted /or a couple o/ days or lon!er by rubbin! a thic crust over all sur/aces and placin! the pieces $here they can drain. They should be rubbed and turned every day and protected /rom /lies.

)et saltin! or brinin! is /ar more hy!ienic because the brine itsel/ prevents any insect stri e. The pieces o/ meat must be /ully submer!ed at all times in the brine. As they $ill /loat to the sur/ace i/ Aust placed in the container they must be $ei!hted do$n $ith a board or lar!e /lat stone.

Althou!h saltin! $as traditionally carried out in stone croc s a plastic bus et ma es a !ood container these days.

0n the early days o/ <uropean settlement% an!aroo and $allaby hams $ere hi!hly re!arded. (ometimes they $ere smo ed a/ter bein! brined /or about a /ortni!ht. 6n other occasions they $ere treated much in the same manner as pic led por . ,emember that all meat brined in this /ashion is very salty. 0t should be $ell soa ed in /resh $ater be/ore coo in!.

?ree=in! As mentioned% this mainly applies to $inter sno$ country tre s% $here small parcels o/ meat $rapped in plastic can be ept /ro=en solid /or the duration o/ the entire campin! period.

;uch o/ the inland also has e@tremely cold $inter ni!hts% temperatures in some cases /allin! to -1*M#. 0n these circumstances pieces o/ meat can be thorou!hly chilled at ni!ht and ept thorou!hly insulated durin! the day. 0n this $ay its D/reshnessD can be e@tended up to three days. Thic layers o/ ne$spaper $rapped ti!htly around the meat ma e a /airly e//ective insulatin! ba!. Li!ht$ei!ht so/t plastic coolers can also be used /or the same purpose.

Deep% cold pools or mountain streams can also act as natural re/ri!erators at a permanent campsite or durin! a one or t$o day stop. The meat% or any other material to be ept /resh% should be sealed in $aterti!ht containers $hich are $ei!hted do$n in the $ater and attached to a stron! rope line secured at the ban o/ the stream or pond. The container should also be vermin proo/ as eels% /resh$ater cray/ish and yabbies $ill attac a /limsy container and dama!e or devour its contents.

?ish traps Althou!h the most usual method is by rod and line or a line around a cor or piece o/ $ood most /ishin! communities over the centuries have devised a number o/ traps to catch /ish% thus /reein! people /or other tas s durin! the day.

)hilst commercial nettin! is re!arded as part o/ our normal activity % the trappin! o/ /ish by amateurs by any means is ille!alin most areas.

?ish traps should only be used% there/ore% $hen absolutely necessary as a means o/ survival and never% ever% as a means o/ recreation.

Automatic /isherman A discarded blind roller is /i@ed to either a pole or a convenient branch o/ a tree. The /ishin! line is secured to the roller and then% $ith the roller pa$l en!a!ed% the line is pulled so that it touches the $ater or until the tension on the line is considered to be ade1uate. The roller is removed /rom the brac ets and re$ound by hand. This $ill !ive tension to the line to play the /ish. The baited hoo is lo$ered into the $ater. The pa$ls must be en!a!ed to the brac ets. )hen the /ish stri es it $ill disen!a!e the pa$ls and the tension o/ the $ound up roller $ill play it% brin!in! it /inally almost to the sur/ace o/ the $ater.

The la=y /isherman then simply has to unhoo the catch% rebait the line and set it /or another /ish.

0n !eneral% it is better to set the blind roller on to a pole $hich can be set hori=ontally above the $ater% and lashed to

a convenient tree or sta e% than to set it into a branch. 0t is much easier to remove the catch and reset the line i/ this method is /ollo$ed. 0t is also /ar more convenient to try di//erent areas o/ a river or cree by this method i/ the /ishin! is i not !ood in a particular location.

Tidal /ish trap This arro$head /ish trap is suitable /or coastal areas $here the di//erence bet$een hi!h and lo$ tides is /rom 1-" " metres. 0t is a permanent trap and under ideal conditions $ill ensure a plenti/ul supply o/ /ish in all seasons.

(elect a site on an estuary or cove $here the beach slopes /airly evenly. At this site run a /ence o/ $ire nettin! out at lo$ tide so that the top o/ the /ence $ill be about 1* cm above hi!h $ater level and $here the lo$er end $ill have 4*-5* 4* cm o/ $ater in it at lo$ tide. ?rom the lo$ $ater end o/ the /ence run bac t$o $in! /ences each at an an an!le o/ about 45M. These t$o $in! /ences should come hal/$ay up to the hi!h $ater level mar . ?rom the shore end o/ these t$o $in! /ences run t$o more short /ences parallel to the beach line and stoppin! $ith a turnbac to the arro$head about " metres short o/ the centre /ence.

The /ish $ill come into the beach on the risin! tide and /eed. )hen they come to the central /ence they $ill turn alon! it into the deep $ater. The /ence $ill turn them into the arro$head.

The trap can be cleared at each lo$ tide. Eou Eou need only ta e the /ish that you need. The others can be le/t alive in the trap. (ome o/ those le/t $ill invariably /ind their $ay out to /reedom at the ne@t hi!h tide but at least some $ill remain trapped.

Tidal roc pool trap (elect a site $here there are a number o/ roc pools $ell covered at hi!h tide. They should be barely dry at lo$ tide.

8avin! selected the pool it should be heavily baited $ith crushed up shell/ish% and small portions o/ /reshly illed /ish and crushed roc crabs. Across its normal openin! a roc $all is built so that its top $ill be about 1* em above the $ater sur/ace at hi!h tide.

The /ish% normally /eedin! at ni!ht durin! a hi!h tide% come to the pool% dra$n there by the baits lyin! on the bottom. )ith the /all o/ the tide they are trapped. The catch can be collected by hand or $ith a scoop net.

#rab or lobster net ;a e a circular $ire hoop about a metre in diameter and se$ a piece o/ /ish nettin! or very thin sisal ba!!in! around its ed!es so that it ma es a loose bas et.

Then tie three or /our short len!ths o/ rope to the hoop and Aoin these to!ether about a metre above the top o/ the hoop. These cords are then attached to a rope $hich can be buoyed or tied to a convenient post or roc % dependin! on the location o/ the trap. The bottom o/ the net is $ei!hted $ith a rode and baited $ith a /e$ /ishheads or portions o/ small /ish. These must be securely tied to the bottom o/ the net% other$ise the crabs $ill dra! them a$ay.

;eat can also be used as bait. 0t helps% $hether usin! /ish or meat% i/ the bait is decidedly hi!h or rotten. &oth crabs and cray/ish have a decided pre/erence /or rotten meat.

The net is lo$ered into the sea and le/t undisturbed /or about t$o hours. 0t should be pulled up s$i/tly. Any crabs or cray/ish $hich have been /eedin! on the bait $ill be cau!ht.

?or cray/ish set the net on a roc y% $eedy bottom. ?or crabs it should be set on a sandy bottom% pre/erably not /ar /rom a ree/.

Drum net /ish trap A drum net is simply a $ire ca!e $ith an inverted cone-shaped entrance at either end. These cone DdoorsD lead in$ards and the /ish s$immin! in throu!h them are held securely inside the trap. A drum net can be set in mid-stream or dropped do$n into a deep river pool or laid any$here $here /ish re!ularly /eed 7 the ed!e o/ a seashore roc y led!e is an ideal place.

Almost any bait $ill do /or this sort o/ trapG crushed shell/ish% varieties o/ inedible /ish or meat.

The bottom should be $ei!hted $ith a couple o/ heavy stones. The net should be made $ith a mesh si=e lar!e enou!h to allo$ the escape o/ very small /ish $hich are no !ood /or eatin!.

0t should be inspected at least t$ice a day and the catch removed each time.

#ray/ish or yabbie snare ;a e a circle out o/ heavy !au!e $ire. 0t should be bet$een 4* and 5* cm in diameter. d To eep it ri!id t$o cross $ires% out o/ e1ually heavy !au!e material% are braced to it. Around this circle tie a series o/ runnin! nooses. These nooses need be no more than 5 cm in diameter. 8eavy nylon /ishin! line is e@cellent /or this purpose. They should be tied to the $ire circle about 4-4 4 cm apart.

The bait /or this trap is tied in the centre $here the supportin! cross $ires bisect each other. Three or /our cords are then tied to the circle $ire and a rope a//i@ed to them.

A couple o/ small stones may need to be tied to the circle as $ell to provide enou!h $ei!ht to !et it to set /irmly on the bottom.

8ollo$ lo! trap This trap ta es advanta!e o/ the /act that most /ish cannot s$im bac $ards. A hollo$ lo! is covered at one end $ith a piece o/ $ire nettin! or other material $hich $ill allo$ a /ree /lo$ o/ $ater. A rope slin! is made in such a manner that% $hen it is pulled to li/t the trap to the sur/ace% it $ill tilt the hollo$ lo! so that the $ired-in $ired end is lo$est. The bait is placed $ithin a /e$ centimetres o/ the $ired-in $ired in end o/ the trap and it is then lo$ered into a convenient pool o// a roc led!e. 0t may be necessary% dependin! on the type o/ timber% to $ei!ht the lo! by lashin! several lar!e stones to the side.

The /ish s$immin! about in the stream $ill scent the bait and eventually /ind their $ay into the lo!. 0/ the hollo$ is not too lar!e they $ill ill be unable to turn around to s$im out and $ill be trapped.

The open end o/ the lo! should al$ays /ace upstream% other$ise the current may $ash the /ish /ree.

A similar method o/ catchin! smaller /ish is $ith a pic le bottle. The bait% such as a piece o/ dou!h or other /ood% is stuc to the lo$er end o/ the bottle. 0t is then placed in shalshal

lo$ $ater on its side. All air must be removed. (mall /ish% such as sand mullet and $hitin!% $ill s$im into the bottle to !et at the bait and $ill be unable to bac out. ut. This is a !ood $ay to catch small /ish /or bait.

#raypot A board about 4* cm s1uare by 4 cm thic has a circle dra$n on one side o/ it. The diameter o/ this circle is about "* cm. 0t is then cut out $ith a /retsa$ and 5 mm holes are bored around it. These holes should be about 4 cm apart. 6ne and a hal/ metre len!ths o/ cane are put into each o/ the holes. About 8 8-1* 1* cm above the board start $eavin! the cane so

that its shape is that o/ a $ide /unnel. The upri!ht canes are !radually bent do$n /urther and /urther $ith the $eavin! until they bend ri!ht over and point do$n$ards to /orm the side o/ the trap. At this sta!e the trap is turned upside do$n /or convenience and the $eavin! is continued. At the base% $hich should he about :* cm /rom the top and about

a metre across the bottom% turn the canes in$ard sharply and continue $eavin!. This /orms the bottom o/ the trap.

)ei!h the bottom o/ the trap and bait it $ith old ?ish heads. Lo$er it into a roc y% $eedy position. Lobsters live in caves in the roc s% !enerally in colonies. The /ish heads should attract them to the pot. The haulin! rope /or the pot must be buoyed $ith a mar er so that it can be /ound easily.

The pot may ta e a /e$ days to $eather a/ter it has (been /irst made. (everal such pots set in a suitable area should brin! a reasonable return. 0mprovised thorn /ishhoo s Three lon! and stron! thorns are cut $ith about : cm o/ $ood le/t above the up$ard curve o/ the thorn itsel/. About 5 mm o/ $ood should be le/t belo$ the thorn. ;a e sure that the thorns are lon!% hard and sharp. The $ood section is pared do$n $ith a sharp ni/e so that the an!le o/ the thorn is about 1"*M. 0/ this is done correctly the three pieces o/ $ood $ith the thorns can be /itted

to!ether to ma e a three-pron!ed pron!ed hoo . The $ood is stron!ly bound $ith tou!h /ibre thread at least t$ice on the shan and one belo$ it. 0/ possible it is advisable to brin! the line% or at least a short len!th /or a cast% do$n the centre $here the three pieces o/ $ood Aoin. This cast should be /inished /inished o// $ith a thumb not at the butt o/ the hoo so that it cannot be pulled throu!h.

8oo s such as these are 1uite e//icient and can be easily made by anyone $ith nimble /in!ers.

?ishin! spears The best time to spear /ish is at ni!ht% usin! a /lare or p po$er/ul o$er/ul /lashli!ht to attract the /ish. (andy bottoms o/ a shallo$ estuary $ill normally yield !ood catches o/ /lat and other types o//ish. )ith spearin! the aim is to pin the /ish /is do$n to the bottom. ;ove your spear slo$ly until it is over the /ish and then then Aab do$n suddenly. ?ish spearin! by day can be done /rom a boat or ra/t or /rom a roc y led!e.

Cnder$ater !o!!les or a !lass help you to see the /ish betbet

ter. A Dsea !lassD can be made by cuttin! the bottom out o/ a used tin. Eou then loo throu!h the th hole that the tin tube provides. The tin tube prevents sur/ace ripples.

)hen /ishin! /rom a boat spear as nearly vertical as possible. ;ove slo$ly and 1uietly and allo$ /or the an!le o/ distortion caused by the $ater. ,emember that /ish have natural protective protective colourin!s to camou/la!e them a!ainst attac /rom predators /rom above. This $ill ma e them di//icult to see at /irst until you !ain e@perience. They are easiest to detect $hen they move or by their shado$s a!ainst the sea bottom. ?ish spears should be multi-pron!ed multi /or !reater e//iciency and they should be barbed i/ possible.

An e//icient spear is easily made out o/ several len!ths o/ heavy !au!e $ire bound to a central stri in! handle.

They can also be made out o/ thorny% tou!h vines or split bamboo% bamboo% the ends o/ $hich have been indented to ma e a barb.

(tic snare (ur/ace /eedin! /ish may be snared by means o/ a noose set on the underside o/ a $ei!hted stic . The stic should be about 4* cm lon!. 6n one side a small chip o/

stone is secured either by tyin! or by splittin! the stic and then drivin! the chip o/ stone into this. A noose o/ nylon line% horsehair or other thin material is tied to the stic . The noose itsel/ should be on the same side as the stone chip. A number o/ these stic s can be made ade and thro$n into the sea /rom a roc y promontory.

(ur/ace /eedin! /ish% such as Lon! Toms and !ar/ish% ta e cover beneath any debris /loatin! on the seaDs sur/ace to protect themselves /rom attac by birds.

0/ they hide under the noose stic s they $ill entan!le either their bills or their tails. Their stru!!les a!ainst the noose $ill tire them out and the $ash o/ the $aves $ill then carry the stic s and their 1uarry to the beach. The beach should be patrolled at re!ular intervals to retrieve the stic s and a their catch.

&aited /loat stic A /airly e//ective method o/ /ishin! $ith /loat stic s either in calm $ater or o// beaches $here

there is a DsetD or dri/t to the land is possible by constructin! a number o/ /loat stic s to $hich a stout short len!th o/ /ishin! line% complete $ith baited hoo % is attached.

These /loat stic s are made about :* cm lon!. 6n one end a /airly heavy stone is attached by bar strips or cane. The $ei!ht $ill ma e the stic stand upri!ht in the $ater. The line attached to the t top op end o/ the stic should be bet$een one and three metres in len!th. The hoo or a stron! thorn or a carved piece o/ bone in the shape o/ a hoo should be attached.

The stic s are thro$n into the $ater and allo$ed to dri/t. The /ish ta in! the bait hoo s itsel/. 0t $ill /inally e@haust itsel/ and the current $ill ta e it to the shore eventually. 0/ usin! this method o/ /ishin! it is necessary to care/ully observe the th dri/t or current so that you $ill no$ $here to loo /or the stic s several hours a/ter ca castin! stin! them into the $ater.

?ood /rom the sea STUU pTUU styleTUmar!in2 *p@G paddin!2 *p@GUV

8o$ever% unli e the Australian bush% $hich% is relatively beni!n% as lon! as venomous sna es and spiders are treated $ith e@treme caution% the sea has a /e$ more tric s to o//er.

The list o/ dan!erous sea animals o// the coastline is $ell no$n and includes shar s% venomous tropical sea sna es% the stone/ish% bluebottles% the bo@ Aelly/ish and the blue-rin!ed octopus% plus the stin!in! cone shell/ish and the aptly named stin!ray.

&ut there are also /ish that are poisonous $hen eaten. 8eadin! this list is the /amily o/ pu//ers% commonly called toados% plus the spiny porcupine /ish. The liver and idneys o/ both the toado and the porcupine /ish are hi!hly to@ic and it is impossible not to rupture them $hen attemptin! to pre-

pare the /ish. The only country $here the toado is eaten is Bapan% $here it is a rather lethal /orm o/ oral !amblin!. Toado slicers have to be !overnment licensed and even so the annual death toll toll /rom this sort o/ culinary adventure has reached 1*** in certain years.

All toad/ish and the other pu//ers have a leathery s in% havin! no scales. 0/ cau!ht they immediately pu// themselves up to about t$ice their normal si=e. They all have protrudin! eyes. &o@/ish% star!a=ers and co$/ish are some$hat similar in appearance. ?or sa/etyDs sa e all should be discarded% althou!h it is claimed that the /lesh o/ star!a=ers is edible% but not tasty.

'ot all /ish $ith leathery% as distinct /rom scaly% s ins are are to@ic. (har /lesh is $idely eaten but it should be !utted immediately on catchin!. The leatherAac et% li e$ise% s inned and !utted% is $idely sold as a /ood /ish. (ome tropical $ater leatherAac ets have rather bitter /lesh. The one usually

sold as a /ood /ish is the #hinaman leatherAac et. #at/ish also have no scales but are per/ectly edible.

A simple rule o/ vision% i/ in doubt% is that i/ the /ish loo s too e@otic or stran!e or blo$s or pu//s itsel/ in any $ay a/ter a/t bein! cau!ht it should be discarded.

As a /inal note on leathery /ish% $hile the $in!s o/ any ray are per/ectly edible (they are usually sold under the name o/ s ate) many o/ the estuary rays have a mildly venomous spine in the tail. 6nce landed they $ill use this tail spine to stri e at their attac er. They can in/lict a pain/ul $ound.

All /resh$ater /ish are edible. The tropical barramundi is $ell no$n as a !ourmet /ish. 6thers include the ;urray cod% the !olden and silver perch and the introduced trout and carp. To these can be added /resh$ater eels% $hich are /airly plenti/ul 7 usually in deep% still pools% $ith overhan!s. <els $ill ta e almost any bait.

,a$ /ish )ith the popularisation o/ Asian /ood styles in this country many more people are realisin! that /ish can be delicious ra$. -ranted% in civilised surroundin!s the Bapanese method o/ servin! it is to provide relishes o/ !rated ra$ $hite radish% !reen horseradish% carrot curls and soy sauce.

0n a bush situation this ele!ance is not possible. &ut it should be remembered that ra$ /ish% even by itsel/% is !ood to eat and can provide moisture as $ell as protein.

?illets should be cut /rom the /ish and these should be sliced thinly.

0/ any $ild bush lemons or limes are available chun s o/ ra$ /ish can be Dcoo edD by steepin! them in the citrus Auice /or an hour or so until the /ish turns opa1ue. There is no taste o/ ra$ness. Polynesians enliven this basic mi@ture by addin! sliced onions% tomatoes and other /irm ve!etables. The citrus Auice mi@ture is usually drained /rom the /ish chun s be/ore they are served but in a survival situation it should not be $asted.

6nce a!ain% in an emer!ency situation pra$ns and lobster slices can be eaten ra$% and iri other countries are re!arded as a delicacy.

(hell/ish Australians today consume only a tiny /raction o/ the edible shell/ish available alon! the coastline and despise absolutely the native /resh$ater mussel. All o/ the bivalves are edible and provide e@cellent 7 althou!h at times tou!h 7 additions to a camperDs diet.

)hen !atherin! any shell/ish ll/ish ma e sure that the $ater in $hich they are livin! is relatively pollution /ree. The $ord relatively is used $ith some e@actness here. Almost all coastline $aters are at least sli!htly polluted in one $ay or another.

?resh$ater mussels% once consumed in enormous 1uantities by the Abori!ines% should al$ays be coo ed be/ore bein! eaten and thorou!hly coo ed at that. They o/ten concon

tain a parasite $hich can invade the human liver. The Abori!ines ate them a/ter /irst roastin! them in their shells. They can also be made into a tasty soup. 0/ e@tractin! the meat /or soup ma in! either thro$ them into a pot o/ boilin! $ater or pour boilin! $ater over them to ill them and /orce the shells open. They are very di//icult (i/ not impossible) to open $hen alive% % especially the lar!er specimens.

The presence o/ /resh$ater mussels in a stream or $atercourse is usually indicated by open or bro en shells lyin! alon! the ban . They can be harvested by $al in! alon! the cree bed and /eelin! /or them $ith the toes. The mussels stand upri!ht in the beds o/ cree s. 6nce discovered% they can be easily pulled out o/ the mud or sand.

(alt$ater mussels usually attach themselves to roc s or pieces o/ $ood. <@posed at lo$ tide they are easily harvested.

The once-despised pipi is /ound alon! sandy sur/ beaches and is harvested at lo$ tide by the bare/oot toe probin! method. Althou!h some$hat sandy it can be steamed or made into a soup. 6ne suspects there are more /utile methods o/ removin! sand /rom pipis than there are pipis. 6ne method su!!ests they should be rinsed in several chan!es o/ /resh $ater over a period o/ about /our hours% a second relies on soa in! in sea$ater /or t$enty-/our hours and a third insists that they should be soa ed in a mi@ture o/ hal/ sea$ater% hal/ /resh$ater% plus a cup o/ oatmeal.

)hatever method is used% these shell/ish are /ar less sandy i/ a/ter soa in! the !ut sac is removed /rom the edible /oot. This is tedious but $orth it.

Amon! the other no$n shell/ish% $hel s can be /ound in roc pools% hidden amon! elp and sea$eed. Their /lesh is e@tremely tou!h and unless /inely minced almost unche$-able. &ut they can be made into a soup% /irst by smashin! the shell and removin! the edible /lesh% boilin! it and strainin! o// the li1uid% $hich should be thic ened. 0n a survival situation mil and butter $ould not be available. 8o$ever% under more civilised conditions this is a vast improvement.

6ther shell/ish include clams and abalone. 0t is ille!al to ta e clams in tropical &arrier ,ee/ $aters% althou!h Asian /ishermen conduct poachin! raids. The /lesh sells /or hi!h prices in Bapan. They are a much pri=ed /ood in a number o/ the Paci/ic islands. The /lesh should be separated /rom the !ut sac and% a/ter bein! beaten% thorou!hly coo ed to so/ten it.

Abalone once used to be plenti/ul alon! the coastlines o/ Australia. &ut commercial interests have no$ ensured that it is e@tremely rare and a hi!h-priced delicacy.

The abalone (i/ /ound at all) lives near lo$ tide level amon! elp. They have a stron! /oot $hich anchors them to the roc s and usually have to be prised loose $ith a ni/e.

To coo abalone remove the /ish /rom the shell% cuttin! the muscle at the top. #ut a$ay the !ut sac and trim the ed!es. The /lesh should be cut into slices as thin as possible and beaten $ith a stout len!th o/ $ood or a suitably si=ed smooth roc .

These beaten slices should be 1uic ly /ried or !rilled on a very hot /lat stone /or about 4* seconds on each side and then eaten immediately. Lon!er coo in! turns the abaloneDs /oot muscle into very tou!h leather.

Li e all other shell/ish% they can also be made into a soup.

The best no$n and most popular o/ all ocean shell/ish is the oyster. The only instruction needed here is to $arn the $al er to purchase an oyster ni/e i/ the trec is into oyster territory.

&esides these shell/ish% there are many sea creatures alon! roc y shorelines that can provide a source o/ /ood. The tiny blue blac peri$in les can be boiled up in a billy o/ salted $ater and their /lesh e@tracted $ith a pin. The /lesh o/ the common limpet can be used to ma e a passable soup% as can the /lesh o/ the cart rut shell. Then there are the blue spiny sea urchins that hide in the elp or live in crevices.

The pale oran!e roe o/ the sea urchin is the edible part o/ the animal. 0t has to be handled $ith e@treme care% other$ise the sharp spines brea o// in the hands. The $ounds are e@tremely pain/ul and can turn septic.

The roe is normally eaten ra$ in <urope. The top o/ the urchin is cut o//% the $hole !iven a 1uic rinse in sea$ater

and then the roe is scooped out. Alternatively it can be li!htly /ried.

?resh$ater cray/ish and yabbies can be in/ected by parasites and so should be thorou!hly coo ed.

The simplest method o/ coo in! any crustacean (salt or /resh$ater) is boilin!. They can also be coo ed by $rappin! them in sea$eed and steamin! them% either alive or a/ter illin!.

6ctopus and s1uid The /lesh o/ both s1uid and octopus ma es !ood eatin! but care is needed to avoid one hi!hly poisonous member o/ the octopus /amily.

This is the blue-rin!ed rin!ed octopus /ound in pools and semi semi-shallo$ shallo$ $ater throu!hout the Paci/ic. 0t is an e@tremely tiny member o/ the octopus !roup% its entire tentacle and body len!th rarely e@ceedin! "* cm. ;ost specimens are much smaller. The body itsel/ tsel/ is usually no bi!!er than a matchbo@.

0t /eeds on roc crabs and care should be ta en in and around lar!e roc pools. Lyin! 1uietly in a pool it is dun coloured $ith bro$n or yello$ish bands on its body and tentacles. &ut $hen it is disturbed% brilliant brilliant blue rin!s appear on both the

body and arms. A bite /rom a blue-rin!ed octopus can paralyse a person $ithin 15 minutes (the animal inAects a nerve poison $hen it nips $ith its bea ). A number o/ /atalities have been recorded.

6ther members o/ the octopus /amily% althou!h they can in/lict a pain/ul bite% are harmless althou!h a pest to handle $hen alive.

To bush coo octopus tentacles% cut into thin slices% beat $ith a mallet and coo in hot /at or oil until they become tender.

(1uid should be cleaned% turned inside out and the outside s in rubbed o//% then sliced and /ried.

6bviously there are more delicate $ays to coo both creatures. Lemon Auice can tenderise the /lesh o/ octopus and% i/ in tropical areas% the /lesh o/ a pa$pa$ is one o/ the best ten-derisers o/ all.

0nsects and !rubs as /ood There are several species o/ native bees in Australia. Cnli e the imported <uropean honey bee% many o/ them are stin!less% a /act not o/ten understood by those $ho have e@perienced the pain/ul treatment meted out by DnormalD bees.

These small% blac insects usually build their nests in the hollo$s o/ trees. A nest can o/ten be located by observin! a /li!ht o/ the bees in areas heavy $ith pollen bearin! /lo$ers. A DstainD is also o/ten observed around the entrance to the hive. 0n emer!encies these natural su!ar stores can be a@ed out o/ a hollo$ tree and collected. The combs are o/ten littered $ith dead bees and larvae% but the $ild honey can be rinsed out $ith $ater.

0n the drier areas o/ the continent honey ants are /ound. These are named because they store a su!ary solution o/ /ood in their abdomens% $hich o/ten become in/lated to about the si=e o/ a pea. These ants have under!round nests and have to be du! out.

Lar!e $ood !rubs% commonly called $itchetty !rubs% can o/ten be /ound in the /allen trun s o/ both eucalypt and so/t$ood tree species. The branch o/ the tree bein! searched must either be a /reshly /elled one or must be one that has been torn o// by a storm a day or so be/ore. 0/ the tree has been Ddo$nD /or some time it $ill have started to dry out and the !rubs $ill have deserted the trun or branch /or a more satis/actory edible home. Abori!ines used to hoo the !rubs out o/ a livin! tree by usin! a thorn or an improvised lon! hoo .

Any o/ the lar!e $hite !rubs are palatable i/ /irst roasted on a hot stone or li!htly /ried in a pan. ?or a brie/ period in the 193*s one Australian /irm mar eted canned $itchetty

!rub soup. Althou!h popular as a novelty item /or tourists% Australians themselves did not ta e to it. All the lar!e $hite !rubs have rather a nutty /lavour $hen coo ed.

)ild ve!etables -reenstu//s% roots% herbs% !rass seeds% nuts and rather bitter $ild /ruits played an important part in the diet o/ the Abori!inal hunter-!atherers. !atherers. 0n !eneral they /ollo$ed / the pattern o/ most similar hunter-!atherer societies in other parts o/ the $orld in as much as about 3* per cent o/ their /ood needs came /rom !athered ve!etable products and about 4* per cent /rom meat or /ish protein.

6ver many thousands o/ years tribal !roups learned to reco!nise the properties o/ certain ve!etables in their !atherin! area. They also learned ho$ to leach out certain al aloid poisons. ;ost o/ this no$led!e o/ $ild plant /oods no$ has been lost and unless one is certain o/ $hat one is about to eat in the bush any plant should be approached $ith e@treme caution.

There are t$o common poisons in the ve!etable $orld. &oth can be identi/ied by taste.

The /irst is the taste o/ almonds% /ound in peaches and other stone /ruits (especially in the ernels). This is the taste o/ prussic acid% other$ise no$n as cyanide. Any plant in the $ild that !ives o// this taste or% $hen the leaves are crushed% smells o/ almonds should be discarded as a /ood source unless previous e@perience has tau!ht other$ise.

The second poison is o@ylate o/ lime% contained in many o/ the lilies and some o/ the yams. The presence o/ o@ylate o/ lime or o@alic acid once a!ain is 1uite easily detected in any plant. 0/ a small piece is cut o// and tasted an acrid% burnin! and numbin! sensation a//ects the lips and palate. 0t can also cause nausea% vomitin! and in severe cases diarrhoea. 0n the case o/ the yams it can be $ashed out by !ratin! the ra$ plant and soa in! it in $ater. 0n some cases the starch $ill settle to the bottom o/ a container and the rest o/ the material can be discarded. 0n other cases a/ter an initial

leachin! process the $hole /ibrous mass plus the starch can be used as a /ood.

The tropical taro is another plant $hich has to be treated in this manner be/ore bein! used% althou!h some types can be merely boiled or ba ed.

The leaves o/ the taro can be eaten but they must also be boiled /irst and the boilin! $ater discarded to rid them o/ their o@alic acid content. Treated in this manner the taro (both tubers and leaves) is one o/ the staple /oods o/ the Paci/ic 0slands.

A/ter all that it $ill probably be $elcome to no$ that one can at least !et a cup o/ imitation tea out o/ the Australian bush% at least in s$ampy coastal areas. The tree that provides a pleasant substitute is the !enus Leptospermum. 0n the early

days o/ $hite settlement the leaves o/ various members o/ the tea-tree or paperbar /amily $ere $idely used as a tea substitute.

They $ere dried and then in/used in boilin! $ater in the manner o/ ordinary tea leaves. 6ne o/ the /avourites $as the common lemon scented tea-tree% $hich is native to coastal 'e$ (outh )ales. All the tea-trees% ho$ever% $ill provide a

drin able bevera!e. The !reen leaves% $hile more po$er/ul% can be used in moderation moderation and on a cold $et ni!ht% !iven a /ire and a billy% $ill provide a more tasty bevera!e than hot $ater.

There are other use/ul Australian trees 7 the macadamia% the bunya pine and the 1uandon! to name but three. &ut these !ro$ in isolated poc ets o/ the country untry and cannot be relied upon as sources o/ re!ular /ood. The bunya pine% /or

e@ample% has a habit o/ croppin! about once every seven years. The pine /ruits are also probably the most lethal /ood crop no$n. The cones% $hich can $ei!h /rom 1* to "* !%

o/ten /all /rom a hei!ht o/ "* metres or more to the !round. Althou!h the nuts are edible either /resh /rom the burst cones% or roasted% their delivery can be deadly.

The macadamia% $hich !ro$s in temperate to tropical coastal areas alon! the east coast% provides% !ram /or !ram% one o/ the richest sources o/ protein and essential oils in the $orld. Cn/ortunately% $hen ripe the shell o/ the macadamia has to be crushed $ith about a 1*-tonne $ei!ht. The 1uan-don!% a $idely distributed /ruit in the semi-dry northern areas o/ Australia% $as used by early $hite settlers to ma e Aams and Aellies. 0t can be eaten ra$% althou!h it is some$hat acid. The /ruit o/ the 1uandon! is bri!ht red $hen ripe and can be dried and stored /or /uture use.

The /ruits o/ all the Australian native /i!s 7 the ;oreton &ay /i! tree bein! the best no$n 7 are also edible $hen completely ripe% althou!h some$hat dry and /lavourless. Despite this lac o/ /lavour to a )estern palate they $ill provide enou!h /ruit su!ars and bul to sustain li/e i/ eaten in su//icient 1uantities.

Alon! the coastlines o/ the continent one o/ the most readily available edible !reens is no$n as 'e$ Realand spinach (Tetra!onia tetra!onioides). 0t is a prostrate spra$lin! plant $ith spinach-li e leaves and that is $hat it tastes li e. The commonly called Dpi!/aceD (#arpobrotus)% $ith its purple /lo$ers% is also per/ectly edible and use/ul as a source o/ D/leshy $aterD. Pi!/ace in at least one instance allo$ed an early <uropean e@plorer to stay alive. Bohn <yre ate the /ruits o/ the pi!/ace and /ound them Dboth !rate/yl and re/reshin!D.

0nland the introduced pric ly pear can be stripped o/ its spines and the /lesh eaten both to 1uench thirst and to provide a supply o/ ve!etable /ood not dissimilar to the mineral balance /ound in such !reen-!rocery plants as =ucchini or marro$. The /ruit o/ the pric ly pear is still made into a Aam or Aelly in some parts o/ the continent.

6ther species that should be mentioned 7 both native to the country and introduced 7 include the D/iddleD heads o/ /erns% includin! brac en% the hearts o/ cabba!e tree palm% the so$ or ordinary thistle (sometimes no$n as dandelion)%

A number o/ plants% both native to this country and imported% can be used /or/ood. 6ne that is no$ cultivated is 'e$ Realand and spinach. 6thers that should not be overloo ed are the stin!in! nettle and the so$ thistle.

pi!$eed% $atercress% and the introduced stin!in! nettle% $hich used to be a standard source o/ both sprin! !reens and also bedsheets (the stal sU $ere threshed and and the /ibres $oven) in (cotland. (tin!in! nettle% /ound near almost every

minin! settlement in Australia% can be boiled li e spinach and contains similar nutrients. 0n the 6ld )orld it $as used as aDsprin! tonicD!reen.

6ther plants that can be /ound in the $ild include a native variant o/ the <uropean sorrel. This $as /irst pic ed by a <uropean at &otany &ay. )hile the leaves are smaller and spear-shaped they have the <uropean cousinDs distinctive taste o/ lemon% $hich in both cases indicates the presence o/ o@alic acid.

(mall amounts are tasty and o/ nutritional advanta!e. Lar!er amounts can ma e one ill. The native Australian version is !enerally called sheepDs sorrel.

6ccasionally $al ers may /ind an upri!ht strai!ht-leaved plant% !enerally no$n in this country as $ild turnip. 0t is actually salsi/y or the oyster plant. 0t is a declared no@ious $eed in many parts o/ the continent. The root is similar to a very thin turnip and in the autumn it has mauve to purple /lo$ers. )hen $ell boiled it tastes rather li e the oyster /rom $hich it !ets its second name.

Li e $atercress% nettles and to some e@tent 'e$ Realand spinach this plant is o/ten /ound near abandoned settlements or ruined cotta!es. These places should not be despised as ve!etable /ood sources /or those in distress or hi ers $ho $ant to add /reely to their carbohydrate supply.

?inally in the /ree ve!etable area one should turn% especially /or inland $al ers% to pi!$eed% sometimes no$n as purslane% o/ten sold in mar ets as Dinland $atercressD and o//icially no$n as Portulaca oleracea.

This o/ten used to be used in the early days o/ <uropean settlement as the only available source o/ !reens. The leaves can have a slimy /eelin! in the mouth. &ut it has one advan-tan!e in that it can ta e to dry soils and almost sandy desert% !iven a little rain. 0t can be a valuable source o/ !reen i/ all else /ails. 0t is claimed to prevent scurvy but 7 li e many

other Australian plants 7 its properties have not been /ully investi!ated.

To end this discussion on edible !reens% any $al er may discover a ne$ /ood source because o/ the lac o/ plant research into the natives o/ the country. 0nitial research in the 193*s by the #(0,6 7 some$hat belated 7 has sho$n that there are close relatives o/ the soy bean% rice% sor!hum% some citrus (as has been already mentioned in the native lemons)% banana% lettuce and the no$ very /ashionable sna e bean ($hich is actually a member o/ the pea /amily) alive and $ell in various parts o/ the continent.

?un!i Absolutely sa/e members o/ the common /un!i /amily in Australia are the common /ield mushroom and its close relativeN the horse mushroom% plus the $hite-centred pu//ball. All other members o/ the /un!i !roupin! must be re!arded as suspect. This is because almost no identi/ication has been carried out on the various species. A (cottish e@pert $ho

came to Australia in the mid 193*s has yet to release his /indin!s. 8o$ever% he did say $hen he le/t the country that althou!h some species o/ /un!i appeared to be closely

related to those o/ the 6ld )orld% initial testin! sho$ed them to be to@ic.

;embers o/ the /un!i /amily contain almost no carbohydrates and a minimal amount o/ protein. &ut they are very rich in mineral salts% $hich in e@treme circumstances can help one to survive.

Apart /rom common mushrooms% /riends o/ the author have tested small and lar!e pu//balls% plus samples o/ the slender parasol mushroom (edible and !ood) and the introduced sa//ron mil cap $hich !ro$s under introduced pine trees (mainly Pinus radiata). The latter $as some$hat tou!h and tasteless.

)ater in emer!encies An old ma@im that !oes bac to the mid-nineteenth nineteenth century declares that a human bein! needs an inta e o/ at least ei!ht pints o/ li1uid a day to survive ade1uately. 0n present day terms this is rou!hly 4.5 litres. )hen this theory $as /irst propounded and then repeated and repeated yet a!ain the li1uid translated itsel/ in peoples minds into pure $ater.

)hat most people /or!ot alon! the $ay $as that most natural /oods% /ruits and ve!etables in particular% are themselves composed mainly o/ $ater. ;eat% $hether ra$ or coo ed% contains $ater and so does bread. 0n e@treme circumstances one does need the 4.5 litres per day. Cnder normal circumstances t$o litres $ill do in temperate conditions. As the temperature rises more /luid is needed.

There are no hard and /ast rules here. 'o t$o human bein!s are e@actly the same. (ome people lose $ater /aster throu!h s$eat than others. Eet another !roup% especially under humid tropical conditions% $ill sho$ si!ns o/Dsalt starvationD sooner than they sho$ si!ns o/ $ater deprivation.

0t $as not so many years bac that <uropeans in tropical countries $ere advised to ta e salt tablets every day% apart /rom the salt they too $ith their /ood. This medical /ashion $ould have amused both the &ushmen o/ the >alahari desert in (outh A/rica and certain Paci/ic 0slanders i/ they had been told o/ it. #ertain De@pertD bushcra/t boo s in recent years still /all into the salt $arnin! trap% despite the /act that this theory no$ has been completely discredited. Eet others have raised the $ater inta e to Nminimum o/ : litres per day.

0t is interestin! to note here that Hueensland DburrD and pric ly pear cutters in the early part o/ this century learned one rule very 1uic ly (and these $ere northern <uropean mi!rants in the main). They $ere $or in! in the dry inland areas o/ the (tate $ithout e@pert or /ashionable medical advice% it must be understood.

The rule $as ri!id. 0t $ent thus. 6ne 1uart o/ lu e$arm blac su!arless tea at da$n. 6ne billy (1uart) o/ cold su!arless tea at noon and another 1uart o/ hot tea (perhaps $ith su!ar) bac at camp at dus .

That inta e came to si@ pints. Those men $ere not only bush$al in! they $ere cuttin!% bendin!% slashin! and di!!in! as they $ent. 0t $as re!arded as suicidal to drin as one $or ed or $al ed. To moisten their lips durin! the heat o/ the day they used the techni1ue o/ a small round pebble in the mouth (the /orerunner o/ che$in! !um). 0t must have $or ed. ;any o/ their descendants no$ 6$n most o/ HueenslandDs inland.

8avin! said that% it should be stated very /irmly that no one $ho !oes campin!% bush$al in! $ith a pac or camp-drivin! $ith a vehicle% should leave his or her base $ithout either an ade1uate supply o/ $ater or no$in! $here the ne@t reliable supply o/ $ater can be /ound. 0t has been said so o/ten that the sayin! has become a truism2 Australia is the $orldDs driest continent.

People $ho live on the comparatively $et seaboard areas o/ten cannot understand this. &ut even in these comparatively lush areas drou!ht is not un no$n. #oastal national par s% /or instance% not only dry up but they can burn to the !round as $ell. 0n the early days o/ <uropean settlement escapin! convicts% convinced that #hina and /reedom $as Aust up the road% died o/ thirst on the seacoast be/ore they had $al ed 1** m. 0t is an historical messa!e $orth reme -

berin!.

)ater indicators in the animal $orld 0n circumstances $here you have run out o/ $ater% or are perhaps about to% certain members o/ the animal in!dom may be able to !ive you a helpin! hand.

This in/ormation is not in/allible. Li e human bein!s% other members o/ the animal in!dom $ill behave erratically /rom time to time. This% there/ore% is only a very !eneral !uide.

)ild bees% li e their domestic stic counterparts% /ind it e@tremely di//icult to survive $ithout $ater. They !enerally site their tree or lo! hive no more than 5 or : m /rom the nearest source. The source% in bad conditions% may be no more than a sur/ace damp soa . 0t $ill then be necessary ssary to di! and perhaps /ilter the $ater to provide enou!h to drin .

;any species o/ ants can also lead the camper to $ater.

&ut once a!ain% li e the bee supply% it may be limited. 0/ you see a steady column o/ small blac ants climbin! a tree trun and disappearin! into a not hole it is hi!hly probable that the interior o/ the tree is hollo$ and there is a reservoir o/ $ater there.

This can be proved by dippin! a lon! stra$ or stic do$n the hole into $hich the ants are disappearin!. 0/ it is $et $hen you dra$ it out there is $ater present.

This $ater can be mopped up by tyin! a bunch o/ !rass onto the end o/ the stic and lo$erin! it into the hole% removin! it and s1uee=in! it out into a container o/ some sort. Do not chop into the tree other$ise the $ater $ill be lost as you $ill undoubtedly brea the reservoir in one $ay or another.

These reservoirs are common in the river-ban casuarinas (she-oa s) and certain lar!e $attles that !ro$ alon! $atercourses in dry% inland areas.

Another insect that is a variable indicator o/ presence o/ $ater is the solitary $asp or mason $asp (;onerebia ephip-pium% o/ the broad /amily <umenidae) .

These oran!e and yello$ insects $ith a broad blac band around their abdomen are indeed solitary% to !ive credit to one o/ their common names. They are also masons% collectin! mud in their breedin! season to ma e nests in $hich they place paralysed insects /or their hatched larvae to /eed on.

Their nest buildin! activities ta e place in early summer. 0n dry% inland areas% because o/ their desire to both build and breed% they $ill lead the $al er to at least a damp patch in the soil.

Di!!in! around this area may% $ith luc % lead to a soa about 1* cm belo$ the sur/ace. Cn/ortunately they may also may be ma in! mud balls out o/ an!aroo and $allaby urine or even soil sli!htly dampened by overni!ht de$. The presence o/ mason $asps in any area cannot be ta en to mean that there is a sure supply o/ $ater.

8o$ever% it is $orth /ollo$in! them on a DAust in caseD basis.

6utside o/ the insect $orld% most !rain-eatin! birds need to drin daily. This applies to both the Australian native /inches and the pi!eons. At dus both o/ these species $ill ma e /or a source o/ $ater.

8o$ever% they should be $atched care/ully. 0/ they are /lyin! lo$ and 1uic ly they are ma in! /or $ater. &ut i/ their /li!ht is /rom tree to tree and slo$ they are returnin! /rom drin in!.

Parrots are irre!ular drin ers and their /li!ht paths at dus mean little or nothin!. The same applies to all birds o/ prey% unless one $ants to ta e the ris that they are see in! their evenin! meal /rom the $ater drin ers at a soa .

The trac s o/ an!aroos% $allabies% /eral pi!s and $ide-ran!in! domestic stoc may also lead one to $ater. ;ost o/ these !ra=in! animals drin at least once a day% li e the birds at dus .

6n the other hand these animals can !o up to three days $ithout drin in! at all. (o unless there is a re!ular trac or several re!ular trac s pointin! in a speci/ic direction oneDs luc may be out. 0n !eneral the $ater source $ill be /ound by /ollo$in! the animal trails do$nhill.

)ater /rom ve!etable sources 0n inland areas many trees can be used /or $ater no matter ho$ dry conditions may appear to be. A very small list o/ these trees includes the bottle and the related urraAon!% the mallee and the rather aptly named !old/ields $ater tree.

The best $ay to !et $ater /rom any tree is to drain the roots. To do this they should be cut Aust about da$n $hen the tree itsel/ has /inished its ni!ht de$-collectin! e//orts. They are du! up% cut into len!ths o/ about a metre and these len!ths pointed do$n$ards into a billy or other container. To do this they can either be hand-held (rather laborious) or laid on a natural or arti/icial dirt slope $ith the billy at the end o/ the cut drip line. -enerally spea in! the roots must be cut at an an!le o/ 4*-45M. 'ever brea or tear them because this prevents the $ater drainin! /rom them.

)ith luc and in tolerable conditions each o/ the metre-lon! root pieces $ill yield up to about 1** ml o/ $ater. This

must be used more or less immediately and not allo$ed to stand. (trictly spea in! it is a $ater plus sap mi@ture and because it contains a number o/ natural su!ars it $ill /erment once the sun !ains stren!th.

There are certain precautions and a /e$ dan!er si!ns in re!ard to the tree root D$aterD. 0/ the /luid is mil y or coloured in any $ay it should be re!arded as bein! potentially dan!erous% not only to drin but also to the s in. ;any o/ the mil y saps% e@cept those o/ the ?icus /amily $hich con tain late@ (a natural rubber)% are e@tremely poisonous. The mil y sap o/ many $eeds can poison the s in and cause bad sores and% i/ allo$ed to !et into the eyes% may cause blindness.

)ith all ve!etable sources the point to remember is that even thou!h the /luid itsel/ may be clear and s$eet smellin! it should be tasted cautiously /irst. 0/ it is /lavourless 7 or almost 7 then it can be assumed that it is sa/e to drin .

0n !eneral in arid areas% $ater /rom roots o/ trees and

shrubs is more plenti/ul /rom ve!etation e!etation in !ullies rather than on hi!h rid!es.

0n absolutely tree-barren barren areas it is at times possible to collect $ater at da$n /rom de$ on the !rass. (everal o/ the early <uropean e@plorers made use o/ this techni1ue.

6ne o/ the easiest-$ays is to tie tu/ts u/ts o/ /ine !rass around the an les and $al throu!h the !rass or other lo$ !ro$in! plants Aust be/ore the sun has risen. <very so o/ten the tu/t le!!in!s should be removed and the moisture collected s1uee=ed into a container.

6n the sea coast /resh $ater can usually be /ound by di!!in! behind the $indblo$n sandhills $hich still bac up to many ocean beaches. The sandhills trap the rain$ater behind them and it $ill D/loatD on top o/ the heavier salt $ater $hich /ilters /ilter in /rom the ocean.

(andhill $ells should uld only be deep enou!h to uncover the top /e$ centimetres or so o/ the /resh $ater. 0/ du! deeper salt $ater $ill /lood in and pollute the top /resh layer.

source o/ $ater. 6nce a $ell has been du! it is necessary to shore up the sides $ith dri/t$ood ot other$ise the natural sand dri/t $ill soon bury the $ell.

The depth o/ di!!in! $ith those $ells varies. 'ormally one stri es $ater at about 1 metre. At other times it may be up to 4 metres. 0/ di!!in! deep the hole should be shored up as di!!in! pro!resses.

?resh$ater soa s may sometimes be discovered on the sea$ard side o/ sandstone coastal cli//s. These are usually

indicated by a /ault or crac in the /ace o/ the cli//% plus a pro/usion o/ /erns and mosses.

Alon! the sea coast% it is possible $ithout too much e1uipment to condense sea$ater. 0/ you have a billy% /ill it $ith seasea $ater and li!ht a bris /ire under it. )hen it boils hold a dry to$el% shirt or any other piece o/ salt-/ree salt clothin! over the steam. 0t $ill soon become saturated. 6nce it is saturated it can be $run! out into another container. The process is laborious% but by repetition at least some drin able $ater $ill be obtained.

The ari=ona survival still This method o/ obtainin! $ater in any area area (althou!h it is directed at arid areas) $as /irst devised by the )aterD#onservation Laboratory in Ari=ona%

usaT The area /or obtainin! $ater cannot be total desert. 0t must have at least some !reenery !ro$in! in it.

Di! a hole about 1 metre $ide and 5*-1** 1** cm deep in a position in /ull sun. Place a billy or other $ater holdin! container in the middle o/ this hole. Around the container any !reen lea/y material should be pac ed do$n very ti!htlyG the ti!hter the better.

A !roundsheet should then be placed d over the hole and secured all around by stones or soil or both. 0t should% ho$ever% not be absolutely taut.

Place a stone in the sheet so that the dip is e@actly above the centre o/ the $ater container.

The moisture in the soil and in the !reenery placed in the hole $ill be dra$n o// by the heat o/ the heat o/ the sun durin! the day and condense on the underside o/ the plastic durin! the ni!ht. This moisture $ill run do$n the slope o/ the plastic and collect in the billy or other container.

0/ the underside o/ the plastic !roundsheet is sli!htly rou!hened be/ore bein! placed in position droplet collection $ill be more e//icient.

&ody $aste% such as urine% can also be directed into the hole 7 but obviously alon! its sides. 0n ideal conditions perhaps " litres o/ li1uid a day can be collected by such a still% but 1 litre is more usual. 0/ possible the !reenery should be replaced every day.

(ta!nant $ater Althou!h all $al ers and campers should carry $ater puri/ication tablets $ith them as a matter o/ course% sta!nant or suspect $ater can be made reasonably sa/e by other means.

0t can be /iltered throu!h any sort o/ cloth to remove solids and then boiled. 0t can also be /iltered throu!h a container o/ charcoal and $ood ash.

0/ it is very muddy a pinch o/ alum $ill precipitate the soil particles and the clear $ater can be ta en o// /rom the top o/ the container. This process $ill ta e about 1" hours.

: ?ire ma in! The ability to ma e /ire is essential in the bush. ?ire can provide $armth% com/ort and protection. 0t is essential /or the preparation o/ /ood because heat% in one /orm or another% chemically a//ects the cells o/ plant /oods% ma in! some yield their nourishment and others release their to@ic elements.

0t also enables the bush$al er to coo /lesh% either $ild or domestic% and preserve it by smo in! or dryin!. 0t also can ma e polluted $ater sa/e and drin able.

The ability to obtain /ire under any conditions% provided that combustible material is available% is one o/ the /irst essentials o/ outdoor livin!.

;a in! a /ire by traditional methods% such as /riction% is not easy. &ut $hen this s ill has been mastered it can !ive one con/idence in di//icult situations.

The most sensible $ay to avoid bein! cau!ht $ithout the means o/ ma in! a /ire in the bush is to carry modern /irema in! e1uipment $ith you. As /ar as the bush$al er is concerned one o/ the best inventions o/ recent years is the

disposable !as ci!arette li!hter. 'ot only are they li!ht$ei!ht and cheap but /or added convenience they are o/ten sold in pairs enclosed in a more or less $aterproo/ plastic /ilm.

<ach member o/ a bush$al in! party should carry at least one o/ these convenience pac s as a matter o/ routine% as $ell as matches. <ven i/ these li!hters do !et soa ed throu!h% unli e matches% !iven a /e$ minutes to dry out% they $ill produce a /lame.

To !ive an idea o/ the tou!hness o/ these disposable li!hters a 'e$ Realand-made &ic li!hter% $hich $as nearin! the

end o/ its use/ul li/e% $as immersed in $ater /or 1% then 4 and then "4 hours. A/ter 1* minutes dryin! out in a blea $inter sun it lit $ithout trouble% althou!h a/ter "4 hours it too si@ /lic s to !et !oin!.

?or emer!ency use matches themselves should be carried in small $aterti!ht containers even i/ they are the commercial D$aterproo/ variety. These can be either o/ plastic% aluminium or tin 7 anythin! that is truly $aterproo/.

<@tras /or startin! /ires can also include solid /uel tablets (the ones used /or startin! bac yard barbecues)% candle stubs or a collection o/ birthdcay ca e candles% also sealed in a $aterproo/ container.

6rdinary matches can be $aterproo/ed be/ore the start o/ any Aourney by dippin! them in melted candle$a@.

0/ you ta e all o/ these emer!ency /ire starters alon! on the trec % you $ill /ind that it is almost impossible not to li!ht a /ire% no matter $hat the circumstances or ho$ bad the $eather.

And $ith t$o or more people travellin! to!ether it $ould ta e an almost total catastrophe /or the $hole lot to be lost at once.

<ven so there are correct and incorrect $ays to !o about li!htin! a /ire.

The correct $ay to li!ht a /ire Althou!h everyone these days seems to ta e ne$spaper as tinder /or a /ire more or less /or !ranted (and !iven our bush litter problem this is not surprisin!)% sometimes it Aust isnDt availa available.

Added to that% the $ood may be damp and it may be rainin! heavily or be very $indy.

Cnless the $eather is very dry and has been so /or days on end do not collect indlin! $ood /rom the !round. 0t $ill certainly be damp and in the mornin! a/ter heavy de$% de$% $ood pic ed up /rom the !round $ill be /ar top $et to li!ht.

-et into the habit o/ collectin! thin% dead t$i!s% no thic er than a match% $hich can be /ound on almost every shrub.

-ather a bi! hand/ul o/ these and% to start the /ire% hold the bundle in your hand and apply the /lame o/ the match to the t$i!s at the end o/ the bundle ($hich should loo more or less li e a miniature stra$ broom). They should

catch /ire instantly. Turn the bundle in your hand until all the t$i!s are $ell ali!ht.

Then lay the he bla=in! bundle o/ t$i!s in the /ireplace and /eed other small t$i!s on top% !radually increasin! the si=e until the /ire has built itsel/ up to an ade1uate bla=e. Dead eucalypt leaves on branches o/ three also ma e e@cellent sta!e-t$o sta!e /ire builders because use o/ their volatile oils. A !ood secondary bla=e o/ these% even in very $et conditions% $ill eep the /ire !oin! until damp $ood has dried out enou!h to catch.

As described in #hapter 4% #ampcra/t% $hen conditions are so $et that not even your t$i! bundl bundle $ill catch% /ire stic s can be made by shavin! thic stic s 7 a/ter /irst removin! the outer $et $ood $ith a ni/e 7 so that they D/u==D. About /our to si@ o/ these /irestic s $ill be needed to start a small bla=e.

0n stron! $ind or heavy rain li!ht these /ire stic s under shelter (normally a tent) and once ali!ht carry them to the /ireplace in a billy carried on its side.

(tretchin! your match supply 0/ your match supply is runnin! short one can be made to do the $or o/ t$o $ith a little care by splittin! it.

To split a $ooden match push the point o/ a pin or a very thin sharp ni/e immediately belo$ the head and /orce do$n sharply. The head should split in t$o and the $ood run o// or split. Eou $ill then have t$o heads and enou!h $ood le/t on each to burn /or a second or more% lon! enou!h to catch tinder.

Paper matches can be halved by peelin! the cardboard /rom the end a$ay /rom the head. 0t is then peeled to$ards the head o/ the match $hich $ill usually split a$ay cleanly.

0n stri in! split matches the stal should be held bet$een thumb and /ore/in!er $ith the tip o/ the middle /in!er restin! li!htly on the head. The match end is then dra$n li!htly and /lat alon! the stri in! sur/ace o/ the matchbo@. 0mmediately the head starts to burn the /ore/in!er is removed and it is allo$ed to /lame up.

0t re1uires practice to be certain that you can al$ays split your match and stri e both portions.

Teasin! out a /ire /rom one o/ these hal/ matches re1uires some care. (elect the thinnest t$i!s possible% to!ether $ith

some teased out very dry bar /ibres% dried !rass or in /act anythin! or any material that is bone dry and e@tremely /ine.

Do not pac this bundle ti!htly or it $ill snu// out the tiny /lame /rom the hal/ match. 0/ the /ine inner material catches $ith th some speed you $ill have succeeded as this inner core $ill soon !enerate enou!h heat to /lare the t$i!s.

A $ord o/ $arnin!2 learnin! ho$ to success/ully li!ht a /ire $ith hal/ a match $ill undoubtedly lead to a number o/ scorched /in!ertips. This is somethin! you have to learn to live $ith 0n an emer!ency this sli!ht di//iculty $ill hardly matter.

Li!htin! a /ire /rom a coal A /ire can be started /rom a small red coal /rom the previous day or ni!htDs site. &ut startin! one /rom a coal that may be no bi!!er i!!er than the hal/ pinched out spar o/ a ci!arette re1uires some s ill.

#ollect a bundle o/ dry tinder such as !rass% very dry and teased out inner bar % or other suitable material% and place the coal very care/ully in the centre o/ it. ?old the rest o/ the tinder over the coal% ma in! it into the shape o/ a rou!h ball. Then% holdin! it very loosely in your /in!ers $hirl it round and round at armDs len!th% or% i/ there is a stron! $ind blo$in! blo$in!% hold it up in the air allo$in! its /ull /orce to blo$ ri!ht t throu!h the mass.

As the tinder starts to catch the ball $ill start to smo e. )hen there is a dense /lo$ o/ smo e blo$ into the ball teasin! it out a little /urther. This blo$in! should cause it to /lame. 0t should be immediately placed under a bundle o/ prepared /ine t$i!s.

(mo eless /ires 0n a very restricted campsite or in a cave or other natural shelter it can be an advanta!e to no$ ho$ to build a /ire that !ives o// almost no smo e and also one in $hich the /lames are not lar!e.

(mo e is the result o/ / incomplete combustion. &y ensurin! that the combustion is almost total the volume o/ smo e $ill be reduced to ne@t to nothin!. &y /eedin! a /ire continuously $ith small t$i!s it $ill be nearly all /lame and smo e $ill be ept to a minimum.

0/ you li!ht the /ire under a tree7but but not a!ainst its trun 7 the leaves and branches $ill completely /ilter out $hat smo e is produced.

?ire D$ithout /lameD is produced by li!htin! in the normal manner. 0t is then /ed $ith small lumps o/ charcoal previously !athered /rom burnt 6ut stumps and trees. There is usually an abundance o/ this material in most bush areas because o/ our more or less re!ular bush/ires.

To !et this charcoal movin! it may be necessary to /an it continuously /or some time to !et it !lo$in! but no not /lamin!. A charcoal /ire needs a lot o/ air but !ives out !reat heat once established.

An old tin or drum pierced $ith holes ma es a !ood container /or a charcoal /ire. ?ailin! this% it can be built $ithin a circular round o/ stones $ith plenty o/ air-hole le chin s all around the ed!esOThis stone surround $ill not !ive out 1uite as much heat as the metal container but it still $or s $ell.

?ire$ood ?indin! suitable $ood /or coo in! and camp/ires is basically a matter o/ selectin! the best material in your immediate im

area. 'o bush$al er% a/ter all% lu!s /ire$ood around more than he or she has to.

(ome /orm o/ eucalypt is /ound all over the country and dead branches o/ any one o/ this lar!e species usually ma e an e@cellent /ire. &ut there are !rades o/ e@cellence $ithin the various eucalypts. 0t is !enerally conceded that any o/ the bo@es% yello$ or !rey% the lar!e number o/ sli!htly di//erent trees commonly called ironbar % red !um and mallee ma e the best burnin!. These are /ollo$ed by the strin!y bar s $ith hi!h altitude eucalypts% such as the sno$ !um% comin! up in the rear.

The coastal and inland an!ophoras% commonly called DapplesD tend to burn less $ell and thro$ out a !ood deal o/ smo e. The acacias ($attles) ma e !ood /ire$ood i/ very dry and the lar!e ban sias are passable.

The introduced pines also provide !ood /ire$ood. &ut as they are almost entirely con/ined to !overnment or private plantations there is little chance o/ !ettin! hold o/ any o/ them /or /ire$ood. 8o$ever% i/ camped near a plantation the /allen cones can be !athered. They burn e@cellently.

All rain/orest and s$amp country trees !enerally ma e indi//erent /ire$ood and some species% even i/ very dry% $ill not burn at all.

A basic rule is that the so/ter or DpulpierD the $ood% the more in/erior the /ire.

Cnless one re!ards it as some part o/ a trainin! course% cuttin! and splittin! o/ /ire$ood can !enerally be avoided. 0t is a laborious chore and adds little to the enAoyment o/ a bush outin!.

6nce a /ire has been established $ith small $ood $hich has either been snapped or bro en across oneDs nee% lar!er lo!s can be burnt in hal/ and then /ed into the /ire by shi/tin! them into the /lame as the ends turn into coals. A reasonably $ide /ireplace is needed i/ usin! this method other$ise the coo $ill be continually trippin! over the lo!s.

&ut $ood can be split i/ necessary. )hen splittin! $ith an a@e% the best results are obtained by drivin! the blade into the bloc and then raisin! both a@e and $ood in one motion.

&y reversin! the a@e head in the air and brin!in! the head do$n $ith the $ood uppermost the bloc $ill !enerally be split.

?ire $ithout matches Apart /rom the drill and spindle method o/ startin! a /ire $ithout matches% most o/ the other devices described in this section are o/ purely DhistoricalD interest. They are instructive as tests o/ oneDs ability. &ut it should be pointed out that

almost all o/ them re1uire !reat s ill and a !reat amount o/ practice. 0t cannot be assumed that any one o/ them is !oin! to $or at the /irst attempt.

0n past centuries many in!enious methods $ere used to both ma e and preserve /ire. (ome that still survive in certain communities include the bo$ drill% /lint and steel% and an air compression chamber. 0n addition to these methods /ire can also be created by usin! a ma!ni/yin! !lass.

And there are o/ course many others% a number o/ $hich have been /or!otten. 6ne interestin! $ay to start a /ire% as a home e@periment only one should add% is the creation o/ an DinstantD /lame usin! ordinary su!ar and perman!a perman!anate o/ potash (#ondyDs crystals).

Ta e about one teaspoon o/ su!ar and about hal/ a teaspoon o/ #ondyDs crystals. ;i@ them to!ether and place them in a hollo$ cut in a piece o/ very dry $ood. 0t should be bi! enou!h to entirely contain the mi@ture.

#ut a strai!ht thin stic about 4* cm lon! so that it has a rather shallo$ point. Place the pointed end o/ the stic in the po$der and rotate it rapidly bet$een the palms o/ the hands.

The mi@ture should burst into a slo$ /lame. (everal attempts may be necessary necessary be/ore i!nition point is reached

This small e@periment is merely desi!ned to sho$ Uthat /lame can come /rom many sources.

Tinder )hile tinder is important /or startin! any /ire it is absolutely essential /or startin! one $ithout the aid o/ matches.

To be suitable it must be readily combustible and /inely /ibred. A simple test o/ the material in its natural (that is to say% unprepared) state must be made to discover $hat materials at hand are best. Ta e a loosely teased hand/ul o/ /ibre% place a small coal in it and blo$. 0/ the /ire /rom the coal 1uic ly e@tends to it and it starts smoulderin! then it is suitable.

Dry beaten !rass% /inely teased bar and palm /ibre are the materials !enerally sou!ht out. All three are improved in their ability to DcatchD a spar by bein! beaten until their /ibres are very /ine and so/t.

The natural properties o/ any tinder can also be improved by a li!ht dustin! o/ very /inely !round charcoal or% better still% by bein! thorou!hly scorched.

An old method o/ improvin! tinder used to be to soa it in a solution o/ saltpetre (potassium nitrate) /or several hours. 0t $as then allo$ed to dry out and pac ed into an airti!ht container. (altpetre% apart /rom bein! used in the saltin! o/ meat% $as an essential in!redient in !unpo$der. This type o/ tinder $as invariably made /rom teased out cotton or linen ra!.

These teased cotton or linen /ibres $ere then o/ten spun into a cord (a/ter the saltpetre impre!nation) and one end

$as lit. 0t $as called a Dslo$ matchD. These slo$ matches $ere $ere carried by troops into battle in the days o/ breech loadin! !uns and used to i!nite the initial /lash po$der that /ired the implement.

?ire /rom a spar The use o/ /lint and steel $as the common method o/ li!htin! a /ire be/ore /riction matches $ere per/ected. r/ected. 'o !reat s ill is needed /or their use.

The synthetic /lint used in a ci!arette li!hter% in this re!ard% is an improvement on the natural product. A couple o/ pieces o/ synthetic /lint embedded or !lued to a hard sur/ace ma e an e@cellent emer!ency emer!ency /ireli!htin! out/it.

An alternative to /lint and steel are t$o pieces o/ iron pyrites $hich% $hen struc to!ether% $ill thro$ o// a sho$er o/ spar s that $ill last /or about a second. 0ron pyrites and steel $ill also thro$ a hot spar . Huart= and steel or o t$o pieces o/ 1uart= $ill also thro$ spar s. 8o$ever% it is 1uite di//icult to produce these spar s Aust usin! the 1uart= by itsel/.

The spar s must /all do$n$ards onto the tinder% $hich must be blo$n into a coal and /rom this to a /lame. 6nly a

pinch o/ tinder is necessary $hen you become e@pert at startin! a /ire in this manner.

?ire /rom a ma!ni/yin! !lass Almost everyone at some time or another has /ocused the sunDs rays by concentratin! a ma!ni/yin! !lass on a piece o/ paper or cloth to ma e it bro$n and then start to smo e.

)hen usin! a ma!ni/yin! !lass to start a /ire simply substitute a ball o/ tinder /or the paper. )hen it starts to smo e /reely blo$ it into a /lame. Po$dered charcoal at the /ocal point o/ the !lass $ill help the tinder ta e more easily.

?ire by /riction ?ireli!htin! by /riction consists /irst in !eneratin! a spar or tiny coal and then nursin! this in tinder until a /lame is obtained.

0t is most easily mastered by rotatin! a $ooden drill or spindle in a /ootpiece by means o/ a bo$. 0n some methods a bo$ is not used but the spindle is merely rotated very 1uic ly bet$een the palms o/ the hands. This re1uires considerable s ill.

The components o/ the bo$ /ire drill are a headpiece% a drill% a /ootpiece and the bo$ itsel/. Assembled it is called a /ireset.

To use it the drill is put under the thon! and t$isted so that it lies on the outer side o/ it. The portion o/ the thon! nearest the handle should be on the upper side o/ the drill. This is important because i/ the thon! is the $ron! $ay on the drill it $ill cross over itsel/ and cut in a /e$ stro es. Added to this% it $ill be impossible to !et a /ull len!th stro e.

The /ootpiece has a shallo$ hole cut $ith a ni/e point into

the upper side about 1* mm /rom one ed!e. 0n this hole the drill is rotated. At the ed!e o/ the hole a 9 cut is made. This 9 should e@tend at least 5 mm into the hole itsel/.

The underside o/ the headpiece has a shallo$ hole bored into it. This is lubricated pre/erably $ith the !raphite /rom a lead pencil. ?ailin! this a smear o/ /at% or even $a@ /rom oneDs ear% $ill do.

The correct body position /or usin! the bo$ and drill is to neel on the ri!ht nee $ith the ball o/ the le/t /oot on the base plate or /ootpiece to hold it /irm.

Place the lo$er end o/ the drill in the hole in the /ootpiece and the top end o/ the drill in the underside o/ the headpiece.

Assumin!% o/ course% that the operator is ri!ht handed% the le/t hand holds the headpiece. The $rist o/ the le/t hand must be braced a!ainst the shin o/ the le/t le!. This enables the operator to hold the headpiece per/ectly steady. The headpiece% in /act% is a bearin! /or the drill.

The bo$ is held in the ri!ht hand $ith the little and third /in!er outside the thon! so that% by s1uee=in! these t$o /in!ers% the tension o/ the thon! can be increased.

)hen startin! $ith a /irebo$ /or the /irst time it is advisable to rotate the drill slo$ly to !et the /eel. -radually increase the rate o/ stro es to spin the drill /aster.

0/ the /irebo$ is bein! $or ed correctly smo e should be seen comin! /rom the /ootpiece. The operator $ill also notice that a /ine bro$n po$der is bein! /ormed. 0t should start to /orm a dar rin! around the hole. This po$der is called pun .

0/ the operator no$ stops and e@amines this pun he or she $ill discover $hether the $oods chosen are suitable /or the tas . The pun % $hich $ill eventually produce a !lo$in! red coal% must /eel sli!htly !ritty $hen rubbed bet$een the /in!ers. )ith more rubbin! it soon becomes as /ine as /ace po$der.

)hen the operator considers that he or she has mastered the operation o/ the bo$ and drill the ne@t step is to attempt to produce /ire.

Place a !enerous bundle o/ tinder under the 9 cut. )hen the drill is smo in! /reely and the pun is !rindin! out easily and the 9 cut be!ins to almost /ill% put e@tra pressure on the headpiece. At the same time ma e "* or 4* /aster stro es $ith the bo$. Li/t the drill 1uic ly and cleanly /rom the /oot-piece% /old some o/ the tinder over li!htly and blo$ !ently into the 9 cut.

0/ you see a blue thread o/ smo e risin! you can be sure you have a coal. Eou may even be able to see it !lo$in!. ?old the tinder completely over the /ootpiece and continue blo$in! into it. The volume o/ smo e should increase until the coal /inally bursts into /lame.

(ome people $ho have had !reat success $ith the /irebo$ state that e//iciency is increased and the success rate is hi!her i/ a little charcoal or !ritty material is placed in the drill hole. They say that more pun is !round out and a spar $ill be obtained more 1uic ly by doin! this.

9ery !ood /irebo$ sets can be made /rom dry $illo$ and some o/ the non-resinous native pines.

,e/inements can be made to the basic /irebo$ set. These include borin! or burnin! holes /or the thon! at the tip and throu!h the handle. The end o/ the thon! at the tip o/ the bo$ has a thumb not tied to its top side. The hole throu!h the handle ta es the lon! end o/ the thon!. This is then $ound around the handle in a series o/ hal/ hitches. This enables the operator to adAust the tension $ith !reater accuracy.

Li e$ise a headpiece o/ shell or smooth-!rained stone $ith a shallo$ indentation in it is less liable to burn than a headpiece made o/ $ood.

?ire by compression ;any people in parts o/ (outh-<ast Asia used to ma e /ire by usin! a compression cylinder.

)hen a plun!er is suddenly rammed do$n hard $ithin a cylinder onto a piece o/ tinder the air temperature $ithin the tube rises sharply. This rise is su//icient to li!ht a piece o/ tinder.

?ire-ma in! sets $ere usually made /rom a cylinder o/

bone or hollo$ bamboo $ith either a bone or a $ooden piston. To use the device a small piece o/ tinder is inserted into a cavity in the lo$er end o/ the piston. The piston is then placed in the cylinder and the /lattened top head struc a sharp s blo$ $ith the palm o/ the hand. This drives it suddenly do$n the cylinder. The compression and subse1uent rise in air temperature usually creates a small% !lo$in! coal in the tinder.

?re1uently the Aar o/ the blo$ $ill sha e the tinder loose so a Dspar Dspar removerD is used to e@tract it.

The dimensions o/ one o/ these spar in! sets are rou!hly as /ollo$s.

#yclinder2 1*-15 15 cm lon!G outside diameter% ".5 cmG inside diameter% 1 1-" cm.

Piston2 1*-15 15 cm lon! o/ $hich the sha/t is bet$een 8 8-1" cm. Piston len!th2 "-".5 ".5 cm. Diameter is ine@act but it should /it snu!ly inside the cylinder $hile allo$in! /ree movement. ,ecess at lo$er end o/ piston about 5 mm $ide by 5 mm to 3 mm deep.

Piston sha/t end is smooth $ith a small stri in! sur/ace cap about 4 cm or so across acro 7 $ide enou!h to ta e a hard blo$ $ith the /lat o/ the hand.

?ires /or all occasions There is a sayin! amon! e@perienced bush$al ers $hich !oes% DThe bi!!er the /ire the bi!!er the /ool.D 0t is a remar $ell $orth rememberin!.

There are several other points about li!htin! /ires in bush country $hich should be remembered. A /ire should never be lit at the /oot o/ a standin! tree. 'ever li!ht a /ire that you cannot control. 'ever leave a /ire burnin! $hen you leave camp. Al$ays li!ht any sort o/ /ire on clear% brushed !round. Do not build it on litter% $hether it is $oodland lea/ piles or areas o/ dried !rass. A sudden !ust o/ $ind can thro$ spar s into this litter and this in turn can 1uic ly /lare up and !et out o/ control. As a !eneral rule% even a small /ire /or a sin!le billy should sit in the middle o/ a cleared area about " metres across.

#ampers and $al ers should also remember that durin! summer at the hei!ht o/ the bush/ire dan!er season both (tate !overnment and local authorities can impose total /ire bans. These bans normally e@tend /rom :.** a.m. to 9.** p.m. Durin! these hours no open /ire o/ any sort can be lit /or any purpose $hatsoever. #ampers and $al ers areG advised $hen considerin! campin! at the hei!ht o/ summer to /ind out $hat re!ulations are in /orce in their area.

They should also% i/ $al in! in national par areas% ta e note o/ the /ire dan!er indicators posted at most maAor entrance points o/ these areas. 0/ the indication is De@tremeD% even thou!h thei2e is no total ban% e@treme care should be ta en in handlin! any sort o/ camp/ire. 0t should be thorou!hly enclosed by stones or a dirt $all and it should not be allo$ed to burn throu!h the ni!ht. Avoid usin! material that sends up sho$ers o/ spar s. >eep a billy o/ $ater handy at all times /or dampin! a /ire do$n under these circumstances.

9arious types o/ coo in! /ires and /ires /or di//icult condi

tions have been covered in detail in #hapter 4% #ampcra/t. &ut there are as many di//erent approaches to /ires and /irema in! as there are campers. The /ollo$in! are a /e$ /or di//erent purposes that the author has /ound use/ul.

?ires /or $armth 0/ cau!ht out at ni!ht $ithout sleepin! ba!s or any beddin! $hatsoever% select the site /or your /ire a!ainst a dead lo!% havin! made sure that it is not a hidin! place /or sna es.

A sin!le lo! $ill rarely burn by itsel/ unless there is a stron! drau!ht blo$in! directly into it. There/ore to eep it ali!ht% it must be /ed $ith at least one other lo!. This can be done by selectin! a solid% /airly lon! branch about "* cm thic i/ possible. &uild a /ire a!ainst the lar!er lo! already in position and then dra! the point o/ the smaller branch into this /ire. As the smaller lo! burns do$n durin! the ni!ht it can be pushed /or$ard into the /ire.

Alternatively% lay a number o/ lo!s in the shape o/ a star and push the ends o/ each to!ether /rom time to time to eep up the stren!th o/ the /ire. A small lo! pushed a!ainst a dead

/allen tree $ill !ive ade1uate $armth on a cold ni!ht. &ut !reat care must be ta en the ne@t day to ma e sure that it is completely out.

6ther protective /ires A solid lo! $all $ith an interior pyramid $ill provide an e@cellent /ire /or $armth once it is $ell ali!ht. This is one o/ the best o/ all camp/ires. Three or /our lo!s over 1 metre metre lon! are laid side by side and over and across them another three or /our. A third layer can be built up i/ desired. 6n top o/ the /inal layer the startin! /ire is l laid. This is built up li e a small pyramid. )hen this starter /ire is

burnin! it i!nites s the lo!s belo$ $ith /allin! coals and so burns do$n$ards. 0t radiates heat evenly all round and re1uires no attention durin! the ni!ht.

&ecause there is very little ris o/ the /ire /allin! in the ris o/ spar s spreadin! out$ards and startin! a bush/ire is minimised.

A common mista e in buildin! a camp/ire is to build a Dpi!styD shaped construction $ith heavy lo!s on the outside and the inside pac ed ti!htly $ith brush$ood. (uch /ires are rarely a success. The li!ht $ood inside burns out 1uic lyG but the heavy outer lo!s lac su//icient heat to !et them properly ali!ht. AC-round heat radiation is also poor.

0/ the Dpi!styD method is to be used% the top t$o layers should be completely across the uppermost part o/ the construction. These t$o layers% $hen ali!ht% !et plenty o/ air /rom belo$ a/ter the brush$ood has burnt out. The heat !enerated $ill be re/lected do$n$ards !ivin! !ood radiation.

A cone /ire o/ten !ives e@cellent results $ith $et $ood or in $et conditions. (tand the lo!s on their ends and build up the /ire in a cone or pyramid shape. Li!htly pac the centre $ith brush$ood and other indlin! and then /ire it. As the core burns a$ay the lo!s /all in$ards% constantly /eedin! the heart o/ the /ire.

&ush/ire sense 0/ cau!ht in a bush/ire the /irst rule% $hich can be e@tremely di//icult to remember in times o/ e@treme dan!er% is to try not to panic.

Try to avoid panic runnin! and run only $hen necessary. Cse every means that $ill shield you /rom radiated heat% $hich is the most dan!erous. Ta e re/u!e in du!outs% runnin! streams and ponds. Do not ho$ever attempt to see sa/ety in elevated or ordinary $ater tan s as you $ill literally boil.

)hen the smo e is very dense try to limit the breathin!. DonDt !asp. <ven in the $orst smo e situations small Dpoc -etsD o/ clean air pu// throu!h /rom time to time. ,emember the air nearest the !round is most li ely to contain the least smo e.

0/% in the case o/ a !rass /ire% you are /orced to run throu!h the /lames% cover all e@posed sur/aces as best you can% ta e a /e$ deep breaths to carry you throu!h the $orst and /rom then on do not hesitate. (toppin! is /atal. Attempt to choose a path that is relatively /ree o/ obstacles.

0/ your clothin! catches /ire do not run. This merely /ans the /lames and in/licts severe burns. &eat out the /ire i/ possible $ith your hands. 0/ a blan et is available $rap yoursel/ in it and roll on the !round. This $ill !enerally smother the /lames. 0/ you see another person on /ire and runnin! in panic hurl them to the !round and beat out the /lames $ith your hands or smother the /lames as best you can. Eou $ill still !et burned even /ollo$in! this advice but the burns are not li ely to be /atal.

Cnder no circumstances attempt to cross /lames that are more than a metre and a hal/ hi!h% or more than 1* metres in depth% or that have entered the treetops 7 no$n as a cro$n /ire. To do so is li ely to be /atal.

0/ there are no places o/ re/u!e% such as $aterholes% lie /lat on the !round% havin! covered yoursel/ as best you can% on the barest piece o/ !round available or in any sort o/ depression (a culvert% a rut) or behind roc s or lo!s.

,esist your immediate impulse to run /rom an encirclin! /ire unless you believe you can outrun it. ?ires move at ama=in! speed. 0/ you decide on this course o/ action on no account run uphill. )ind conditions in a stron! /ire /orce /ires to move uphill and they do this at remar able speed. Attempt to $or out an escape route $hich is do$nhill.

?i!htin! /ires A !round /ire can be /ou!ht by either beatin! it out or by ma in! a /irebrea . 0/ it is purely a !rass bla=e use !reen% lea/y branches to attac it% beatin! the /ront bac to$ards the position already blac ened. )hen bush and lo$ scrub are ali!ht you may be able to control it $ith branches but $et sac in! is /ar more e//icient.

0/ the /ire e@tends on a lon! /ront% too $ide /or you to attac % or i/ it is /anned by a hi!h $ind% your best de/ence is to attempt to burn a /irebrea bet$een yourselves and the advancin! /ront.

(elect a line /or the /irebrea $here the !rass or scrub is thinnest. Li!ht a small area at /irst and /orce the /lames to$ards the oncomin! /ront. &eat out any that attempt to move bac on you. Eour /irebrea should start to move a!ainst the $ind to$ards the oncomin! /lames in the drau!ht created by the heated air bet$een the /ire and your /irebrea .

0/ protectin! your camp% e@tend your /irebrea in a $ide semicircle around the bush/ire side. )hen the approachin! /ire reaches the ends o/ your /irebrea be ready to attac it i/ it starts to burn bac a!ainst the $ind.

A lar!e /orest /ire is a much more dan!erous proposition. There is little that one or t$o people or a small party can do a!ainst such a bla=e $ithout pro/essional /ire/i!htin! e1uipment. ?ires such as these can leap /irebrea s over "** metres $ide.

0/ you no$ a /orest /ire is in the area move out as soon as possible% even i/ it appears to you to be many ilometres a$ay and burnin! in the opposite direction.

)inds can veer in a matter o/ hours brin!in! the /ire to your campsite $ith /ri!htenin! speed.

As a !eneral rule it is sheer /olly to !o bush$al in! or campin! at a time o/ total /ire ban% e@treme bush/ire dan!er% or $here /ires are no$n to be burnin!. 0/ you /eel you must bush$al at these times choose hal/-day or one-day $al s. Leave lon!er tre s to the cooler and sa/er months.

3 Animal habits The ability to reco!nise animals in the Australian bush is o/ enormous bene/it to the hi er. Apart /rom the pleasure o/ becomin! one o/ a rather select band o/ people $ho can tell one bird or mammal /rom another% species identi/ication

(especially $ith birds) can lead you to $aterholes% sources o/ $ild /ood and in the case o/ semi-$ild cattle% a more or less easy path over a rid!e or other natural obstacle.

The ability to identi/y species also ensures that you stay out o/ dan!er. Althou!h Australia possesses no dan!erous land mammals it has the dubious distinction o/ harbourin! the $orldDs most venomous sna es and t$o o/ the most poisonous spiders. )hile /atalities are rare% no$in! the habits o/ both sna es and spiders can prevent unnecessary bush accidents.

As has been stressed else$here in this boo % almost all native animals in Australia are protected and it is an o//ence to ill them.

Trac s and their meanin! Althou!h it is $ell- no$n that the Abori!ines% li e any hunter-!atherer race% could trac almost anythin! any$here% centuries o/ urban civilisation have ta en this s ill a$ay /rom most o/ us. 0n addition to this% Australia% because o/ its dryness% is a particularly hard continent to trac anythin! in. 6n a drou!ht-stric en claypan% almost no animal leaves a discernible mar to the <uropean eye.

;ost boo s on animal trac s and their meanin! come /rom the northern hemisphere. And invariably they sho$ the trac s o/ the animal throu!h sno$% because $inter $as the time o/ the year $hen /ur trappers $ent in search o/ their prey and hun!ry people $ere loo in! /or somethin! to put into the coo in! pot.

To re-use an Australian collo1uialism% even &lind ?reddy could both identi/y and then /ollo$ the trac s o/ any animal throu!h sno$ .?ollo$in! and identi/yin! trac s o/ an animal on a saltbed or claypan are a rather di//erent challen!e.

There are t$o easy areas $here species can be identi/ied by the trac s they leave ho$ever. The /irst is alon! a seacoast estuary or sur/ beach at lo$ tide. The second is at the sides o/ a billabon!% soa % or inland tan .

#ertain animals also leave trails that are impossible not to identi/y. The easiest animal to /ollo$ in this respect is the $ombat. The $ombat is a creature o/ habit. 8e doesnDt so much ma e a trac /rom his burro$ to his /eedin! areas 7 he ma es a road% as $ide as a co$path and as much trampled. A $ombat trail is unmista able. 6ne doesnDt even have to loo /or /ootprints.

6ther Australian marsupials% such as the carnivorous pouched mouse% also ma e roads% althou!h one has to loo more closely to spot them.

0/ one $al s throu!h a /ield o/ native !rass and comes to a bare patch% one can then see tunnels every$here $here the tall !rass be!ins a!ain. 6ne can also see these tunnels in beds o/ reeds. 0n areas $here there are rotted stumps and lo!s one can also see di!!in! mar s $here the echidna or the numbat has searched /or a termite dinner.

(i!nposts (the $ombat aside) in the Australian bush are very subtle% li e the !rey-!reen o/ the eucalypts themselves. <arly <uropean settlers /ound !reat di//iculty in understandin! this lo$- ey approach o/ nature. They $ere used to seein! the red brush o/ a /o@ a!ainst a /ield o/ vivid !reen. (pottin! a !rey-!reen $allaby a!ainst an e1ually !rey-!reen eucalypt $as much more di//icult. And /ollo$in! the trac s o/ an animal that hopped $as even more di//icult. 0nstead o/ a 1* cm !ap bet$een pu! mar s one had to learn to /ollo$ !aps o/ up to " metres. The early settlers soon redressed the

balance% importin! the rabbit and the /o@ amon! other vermin to ma e trac in! much easier.

&ird trac s A bird that normally lives and /eeds in the trees hops alon! the !round. &ecause o/ this the cla$ mar s o/ both /eet are placed (to the observerDs eye that is) to!ether.

The cla$ mar s o/ a bird that $al s and there/ore is a !round/eeder 7 $hether on carrion% seeds or !rain 7 has a distinctly an!ular or $al in! !ait.

0n the mar s o/ a bird that di!s /or its livin! there is% in addition to the $al in! !ait% a stron! impression o/ a stron! hind cla$% usually deeply indented.

0n yet another set o/ cla$ mar s on the !round% i/ the centre DtoeD is much lon!er than the others it indicates that the bird scratches to earn its livin!. &irds $ith this s set o/ DprintsDare usually eaters o/ subsur/ace insects.

Talon-li li e cla$ mar s indicate a carrion /eeder% such as a cro$% and a sli!ht impression o/ a $eb in mar s le/t in areas near $ater indicate that the bird probably is a s$immer. As $ith all mar s a number o/ birds in any one o/ the aboveabove mentioned species may deviate. ;arsh birds such as the moorhen and the s$amp hen% althou!h they can s$im% rarely do% and do not have $ebbed /eet. 'either do the $ater-lovin! $ater lovin! herons (the most common bein! the $hite $hite-/aced)% let alone the vast number o/ smaller $ater and ed!e-o/ o/-the-$ater $ater birds such as sandpipers and !od$its.

;ammal trac s 0n the mammal $orld trac s are e1ually revealin! in a !eneral sense. Althou!h it has been stated that man indDs success in dominatin! ! the planet is due to the opposable thumb $hich !ave the hominid race a /acility that no other animal ever possessed% certain o/ the ape /amily (the chimpan=ee bein! about the best e@ample) also have a rudimentary opposable thumb. Apart /rom man% in the $orld $orld o/ mammals this !enerally means that they possess the ability to climb trees% althou!h once a!ain this is not necessarily so.

)here the cla$s o/ the centre toes are most prominent in mammal trac s this usually means that the animal in 1uestion is an earth di!!er or burro$er. There is no si!n o/ any /orm o/ a prehensile thumb.

?lesh-eatin! animals usually leave trac s that have pronounced toes. These heavy toemar s indicate that the animal uses its le!s as a /orm o/ Dsprin!boardD $hen runnin!.

A completely di//erent set o/ trac s is made by all !ra=in! animals. 8avin! neither climbin! DthumbsD to escape /rom enemies% nor di!!in! tools to escape by burro$in!% their only means o/ ecscape is by runnin!.

0n the Australian bush not all D/ootprintsD are studied on the !round. 0/ you e@amine the side o/ a leanin! !um tree7 the slope that is o/ten called the Dup$ardD side7you $ill see a number o/ scratch mar s o/ varyin! a!es. These scratches mean that the tree is a DroadD /or possums and perhaps oalas. Possums either live in the dead hollo$s or come to the tree ni!htly to /eed on the youn! leaves or mistletoe berries. &y loo in! up at a tree you should be able to tell 1uic ly i/ it is bein! used /or /eedin! or /or livin! 1uarters. 0/ it is a tree that is bein! used /or livin!% it $ill have many dead limbs% $hich $ill be hollo$. These provide com/ortable homes /or many species o/ possums.

Dan!erous sna es There is no part o/ Australia that is sna e /ree% althou!h they are not normally /ound in lar!e urban spra$ls. (na es have the ability% li e some o/ our other $ild creatures% to ma e themselves at home almost any$here.

Althou!h it is usually stated that sna es $ill !et out o/ the $ay o/ any $al er% there are times o/ the year $hen they $ill either stand their !round and attac or actually pursue a person. This is particularly true o/ the red-bellied blac sna e and the bro$n sna es durin! the sprin! matin! seasons A bush$al er should automatically avoid sna es i/ they are si!hted. They should be le/t alone and not provo ed.

6/ the 15* or so sna es in this country 15 are re!arded as

hi!hly poisonous. The most dan!erous o/ all our sna es is the small small-scaled scaled or /ierce sna e% once thou!ht to be a subspecies o/ taipan. 0t $as only reclassi/ied as a completely ne$ typ type e in the 193*s. The small-scaled small sna e is an inland creature% its natural territory bein! the arid country $here the borders o/ 'e$ (outh )ales% (outh Australia% Hueensland and 'orthern Territory more or less Aoin.

6thers in this hi!hly deadly !roup are the taipan ($et east coast o/ Hueensland and the 'orthern Territory) % the death adder (all (tates e@cept 9ictoria)% the bro$n sna es (all (tates e@cept Tasmania)% the in! bro$n or mul!a (all (tates e@cept 9ictoria and Tasmania and e@cludin! the $et east coast o/ 'e$ (outh )ales)% the rou!h-scaled or #larence ,iver sna e ('e$ (outh )ales)% the copperhead (/ound in Tasmania% 9ictoria and certain inland areas o/ 'e$ (outh )ales)% and the red-bellied blac sna e ($etter areas o/ 'e$ (outh )ales and Hueensland and 9ictoria).

&elo$ this dan!er level there are other venomous sna es $hich can ma e a person sic but are not normally /atal. They are the blac $hip sna e ('orthern Australia)% the broad-headed sna e (Hueensland rain/orests) and the small-eyed sna e (Hueensland).

6ur sub-tropical and tropical $aters also harbour the bea ed sea sna e. This is an international rather than an

Australian animal. 0ts venom is re!arded as bein! as lethal as that o/ the taipan. 8o$ever% sea sna es rarely attac anyone% bein! more curious than anythin! else. All sea sna es have a habit o/ inspectin! s in divers at their leisure and /rom a /e$ centimetres a$ay. This can be unnervin!. 0n !eneral sea sna es are only really dan!erous i/ cau!ht in a net or a /ish trap.

Althou!h sna es are cold-blooded creatures% in Australia because o/ the $arm summer ni!hts many species% especially the blac sna es% hunt in the evenin!s. Their prey consists o/ /ro!s% rats% mice and any other small creatures they can s$allo$. Particular care should there/ore be ta en i/ /ishin! an inland river% stream or la!oon at ni!ht as they $ill o/ten be patrollin! the ed!e as much as you are.

6ther simple sa/ety measures include not po in! around in hollo$ lo!s $ith bare hands% ta in! care $hen shi/tin! any bush lo! /or your campsite and eepin! the site clear o/ debris and lar!e stac s o/ items. (na es love $oodheaps so eep yours small and airy.

As a !eneral rule% unless sunnin! themselves in a secluded spot% sna es do not li e open !round. They pre/er to travel in cover. There/ore be cautious $hen crossin! stretches o/ dry !rassland.

?irst aid /or sna e and spider bites The old bush method o/ treatin! a bite /rom a venomous sna e or spider used to be to slash the $ound $ith a ra=or blade% allo$ it to bleed /reely% rub #ondyDs crystals into the slashed area and apply a ti!ht tourni1uet to the limb% bet$een the bite and the heart. This method is no$ re!arded as bein! more dan!erous than help/ul.

A ti!ht tourni1uet ($hich has to be eased every 4* minutes to prevent dama!e to the limb) is no$ only applied to the limb in the case o/ a bite by AustraliaDs most venomous sea and land creatures. These are the (ydney /unnel-$eb spider% the blue-rin!ed octopus and the bo@ Aelly/ish.

0n all other cases o/ bites a completely ne$ approach is no$ used. ;edical authorities have /ound that i/ /irm pressure is applied immediately to the bitten area and the patient ept as still as possible the venom can be ept /rom movin! throu!h the bloodstream.

6nce a person is bitten a ti!ht banda!e (pre/erably crepe) should be $ound around the a//ected area. 0/ no banda!e is available any material $ill do 7 a shirt% sin!let% T-shirt% even strips o/ denim /rom someoneDs trousers in an emer!ency. A lar!e area o/ the bitten limb should be bound. Pressure should be about as ti!ht as that used /or supportin! a sprain.

The limb should then be splinted usin! any stron! stic % aluminium tent pole% or a combination o/ both. This splint should be bound over the banda!e so that it holds it /irm.

This dual pressure prevents most movement. The patient should be made to eep as still as possible. This banda!e can be le/t on until the patient reaches or is ta en to a /irst aid station or hospital.

6n no account should the bite be cut.

(piders Australia has t$o e@tremely dan!erous spiders. The /irst is the red-bac $hich is /ound all over the continent. The second% the (ydney /unnel-$eb% is normally con/ined to rou!hly a "** m radius around that centre 7 althou!h there are si!ns that over about the past 1* years it has started to spread /urther $est$ards. (pecimens (isolated only) are no$ bein! discovered in the central $est o/ 'e$ (outh )ales.

The red-bac spider $ill hide in almost anythin!% in a hollo$ lo!% a tin% under dry bar . Almost any noo and cranny can contain one. #ampsite rubbish heaps are a /avourite 7 another reason /or disposin! o/ $aste material immediately. #ountry outhouse toilets seem to be one o/ their /avourite hidin! places.

Althou!h the red-bac is e@tremely small its venom is hi!hly to@ic. 8o$ever% it acts slo$ly. The treatment is as /or sna ebite. &ut the patient should be immediately ta en to the nearest hospital /or an antivenene inAection. (ome e@perts advise not restrictin! the bitten area in any $ay% claimin! it can increase the pain /rom the bite. 0mmediately a/ter bein! bitten the victim $ill start to /eel /aint and dro$sy.

0/ bitten by a /unnel-$eb spider the victim starts to s$eat heavily and soon becomes unconscious. This is one sort o/ bite that re1uires a tourni1uet ti!ht enou!h to stop the /lo$ o/ blood. ,elease this tourni1uet every 4* minutes or so to prevent dama!e to the limb and !et the patient to hospital as 1uic ly as possible.

0/ bitten by any spider% i/ possible either capture it yoursel/ or !et someone else to catch it. 8ospital sta// /ind this a !reat help in identi/yin! it so the correct antivenene can be administered.

There are other spiders in the country that can in/lict a pain/ul and semi-venomous semi bite.

They include the $ol/ spiders and many other huntin! spiders. 9ery 9ery little is no$n about the venom o/ most o/ the Australian arachnids but it can be reasonably assumed that 1uite a number o/ them are dan!erous.

&ecause o/ this% avoid touchin! or comin! into contact $ith spiders as much as possible. 0/ one ali!hts on your y clothin! brush it o// rapidly. 0/ you are in any doubt or /eel at all un$ell a/ter you have been bitten% catch the spider and !o to the th nearest hospital. (ome spider venom can ta e up to ei!ht hours to a//ect a person so there is no need to panic.

&ush tic s

&ush tic s are /ound all do$n the relatively $et east coast o/

Australia /rom Hueensland to 9ictoria. Althou!h not usually lethal they can ma e a person very sic indeed.

;any o/ the nationDs national par s% sanctuaries and $al in! trails are alon! alon! this east coast belt% so a /air number o/ people !et bitten by tic s. (ome people have the belie/ that tic s are /ound only in rain/orest re!ions. &ut this is not so. They occur in relatively open /orest in many re!ions.

The tic drops /rom a branch% lea/ / or !rass blade onto its host% burro$s into the s in and proceeds to /atten itsel/ by suc in! blood. To ensure that the blood o/ the host does not coa!ulate durin! its /eedin! cycle 7 $hich usually lasts three to /our days 7 it inAects a poison that event eventually causes paralysis.

Tic s have a habit o/ /indin! an out-o/-the the-$ay $ay place on the human body to /eed% so that they $ill not be brushed o// be/ore they properly establish themselves. ?avourite places are in the scalp% behind an ear and lo$ do$n on the bac ba about belt line.

A person may not no$ he has a tic /astened to him or her. A/ter $al in! in a rain/orest area it is al$ays advisable to or!anise a !roup search.

Tic s must not be pulled out o/ the body any old $ay. At the /irst pressure they !rip hard. 0/ pulled then the body $ill be torn /rom the head $hich $ill remain buried beneath the s in. The $ound $ill 1uic ly turn septic and the scar may remain /or several months.

The best method is to touch the body o/ the tic $ith a hot match head% a li!hted li!hted ci!arette or dab it $ith erosene or methylated spirits. This causes the tic to start bac $ards out o/ the /lesh. At this point it should be pulled out $ith the

/in!ers in a sharp movement or $ith a pair o/ t$ee=ers. ,emember it must be !ripped belo$ the DshouldersD 7 $here the head meets the body.

)hen they /irst ali!ht on a person tic s are almost invisible but they 1uic ly s$ell up $ith blood to about 1 cm $ide and loo li e a little /at% blac balloon on the s inDs sur/ace.

Althou!h cats seem to have a built-in in immunity to tic poison% do!s are very vulnerable.

(erious tic poisonin! can be treated $ith a tic antivenene. 0/ a/ter visitin! a no$n tic area you /ind di//iculty in $al in! or co-ordinatin! ordinatin! your movements in any $ay visit your doctor. The tic $ill not be on you a/ter a /e$ days% havin! dropped o// a/ter /eedin!% but the poison $ill remain.

&ush leeches Leeches are /ound in any rain/orest area or $here the bush is very $et under/oot. They can either he pulled o// or removed by a dab o/ salt. <ither $ay% because the anticoa!ulant that they inAect into the bloodstream $hile /eed /eed-

in!% % the $ound $ill continue to bleed /or a considerable time a/ter they have been removed. Althou!h they can land any$here on the body% the an les and inside boots are /avourite tar!ets. ;ost leeches can creep throu!h the eyeholes o/ lace-up $al in! boots. (oap oap in the eyelets is said to deter them. There are also several commercial insect repellents $hich% i/ sprayed on the boots and the an les be/ore $al in!% $ill do the tric .

Ants Australia holds the record in yet another dubious cate!ory o/ havin! possibly possibly the $orldDs most dan!erous ant. 0t is the blac bulldo! ant (;yrmecia /or/icata) o/ the coastal re!ions.

T$o /atalities have been o//icially recorded /rom the stin! o/ this ant% one in the ;t ;acpdon area o/ 9ictoria in the 194*s and another in Tasmania a in 19:4. &oth victims died $ithin 15 minutes o/ bein! bitten.

All o/ the lar!er species% no$n !enerally as bull ants% especially one no$n as Bumpin! Bac 7 $hich $ill actually de/end its path$ay by leapin! at an opponent% no matter ho$ lar!e% should be treated $ith caution.

The stin!s% in the tail% are e@ceedin!ly pain/ul but they !enerally $ear o// a/ter a time. 8o$ever% some people are aller!ic to ant stin!s (as others are to bee and $asp stin!s). 0/ the s$ellin! continues to increase and the $hole li limb starts

to pu// up a/ter several hours (instead o/ subsidin!) medical treatment should be sou!ht.

0n normal circumstances a cloth saturated $ith cold $ater $ill relieve both the pain and the s$ellin!. #alamine lotion also helps.

#entipedes Althou!h most t people canDt stand the si!ht o/ them% centipedes are relatively harmless in the Australian bush. They can and do bite and are sli!htly venomous. 9ery /e$ people su//er any a/ter-e//ects. a/ter

#entipedes see $armth at ni!ht and can o/ten be /ound nestlin! either either in or under sleepin! ba!s.

(ea creatures As mentioned% both the bo@ Aelly/ish (sea $asp) and the blue rin!ed octopus are hi!hly dan!erous. The bo@ Aelly/ish% $hich is /ound in all tropical and sub-tropical tropical $aters durin! the summer months% can ill a pe person in about 4* minutes i/ the bites have been severe.

The best advice here is to avoid. DonDt !o s$immin! in tropical or sub-tropical sub tropical $aters durin! the summer months. The sur/ may be invitin! but it could also be /atal.

0/ someone is stun! by a bo@ Aelly/ish% /ish% dra! him or her /rom the $ater as 1uic ly as possible. Avoid touchin! the entan!lin! tentacles yoursel/ other$ise you $ill be stun! as $ell. And this is $here alcohol% normally shunned in any

medical treatment /or anythin!% comes into its o$n. ?lood the tentacles and the stin! mar s $ith methylated spirits i/ possible. This $ill ill the livin! darts still in the tentacles and prevent /urther stin!in!. 0/ you donDt have methylated

spirits% any spirit $ill do 7 $his y% rum% !in or vod a. 0t is not as hi!h in alcohol content as methylated spirits so more o/ it $ill have to be used to ill the stin!in! barbs.

0/ the victim stops breathin! apply mouth to mouth resuscitation immediately. 0t is a !ood idea to ta e a course in this most valuable s ill i/ you are plannin! a lot o/ campin!. 9oluntary or!anisations in most (tates $ill $illin!ly !ive instructions.

The victim should then be ta en to the nearest hospital as 1uic ly as possible to receive an inAection o/ antivenene.

The treatment is essentially the same /or the bite o/ the blue-rin!ed octopus.

Another common sea creature o// Australian beaches durin! the summer months is the bluebottle. They !et $ashed up on sur/ beaches in their thousands. They are relatively easy to spot as they /loat in colonies in or Aust beyond the sur/ line.

0/ you see them% stay out o/ the $ater. 8o$ever i/ you are bitten douse the stin!in! $elt $ith methylated spirits and then apply vine!ar. This usually eases the pain.

9ine!ar can also be used to ease the bites o/ the almost invisible sea louse that also turns up in the sur/% usually in the early summer months. This bite is irritatin! but no more than that. 8o$ever% some people are more aller!ic to the bites than others. The bites appear as lar!e round red $elts on the s in% more or less li e hu!e /lea bites. 0/ necessary% treatment can be sou!ht /rom a hospital. &ut as stated these bites are uncom/ortable but not hi!hly dan!erous.

Poisonin! Althou!h there is less dan!er o/ bein! poisoned by the products o/ man ind in the bush% accidents sometimes occur. 0n some cases the poison can be diluted in the stomach by mil % in other cases vomitin! can be induced by a commercial syrup (available /rom any chemist) no$n as 0pecac. 0t is $ise to pac a bottle o/ this in any /irst-aid it.

T$1% o/ the most dan!erous poisons are those that are al aline and those that are acid. 0n both cases the patient should not be made to vomit . Lar!e amounts o/ mil % $hich soothes !astric irritations and dilutes the acid or al ali% should be !iven. ?ailin! the availability o/ mil % i/ possible the patient should be made to drin lar!e 1uantities o/ $ater. 0n both cases hospital treatment should be sou!ht as soon as possible.

0n the case o/ /ood poisonin! (ptomaine) one o/ the most

common problems is that the patient is unable to vomit. 0n those cases 0pecac syrup should be !iven.

0/ the poison is on the s in% $ash very $ell $ith soap and $aterG i/ in the eyes% the eyelids should be held open and the eyes bathed $ith $arm $ater.

0/ the poison is inhaled the victim should be ta en or dra!!ed into the /resh air. 0/ the patient is overcome and there is a pulse but no breathin! be!in mouth-to-mouth resuscitation immediately. Loosen all clothin!.

?irst-aid its A /irst-aid it can be lar!e or small. 0t depends on the needs o/ the party and their ability to carry the e@tra !ear. 0n car campin!% o/ course% $ei!ht is not a problem and a comprehensive it should al$ays be carried.

0t should include dressin!s% !au=e and crepe banda!es% adhesive dressin!s% cotton $ool% scissors and needles (/or removin! splinters). A bottle o/ iodine% althou!h some$hat old-/ashioned% is !ood /or preventin! $ounds /rom /esterin! and there should also be a tube o/ antiseptic cream. As mentioned earlier a bottle o/ 0pecac syrup is also handy% plus a small bottle o/ methylated spirits.

A/ter that it is up to the individial to include such thin!s as aspirin% sunburn cream% calamine lotion (/or insect bites and stin!s) and any personal medication that is used on a re!ular basis. ?or instance i/ one su//ers /rom eye strain or eye irritation% eye drops are handy% other$ise $arm $ater is as !ood as anythin!.

There is no need to buy a commercially manu/actured it% complete $ith a red cross on the tin. Eour chemist $ill ma e one up /or you at hal/ the cost and any $aterti!ht container $ill do.

8 Travel and $eather Althou!h most $al ers travel on no$n trac s% rou!h maps o/ $hich are o/ten provided by par s and $ildli/e authorities% there are times $hen one /aces more or less un no$n country. The central mappin! authorities o/ the various (tates all provide detailed maps o/ various sections o/ the country.

A map o/ your intended or /avourite $al in! area should al$ays be obtained and ept in your pac at all times. 'atural and man made disasters can o/ten alter the /ace o/ any !iven stretch o/ land. 0n this case a map $ill help you reco!nise the salient /eatures and !et your bearin!s.

The ri!ht !ear is also essential /or the enAoyment o/ any bush holiday. And althou!h a be$ilderin! variety o/ campin! essentials and aids is no$ available some can be improvised on the spot.

The serious bush$al er is advised to ta e a course in map readin! either throu!h instruction /rom a reco!nised club or% more in/ormally% $ith the help o/ e@perienced /riends.

Plottin! a course &e/ore you set out on a Aourney throu!h the bush !et hold o/ a map o/ the area. The best maps are those prepared by the (tate mappin! authorities.

Any map is a plan o/ a section o/ country. &ein! a plan it is dra$n to a scale or proportion and this is nearly al$ays sho$n prominently at the /oot o/ the map. 0t should also sho$ both true and ma!netic north. -overnment maps al$ays sho$

both and indicate the de!ree o/ error. Thus the !ood map $ill sho$ !rid north% true north and ma!netic north. Cnderneath it $ill also carry the le!end% DTrue north% !rid north and ma!netic north are sho$n dia!ramatically /or the centre o/ the map. ;a!netic north is correct /or 1935 and moves easterly by *.1M in appro@imately three years.D

This is important $hen you are attemptin! to !et an accurate rec onin!. #ommercial maps printed by private /irms do not o/ten contain this in/ormation.

The o//icial maps also !ive avera!e rain/all and temperature patterns /or all months o/ the year% $hich is e@tremely use/ul in plannin! a trip. Added to that they $ill !ive speci/ic dates as to the total accuracy o/ the chart% thus DAerial photo!raphy 1931% /ield revision 1933% printin! 1981.D This enables you to record chan!es (most o/ the chan!es bein! man-made) and also to ma e allo$ances /or any such chan!es in plannin! your route.

0/ true and ma!netic north is not sho$n on the map remember to add both be/ore settin! out. (ho$ true north as a stron! line and ma!netic north as a dotted one.

Then study and learn all the other symbols used in the mapG built-up (settled urban) areas% the various types o/ roads and their sur/aces 7 remember that these can chan!e 7 and rail$ays% po$er lines and the li e. A !ood map $ill also indicate the !round cover as $ell as the land contours% indicatin! $here there is either dense cover or medium timber% lo$ scrub and so on. 0t $ill also sho$ (tate /orests% recreation areas% shire and parish catchment areas% mine subsidence areas and even such man-made plantin!s as orchards and $indbrea s.

Althou!h once a!ain some o/ these /eatures are subAect to chan!e% especially i/ the last survey $as some years bac % they still $ill !ive you valuable clues as to your $hereabouts i/ you ta e care to read them properly.

(ometimes you $ill be ma in! a Aourney that $ill cross /rom one map area to another. Ta e both maps. This sounds li e very obvious advice but it is remar able ho$ many people assume that the lie o/ the land is not !oin! to alter /rom one !rid area to another and decide to !et by by

!uess$or or by Das in! alon! the $ay.D (tran!er thin!s have happened.

Lo!!in! a route and ma in! a chart A lo! is a record o/ the essential in/ormation about your Aourney. Althou!h it is unnecessary /or short $al s alon! $ellde/ined trails% on lon!er Aourneys it /orces you to study the country eenly and reco!nise it.

)hen ma in! your /irst lo! do not% as a !eneral rule% use !ro$in! /eatures to mar chan!es in your route. This is 1uite a !eneral error and perhaps comes /rom childhood maps o/ mythical buried treasure. ,emember that the Dlar!e dead treeD or D$attle !roveD may be destroyed by a bush/ire in years to come. Eou may remember your $ay throu!h the area a!ain%

due to /amiliarity ty $ith the !eneral topo!raphy% but it $ould be $orse than useless to a person $ho had no no$led!e o/ it.

0t is some$hat re!rettable that a number o/ bush$al in! clubs still use this method. 0t is the same $ith !overnment maps% o/ course. 0t once used to be 1uite a common practice

to !et a bearin! on a church (one that had a steeple). 8o$ever% in country areas these days churches are disappearin! at an alarmin! rate. They are bein! replaced by other man-made man made obAects such as radio to$ers and hi!h volta!e electricity !rid lines. &y and lar!e% attempt to stic to land/orms $ith some permanence.

0n ma in! your lo! it helps to $or out the time needed /or the Aourney. &e/ore startin! out study the map and $or out the di//erent types o/ country to be covered. Eou $ill be able to plan% in a !eneral sense% ho$ lon! you $ill need under /avourable $eather conditions.

The rate o/ travel varies. 6n open undulatin! country $ith short !rass under/oot a $al er $ill mana!e 1 m in about 15 minutes or sli!htly less. &ut in n steep roc y country $ith scrub and thic !ro$th it mi!ht ta e three-1uarters three o/ an hour. 0n heavy entan!led rain/orest areas $ith s$amps% ravines and other obstacles it mi!ht ta e hal/ a day to travel " m.

The /ollo$in! !uide may be considered to be a /air /air !uide to $al in! paces. ,emember there is a tendency to overestimate the rate o/ travel.

The /i!ures in the table are /or an active% /it person carryin! a pac o/ 15-"* 15 "* !. )ith heavier loads the ma@imum time should be ta en as a more correct !uide.

6n level !round the rate o/ pro!ress can be chec ed by the $al er. A man $ith a lon! stride $ill ta e 11* paces /or every 1** metres at a rou!h count on level !round. Thus a person can time him or hersel/ over a ilometre. 6ver bro en or roc y !round paces ta en are much shorter 7 perhaps "** /or 1** metres.

A lo! is ept most easily by recordin! the in/ormation in vertical columns% as sho$n in this e@ample.

6bservations

(ta!e 12 6pen !rassland% moderate $al in!. 8i!h ran!es

to east about 5 m. ,iver about " m south. (ta!e "2 #limbed steep saddle to ran!e crest. ,ou!h and stony. -rade on top 1-8. 8. ,iver 5** metres south at /oot o/ ran!es. (ta!e 4 #rest o/ ran!e stony under/oot. ;any smaller crests to be climbed. (ides too steep p to detour. ,iver !oin! south south-east east alon! /oot o/ ran!e. ,an!e itsel/ risin! to the east.

This in/ormation can later be plotted% thus providin! a chart o/ your route. )ith this chart plotted on your map% you should not !et lost because you should no$ $here $here you are in relation to the point /rom $hich you started.

#hoice o/ route -iven a /ree choice it is al$ays advisable in cross cross-country country travel to choose a route up spurs and ran!es and do$n streams unless you are in very mountinous country. &y /ollo$in! this this principle there is less li elihood o/ !ettin! lost. This is because all spurs lead to the crest o/ a main ran!e and all streams eventually lead to a main river course. &y travellin! do$n spurs or up rivers it is very easy to ta e a $ron! spur or /ollo$ the the $ron! $atercourse and thus in a short distance /ind oneDs sel/ hopelessly bushed.

This applies to country that is sparsely populated. There/ore be/ore settin! out across country it is advisable to care/ully study the map and plan your route% rememberin! all the time the !eneral rule2 up spurs and do$n rivers.

The s etch map $ill sho$ you ho$ easy it is to !et bushed by travellin! the $ron! $ay. The $ise bushman $ishin! to !o /rom A to K $ill choose route L rather than route D.

;ap readin! As stated earlier% lier% $hen interpretin! any map do not place too much /aith on man-made man made structures. The basic sur/ace o/ the land is unli ely to chan!e in your li/etime but manDs $or s vanish.

The most obvious natural /eatures are ran!es and rivers. The ran!es may be steep steep or slopin!. Their !radients are sho$n by countour lines or hatchin!.

#ontour lines are ima!inary lines parallel in hei!ht and $ith e1ual hei!ht separatin! one line /rom the ne@t. &y correctly readin! these lines you can tell $hether a hill is concave or conve@ in its slope.

'ot all contour lines carry a hei!ht indicator. (ometimes they are mar ed in DstepsD o/ 1** metres% but i/ slopes are very steep more indicators are !iven. The crest o/ a rid!e or a prominent land/orm is usually !iven its e@act hei!ht.

Position on a map is al$ays !iven by map re/erence numnum

bers. These are the series o/ numbers $hich indicate the s1uare re/erred to. The numbers read vertically and hori=ontally. These map re/erences are read /rom $est to east /irst and then /rom south to north% so that the /i!ures 38.58 /or e@ample mean that you loo alon! the !rid line 38 until it matches the other !rid line 58. The obAect is $ithin that s1uare.

(un compass 7 sun cloc Direction and time can both be obtained by dra$in! a sun compass 7 sun cloc on your map. Trace o// the illustration on pa!e "3: /or the latitude line nearest to your map and it $ill be both a compass and a cloc .

)ith a sun compass 7 sun cloc % $hen you have any one o/ the /ollo$in! you can /ind the in/ormation the other t$o $ould provide.

1. a $atch to !et the correct time

". a reliable compass

4. a map correctly oriented (that is% laid on the !round so that the /eatures dra$n on the map correspond e@actly $ith the reco!nisable !round /eatures.

)hen you are able to orient your map correctly The north-south line o/ your sun compass $ill correspond $ith the northsouth line o/ your map. Eour time is read by placin! a shado$ stic in the middle o/ the sun compass. The /i!ures around the outside o/ the centre circle are read as minutes (the heavy lines are hours). They are added or subtracted /rom the readin! o/ the shado$.

To orient your map select t$o or% better% three reco!nisable land /eatures and identi/y these. Turn your map until the identi/ied /eatures correspond e@actly in direction $ith the !round /eatures. )hen this is done the map should match up $ith the !round plan visible /rom your position.

)hen you have a $atch set to correct time Place a thin shado$ stic on the centre line o/ the sun compass $hich

WV

6i

must be held /lat opposite the appropriate date and turn the map until the shado$ /alls across the adAusted time on the latitude line.

)hen you have done this your map $ill be set to true north and oriented $ith the !round /eatures.

)hen you h4ve a compass Place the compass on the map $ith its a@is alon! the line o/ true north and turn both the map and the compass until the compass needle is pointin! to the ma!netic north o/ the map. This may be east or $est o/ true north dependin! on $here you are. To do this o/ course you must have a !overnment-produced map.

)hen you have done this hold the shado$ stic on the north-south line o/ the sun cloc opposite the appropriate date. )here the shado$ o/ the stic /alls across the latitude line is local sun time.

To o correct standard or cloc time (dayli!ht savin! in most (tates in summer) ma e the correction /or the e1uation o/ time sho$n opposite the date% plus the correction /or lon!itude% by deductin! /our minutes /or each de!ree you are east o/ the lon!itude o/ standard time or by addin! /our minutes /or each de!ree you are $est. ()hen east o/ the lon!itude o/ standard time the sun is earlier% and $hen $est the sun is later).

)hen the ma!netic north o/ your compass needle corresponds $ith the ma!netic north o/ yo your map then your map is correctly oriented.

)eather si!nals

There are almost as many human $ays o/ predictin! the $eather as there are people. Almost everyone has a $eather sayin! that they secretly believe in.

These ran!e /rom the old D,ed s y at sunset% /air da$nin!. ,ed s y at da$nin!% shepherdDs $arnin!%D to the couplet2 )hen the rain is be/ore the $ind% your topsail halyards better mind%

&ut $hen the $ind is be/ore the rain% then hoist your topsails up a!ain.

)hat this says in essence is that $hen rain comes /irst $ithout $ind then one can e@pect a lon! period o/ bad $eather $ith hi!h $inds and heavy rain. &ut $hen the $ind comes /irst and is /ollo$ed immediately by rain then /ine $eather $ill /ollo$ shortly a/ter$ards. Li e all sayin!s% sometimes it is true and sometimes it isnDt. Australia% a/ter all% is not the Atlantic ocean. &ut intelli!ent s y $atchin! can !ive the $al er some indication o/ a possible $eather chan!e. ?or that% cloud identi/ication is help/ul.

#louds #irAius 8i!h altitude clouds $hich rise up to 14 *** metres in temperate re!ions are made up o/ ice crystals. They are usually thin and $hite. &ecause o/ their shape they are o/ten called DmareDs tailsD. They are normally associated

$ith hi!h barometric pressure% $hich indicates contin continued /ine $eather.

#irro-stratus Another type o/ hi!h altitude cloud% risin! to "* *** metres% they o/ten /orm a $hite% semi-transparent veil across the s y% not% ho$ever% completely hidin! the sun or moon. A!ain they are associated $ith a hi!h pressure system $hich usually indicates /ine $eather.

#irro-cumulus These clouds% $hich can hover any$here bet$een 5 *** and 14 *** metres% are !lobe shaped and /orm $ave patterns% and !ive rise to the name a Dmac erel s yD. 6nce a!ain they indicate a !eneral hi!h pressure system $hich means clear% /ine days.

Alto-stratus A middle-ran!e cloud /ormation $hich hovers around 3 *** metres. The clouds are composed o/ a thic layer o/ $ater droplets $hich at times can cover the s y and obscure the sun. 6n the coast they can brin! rain but in inland areas% especially in the $inter% they are uncertain% sometimes meanin! only a cold% dan day.

Alto-cumulus 6ccur in pu//y ball-li e bands in the s y. A middle level cloud $hich could mean a chan!e in the $eather.

(trato-cumulus A dense !rey cloud $ith dar er shadin!s in patches% sheets or layers. -enerally it is a /ine $eather cloud but it can brin! some li!ht dri==le.

#umulus A lar!e pu//y cloud mass o/ten 1** metres or more deep. #umulus clouds billo$ and chan!e shape constantly. These clouds are /ormed $hen $arm% moist air rises over a heated land or sea mass. They o/ten brin! rain% usually sharp and /ierce thunderstorms.

(tratus A lo$% !rey% uni/orm cloud $ith the appearance almost o/ a hi!h /o!. The $hole s y ta es on a leaden loo . 0nvariably stratus% unless driven by hi!h $inds% brin!s li!ht rain or a misty dri==le.

'imbo-stratus The base o/ this cloud is !enerally around " *** metres. A dar blue-!rey mass% it brin!s rain% sleet and sno$ $hich may last /or several hours.

#umulo-nimbus This massive blac -!rey cloud mass $ith its distinctive anvil-li e top is the classic thunderstorm $arnin!.

Althou!h because o/ its intense violence it o/ten rises to "* *** metres it is classi/ied as a lo$-level cloud (its base o/ten seems to be hu!!in! the treetops). 9iolent updrau!hts $ithin this turbulent system o/ten /orm hu!e chun s o/ ice at the hi!her levels% producin! severe hailstorms as $ell as drenchin! rain. Li!htnin! and !ale-/orce $inds o/ten accompany the cloud mass. The storms are o/ten e@tremely destructive% doin! !reat dama!e to the bush and to buildin!s.

)eather patterns Althou!h $eather patterns can vary $ildly in various parts o/ Australia /rom year to year 7 the years o/ drou!ht and the years o/ /lood% /or instance 7 di//erent parts o/ the continent do have similar patterns each year to some de!ree. )eather

bureau e@perts% o/ course% caution a!ainst placin! too much reliance on any /i@ed pattern% statin! 1uite ri!htly that scienti/ic records o/ the country have been ept /or a very brie/ period in time. 8o$ever each (tate has peculiarities all its o$n and it is perhaps $ise to ta e note o/ these !eneralities be/ore plannin! a trip in any !iven season.

Hueensland The rainy season starts in late 'ovember or early December and usually ends in April% althou!h it can e@tend to the end o/ that month. The rains then /all o// until the true dry season is reached in Au!ust. This usually e@tends throu!h to 'ovember% althou!h some heavy thunderstorm activity is o/ten e@perienced in 6ctober.

The northern cyclone season runs /rom 'ovember throu!h to April% the duration o/ the $et season% althou!h Banuary and ?ebruary are re!arded as the most dan!erous months. 6n avera!e about three cyclones stri e the Hueensland coast each season causin! varyin! amounts o/ dama!e and /loodin!.

'e$ south $ales Despite popular belie/ the coastal areas o/ the (tate can have very $et summers 7 about once every /our years. Banuary and ?ebruary are the tar!et months /or these summer rains% $hich can cause severe /loodin! in coastal re!ions.

'ormally the (tate starts to dry o// in April% but in $et years rains can continue throu!h to the end o/ Bune.

(evere storms can occur in Buly and this is o/ten the time $hen the (outhern Alps receive their heaviest sno$/alls. (eptember and 6ctober can also be $et months on the coast althou!h in the inland areas apart /rom reasonable sprin! rains in a D!oodD season% the $eather is normally dry.

8i!h pressure systems usually lead to lon! dry spells in 6ctober and 'ovember but December is almost a /rea ish month in $hich almost anythin! can happen.

(outh australia This (tateDs dry season runs /rom 'ovember until ;arch and very little rain is received durin! this period.

?rom ;arch on$ards rain/all usually increases% $ith Bune normally receivin! the hi!hest rain/all especially alon! the (tateDs south costal re!ion. This $et continues into Buly a/ter $hich it starts to tail o// until the start o/ the dry season the /ollo$in! 'ovember.

9ictoria December is one o/ this (tateDs $ettest months on avera!e and it can also be e@tremely cold (/or summer) as $ell. Banuary and ?ebruary on the other hand are rather dry $ith the rain/all increasin! at the start o/ Autumn in ;arch% $hen the temperature starts to drop. Huite o/ten in late ;arch and early April 9ictoria can !et an D0ndian summerD% some o/ the best times /or campin! $ith $arm days and cool ni!hts. Bune and Buly and then 6ctober are !enerally cold and $et.

Tasmania TasmaniaDs D$etD season usually starts about mid-;arch and e@tends throu!h until the end o/ Bune $ith /loodin! possible in any o/ these months. 6n the east coast the country starts to dry out a little in both Bune and Buly% but the $est coast !enerally remains cold and sodden. A/ter that the pattern becomes variable% $ith $armer $eather in the sprin! months% but $ith plenty o/ rain by mainland standards.

The $eather starts to dry out some$hat in December $ith Banuary and ?ebruary usually the driest months.

)estern australia )estern Australia is a di//icult (tate to describe in terms o/ $eather because it covers a broad ran!e /rom cool temperate% throu!h arid% to subtropical.

The cyclone season in the north is the same as that /or Hueensland 7 'ovember throu!h to April 7 the $et season in the north. 6nce a!ain the !reatest dan!er period occurs bet$een Banuary and ?ebruary. The )estern Australian avera!e /or cyclones reachin! the coast is sli!htly lo$er than that o/ Hueensland 7 about t$o per season.

0n the north rain/all% cyclones or no cyclones% can be very hi!h% $ith a ris o/ /loodin! in ?ebruary% and ;arch.

6n the $hole most o/ the (tate has dry $inters% includin! the southern areas. (ummers are very hot and dry. (prin! in the south is usually /airly dry but $ith a smatterin! o/ sho$ers.

'orthern territory As $ith Hueensland and )estern Australia% the cyclone season in the Dtop endD starts in 'ovember and runs throu!h to April. #yclones in this re!ion can be e@tremely severe.

The $eather starts to dry o// in the autumn% $hich is re!arded as the best time /or tourin! the #entre% althou!h occasional /rea $inter rains have been no$n to /lood even Alice (prin!s durin! the $inter and sprin!. 6n avera!e these occur about every seven to ten years.

The dry in Dar$in and its surrounds e@tends /rom the end o/ the cyclone season in April until the start o/ it a!ain the /ollo$in! 'ovember. December can o/ten be the $ettest month.

(urvival Althou!h in theory the care/ul bush$al er never !ets lost% accidents $ill happen. <very year there are innumerable reports o/ both e@perienced and ine@perienced parties !ettin! bushed% sometimes throu!h no /ault o/ their o$n and sometimes% it must be admitted% throu!h carelessness.

&ecause o/ this% $al in! clubs all over the $orld have devised various survival pac s o/ basic items $hich should al$ays be carried $hether or not the $al er is on a desi!nated trail% simply out /or a hal/-day ramble to loo at sprin! $ild/lo$ers or embar in! on a more serious venture.

These survival pac s are not Australian in ori!in. They are $orld$ide. At one e@treme they can be so cumbersome that no one in his or her ri!ht mind is !oin! to carry the thin!s.

A $ell- no$n American bush$al er% &ill ,iviere% in his boo &ac country #ampin! pithily too apart one o/ these monster out/its that had been composed by a committee o/ scienti/ic survival e@perts.

8is analysis is $orth 1uotin! here (plus his comments) as an e@ample o/ ho$ the desire to survive can perhaps turn into severe paranoia.

D<laborate survival its are incessently su!!ested% includin! $ater puri/ication pills% plastic $ater ba!% plastic sheet /or shelter% sur!ical tubin! (/or a slin!shotX)% candle% nails (0 suppose $ith $hich to build a cabin i/ you must spend the $interX)% /le@ible $ire /or snares% hoo s and a /ishline% dehydrated /oods% steel $ool /or tinder% a /le@ible $ire sa$% /irst-aid it% /lashli!ht% mirror% plastic tape ($ith $hich to bind the splint on a bro en le!% 0 presume)% police $histle% sa/ety pins% se$in! it% aluminium /oil% rope% ra=or blades% /lint bar and a hone.D As this is all in addition to the standard and almost universal $orld-$ide survival it o/ compass% map% short a@e% bush ni/t and matches in a $aterproo/ container% ,iviere $as 1uite Austi/ied in concludin!% D)ith such a it% itDs not a 1uestion o/ survival. The problem is carryin! itXD

;ost basic survival its are based on the map-compass-a@e- ni/e-matches theme. 0n Australia the a@e is 1uite o/ten omitted and normally some $ater container% such as a $ater bottle or billy% $ith $ater puri/ication tablets% is included. (ome people simply pac a /irmly lidded billy $ith matches% li!hter% tablets% a $aterproo/ vial o/ salt and some bri!ht red plastic electrical mar in! tape (/or mar in! a path ta en)G A $ater container is important in this country as $ater does not lie all over the place. 6ther items can be added $ithin reason.

(ome $al ers either buy or devise belt pouches $hich hold the essentials securely. This means they can al$ays be on oneDs person and $ill add very little additional $ei!ht and cause little inconvenience.

<@perienced bush$al ers also $arn about placin! too much reliance on the compass and map $hen lost% pointin! out that some compass needles can mislead and the maps may be out o/ date. 0n heavy bush country $here there is almost no visibility a compass can be almost useless.

-enerally spea in!% a party on say a si@-day hi e and carryin! 1uite a lot o/ /ood because o/ this has a much more com/ortable time o/ it i/ the members do !et bushed than the day $al er $ho $as not e@pectin! to be out overni!ht.

0t is also a curious /act that despite the health ris s associated $ith smo in!% smo ers invariably carry a plenti/ul supply o/ matches% or a ci!arette li!hter. 0t is al$ays the non-smo er $ho suddenly realises too late he hasnDt any means o/ ma in! a /ire.

0/ one does become lost the standard advice is as /ollo$s.

F Do not panic. F (it do$n and assess the situation. #hec $hat $ater and /ood supplies you have% i/ any.

F ;a e some attempt to retrace your path. 0t is al$ays better to attempt to !o bac rather than stumble aimlessly /or$ard. Try to remember land/orms you passed. 0/ you /eel you are becomin! lost once a!ain% ma e camp as best you can.

F Cnder no circumstances attempt to travel at ni!ht. 0/ you are lost in the dayli!ht hours% chances are that you $ill become doubly lost at ni!ht.

F 0/ you decide to leave your camp to see either /ood% $ater% or obtain a better vie$ o/ the surroundin! country% mar a path by brea in! t$i!s on bushes% leavin! scar mar s on trees or usin! the mar in! tape i/ you have any.

F Leave some sort o/ messa!e at your base camp indicatin! that you are alive and $here you are !oin!. This can be scratched in sand% $ritten $ith a piece o/ charred $ood on a stone or constructed out o/ stic s.

F 0/ you decide to stay /irmly in the one place li!ht a smo y /ire. 6ne lar!e /ire covered $ith !reen branches to produce the ma@imum amount o/ smo e is enou!h. 0/ in heavily timbered country attempt to /ind a clearin! o/ sorts as the tree canopy di//uses the smo e. There is an emer!ency code to si!nal searchin! aircra/t. Eou may not be able to remember every si!n but the simple (6( $ill do. Try to construct this in a clearin! i/ possible and attempt to ma e it /rom material that $ill contrast to the !round cover. The minimum si=e /or these letters should be ".5 metres.

<@treme conditions There may be occasions $hen a party o/ $al ers is not lost% but simply cau!ht by a sudden chan!e in the $eather. 0n the $armer months it is comparatively easy to Dsit outD the trouble /or a day and then simply proceed alon! the planned route $hen conditions improve.

&ut $hen $al in! in hi!h country in almost any season $eather conditions can chan!e rapidly% brin!in! about a rapid drop in temperature and near-/ree=in! conditions. This does not only apply to the Tasmanian and 9ictorian hi!h country areas% it is not un no$n /or the temperature to /all to *M# in the 'e$ (outh )ales tablelands $est o/ the dividin! ran!e in the middle o/ Banuary.

0/t severe instances this can brin! about an attac o/ $hat is no$n as hypothermia% a condition $ell no$n to hi!h altitude mountain climbers. 0ts symptoms are a sudden loss

o/ co-ordination% ordination% poor sense o/ touch and blurred speech. 0n advanced sta!es sta!es the victim $ill collapse and /inally /inall become unconscious.

Thus i/ the $eather chan!es suddenly the most important thin! is to see shelter out o/ the $ind% $hich can cause rapid loss o/ temperature.

,ein/orce tents i/ necessary $ith a brush shelter. Cse roc /orms i/ possible and build a ?ire /or $armth. 0t is no time to start rememberin! the previously mentioned bush$al erDs ada!e% DThe bi!!er the /ool% the bi!!er the /ire.D

0/ one member o/ the party is seriously a//ected he or she must be ept as $arm as possible $ith multiple use o/ sleepin! ba!s. Do not !ive hot drin s immediately but $ait until there is some si!n o/ recovery and an indication that bodily heat is bein! re!ained. ?ollo$ the drin s $ith small 1uantities o/ /ood.

0/ cau!ht in this manner in hi!h sno$ country% a sno$ cave can be constructed in a ban $ith about a 45M slope.

Any implements can be usedG the heels o/ s is% /or instance. A hole o/ about a metre can be tunnelled into the ban /or about " metres. At this sta!e the Dburro$D is $idened and deepened enou!h to ta e one or t$o members o/ a party. Ta e some sort o/ di!!in! implement into the hole $ith you% Aust in case.

0/ the party has tents and the area is /lat% sno$ bloc s can be cut to surround the tent and protect it /rom the $ind. (ome hi!h-country e@perts have claimed that tents are not satis/actory shelters at all /or cross-country s iin! trips. &ut one has to $ei!h this a!ainst the multitude o/ 8imalayan e@peditions% all o/ $hich used tents /or shelter% stretchin! $ell bac beyond the time $hen ne$ li!ht$ei!ht $indproo/-in! materials became readily available.

Dehydration At the other temperature e@treme $al ers can be severely a//ected by dehydration throu!h lac o/ $ater. 0t can also occur in very cold dry $eather because the e@ertion to eep $arm causes the body to lose more moisture and the dry air accentuates the problem.

8o$ever it is /ar more noticeable $hen the temperature rises. A broader discussion on the necessity /or $ater and $ays to /ind it is to be /ound in #hapter 5% ?ood and )ater.

&ut as a !eneral rule% /or an easy $al in! day $ith the temperature around "5M#% about 4 litres per person is ample. )ith the temperature at 43M#% 5 litres should be allo$ed.

To translate this into instantly comprehensible terms this means that the person $al in! has to be prepared to carry a standard $ine cas as $ell as the rest o/ his or her ba!!a!e under these conditions.

9 Time and direction The measurement o/ time and obtainin! direction by accurate means are not primitive s ills. 6/ the t$o% direction is the most recent development% althou!h to the Polynesians o/ the Paci/ic it is older than their a$areness o/ time.

6btainin! time and direction $ithout e1uipment is practical and in !eneral can be more accurate than the avera!e personDs $atch or compass.

&oth $ords% DtimeD and DdirectionD% are interelated because i/ one has accurate time% accurate direction can be obtained in a matter o/ seconds. 0/ one has accurate direction% /rom north% then accurate time is immediately practical $ithout a $atch.

The methods outlined in this chapter are applicable any$here on the sur/ace o/ the earth% but in the northern hemisphere read north /or south% south /or north and reverse cardinal points.

The subAect o/ navi!ation has been surrounded by many technical $ords% necessary to its science% but in this section o/ the boo an attempt has been made to simpli/y the $hole subAect and to avoid $ords $hich $ould have no meanin! /or the avera!e person.

Althou!h a compass is the accepted method o/ obtainin! direction% it is not al$ays reliable% nor is it o/ very !reat value in dense bush% or areas $here deposits o/ iron a//ect its needle. A $atch is the accepted means o/ measurin! time% but the $atch may be out o/ action% and there/ore it is necessary to have other methods to obtain both time and direction.

DTimeD is our method o/ measurin! the intervals bet$een events. The most re!ular event o/ our daily lives is the move

ment o/ the sun% and there/ore /or everyday purposes time is measured by the sunDs movement. The stars provide a more accurate method o/ measurement and are used by navi!ators and astronomers. DDirectionD is the line or course to be ta en% and in this case can be considered as /rom north or one o/ the cardinal points o/ the compass.

(un movement As you no$% the sun crosses the ima!inary north-south line (meridian) every day $hen it reaches its hi!hest point (=enith) above the hori=on.

There/ore $hen the sun is at its hi!hest point in the s y it is north or south o/ you% dependin! upon your position on the earthDs sur/ace% and the sunDs positive relative to the earthDs e1uator.

?or all practical purposes there are t$enty-/our hours bet$een each sun crossin! o/ your north-south line% or meridian. Durin! the t$enty-/our hours the earth $ill have revolved apparently 4:* de!reesG there/ore it $ill move 15 de!rees /or each hour% or one de!ree in /our minutes. This is very convenient to no$% because i/ you no$ the north or south accurately% you can easily measure o// the number o/ de!rees the sun is /rom the north-south line% and this $ill !ive you the number o/ hours and minutes be/ore% or a/ter noon. These measurements must be made alon! the curved path o/ the sun% and not on a hori=ontal or /lat plane.

Time /rom the sun $ith compass e@ A means o/ measurin! de!rees - arms must be /ully e@tended.

These vary sli!htly li e your personal dimensions and /or accuracy should be accurately chec ed by each individual $ith a compass.

&y this means% i/ you have a compass% time can be easily read /rom the sunDs position. This should be possible to $ithin /our or /ive minutes. Decide /rom your compass your true north-south north south line and remember to ma e allo$ance /or the ma!netic variation /rom true north. ;easure the

number o/ de!rees the sun is /rom this ima!inary line% and multiply the number o/ de!r de!rees ees by /our to obtain the number o/ minutes.

Accurate direction /rom the sun $ith a $atch The method o/ obtainin! direction /rom a $atch by pointin! the hour hand (or Dt$elve oDcloc dependin! upon $hich hemisphere you live in) is not accurate% but only ap appro@imate.

The accurate method% no$in! the time% is to calculate the number o/ de!rees chan!ed to minutes in time% be/ore or a/ter noon% and then to measure /rom the sunDs position alon! the curved path o/ the sun throu!h the s y. <ven i/ you ma e no allo$ance /or the t$o corrections% you $ill be accurate $ithin /ive to ei!ht de!rees and i/ you ma e the t$o corrections /or time you $ill be accurate to less than one de!ree.

To !ive an e@ample2 0t is ".1: p.m. by your $atch% there/ore the sun is to the $est $est o/ the north-south north line. ".1: p.m. means that the sun has travelled 14: minutes o/ time past the north-south north south line. 0t travels one de!ree alon! its curved path in the s y every /our minutes o/ time% so that it is 44 de!rees alon! its path past noon. ;ea ;easure this bac alon! the sunDs path and you $ill have true north.

#ardinal points and bearin!s 8avin! /ound the true 'orth% you can /ind any bearin! /rom true 'orth very easily and $ithin /ive de!rees o/ error. 0/ the bearin! you $ant is less than 18*M% /ace ce east% and stretch out your le/t arm to true north. ,aise your ri!ht arm alon! your

side till there is a per/ectly strai!ht line alon! both arms. Eour ri!ht arms is no$ pointin! to south or 18* de!rees true. &rin! the t$o arms to!ether evenly% and you ar are e pointin! to east or 9* de!rees true% and you can then measure the number o/ de!rees /rom these cardinal points to the bearin! you re1uire. &y /acin! $est% and pointin!

your ri!ht arm to the north and your le/t to south you can !et bearin!s !reater than 18* de!rees.

?indin! north-south south line $ithout compass or $atch >no$in! that the sun is at its hi!hest point in the s y at midday% and that this point is on the north-south north line means that by /indin! $here this position $ill be% $ill !ive you true north.

Eou ou can do this by measurin! the points o/ shado$ made by the top o/ a /i@ed sta e. These points o/ shado$ may !ive you a curved line either concave or conve@ to the sta e. #ontinue the curve made by the points o/ shado$% and then dra$ a circle on the !round d round the base o/ the sta e. )here the curved line cuts the circle $ill be accurate east and $est% and a ri!ht an!le /rom these t$o points $ill be an accurate north and south line.

0n the illustration you see the sta e% and points o/ shado$ recorded over an hour in the mornin!. The dotted line is a continuation o/ the curve made by the points% and the intersection o/ this curved line $ith the circle !ives you east and

$est. 0/ north o/ the e1uator the cardinal points $ill be reversed.

This shado$-stic method is very accurate% i/ done over a period o/ an hour or t$o.

<ast-$est line 7 durin! e1uinoctial periods Eou $ill /ind /rom the /ore!oin! that it is actually easier to /ind the true east-$est east $est line than the north north-south. The idea o/ al$ays $or in! /rom% or to% north is lar!ely conventional. The top o/ every map is assumed% unless mar ed other$ise% to be north. All bearin!s are measured cloc $ise /rom true north% but in actual practice it is o/ten easier to /ind one or other o/ the cardinal points% rather than concentrate on /indin! the north point. An instance is the ease $ith $hich the east-$est east line can be discovered.

There are t$o days in the year $hen the points o/ shado$ $ill /orm an accurate east east-$est $est line throu!hout the $hole day. These t$o days are e "1 ;arch% and "1 (eptember% the days $hen the sun is over the e1uator. 6n these t$o days the sun is at ri!ht an!les to the a@is o/ the earth% and there/ore

directly over the e1uator% and no matter $here you are on the earthDs sur/ace the shado$s $ill m move true east and $est on these t$o days. &ecause o/ this i/ you mar a point o/ shado$ by puttin! a pe! into the !round% and then% /ive minutes later% mar the ne$ position o/ the same shado$ you $ill have a per/ect east east-$est $est line. ?or !eneral purposes i/ in less than 4*M north or south latitude this method $ill serve you /or about t$o or three $ee s either side o/ the e1uinoctial periods $ith reasonable accuracy% so that on any day bet$een 1 ;arch and 14 April or 1 (eptember and 14 6ctober you can assume that the shado$ line is very nearly a true east-$est east $est line. At all other periods or $hen you $ant !reater accuracy you $ill have to $or out the curve and e@tend it to the ed!es o/ the circle as in the precedin! section.

The points o/ shado$ move accurately true east and $est on "1 ;arch and "1 (eptember.

An e@tremely accurate method o/ /indin! true north is to $or out the hour an!le o/ the sun and trans/er this hour an!le to the shado$ thro$n onto the !round /rom the strin! o/ a plumb bob.

To /ind the hour an!le% use the method !iven in the section on the sun compass and e@tend /rom the shado$ o/ the stic the hour an!le correct /or your latitude and date.

The sun compass dia!ram does not re1uire to be set correctly to $or out the hour an!le. Any direction $ill serve /or the ima!inary north-south line.

)hen the trian!le has been $or ed out% a correspondin! trian!le is made on the correct side o/ the shado$ /rom the cord o/ the plumb bob.

Eou should $or out the hour an!le on the sun compass on the !round about /i/teen minutes ahead o/ the $atch time% so that $hen you have $or ed on the dia!ram and made the necessary time and lon!itude corrections% you $ill be able to plot the hour an!le at preceisely the ri!ht moment on the shado$. This method% i/ done accurately and corrections o/ time /or lon!itude and e1uation $or ed out% should

be correct to $ithin less than a 1uarter o/ a de!ree% or one minute o/ time.

?indin! local time $ithout compass 0t is apparent that i/ you can /ind north-south south by the method !iven /rom the shado$ o/ the stic that you can then $or out the number o/ de!rees the sun is o// the north-south north south line and thereby discover the correct local time% provided you no$ the lon!titude ude o/ standard time% and the lon!titude o/ your position.

The sunDs path throu!h the s y To be able to accurately measure the sunDs path alon! the s y you must no$ ho$ hi!h it is at its hi!hest point (=enith)% and to ?ind this out% you should be able to discover the sunDs position north or south o/ the e1uator /or any day o/ the year.

This position o/ the sun is called DDeclination.D As you no$% the sun is /arthest north on "1 Bune% crosses the

e1uator "1 (eptember% /arthest south "1 December and recrosses the e1uator on its $ay north on "1 ;arch. This is caused by the inclined an!le o/ the a@is o/ the earth in relation to its path round the sun.

#ircle o/ declination The de!reee% or slope% o/ the inclined path is appro@imately "4 9"*% so that $hen the sun is /arthest north it is overhead "4 9"* north o/ the e1uator% and $hen /arthest south it is overhead "4 9"* south o/ the e1uator. 0t is possible to $or a circle o/ DdeclinationD sho$in! you the path o/ the earth round the sun% and the reason.

Eou ou can dra$ this dia!ram on the !round. Ta e a strai!ht stic and cut "4 Y" divisions alon! its len!th. The si=e o/ the divisions must be absolutely e1ual.

0/ you use the $idth o/ your ni/e blade% or some e1ually simple measure% it $ill serve. )ith this stic s as a radius% dra$ a circle on the !round% and divide the circle into /our 1uarters $ith strai!ht lines that cross the centre o/ the circle.

'o$ divide each 1uarter o/ the circum/erence o/ the circle into three e1ual divisions. ;ar these Bune% December% ;arch and (eptember as sho$n in the illustration. 'o$ divide each month into /our smaller e1ual divisions. These represent the /our $ee s o/ the avera!e month.

Dra$ a thic line /rom the start o/ the /ourth division o/ Bune to the start o/ the /ourth division o/ December% and /rom the start o/ the /ourth division o/ (eptember to the start o/ /ourth division o/ ;arch.

These lines should intersect each other in the centre o/ the circle. The lines /rom Bune to December represent the northsouth line% and the line /rom ;arch to (eptember the e1uator.

?or any day o/ the year /ind the appro@imate day on the outer circle and dra$ a line parallel to the e1uator line to the north-south line% and then simply measure o// $ith your stic the number o/ nic s /rom the e1uator line% startin! in the centre% to the date line. 0/ the sun is on the Bune side o/ the e1uator line it is north o/ the e1uatorG i/ on the December side it is south.

Eou should be accurate to $ithin a 1uarter de!ree. This accuracy is needed /or latitude $or % but not necessary /or the sun cloc .

The sunDs hei!ht above the hori=on To the sunDs declination you must ma e an allo$ance /or your o$n latitude. ?or instance% i/ you are in latitude 4"U' and the date is "1 April% the sun $ill be 1"M north% $hich means that at its =enith it $ill be :*M above the hori=on. To $or this out subtract you latitude /rom 9*M% and add the

sunDs declination. 0/ the sun is on the other side o/ the e1uator% subtract the declination.

<1uation o/ time - and corrections to standard tandard time <ach day every lon!titude o/ the earth passes under the sun% but because o/ the sli!ht variation in the earthDs path% the e@act moment $hen the sun passes over the meridian o/ lon!itude is not precisely at t$elve oDcloc every day. The di//erence nce may be as much as 1: minutes o/ time be/ore t$elve oDcloc on your cloc time and /ourteen minutes a/ter t$elve oDcloc .

This passa!e o/ the sun over the ima!inary north-south linens called Dmeridian transitD and as you $ill see it di//ers /rom cloc time throu!hout the course o/ the year% e@cept /or /our days (1: April% 15 Bune% 4* Au!ust% "5 December).

?or convenience% the time o/ meridian transit is avera!ed out over the year% and the avera!e is called DmeanD time.

The sunDs passa!e o/ the meridian time is called DsolarD (sun) time. The correction o/ time o/ the t$o is called De1uation o/ time.D

The /ollo$in! simple table on meridian transit can be sho$n in the /orm o/ the /i!ure D8D /or your easy memorisin!.

Time o/ ;eridian Transit

A /i!ure ei!ht dra$n to the proportions sho$n and $ith the /our dates remembered $hen meridian transit coincides $ith mean time $ill !ive reasonably accurate corrections.

'ote2 The /our dates $hen there is no correction are 1: April% 15 Bune% 4* Au!ust and "5 December.

The top section o/ the /i!ure 8 is about one-third the si=e o/ the lo$er hal/. The hori=ontal line is divided into three /iveminute sections to ri!ht and le/t% and the ri!ht side mar ed plus to mean that the sun is ahead o/ mean time. The le/t is mar ed minus% the sun is behind mean time.

The application o/ this De1uation o/ timeD correction $ill be re1uired i/ you $ant to !et accurate time /rom the sun% and also /or correction to the compass-sun cloc .

Lon!itude corrections The other correction $hich you $ill have to ma e to solar time is a correction /or lon!itude. Time /or cloc s on various parts o/ the earthDs sur/ace is called Dstandard time%D and is based upon the lon!itude convenient /or a lar!e tract o/ country.

0n <n!land% time is based on -reen$ich% hence the term D-reen$ich mean time.D

0n other lar!e land masses such as America% A/rica% ,ussia and o/ course Australia% standard time may be de/ined as <astern (tandard Time% #entral (tandard Time% )estern (tandard Time% etc.

The areas o/ the earth and the meridian o/ lon!itude on $hich their standard time is based are as /ollo$s2

To ma e the necessary lon!itude corrections% you must no$ $hether you are set east or $est o/ the meridian on $hich standard time /or the locality is based.

0/ you are east ast your sun $ill be ahead and you must deduct /our minutes /or each de!ree you are east o/ the meridian o/ standard time. 0/ you are $est your sun time $ill be later than the standard meridian and you must add /our minutes /or each de!ree you are $est.

The e corrections /or the e1uation o/ time and /or lon!itude are necessary to correct conversion o/ sun time to standard time /or accurate direction% and also /or accurate readin! o/ directions and time /rom the sun compass. )ith these corrections you should be e able to !et local standard time to $ithin t$o minutes% and a bearin! accurate to $ithin an error o/ one hal/ de!ree% usin! no e1uipment $hatsoever.

Time (ometimes a country $ill move its time bac an hour /rom the standard time to !et more dayli!ht in su summertime% and this chan!e% !enerally called dayli!ht savin! time% must also be remembered $hen ma in! corrections to solar time.

The /our DtimesD you no$ no$ are2

(olar Time or (un Time2 Local time o/ sun over the north-south line.

;ean Time2 Avera!e o/ solar time over t$elve months. (tandard Time2 Application o/ mean time to a !iven area o/

the earthDs sur/ace. Dayli!ht or (ummer Time2 A local adAustment to standard time.

There is a /i/th DTimeD you $ill have to learn% and this is DsiderealD or DstarD time.

0/ anyone as ed you ho$ many times the earth revolved on its a@is bet$een midday o/ 'e$ EearDs Day o/ one year% and midday o/ 'e$ EearDs Day the ne@t year you $ould probably say 4:5 l; times ... and you $ould be $ron!. The earth revolves on its a@is 4::lA times. The earth DlosesD one revolution in its path around the sun over the year and as a result the sun only crosses the meridians o/ the earth 4:5 times. This means that $hile the sun $ill only cross -reen$ich 4:5 lA times a year% a star% $hich is /ar outside the solar system% $ill pass 4::Y4 times every year. ?or this reason star or sidereal time is used by astronomers as bein! more accurate than solar time.

There is an e@tra day to be s1uee=ed into a DstarD year% a star day is shorter by 4 minutes 5:.: seconds than a sun day. Eou can $or it out /or yoursel/. There are 144* minutes in a t$enty-/our-hour day and these have to be shared by all days in a star year and that means that there are nearly /our minutes less in a star day than in a sun day.

6ne de!ree e1uals /our minutes o/ time% and so the stars advance rou!hly one de!ree /arther ahead each ni!ht.

(idereal or star time or the star charts commence /or each year at the day o/ the Autumnal <1uino@% "1 (eptember% and /or !eneral purposes you can say the stars !ain t$o hours every calendar month.

Direction /rom the stars 0n the northern hemisphere% direction /rom the stars is easy.

Polaris% the Pole star% is very nearly directly over the 'orth Pole% and there/ore $herever you see it in the s y is true north.

0n the southern hemisphere there is no star over the (outh Pole and /indin! direction is a little more di//icult.

6ne o/ the most popular methods is /rom the constellation #ru@% or the #ross% better no$n as the (outhern #ross. There are many stars $hich appear to ma e the shape o/ a cross in the s y% and there/ore it is essential% i/ you live in the southern hemisphere% that you learn to identi/y the (outhern #ross beyond any shado$ o/ doubt.

Loo alon! the ;il y )ay% $hich is unmista able% and you $ill /ind a dar patch $ithout a sin!le star. This is commonly called the #oal (ac % and the (outhern #ross lies ri!ht on the very ed!e o/ the #oal (ac .

To ma e identi/ication more certain% the (outhern #ross should sho$ you /ive stars% the /i/th less bri!ht than the others% and nearly in line $ith the /oot star% and one o/ the arms. Another certain identi/ication is the t$o pointers% t$o stars o/ the /irst ma!nitude lyin! al$ays to the le/t-hand side o/ the #ross ($hen vie$ed as i/ the #ross $as in a vertical position).

The lon!est a@is o/ the #ross to$ards the /oot points to the #elestial (outh Pole. That is% to a position over the earthly (outh Pole.

This% usin! the len!th o/ the #ross /rom head to /oot% is almost e@actly /our and a hal/ times the len!th o/ the #ross commencin! /rom the /oot.

Eou can measure this $ith /air accuracy by holdin! the hand at armDs len!th% and usin! the thumb and /ore/in!er as a pair o/ calipers to measure the len!th o/ the #ross.

Another indicator o/ true south% suitable /or moonless ni!hts% is the t$o ;a!ellan #louds $hich /orm the base o/ an ima!inary e1ual-sided trian!le% the ape@ o/ $hich is over the (outh Pole. 6n bri!ht ni!hts% $hen these t$o clouds are not visible% the t$o very bri!ht stars% Achenar and #anopus% also are the base o/ an e1ual-sided trian!le $ith its ape@ over the (outh Pole.

Accurate time /rom the stars The star maps sho$n on pa!es 41*-41" sho$ the position o/ the bri!htest stars in their various constellations. The numbers * to "4 indicate the position o/ the stars at midni!ht at -reen$ich on "1 (eptember% $hen the star year commences.

* means midni!ht at -reen$ich% and every number

means one hour di//erence /rom -reen$ich

Thus AL-6L in the constellation P<,(<C( is on the radial line numbered 4% $hich means that it is three hours ahead o/ -reen$ich.

This position o/ the stars in time /rom -reen$ich is called their ri!ht ascension% and their position bet$een the poles and the e1uator either north or south is called their declination.

Declination is latitude% and ri!ht ascension is lon!itude

The declination o/ the stars does not vary (as does the sun) throu!hout the year.

The Polynesians observed this% and re!arded the stars as D/in!ersD pointin! do$n to the earth and al$ays passin! over the same places the earth revolved beneath them.

)ith the aid o/ the star map% it is easy to /ind and identi/y any star almost directly overhead. 0t may be sli!htly north or south but should not be east or $est.

To /ind a point directly overhead% stand upri!ht% $ith your head thro$n $ell bac . ,otate the body throu!h a series o/ hal/ circles and you $ill see the stars overhead appear to move in arcs.

The centre o/ the circle $hich the arcs /orm $ill be the point in the s y directly over your head.

8avin! reco!nised the overhead star /rom your star map% $or out its ri!ht ascension% and add t$o hours /or every month% or hal/ an hour a $ee and /our minutes /or every odd day till the ne@t "1 (eptember% and add this to the time o/ ri!ht ascension.

<@ample. The star Antares% the very bri!ht star in the (corpion% you read as 1: hours "5 minutes ri!ht ascension.

The date i/ it is overhead is "5 ;arch. ?rom "5 ;arch to (eptember "1 there are /ive months% three $ee s and /our days% $hich e1ual a correction o/ 11 hours 4: minutes. This added to the ri!ht ascension o/ 1: hours "5 minutes !ives a total o/ "8 hours 11 minutes. &ecause the total is !reater than t$enty-/our t$enty /our hours you must deduct the t$enty t$enty-/our hours and the result is 4 hours 11 minutes (a.m.) -reen$ich. To t this his you must ma e correction /or your lon!itude.

This method is applicable in all latitudes and !ives reasonable accuracy.

Time /rom the stars - northern hemisphere 0n the northern hemisphere the stars appear to revolve anti anti-cloc $ise in the s y% and you must ust remember this $hen readin! time /rom the stars at ni!ht. 0ma!ine the Pole star (Polaris) is the centre o/ a t$enty-/our-hour hour cloc dial% and the hours are numbered /rom midni!ht "4 hours% anti-cloc anti $ise $ith : hours

at the le/t and hori=ontal $ith the e Pole star% t$elve oDcloc immediately belo$ the Pole star% and ei!hteen hours at the ri!ht% hori=ontal to the Pole star. The bri!htest stars% Alpha and &eta% in Crsa ;aAor (opposite the handle o/ the &i! Dipper) or plou!h are the hour hands.

0t !ives correct rect time only on one day in the year% 3 ;arch% therea/ter it !ains 4 minutes a day% or t$o hours a month% so that i/ it reads /i/teen hours on 1 Bune% it $ill be seven and a hal/ hours /ast and the correct time there/ore $ill be 3 hours hou 4* minutes.

(outhern rn hemisphere 0n the southern hemisphere the stars appear to revolve cloc $ise. The (outhern #ross is the hour hand o/ a t$enty-/our-hour hour ( y #loc % and the centre o/ the dial is /our and a hal/ times the len!th o/ the #ross to$ards the /oot alon! the lon!est est a@is o/ the #ross. This cloc is corcor

rect on 1 April% and therea/ter it !ains at the rate o/ 4 minutes a day or t$o hours a month% so that i/ it read 8."* on 1 (eptember it $ill be ten hours /ast% and there/ore the correct time $ill be "" hours "* minutes% minutes% or "* minutes past ten at ni!ht.

&iblio!raphy Australian ?ishermanDs ?ish -uide% 'eville #oleman% &ay &oo s.

A pro/usely illustrated !uide to most o/ AustraliaDs /ish species% $ith comments on their edible 1ualities.

Australian 6utdoors -ood #ampin! (revised edition)% ?ederal Publishin! #o.% publishers oi6verlander ma!a=ine.

A ma!a=ine containin! a multitude o/ campin! tips /or both the novice and advanced bush $al er as $ell as /or those $ho li e to travel by car or caravan. Also covers sno$ country campin!.

Australian Traditional &ush #ra/ts% ,on <d$ards% (ummit &oo s.

(toc $hips% bush chairs and huts% coo in! and /ence-ma in!.

&ush$al in! Z #ampin!2 Paddy PallinDs handboo on Australian &ushcra/t% Paddy Pallin% published by author.

A use/ul poc et !uide to all aspects o/ bush$al in! in Australia.

#omplete &oo o/ Australian &irds% ,eaderDs Di!est.

Too bul y /or the bush$al er% this is the best !uide to AustraliaDs birds. All species are illustrated.

#omplete &oo o/ Australian ;ammals% Australian ;useum in conAunction $ith An!us Z ,obertson.

A /ully illustrated !uide to all AustraliaDs mammals $ith precise te@t.

Dan!erous Animals and Plants o/ Australia% (truan (utherland% ,i!by.

;ainly aimed at children this is a handy almost poc et% !uide to common dan!ers in the bush and on the seashore

?ield -uide to Australian &irds% Peter (later% ,i!by.

A comprehensive t$o-volume $or $ell illustrated $ith paintin!s and dia!rams.

?ield -uide to ?un!i o/ (outh <astern Australia% ,oss ;ac-donald and Bohn )esterman% 'elson.

?ully illustrated !uide to common species o/ /un!i $ith indications ($here no$n) o/ their to@ic 1ualities.

?orest Trees o/ Australia% Division o/ ?orest ,esearch% #(0,6% 'elson.

0denti/ication o/ our maAor tree species.

'ational Par s (Discover AustraliaDs)% ;ichael and 0rene ;or-combe% Lansdo$ne.

A $ell-$ritten and interestin! !uide to all our better- no$n national par s.

Poisonous Plants o/ Australia% (. L. <verist% An!us 8c ,obertson.

Plants that can either ill or ma e a person sic G $hat to avoid in the bush.

(piders% &arbara Eor ;ain% #ollins.

#omplete !uide to all AustraliaDs venemous and non ven-emous species $ith descriptions o/ their habits and $here they are normally /ound.

Cse/ul )ild Plants in Australia% A. &. andA. ). #ribb% #ollins.

An e@cellent !uide to plants that are either edible% medicinal or $hich can be used in other $ays. -ood descriptions and comments are to the point.

0n addition to the above boo s (tate and ?ederal -overnment boo stores% as $ell as o//ices o/ (tate )ildli/e services% sell re!ional maps% $al in! !uides and boo lets on /auna and /lora o/ various re!ions. (tate museums also sell boo lets on both /lora and /auna.

0ndc@i

abseilin! 41%4" Adirondac pac 149 anchor% /or pe! 4* anchor% /or rope 49 ants ":"

Ari=ona survival still ""4

ba in! on hot stones 1""

bearin!s "94

bed% camp 143

beds% above !round 148

bench% camp 14:

billy hoo s 11:

boilin! $ithout utensils 1"*

brid!e% rope 44-4:

brinin! 133

broom 144

buildin! hints 1*5

bulidust 1::

bush/ire "4:

camp /ires%

di//erent types "44-"4: camp% settin! up 1*8 candle holder 141 canoe% bar 154 cardinal points "94 centipedes ":4 chair% camp 144 choice o/ route "34 circle o/ declination 4** cliAnbin!% $ith bush ropes "9-4" clothes han!er 14: clothes pe!s 144 clouds "38-"81

contour lines "34 coo in! in clay 1"4 coolamon 1"1

cord% spinnin! $ith /in!ers 14 crab net 184 craypot 188

declination% circle o/ 4** dehydration "88 dilly ba! 143 direction /rom stars 4*3 direction% obtainin! /rom sun and

$atch "94 dish% bar 1"1 distance across river%

measurin! 4: dryin! meat 135

e!!s% ba ed 1"8 emer!ency si!nal code "83 e1uation o/ time 4*"

/ire bo$ drill "48 /ire /i!htin! "43 /ire% correct $ay to li!ht ""3 /ire li!htin!% by compression "41 by /riction "48 /rom a coal "4* /rom a spar "4: in rain 118

$ith a ma!ni/yin! !lass "43 $ithout matches "44 /ire% smo eless "41 /ireplace%% camp 11" /ire$ood "4" /irst-aid it ":3 /ish 194-"*5 /ish traps 18*-188 /ish% ra$ 199 /ishin! hoo s 189 /ishin! spears 19* /lashin! 93 /ood /rom trees "1* /ood preservation 134 /ootloc "9-41 /or s 1*9 /un!i "14 /urniture% camp 1"9 /u== stic s 119%""8

-reen$ich mean time 4*4 !rubs% as /ood "*5 !utterin! 95

hammoc 14* han!i 1": health 153 hoe 144 hoo s 1*9 hoo s% /ishin! 189 hut% doors and $indo$s 81 lon! 8*

permanent lean-to 35 pyramidal 39 round 3: sectional lean-to% 34 huts% thatched 31 hypothermia "8:

itchen% camp 11* nots% /ancy 53-:4

/or /astenin! ropes 5*-53 /or Aoinin! ropes 44-4: /or loops 4349 /or rope ends 44-44

ladder 14* lamp% slush 141 larder% camp 145

lashin!s :4-:5 leeches ":1 lo! cabin 1*4 lo!!in! a route "3* lon!itude corrections 4*4 luau 1":

map readin! "34 map re/erences "34 maps ":8 meat% brinin! 133

dryin! or smo in! 135 /ree=in! 139 preservin! in /at 133 mushrooms "14

nettin! :9

north% /indin! $ithout compass or% $atch "94

oven% stone 1""

pac s 149-15* pannier pac 15* pe!s 1*8 pit coo in! 1": plaitin! ""-"8 plottin! a course ":8 poison% treatment /or ":5

ra/t 154

rammed earth construction 93 /orms and moulds 1*1 /oundations 99 soil 1ualities 99 stren!thenin! material 1** river% crossin! 151 river crossin!% sa/ety line /or 48 road train 1:3 rope brid!e 44-4: rope ladder% sin!le $ith choc s 44

sin!le $ith stic s 4" rope-ma in!% common /aults "" /eedin! "1

!atherin! and preparin!

materials 1" layin! the strands 13 materials 1* thic ness o/ strands "1 $ith sin!le spinner "1 ropes and cords% ma in! 9 ropes% brea in! strains 1* rope$al 1: rope$al % construction 18 route% choice o/ "34

sea creatures ":4 shell/ish "**

si!nal code% emer!ency "83

sled 144

slush lamp 141

smo in! meat 135

sna e bite% treatment o/ "53

sna es "54-"58

(outh Pole 4*8

(outhern #ross 4*8

spears% /ishin! 19*

spider bite% treatment o/ "53

spiders "58

splices ::-:8

standard time 4*4

star charts 41*-41"

sun cloc 1:8%"35

sun compass "35

sun movement "91

sun% hei!ht above hori=on 4*1

path throu!h s y "99 survival "84-"89 s$a! 143-149

table% camp 1"9 thatchin!% materials 85 methods 8:

principles o/ $atershed 8:

rid!e 94 se$n 88 se$n batten 94 split stal 91 stal 91 stic 89 tu/t 9* $oven 9" tic s "59 time 4*:

time% calculatin! $ith sun and compass "91 calculatin! $ithout

compass "99 e1uation o/ 4*" /rom stars 4*9 -reen$ich mean 4*4 standard 4*4 tinder "45 toilet% camp 1:* trac s "49 trac s% bird "51%"5" mammal "54%"54 tree s$in! shelter 84

ve!etables% $ild "*3 vehicles% in the bush 1:*-1:3

$al in! speeds "31 $ater /rom ve!etable sources "1 $ater in emer!encies "15 $ater% /ilterin! 1"8 indications o/ "13 sta!nant ""4 $eather patterns "81 -"84 $eather si!nals $hippin! :8 $indlass 41 $itchetty !rubs $oodshed% camp

"38% "*:% 113