THE FOURTH DIMENSION SIMPLY EXPLAINED

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not require nor admit of proof, because it embodies the definition of the kind of space to be dealt with (that of ordinary geometry). Riemann also showed that there are logically three kinds of space of three dimensions, with properties analogous to the two-dimensional spaces mentioned. They are distinguished by a socalled measure of space curvature (purely analytical, not denoting curvature for sense perception). If this constant is zero, we have Euclidean space; if positive, we have spherical space; and if negative, we have pseudo-spherical space. In spherical space, straightest lines return upon themselves, and the back of our own head would be the ultimate background. Space would be unlimited but not infinitely great, and the sum of the angles of a triangle would exceed two right angles by an amount proportional to the area. In pseudo-spherical space straightest lines run to infinity as in Euclidean space, but the sum of the angles of a triangle is less than two right angles by an amount proportional to the area. In both spherical and pseudo-spherical space there are no similar figures of unequal size, for in each case the greater triangle must have different angles. Lie proved that free motion can occur only in the above three spaces. There are other forms of non-Euclidean space which do not allow of free motion, called by Killing the Clifford-Klein spaces.
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With three different self-consistent geometries of co-ordinate rank for the investigation of the properties of three-dimensional aggregates of points, it was natural to regard a space of any type as a locus in space of a higher dimension, and this led to the consideration of space of four dimensions, the properties of which, when of zero curvature, have been discussed in the main essay. Euclidean space considered as a region of measureable quantities does not, as we have seen, correspond with the most general conception of an aggregate of three dimensions, but involves also special conditions. It is specially characterized by: 1, free mobility of rigid figures; 2, the single geodetic line between two points; 3, the existence of parallels; or by 1, free mobility; 2, postulate of similarity. Now these characteristics are not necessities of thought, and if they hold of real physical space, the fact must be determined by experience as in other empirical investigations, that is, by observation and experiment, for we cannot logically demand that the objective world must conform with our subjective intuitions. It can never be proven, however, that our space is accurately Euclidean, for unavoidable errors of observation must always leave a slight margin in our measurements; and though within those limits our space is apparently Euclidean, this proves merely that the space constant is small, but not that it is zero. In spherical and pseudo-spherical triangles, the greater the area of the triangle the greater the difference of its angle sum from two right angles. But as even the interstellar triangles of parallax investigations are utterly insignificant compared with the dimensions of space itself, it must always remain an open question whether, if we
Page 58 had triangles large enough, the sum of the angles would still be two right angles. Even with our imperfect

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