OE 5050

ANCHORS
Dr R Panneer Selvam
Dept of Ocean Engineering
Aug-Nov 2010
MOORING SYSTEMS
Mooring systems have been around
just as long as man has felt the need
for anchoring a vessel at sea.
These systems were used, and are still
used, on ships and consisted of one or
more lines connected to the bow or
stern of the ship.
MOORING SYSTEMS
Generally the ships stayed moored for a
short duration of time (days).
When the exploration and production of oil
and gas started offshore, a need for more
permanent mooring systems became
apparent.
Numerous different mooring systems have
been developed over the years, of which a
short selection is presented here.
Semi-submersible drilling rig
Semi-submersible drilling rig - generally
the semi-submersibles are moored using
an eight point mooring.
Two mooring lines come together at each
of the columns of the semi-submersible.
Catenary Anchor Leg Mooring
CALM buoy - generally the buoy will be
moored using four or more mooring lines
at equally spaced angles.
The mooring lines generally have a
catenary shape.
The vessel connects to the buoy with a
single line and is free to weathervane
around the buoy.
Single Anchor Leg Mooring
SALM buoy - these types of buoys have a
mooring that consists of a single mooring
line attached to an anchor point on the
seabed, underneath the buoy.
The anchor point may be gravity based or
piled
Turret mooring
Turret mooring - this type of mooring is
generally used on FPSOs and FSOs in more
harsh environments.
Multiple mooring lines are used, which come
together at the turntable built into the FPSO or
FSO.
The FPSO or FSO is able to rotate around the
turret to obtain an optimal orientation relative to
the prevailing weather conditions.
SPREAD MOORING
Spread mooring - generally used on
FPSOs and FSOs in milder environments.
The mooring lines are directly connected
to the FPSO or FSO at both the stern and
bow of the vessel.
Catenary Mooring System
When oil and gas exploration and production
was conducted in shallow to deep water, the
most common mooring line configuration was
the catenary mooring line consisting of chain or
wire rope.
For exploration and production in deep to ultra-
deep water, the weight of the mooring line starts
to become a limiting factor in the design of the
floater.
Catenary Mooring System
Taut leg Mooring System
To overcome this problem new solutions
were developed consisting of synthetic
ropes in the mooring line (less weight)
and/or a taut leg mooring system
Taut leg Mooring System
Catenary vs Taut Leg Mooring
The major difference between a catenary
mooring and a taut leg mooring is that where the
catenary mooring arrives at the seabed
horizontally, the taut leg mooring arrives at the
seabed at an angle.
This means that in a taut leg mooring the anchor
point has to be capable of resisting both
horizontal and vertical forces, while in a catenary
mooring the anchor point is only subjected to
horizontal forces.

Catenary vs Taut Leg Mooring

In a catenary mooring, most of the
restoring forces are generated by the
weight of the mooring line.
In a taut leg mooring, the restoring forces
are generated by the elasticity of the
mooring line.
An advantage of a taut leg mooring over
the catenary mooring is that the footprint
of the taut leg mooring is smaller than the
footprint of the catenary mooring,
i.e. the mooring radius of the taut leg
mooring will be smaller than the mooring
radius of a catenary mooring for a similar
application.
Anchors
Dead Weigh Anchor
Drag embedment Anchor
Pile Anchor
Suction Anchor
Vertical Load Anchor
Dead weight anchor
Dead weight
The dead weight is probably the oldest
anchor in existence.
The holding capacity is generated by the
weight of the material used and partly by
the friction between the dead weight and
the seabed.
Common materials in use today for dead
weights are steel and concrete
Drag Embedment Anchor
This is the most popular type of anchoring
point available today.
The drag embedment anchor has been
designed to penetrate into the seabed,
either partly of fully.
The holding capacity of the drag
embedment anchor is generated by the
resistance of the soil in front of the anchor.
Drag Embedment Anchor
The drag embedment anchor is very well
suited for resisting large horizontal loads,
but not for large vertical loads although
there are some drag embedment anchors
available on the market today that can
resist significant vertical loads
PILE ANCHOR
The pile is a hollow steel pipe that is
installed into the seabed by means of a
piling hammer or vibrator.
The holding capacity of the pile is
generated by the friction of the soil along
the pile and lateral soil resistance.
PILE ANCHOR
Generally the pile has to be installed at
great depth below seabed to obtain the
required holding capacity.
The pile is capable of resisting both
horizontal and vertical loads
SUCTION ANCHORS
Like the pile, the suction anchor is a
hollow steel pipe, although the diameter of
the pipe is much larger than that of the
pile.
The suction anchor is forced into the
seabed by means of a pump connected to
the top of the pipe, creating a pressure
difference.
When pressure inside the pipe is lower
than outside, the pipe is sucked into the
seabed.
SUCTION ANCHORS
After installation the pump is removed.
The holding capacity of the suction anchor
is generated by the friction of the soil
along the suction anchor and lateral soil
resistance.
The suction anchor is capable of
withstanding both horizontal and vertical
loads
Vertical load anchor
A new development is the vertical load anchor
(VLA).
The vertical load anchor is installed like a
conventional drag embedment anchor, but
penetrates much deeper.
When the anchor mode is changed from the
installation mode to the vertical (normal) loading
mode, the anchor can withstand both horizontal
and vertical loads
ANCHOR
An anchor is a heavy object, often made
out of metal, that is used to attach ships to
the bottom of a body of water at a specific
point.
There are two primary classes of
anchorstemporary and permanent.
ANCHOR Permanent
A permanent anchor is often called a
mooring, and is rarely moved;
the vessel may not hoist it aboard
must hire a service (AHS Anchor
handling ship) to move or maintain it
ANCHOR Temporary
A temporary anchor is usually carried by
the vessel, and hoisted aboard whenever
the vessel is under way; it is what most
non-sailors mean when they refer to an
anchor.
Anchors
Anchors have been used in water
depths exceeding 1500m
Anchors
Anchors works by resisting the
movement force of the vessel which is
attached to it
Two primary ways to do this
via Sheer Mass
via Hookinginto sea bed
Anchors
Loads due Wind and currents are not
the largest
Actually the vertical movement of
waves develop the largest loads,
modern anchors are designed to use a
combination of technique and shape to
resist all these forces.
Anchors
An anchor is described as aweigh when
it has been broken out of the bottom and
is being hauled up to be stowed. (keep it
on board, ship sides)
Aweigh - which describes the anchor
when it is hanging on the rope, not on the
bottom;
Anchors
FLUKE
SHANK
CROWN
Anchors
A modern temporary anchor usually consists
of
a central bar called the shank,
an armature with some form of flat surface
(fluke or palm) to grip the bottom
the position at which the armature is attached
to the shank is called the crown,
and the shank is usually fitted with a ring or
shackle to attach it to the cable.
There are many variations and additions to
these
Mushroom Anchors
shaped like an inverted mushroom, the
head becoming buried in the silt.
A counterweight is often provided at the
other end of the shank to lay it down
before it becomes buried.
A mushroom anchor will normally sink in
the silt to the point where it has displaced
its own weight in bottom material.
Mushroom Anchors
These anchors are only suitable for a silt or mud
bottom, since they rely upon suction and cohesion of
the bottom material,
Cannot be used in rocky or coarse sand bottoms
The holding power of this anchor is at best about twice
its weight unless it becomes buried, when it can be as
much as ten times its weight.
They are available in sizes from about few kgs up to
several tons.
Dead weight Anchors
relies solely on being a heavy weight.
It is usually just a large block of concrete
or stone at the end of the chain.
Its holding power is equal to its weight
underwater (i.e. taking its buoyancy into
account) regardless of the type of
seabed, although suction can increase
this if it becomes buried.
Dead weight Anchors
Consequently deadweight anchors are used
where mushroom anchors are unsuitable, for
example in rock, gravel or coarse sand.
An advantage of a deadweight anchor over a
mushroom is that if it does become dragged, then
it continues to provide its original holding force.
The disadvantage of using deadweight anchors
in conditions where a mushroom anchor could be
used is that it needs to be around ten times the
weight of the equivalent mushroom anchor..
Anchoring
Four primary questions to be considered before actually
anchoring:
Is the anchorage protected?
Is the seabed good holding ground?
What is the depth, tidal range, and the current
tide state?
Is there enough room?
Anchors
Is the anchorage protected?
A good anchorage offers protection from
the current weather conditions, and will
also offer protection from the expected
weather.
Is the seabed good holding ground?
You should have charts to indicate the
kind of bottom, as well as a tool to collect
a sample from the bottom.
Anchors
most anchors will hold well in sandy mud,
mud and clay, or firm sand.
Loose sand and soft mud are not desirable
bottoms, and especially soft mud which should
be avoided if at all possible.
Rock, coral, and shale prevent anchors from
digging in, although some anchors are
designed to hook into such a bottom.
Grassy bottoms may be good holding, but
only if the anchor can penetrate the bottom.
Anchors
What is the depth, tidal range, and the current
tide state?
If your anchorage is affected by tide, you need
to know the tide range and the times of high
and low water.
You need enough depth for your vessel
throughout the range it might swing, at low tide,
not just where you drop the anchor.

Anchors
Is there enough room?
If your anchorage is affected by tide, you
should keep in mind that the swing range will
be larger at low tide than at high tide.
No matter where you anchor you need to
consider what the largest possible swing range
will be, and what obstacles and hazards might
be within that range.
Keep in mind that other vessels in the
anchorage may have a swing range which can
overlap yours.
Anchors
Boats on permanent moorings, or shorter
scope, may not swing as far as you expect
them to, or may swing either more rapidly or
more slowly than your vessel (all-chain cables
tend to swing more slowly than all-rope or
chain-and-rope cables.)
There are techniques of anchoring to limit the
swing of a vessel if the anchorage has limited
room.

Anchors
To limit the vertical and lateral movements of
floating structures
submerged structures positively buoyant,
neutrally buoyant
For small instrument packages (buoys) which are
used to monitor wave kinematics, water properties
salinity, density, temp or any other aspects at air-
sea interface
For large buoys data collection, navigational
purposes
For restraining the movement of oil and gas pipe
lines laid on the sea-floor
Anchors
MODU Mobile offshore drilling unit
FPSO- Floating production storage/ offloading
UPTO 1000 m
Chain and wire rope
Weight of rope is a
problem for > 1000m
> 1000 m , synthetic ropes
Anchors - Requirements
Should provide enough holding power
Minimum size and weight easy handling
Predominant forces influencing design
nature of sea bottom (clay or sand)
the bottom slope
direction and intensity of mooring
line tension
Anchors - Requirements
Length of the cable should be apt
Too short intermittent submergence or
pull out of anchor
Too long permit excessive movement , possible
kinking and fouling, subsequently weakening the
cable between the anchor and structure
Anchors Holding power
The pulling force that the anchor can resist
depends on
Depth of embedment
Submerged weight of the anchor
Angle that the cable make with the sea-
bottom
Soil properties
For fluke anchor, the angle subtended by
the anchor fluke , sea floor and the anchor
shank
Anchors Capability index
Holding power of an anchor : HP
Weight in air: W
Capability Index = HP / W
Mass anchors or Dead weight
anchors
Relatively inexpensive
Old car motors
Cast iron clumps
Welded (worn-out/ rejected) rails
Old rail-road car wheels (trains)
Bundles of surplus anchor chain
Concrete boxes filled with tremie
concrete and covered with rip-rap

Excellent resistance to vertical pull

Used in subsurface buoys set in small or
medium currents
Whenever horizontal pull is expected to be
small
Vertical holding power < weight in air
Because, holding power depends only on
submerged weight
Mass anchors or Dead weight
anchors
Mass Anchors Holding power
Depends on
Cohesive soil -clay adhesion between
the contact of the anchor and the sea
floor
Cohesionless soil-sand friction
between the contact of the anchor and
the sea floor
Anchors - Mass anchors
Anchors weight required to resist the
anticipated mooring tension(T) is inversely
proportional to coefficient of friction
For same T, more the friction less the
anchor wt
For same T, less the friction more the
anchor wt
Mass Anchors
Less holding capacity on steeper
slopes
Possibility of soft and weak soils
These soil fail under massive anchor
weight
This in turn can fail the total anchorage
system due to excessive tension
Mass Anchors Application
soils which are not very weak and soft
Tension to be essentially vertical
Mushroom Anchors
Anchors get embedded by their own
weight
Sometimes jetted to the desired depth
Used for permanent mooring in muddy
bottoms
Mushroom Anchors
As the anchor oscillates in strain, mud
fills the cup of the mushroom
Thus weight increases, and gets buried
itself deeper
Holding power depends on
mass
resistance of soil above it
Drag Anchors
These are primarily meant for ships
Designed to dig into the sea-floor as
they are dragged along by a horizontal
force
In this way they get embedded deeply
and firmly in the bottom soil
Drag Anchors
Parts
Fluke
Stock
Crown
Shank
Shackle
Drag Anchors - Fluke
Flukes are the plates which plough into the sea
bottom and create resistance to lateral pull
Crown trips and maintain the fluke at the proper
fluke angle (angle between fluke and shank)
Shank transmits the pull of the mooring line to
the anchor
Stock prevents the anchor from rotating on itself
Fluke Anchors
Typical fluke angle
30 to 35 degrees for sand bottoms
50 degrees for mud bottoms
Drag/Embedment Anchors
These combine
light weight
large resistance to lateral pull
Drag/Embedment Anchors -
Disadvantages
Necessary to drag the anchor along
the bottom before it can dig and hold
Tendency for the anchor to pull out of
the bottom if a vertical force is applied at
the end of the shank
Susceptibility to pullout if torque is
transmitted through the cable to the
shank
Anchors
Pile Anchors
Pre cast concrete piles
Drilled cast-in-place concrete piles
Steel piles
Suction Embedded Anchors
To anchor floating exploration and
production platforms
Soft cohesive soil
Used in deep water
Installed in water depths of 40m to
2500m
Diameter 3.5m to 7 m
Penetration upto 20m
Suction embedded Anchors

Suction embedded Anchors

A suction caisson anchor is a large diameter, cylinder
(either steel or concrete) open-ended at the bottom and
closed at the top.
Mooring loads are applied by an anchor line attached to
the side of the caisson.
The length to diameter ratio of the caisson is typically six
or less.
Once installed, the caisson acts much like a short rigid
pile and is capable of resisting both lateral and axial load.
Suction embedded Anchors
The suction caisson gets its name from the fact that it is usually
installed by applying under-pressure ( suction ) to its interior after
it is allowed to penetrate under its own weight.
Since the caissons interior is sealed from the seafloor by the soil,
vertical loading creates an internal draw-down pressure which in
turn mobilizes the end bearing resistance of the soil at the caisson
tip.
Of particular interest to operators and contractors is an
assessment of the bias and uncertainty in predicting the anchors
installation performance and holding capacity.
SEA BED ANCHORS
Sea bed anchors are required for the following
To limit the vertical and lateral movements of
floating structures and of positively or neutrally
buoyant submerged structures.
For small instrument packages which are used
to monitor various aspects of the water body or
the air-sea surface
For large buoys which are used for navigational
purposes or for data collection
For restraining the movement of oil and gas pile
lines laid on the sea floor
For resisting uplift or overturning movements of
offshore structures. (Ex: Tension leg platform
requires very high uplift resistance anchors, in
the order of 50,000 tonnes, for its stability).
Requirements of Sea Bed Anchors
(i) enough holding power and at the same time
(ii) their size and weight must be kept to the
minimum for handling purposes.
(iii) The nature of sea bottom, whether clayey or
sandy, the bottom slope, and the direction and
intensity of mooring line tension at the anchor of
anchors.
(iv) The cable length is very important too short
cable can cause intermittent submergence of the
structures or pull out of the anchor.
(v) Too long a cable might permit excessive
movement of the structure and possible kinking
and fouling, with subsequent weakening of the
cable between the structure and the anchor.
TYPES OF SEABED
ANCHORS
Mass anchor or dead weight anchor
Mushroom anchor
Drag or Fluke anchor
Pile anchor
Holding Power of an Anchor
The holding power of an anchor with respect to
horizontal and vertical tractions is the pulling
force that an anchor can resist.
It depends on the following
Depth of embedment
Submerged weight of the anchor
Angle that the cable makes with the sea bottom
For fluked anchors, the angle subtended by the
anchor fluke, the sea floor and the anchor shank
Soil properties at the particular site
MASS ANCHORS OR DEAD WEIGHT
ANCHORS
Relatively inexpensive masses such as
those given below are used as Mass
Anchors.
Old car motors
Cast iron clumps
Welded (rejected) rails
Old rail road car wheels
Bundles of surplus anchor chain
Concrete boxes filled with tremie
concrete and covered with rip rap.
Advantages
Because these anchors are relatively inexpensive, they
are expendable. In addition, they are also easy to
fabricate.
This type of anchors provide excellent resistance to
vertical pull and are often used for subsurface buoys set
in small or moderate currents or whenever the horizontal
pull at the anchor is expected to be small.
Limitations
The vertical holding power is less than their
weight in air because the holding power
depends almost solely on its submerged weight.
The horizontal holding power depends on the
adhesion (in the case of cohesive soils like
clays) and friction (in the case non-cohesive
soils like sands and gravels) between the
contact of the anchor and the sea floor
The application of mass or dead weight anchors is
generally restricted to situations where the tension is
expected to be essentially vertical and for sea bottom
soils which are not weak and very soft.
Apart from their lesser holding power on sea bottoms of
steeper slopes, there is a possibility of soft and weak
marine soils failing under the weight of a massive
anchor; this is turn may fail the total anchorage system
due to excessive tension on the cable, placing the
anchored system in jeopardy.
MUSHROOM ANCHORS
These anchors get embedded by the force of their
own weight. Sometimes he anchor is jetted to the
desired depth.
It is generally used for permanent mooring in
muddy bottoms.
As the anchor oscillates under strain, mud fills the
cup of the mushroom and the anchor buries itself
deeper.
Its holding power depends upon its mass and the
resistance of the soil above it.
The flukes are the plates which plough into the
sea bottom and create resistance to lateral pull.
The crown trips and maintains the flukes at the
proper fluke angle (angle between the flukes
and the shank).
The shank transmits the pull of the mooring line
to the anchor.
The stock prevents the anchors from rotating on
itself.
Quick and firm anchor embedment depends
on a proper selection of the fluke angle. Typical
values of fluke angles are 30 to 35 for sand
bottoms and upto 50 for mud bottoms.
The rugged stockless anchor is suitable for a variety
of sea bottoms. Its design combines (i) weight for
holding in hard bottom with (ii) ability of biting and
digging in softer sea floors.
The light weight, the Danforth, the Stato and the
Boss anchors different versions of light weight anchors
with large flukes. These anchors perform well in sand,
clay, and mud as long as the pull is horizontal.
The relative inability to resist vertical forces, a length
of chain (several shots of heavy chain) is usually
placed between the anchor shank and the cable to help
keep the shank horizontal. In addition, the scope is
made as large as possible (say about 7m or more) to
keep the chain, and the shank of the anchor lying on the
sea floor.
Average Anchor Holding Power
Bottom Type
Anchor type
Sand `Mud
Stockless* 6 2 or less
Lightweight* 16 9
Stato* 20 15
Boss** 35
* Smith, 1965 ** Beck 1973
Drag anchors is advantageous as it has light
weight and large resistance to lateral pull.
They suffer from the following disadvantages:
necessity to drag the anchor along the
bottom before it can dig and hold.
Tendency for anchor to pull out of the
bottom if a vertical force is applied at the
end of the shank.
Susceptibility to pull out if torque is
transmitted through the cable to the
shank.
PILE ANCHORS
Pile Anchor uses precast concrete piles,
drilled cast-in-place concrete piles and steel
piles.
SPECIAL ANCHORS
Embedment Anchor with Movable Flukes
It penetrates the sea floor by
(a) free fall
(b) by being driven
(c) by use of explosive propellants.
The flukes are forced into an open position
by either an upward lift or by a downward drive
on the anchor after penetration is attained.
The units are placed vertically with a swivel
arrangement between the anchors and the
chain which assists in the transfer of only
vertical forces to the anchor.
Anchors to Resist Pull at a Large Angle
form the Bottom
Mooring lines forced by strong currents or buoy
system configuration exert their pull at a large
angle from the bottom. In such cases, the anchor
must resist both vertical and horizontal
components of the pull. The anchor should
therefore combine dead weight and lateral
resistance.
Clump and embedment anchor
Heavy anchors equipped with flukes (porcupine
design)
Heavy anchors that tilt and dig when pulled by
horizontal forces (Stimson anchor)
Lengths of heavy chain.