0 Bewertungen0% fanden dieses Dokument nützlich (0 Abstimmungen)
311 Ansichten18 Seiten
This document summarizes the evolution of steel standards and building codes in Canada as they relate to the reuse of existing steel structures. It finds that while codes encourage new construction, their scope also includes reuse and allows reused materials if equivalent to new. However, determining equivalency for old or unusual materials presents challenges. Standards focused initially on new steel properties but now provide more guidance on evaluating existing structures, though inconsistencies remain.
This document summarizes the evolution of steel standards and building codes in Canada as they relate to the reuse of existing steel structures. It finds that while codes encourage new construction, their scope also includes reuse and allows reused materials if equivalent to new. However, determining equivalency for old or unusual materials presents challenges. Standards focused initially on new steel properties but now provide more guidance on evaluating existing structures, though inconsistencies remain.
Copyright:
Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)
Verfügbare Formate
Als PDF, TXT herunterladen oder online auf Scribd lesen
This document summarizes the evolution of steel standards and building codes in Canada as they relate to the reuse of existing steel structures. It finds that while codes encourage new construction, their scope also includes reuse and allows reused materials if equivalent to new. However, determining equivalency for old or unusual materials presents challenges. Standards focused initially on new steel properties but now provide more guidance on evaluating existing structures, though inconsistencies remain.
Copyright:
Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)
Verfügbare Formate
Als PDF, TXT herunterladen oder online auf Scribd lesen
As described above there are recommended values for
steel strength which can be used in absence of more
detailed information available. The summary of chrono- logical research summarized above clearly supports the default value selection. The default value of steel strength is yield strength of 210 N/mm and ultimate strength of 380 N/mm . If the welded connections are to be used, it is important to carry out chemical analysis of steel to determine its weldability. Caution should be exercised when the unidentified steel is to be used on a project for rigid and braced frames member in seismic zones. When the frame is designed for seismic load with reduction factor R of 2 or greater, the accurate determi- nation of yield strength is very important as it control structural behaviour of a frame. Codes and Standards Although, the codes and standards are focusing on new materials and new construction, their scope accommodates reused material and adaptive building reuse. They may not be as specific as designers would like, but they give a sufficient framework which can be followed. The codes and standards should not be seen as an obstacle to material reuse and adaptive building reuse. Certainly, with the emergence of new set of objective based codes, it will be easier in the future to develop innovative solutions. ConcIusion Over the period of last 35 years there have been signifi- cant changes in loading. Very important was the emer- gence of the limit state approach to design in 1980?s in the NBC. New material standards since then started to adopt the limit states approach leading to full adoption of this design philosophy. Typically, the working stress steel design underestimates the capacity of the section by around 10% when compared with the ultimate design strength for the same grade of steel. As deflection crite- ria often govern the selection of sections for non- composite steel construction, both approaches yield the same section. Therefore, there should not be a problem when checking a steel section today which was designed to working stress design provided there were no changes to design loads. The first NBC was issued in 1941 which in many instances provided only guidance to load determination. The occupancy loads provided for in this code are quite similar to the current practice. One wind pressure is given for all locations. Its value is significantly greater for low rise buildings but generally satisfactory for most of the locations. The seismic provisions on the NBC 1941 are very general and generally inadeq uate. Between 1941 and 1970, the code has been republished four times with snow, wind and earthquake loads being more defined as well as climatic data building more readily available (shift from contour maps to tables). The load due to snow is generally greater than today's standards. Wind loads continue to be overestimated for low rise buildings. 1. General requirements Steel-Reuse Information Paper No.4 www.reuse-steel.org The Ontario Building Code (OBC) 1997 has additional provisions which deal with existing buildings. Part 10 of the OBC deals with performance requirements related to change in use. Part 11 deals with Renovation. This part considers extensively the issue of fire safety result- ing from change in use and increase in occupant load. It does not require a change in performance level in the case of alteration or repair which is consistent with the original design intention and use. However when the occupancy load is increased, this code requires reme- dial action to support the extra loads, although it accepts postings of restricted loading requirements for a portion of a floor. The NBC 2005 has adopted a different, objective based approach. It specifies the objectives which the code aspires to achieve and in a separate division it describes how these can be met. There are no longer firm require- ments which designers have to comply with. This approach will result in a significant change in the build- ing approval process and the mind set of the building officials. There is no longer the norm and prescriptive solution but the designer has the freedom to address the objectives of the code and provide relevant documenta- tion. This should make the approval process for innova- tive or non-standard construction far more readily achievable. CSA, (1960), CSA G40.8, Structural Steels with Improved Resistance to Brittle Fracture. Canadian Standards Association, Canada. CSA, (1959), CSA G40.7, Steel Sheet Piling. Canadian Standards Association, Canada. CSA, (1950, 1959, 1963, 1966.), CSA G40-6, Structural Silicon Steel. Canadian Standards Association, Canada. Further Information CSA, (1950, 1959, 1963, 1966), CSA G40-5, Carbon steel plates of structural quality, Plates 2" and under in thickness. Canadian Standards Association, Canada. CSA, (1950, 1959, 1963, 1966), CSA G40-4, Medium Structural Steel. Canadian Standards Association, Canada. CSA, (1959, 1963, 1966.), CSA G40-3, Structural steel for locomotives and cars. Canadian Standards Associa- tion, Canada. CSA, (1950), CSA G40-3, Mild Structural Steel. Canadian Standards Association, Canada. CSA, (1950, 1959, 1963, 1966), CSA G40-2. Structural Steel Rivets. Canadian Standards Association, Canada. CSA, (1950, 1959, 1963, 1966), CSA G40-1 to G40-6, General requirements for delivery of rolled steel plates, shapes and bars for structural use. Canadian Standards Association, Canada. CSA, (2000), CAN/CSA-S6-00. 2000. Canadian Highway Bridge Code. CSA, Ca. CSA, (2001,2003), CAN/CSA-S16-01. - Limit States Design of Steel Structures. Canadian Standards Associa- tion, Canada. CSA, (1964), CSA G40.12, General Purpose Steel. Canadian Standards Association, Canada. CSA, (1971, 1973, 1976, 1978, M1978, M81, 87, 98, 04), CSA G40.20/G40.21. General Requirements for Rolled or Welded Structural Quality Steel/ Structural Quality Steel. Canadian Standards Association, Canada. NRC. (1953,1960, 1965, 1970, 1975, 1977, 1980, 1985, 1990, 1995, 2005). The National Building Code of Canada. NRC, Ottawa, Canada. NRC. (1996). User's Guide - NBC 1995: Structural Commentaries (Part4). NRC, Ottawa, Canada. Bussell, M. (1997). Appraisal of Existing Iron and Steel Structures. SCI 138. The Steel Construction Institute, Silwwod Park, Berkshire, UK. CISC, 2004. Handbook of Steel Construction. Eighth edition. CISC & Quadratone Graphics Ltd, Toronto, Canada. 2. Loading The NationaI BuiIding Code History of steeI as refIected in standards The reason for this research work arose as a result of interviews and surveys of the professionals associated with steel industry which suggested that there is a concern that the main difficulty when reusing steel is the problem of identification of steel and its structural properties. Another issue which was brought up was related to the approval by building officials. It was decided that the investigation will be done to look into the national codes and steel standards to trace the evolution and identify potential problems, and ways to establish the characteris- tics of old steel. Although national standards and codes encourage new construction and use of new materials, the National Build- ing Codes (NBC) definition of the scope includes "altera- tion, reconstruction, demolition, removal, relocation and occupancy of existing buildings". Not only does the scope reiterate the application to old construction and new / different materials, but it has contained the following clause since 1985 - "Unless otherwise specified, used materials, appliances and equipment are permitted to be reused where they meet the requirements of this Code for new materials and are satisfactory for the intended use". It should be noted that equivalence is defined for materials and components failing to comply with Part 4 and past performance, tests (for structure a full-scale test) or model analogue are accepted. The third revision of the 1990 NBC included for the first time the relationship between NBC and other standards, testing and certification organizations, defining for design- ers authorities which can assist them to determine equiva- lencies. The 1995 Code was accompanied by the Struc- tural Commentaries on the National Building Code of Canada 1995 which for the first time included a section entitled "Application of NBC Part 4 for the Structural evaluation and Upgrading of Existing Buildings", assisting designers to deal with issues related to buildings designed to previous codes in the context of Part 4. This document is very important as it recognizes the shortcomings of Part 4 of the NBC with its focus on new construction (new or addition) and the lack of its application to existing build- ings which may contain a structural system or materials no longer in use. Used materials and systems are permitted if they comply with the NBC requirements for new construction. There is reasonable freedom given to designers to prove equivalency but the problem is that it is a depar- ture from the prescriptive, requirement based process. The non-prescriptive approach challenges building department officials leading to inconsistent interpreta- tion and varying attitudes and requirements. From the designer's point of view it results in uncertainty about what may be required and acts as a deterrent to taking an alternative design approach. 1. Review of steel properties It should be noted that the chemical composition of "old" steel is very similar irrespective of its origin. CAN/CSA-S16-01 (5.2) considers steel suitable for building construction only if its properties can be identi- fied by a mill or producer certificate or a colour marking which is defined in all the structural steel standards above. The two main alternatives which are open to the designer who wants to reuse steel components without documentation are to approve steel and use the prescribed properties (yield strength of 210 N/mm and ultimate strength of 380 N/mm ) or to have a testing agency carry out tests to determine the mechanical and chemical properties and thus identify the steel. Once the steel type is identified, the minimum values of yield and ultimate strength given in the product specifications for that type of steel (not actual tested values) must be used. It should be noted that the determination of 2 3 2 2 2 introduced carbon content (previously ladle analysis done by the manufacturer checked the carbon content), while phosphorus and sulphur remained unchanged, and further introduced limits on manganese and silicon. The maximum carbon content decreases with the increased steel strength. The next major revision of CSA-G40.21 was in 1973. The metric version was pub- lished in 1981. This revision covered a wide range of steel strengths and the types described above. The 2004 version of CSA-G40.21 is similar to the 1981 version in terms of strengths but the general construc- tion steel type was eliminated and corrosion resistant weldable and notch-tough steel, and quenched and tempered low alloy notch-tough steel types were add- edIt should be noted that all standards dealt with steel marking using colour codes to identify different steels. This is important for mills but through the fabrication process the marking gets lost. It should be noted that the Canadian Highway Bridge Code CAN/CSA-S6-00, Section 14.6 may be used as guidance. Besides identification of steel using project documentation including the mill certificates, the Code offers alternative approaches, namely: testing of samples to identify steel and use the minimum product specifications; selecting yield and ultimate strength from a given table based on the year of construction; or more rigorous testing described in that standard which includes the procedure for the evaluation of test result and strength determination. Table 2 gives the estimation of properties of structural steel by the age of construction which are recommended by S6 in the absence of more specific information. chemical composition to determine its weldability may be more important than its strength. A third alternative is an affidavit from the fabricator stating that the fabricated material conforms to material specifications. Table 1 Properties of steel in Canadian history From CAN/CSA-S6-00. Table 2 Properties of steel by the age of construction 2) 2) 1) From CAN/CSA-S6-00, Canadian Highway Bridge Code Recommendations The most significant changes are related to modifica- tions in seismic loads and snow loads. The major impact on the adaptive reuse of buildings designed before 1985 are the seismic loads. The previous code (NBC 1980) was based on peak horizontal acceleration and seismic contour map from 1970 with probability on 0.01 per annum. The 1985 NBC included a new zoning map, including both, peak accelerations and peak velocities and increased probability of 10% in 50 years. Other changes included the treatment of seismic load by limit state design approach. The load factor for seismic load since 1990 equals to 1.0. What this means for adaptive reuse is that all buildings designed prior to adoption on the 1980 NBC will require seismic retrofit and buildings designed prior to 1970 in some locations were not Steel components have great potential for reuse. The knowledge of steel history is important for the designer if reuse of components is to be adopted. The first Cana- dian steel code for buildings (C.E.S.A. S16) dates from 1935 and remained in place until 1948. The steel which is described in that code is mild and medium steel (governed by C.E.S.A.-S40). This latter standard after 1950 became the CSA - G40.x series. Carbon steel for plates and silicon steel appeared after the Second World War in addition to the original mild and medium steel which was used until 1964 (see Table 1). The injection of preheated oxygen rather than air into the modified Bessemer furnace and electric arc steel- making processes, led to better quality and the emer- gence of higher strength steels. Several types have appeared: general construction steel, weldable steels (regular and low temperature), corrosion resistant steels (regular and with improved low temperature properties), and quenched and tempered low alloy plates. The chemical analysis in CSA-G40.21 1964 for the first time The 1990 NBC introduced the rain components of snow load and the ground snow load was changed (generally for most areas ground snow load decreased) as well as the default snow density was increased from 2.4 kN/m to 3.0 kN/m3. This had a minor impact on the magnitude and the extent of snow accumulation on lower roofs adjacent to higher buildings. Since 1995, the snow accumulation was typically decreased in recognition of the fact that the amount of snow on upper is limited by the size of the upper roof and there is often not enough snow to fill the step. The extent of the lower roof zone impacted by snow accumulation increased. Generally, there should not be a problem resulting from snow load- ing if a component or building remains in the same geo- graphical location. designed for seismic load at all or much smaller load. Post 1990 buildings comply with current code seismic provisions. When comparing the current maximum seis- mic shear to the 1985 NBC, for ductile design, the design shears are almost identical, however for nominal ductility or non-ductile detailing, the 1990 and subse- quent NBC result in greater loads, 40% and 36% respectively. If the components are older than 70 years (prior to 1935), there are potentially other materials than steel available, such as cast and wrought iron, and it is more difficult to assess the properties. The following refer- ences are recommended: ASTM Standards A7 and A9. The publication "Appraisal of existing iron and steel structures" by The Steel Construction Insti- tute of the United Kingdom [Bussell, 1997]. CAN/CSA-S6-00 (Canadian Highway Bridge Code). FACILITATING GREATER REUSE AND RECYCLING OF STRUCTURAL STEEL IN THE CONSTRUCTION AND DEMOLITION PROCESS Action Plan 2000 on Climate Change www.reuse-steel.org This information paper was prepared by Vera Straka at the Department of ArchitecturaI Science, Ryerson University, with support from the Enhanced Recycling component of the Government of Canada Action Plan 2000 on Climate Change, Minerals and Metals Program and by the Canadian Institute for Steel Construction (CISC). Period
As described above there are recommended values for steel strength which can be used in absence of more detailed information available. The summary of chrono- logical research summarized above clearly supports the default value selection. The default value of steel strength is yield strength of 210 N/mm and ultimate strength of 380 N/mm . If the welded connections are to be used, it is important to carry out chemical analysis of steel to determine its weldability. Caution should be exercised when the unidentified steel is to be used on a project for rigid and braced frames member in seismic zones. When the frame is designed for seismic load with reduction factor R of 2 or greater, the accurate determi- nation of yield strength is very important as it control structural behaviour of a frame. Codes and Standards Although, the codes and standards are focusing on new materials and new construction, their scope accommodates reused material and adaptive building reuse. They may not be as specific as designers would like, but they give a sufficient framework which can be followed. The codes and standards should not be seen as an obstacle to material reuse and adaptive building reuse. Certainly, with the emergence of new set of objective based codes, it will be easier in the future to develop innovative solutions. ConcIusion Over the period of last 35 years there have been signifi- cant changes in loading. Very important was the emer- gence of the limit state approach to design in 1980?s in the NBC. New material standards since then started to adopt the limit states approach leading to full adoption of this design philosophy. Typically, the working stress steel design underestimates the capacity of the section by around 10% when compared with the ultimate design strength for the same grade of steel. As deflection crite- ria often govern the selection of sections for non- composite steel construction, both approaches yield the same section. Therefore, there should not be a problem when checking a steel section today which was designed to working stress design provided there were no changes to design loads. The first NBC was issued in 1941 which in many instances provided only guidance to load determination. The occupancy loads provided for in this code are quite similar to the current practice. One wind pressure is given for all locations. Its value is significantly greater for low rise buildings but generally satisfactory for most of the locations. The seismic provisions on the NBC 1941 are very general and generally inadeq uate. Between 1941 and 1970, the code has been republished four times with snow, wind and earthquake loads being more defined as well as climatic data building more readily available (shift from contour maps to tables). The load due to snow is generally greater than today's standards. Wind loads continue to be overestimated for low rise buildings. 1. General requirements Steel-Reuse Information Paper No.4 www.reuse-steel.org The Ontario Building Code (OBC) 1997 has additional provisions which deal with existing buildings. Part 10 of the OBC deals with performance requirements related to change in use. Part 11 deals with Renovation. This part considers extensively the issue of fire safety result- ing from change in use and increase in occupant load. It does not require a change in performance level in the case of alteration or repair which is consistent with the original design intention and use. However when the occupancy load is increased, this code requires reme- dial action to support the extra loads, although it accepts postings of restricted loading requirements for a portion of a floor. The NBC 2005 has adopted a different, objective based approach. It specifies the objectives which the code aspires to achieve and in a separate division it describes how these can be met. There are no longer firm require- ments which designers have to comply with. This approach will result in a significant change in the build- ing approval process and the mind set of the building officials. There is no longer the norm and prescriptive solution but the designer has the freedom to address the objectives of the code and provide relevant documenta- tion. This should make the approval process for innova- tive or non-standard construction far more readily achievable. CSA, (1960), CSA G40.8, Structural Steels with Improved Resistance to Brittle Fracture. Canadian Standards Association, Canada. CSA, (1959), CSA G40.7, Steel Sheet Piling. Canadian Standards Association, Canada. CSA, (1950, 1959, 1963, 1966.), CSA G40-6, Structural Silicon Steel. Canadian Standards Association, Canada. Further Information CSA, (1950, 1959, 1963, 1966), CSA G40-5, Carbon steel plates of structural quality, Plates 2" and under in thickness. Canadian Standards Association, Canada. CSA, (1950, 1959, 1963, 1966), CSA G40-4, Medium Structural Steel. Canadian Standards Association, Canada. CSA, (1959, 1963, 1966.), CSA G40-3, Structural steel for locomotives and cars. Canadian Standards Associa- tion, Canada. CSA, (1950), CSA G40-3, Mild Structural Steel. Canadian Standards Association, Canada. CSA, (1950, 1959, 1963, 1966), CSA G40-2. Structural Steel Rivets. Canadian Standards Association, Canada. CSA, (1950, 1959, 1963, 1966), CSA G40-1 to G40-6, General requirements for delivery of rolled steel plates, shapes and bars for structural use. Canadian Standards Association, Canada. CSA, (2000), CAN/CSA-S6-00. 2000. Canadian Highway Bridge Code. CSA, Ca. CSA, (2001,2003), CAN/CSA-S16-01. - Limit States Design of Steel Structures. Canadian Standards Associa- tion, Canada. CSA, (1964), CSA G40.12, General Purpose Steel. Canadian Standards Association, Canada. CSA, (1971, 1973, 1976, 1978, M1978, M81, 87, 98, 04), CSA G40.20/G40.21. General Requirements for Rolled or Welded Structural Quality Steel/ Structural Quality Steel. Canadian Standards Association, Canada. NRC. (1953,1960, 1965, 1970, 1975, 1977, 1980, 1985, 1990, 1995, 2005). The National Building Code of Canada. NRC, Ottawa, Canada. NRC. (1996). User's Guide - NBC 1995: Structural Commentaries (Part4). NRC, Ottawa, Canada. Bussell, M. (1997). Appraisal of Existing Iron and Steel Structures. SCI 138. The Steel Construction Institute, Silwwod Park, Berkshire, UK. CISC, 2004. Handbook of Steel Construction. Eighth edition. CISC & Quadratone Graphics Ltd, Toronto, Canada. 2. Loading The NationaI BuiIding Code History of steeI as refIected in standards The reason for this research work arose as a result of interviews and surveys of the professionals associated with steel industry which suggested that there is a concern that the main difficulty when reusing steel is the problem of identification of steel and its structural properties. Another issue which was brought up was related to the approval by building officials. It was decided that the investigation will be done to look into the national codes and steel standards to trace the evolution and identify potential problems, and ways to establish the characteris- tics of old steel. Although national standards and codes encourage new construction and use of new materials, the National Build- ing Codes (NBC) definition of the scope includes "altera- tion, reconstruction, demolition, removal, relocation and occupancy of existing buildings". Not only does the scope reiterate the application to old construction and new / different materials, but it has contained the following clause since 1985 - "Unless otherwise specified, used materials, appliances and equipment are permitted to be reused where they meet the requirements of this Code for new materials and are satisfactory for the intended use". It should be noted that equivalence is defined for materials and components failing to comply with Part 4 and past performance, tests (for structure a full-scale test) or model analogue are accepted. The third revision of the 1990 NBC included for the first time the relationship between NBC and other standards, testing and certification organizations, defining for design- ers authorities which can assist them to determine equiva- lencies. The 1995 Code was accompanied by the Struc- tural Commentaries on the National Building Code of Canada 1995 which for the first time included a section entitled "Application of NBC Part 4 for the Structural evaluation and Upgrading of Existing Buildings", assisting designers to deal with issues related to buildings designed to previous codes in the context of Part 4. This document is very important as it recognizes the shortcomings of Part 4 of the NBC with its focus on new construction (new or addition) and the lack of its application to existing build- ings which may contain a structural system or materials no longer in use. Used materials and systems are permitted if they comply with the NBC requirements for new construction. There is reasonable freedom given to designers to prove equivalency but the problem is that it is a depar- ture from the prescriptive, requirement based process. The non-prescriptive approach challenges building department officials leading to inconsistent interpreta- tion and varying attitudes and requirements. From the designer's point of view it results in uncertainty about what may be required and acts as a deterrent to taking an alternative design approach. 1. Review of steel properties It should be noted that the chemical composition of "old" steel is very similar irrespective of its origin. CAN/CSA-S16-01 (5.2) considers steel suitable for building construction only if its properties can be identi- fied by a mill or producer certificate or a colour marking which is defined in all the structural steel standards above. The two main alternatives which are open to the designer who wants to reuse steel components without documentation are to approve steel and use the prescribed properties (yield strength of 210 N/mm and ultimate strength of 380 N/mm ) or to have a testing agency carry out tests to determine the mechanical and chemical properties and thus identify the steel. Once the steel type is identified, the minimum values of yield and ultimate strength given in the product specifications for that type of steel (not actual tested values) must be used. It should be noted that the determination of 2 3 2 2 2 introduced carbon content (previously ladle analysis done by the manufacturer checked the carbon content), while phosphorus and sulphur remained unchanged, and further introduced limits on manganese and silicon. The maximum carbon content decreases with the increased steel strength. The next major revision of CSA-G40.21 was in 1973. The metric version was pub- lished in 1981. This revision covered a wide range of steel strengths and the types described above. The 2004 version of CSA-G40.21 is similar to the 1981 version in terms of strengths but the general construc- tion steel type was eliminated and corrosion resistant weldable and notch-tough steel, and quenched and tempered low alloy notch-tough steel types were add- edIt should be noted that all standards dealt with steel marking using colour codes to identify different steels. This is important for mills but through the fabrication process the marking gets lost. It should be noted that the Canadian Highway Bridge Code CAN/CSA-S6-00, Section 14.6 may be used as guidance. Besides identification of steel using project documentation including the mill certificates, the Code offers alternative approaches, namely: testing of samples to identify steel and use the minimum product specifications; selecting yield and ultimate strength from a given table based on the year of construction; or more rigorous testing described in that standard which includes the procedure for the evaluation of test result and strength determination. Table 2 gives the estimation of properties of structural steel by the age of construction which are recommended by S6 in the absence of more specific information. chemical composition to determine its weldability may be more important than its strength. A third alternative is an affidavit from the fabricator stating that the fabricated material conforms to material specifications. Table 1 Properties of steel in Canadian history From CAN/CSA-S6-00. Table 2 Properties of steel by the age of construction 2) 2) 1) From CAN/CSA-S6-00, Canadian Highway Bridge Code Recommendations The most significant changes are related to modifica- tions in seismic loads and snow loads. The major impact on the adaptive reuse of buildings designed before 1985 are the seismic loads. The previous code (NBC 1980) was based on peak horizontal acceleration and seismic contour map from 1970 with probability on 0.01 per annum. The 1985 NBC included a new zoning map, including both, peak accelerations and peak velocities and increased probability of 10% in 50 years. Other changes included the treatment of seismic load by limit state design approach. The load factor for seismic load since 1990 equals to 1.0. What this means for adaptive reuse is that all buildings designed prior to adoption on the 1980 NBC will require seismic retrofit and buildings designed prior to 1970 in some locations were not Steel components have great potential for reuse. The knowledge of steel history is important for the designer if reuse of components is to be adopted. The first Cana- dian steel code for buildings (C.E.S.A. S16) dates from 1935 and remained in place until 1948. The steel which is described in that code is mild and medium steel (governed by C.E.S.A.-S40). This latter standard after 1950 became the CSA - G40.x series. Carbon steel for plates and silicon steel appeared after the Second World War in addition to the original mild and medium steel which was used until 1964 (see Table 1). The injection of preheated oxygen rather than air into the modified Bessemer furnace and electric arc steel- making processes, led to better quality and the emer- gence of higher strength steels. Several types have appeared: general construction steel, weldable steels (regular and low temperature), corrosion resistant steels (regular and with improved low temperature properties), and quenched and tempered low alloy plates. The chemical analysis in CSA-G40.21 1964 for the first time The 1990 NBC introduced the rain components of snow load and the ground snow load was changed (generally for most areas ground snow load decreased) as well as the default snow density was increased from 2.4 kN/m to 3.0 kN/m3. This had a minor impact on the magnitude and the extent of snow accumulation on lower roofs adjacent to higher buildings. Since 1995, the snow accumulation was typically decreased in recognition of the fact that the amount of snow on upper is limited by the size of the upper roof and there is often not enough snow to fill the step. The extent of the lower roof zone impacted by snow accumulation increased. Generally, there should not be a problem resulting from snow load- ing if a component or building remains in the same geo- graphical location. designed for seismic load at all or much smaller load. Post 1990 buildings comply with current code seismic provisions. When comparing the current maximum seis- mic shear to the 1985 NBC, for ductile design, the design shears are almost identical, however for nominal ductility or non-ductile detailing, the 1990 and subse- quent NBC result in greater loads, 40% and 36% respectively. If the components are older than 70 years (prior to 1935), there are potentially other materials than steel available, such as cast and wrought iron, and it is more difficult to assess the properties. The following refer- ences are recommended: ASTM Standards A7 and A9. The publication "Appraisal of existing iron and steel structures" by The Steel Construction Insti- tute of the United Kingdom [Bussell, 1997]. CAN/CSA-S6-00 (Canadian Highway Bridge Code). FACILITATING GREATER REUSE AND RECYCLING OF STRUCTURAL STEEL IN THE CONSTRUCTION AND DEMOLITION PROCESS Action Plan 2000 on Climate Change www.reuse-steel.org This information paper was prepared by Vera Straka at the Department of ArchitecturaI Science, Ryerson University, with support from the Enhanced Recycling component of the Government of Canada Action Plan 2000 on Climate Change, Minerals and Metals Program and by the Canadian Institute for Steel Construction (CISC). Period
As described above there are recommended values for steel strength which can be used in absence of more detailed information available. The summary of chrono- logical research summarized above clearly supports the default value selection. The default value of steel strength is yield strength of 210 N/mm and ultimate strength of 380 N/mm . If the welded connections are to be used, it is important to carry out chemical analysis of steel to determine its weldability. Caution should be exercised when the unidentified steel is to be used on a project for rigid and braced frames member in seismic zones. When the frame is designed for seismic load with reduction factor R of 2 or greater, the accurate determi- nation of yield strength is very important as it control structural behaviour of a frame. Codes and Standards Although, the codes and standards are focusing on new materials and new construction, their scope accommodates reused material and adaptive building reuse. They may not be as specific as designers would like, but they give a sufficient framework which can be followed. The codes and standards should not be seen as an obstacle to material reuse and adaptive building reuse. Certainly, with the emergence of new set of objective based codes, it will be easier in the future to develop innovative solutions. ConcIusion Over the period of last 35 years there have been signifi- cant changes in loading. Very important was the emer- gence of the limit state approach to design in 1980?s in the NBC. New material standards since then started to adopt the limit states approach leading to full adoption of this design philosophy. Typically, the working stress steel design underestimates the capacity of the section by around 10% when compared with the ultimate design strength for the same grade of steel. As deflection crite- ria often govern the selection of sections for non- composite steel construction, both approaches yield the same section. Therefore, there should not be a problem when checking a steel section today which was designed to working stress design provided there were no changes to design loads. The first NBC was issued in 1941 which in many instances provided only guidance to load determination. The occupancy loads provided for in this code are quite similar to the current practice. One wind pressure is given for all locations. Its value is significantly greater for low rise buildings but generally satisfactory for most of the locations. The seismic provisions on the NBC 1941 are very general and generally inadeq uate. Between 1941 and 1970, the code has been republished four times with snow, wind and earthquake loads being more defined as well as climatic data building more readily available (shift from contour maps to tables). The load due to snow is generally greater than today's standards. Wind loads continue to be overestimated for low rise buildings. 1. General requirements Steel-Reuse Information Paper No.4 www.reuse-steel.org The Ontario Building Code (OBC) 1997 has additional provisions which deal with existing buildings. Part 10 of the OBC deals with performance requirements related to change in use. Part 11 deals with Renovation. This part considers extensively the issue of fire safety result- ing from change in use and increase in occupant load. It does not require a change in performance level in the case of alteration or repair which is consistent with the original design intention and use. However when the occupancy load is increased, this code requires reme- dial action to support the extra loads, although it accepts postings of restricted loading requirements for a portion of a floor. The NBC 2005 has adopted a different, objective based approach. It specifies the objectives which the code aspires to achieve and in a separate division it describes how these can be met. There are no longer firm require- ments which designers have to comply with. This approach will result in a significant change in the build- ing approval process and the mind set of the building officials. There is no longer the norm and prescriptive solution but the designer has the freedom to address the objectives of the code and provide relevant documenta- tion. This should make the approval process for innova- tive or non-standard construction far more readily achievable. CSA, (1960), CSA G40.8, Structural Steels with Improved Resistance to Brittle Fracture. Canadian Standards Association, Canada. CSA, (1959), CSA G40.7, Steel Sheet Piling. Canadian Standards Association, Canada. CSA, (1950, 1959, 1963, 1966.), CSA G40-6, Structural Silicon Steel. Canadian Standards Association, Canada. Further Information CSA, (1950, 1959, 1963, 1966), CSA G40-5, Carbon steel plates of structural quality, Plates 2" and under in thickness. Canadian Standards Association, Canada. CSA, (1950, 1959, 1963, 1966), CSA G40-4, Medium Structural Steel. Canadian Standards Association, Canada. CSA, (1959, 1963, 1966.), CSA G40-3, Structural steel for locomotives and cars. Canadian Standards Associa- tion, Canada. CSA, (1950), CSA G40-3, Mild Structural Steel. Canadian Standards Association, Canada. CSA, (1950, 1959, 1963, 1966), CSA G40-2. Structural Steel Rivets. Canadian Standards Association, Canada. CSA, (1950, 1959, 1963, 1966), CSA G40-1 to G40-6, General requirements for delivery of rolled steel plates, shapes and bars for structural use. Canadian Standards Association, Canada. CSA, (2000), CAN/CSA-S6-00. 2000. Canadian Highway Bridge Code. CSA, Ca. CSA, (2001,2003), CAN/CSA-S16-01. - Limit States Design of Steel Structures. Canadian Standards Associa- tion, Canada. CSA, (1964), CSA G40.12, General Purpose Steel. Canadian Standards Association, Canada. CSA, (1971, 1973, 1976, 1978, M1978, M81, 87, 98, 04), CSA G40.20/G40.21. General Requirements for Rolled or Welded Structural Quality Steel/ Structural Quality Steel. Canadian Standards Association, Canada. NRC. (1953,1960, 1965, 1970, 1975, 1977, 1980, 1985, 1990, 1995, 2005). The National Building Code of Canada. NRC, Ottawa, Canada. NRC. (1996). User's Guide - NBC 1995: Structural Commentaries (Part4). NRC, Ottawa, Canada. Bussell, M. (1997). Appraisal of Existing Iron and Steel Structures. SCI 138. The Steel Construction Institute, Silwwod Park, Berkshire, UK. CISC, 2004. Handbook of Steel Construction. Eighth edition. CISC & Quadratone Graphics Ltd, Toronto, Canada. 2. Loading The NationaI BuiIding Code History of steeI as refIected in standards The reason for this research work arose as a result of interviews and surveys of the professionals associated with steel industry which suggested that there is a concern that the main difficulty when reusing steel is the problem of identification of steel and its structural properties. Another issue which was brought up was related to the approval by building officials. It was decided that the investigation will be done to look into the national codes and steel standards to trace the evolution and identify potential problems, and ways to establish the characteris- tics of old steel. Although national standards and codes encourage new construction and use of new materials, the National Build- ing Codes (NBC) definition of the scope includes "altera- tion, reconstruction, demolition, removal, relocation and occupancy of existing buildings". Not only does the scope reiterate the application to old construction and new / different materials, but it has contained the following clause since 1985 - "Unless otherwise specified, used materials, appliances and equipment are permitted to be reused where they meet the requirements of this Code for new materials and are satisfactory for the intended use". It should be noted that equivalence is defined for materials and components failing to comply with Part 4 and past performance, tests (for structure a full-scale test) or model analogue are accepted. The third revision of the 1990 NBC included for the first time the relationship between NBC and other standards, testing and certification organizations, defining for design- ers authorities which can assist them to determine equiva- lencies. The 1995 Code was accompanied by the Struc- tural Commentaries on the National Building Code of Canada 1995 which for the first time included a section entitled "Application of NBC Part 4 for the Structural evaluation and Upgrading of Existing Buildings", assisting designers to deal with issues related to buildings designed to previous codes in the context of Part 4. This document is very important as it recognizes the shortcomings of Part 4 of the NBC with its focus on new construction (new or addition) and the lack of its application to existing build- ings which may contain a structural system or materials no longer in use. Used materials and systems are permitted if they comply with the NBC requirements for new construction. There is reasonable freedom given to designers to prove equivalency but the problem is that it is a depar- ture from the prescriptive, requirement based process. The non-prescriptive approach challenges building department officials leading to inconsistent interpreta- tion and varying attitudes and requirements. From the designer's point of view it results in uncertainty about what may be required and acts as a deterrent to taking an alternative design approach. 1. Review of steel properties It should be noted that the chemical composition of "old" steel is very similar irrespective of its origin. CAN/CSA-S16-01 (5.2) considers steel suitable for building construction only if its properties can be identi- fied by a mill or producer certificate or a colour marking which is defined in all the structural steel standards above. The two main alternatives which are open to the designer who wants to reuse steel components without documentation are to approve steel and use the prescribed properties (yield strength of 210 N/mm and ultimate strength of 380 N/mm ) or to have a testing agency carry out tests to determine the mechanical and chemical properties and thus identify the steel. Once the steel type is identified, the minimum values of yield and ultimate strength given in the product specifications for that type of steel (not actual tested values) must be used. It should be noted that the determination of 2 3 2 2 2 introduced carbon content (previously ladle analysis done by the manufacturer checked the carbon content), while phosphorus and sulphur remained unchanged, and further introduced limits on manganese and silicon. The maximum carbon content decreases with the increased steel strength. The next major revision of CSA-G40.21 was in 1973. The metric version was pub- lished in 1981. This revision covered a wide range of steel strengths and the types described above. The 2004 version of CSA-G40.21 is similar to the 1981 version in terms of strengths but the general construc- tion steel type was eliminated and corrosion resistant weldable and notch-tough steel, and quenched and tempered low alloy notch-tough steel types were add- edIt should be noted that all standards dealt with steel marking using colour codes to identify different steels. This is important for mills but through the fabrication process the marking gets lost. It should be noted that the Canadian Highway Bridge Code CAN/CSA-S6-00, Section 14.6 may be used as guidance. Besides identification of steel using project documentation including the mill certificates, the Code offers alternative approaches, namely: testing of samples to identify steel and use the minimum product specifications; selecting yield and ultimate strength from a given table based on the year of construction; or more rigorous testing described in that standard which includes the procedure for the evaluation of test result and strength determination. Table 2 gives the estimation of properties of structural steel by the age of construction which are recommended by S6 in the absence of more specific information. chemical composition to determine its weldability may be more important than its strength. A third alternative is an affidavit from the fabricator stating that the fabricated material conforms to material specifications. Table 1 Properties of steel in Canadian history From CAN/CSA-S6-00. Table 2 Properties of steel by the age of construction 2) 2) 1) From CAN/CSA-S6-00, Canadian Highway Bridge Code Recommendations The most significant changes are related to modifica- tions in seismic loads and snow loads. The major impact on the adaptive reuse of buildings designed before 1985 are the seismic loads. The previous code (NBC 1980) was based on peak horizontal acceleration and seismic contour map from 1970 with probability on 0.01 per annum. The 1985 NBC included a new zoning map, including both, peak accelerations and peak velocities and increased probability of 10% in 50 years. Other changes included the treatment of seismic load by limit state design approach. The load factor for seismic load since 1990 equals to 1.0. What this means for adaptive reuse is that all buildings designed prior to adoption on the 1980 NBC will require seismic retrofit and buildings designed prior to 1970 in some locations were not Steel components have great potential for reuse. The knowledge of steel history is important for the designer if reuse of components is to be adopted. The first Cana- dian steel code for buildings (C.E.S.A. S16) dates from 1935 and remained in place until 1948. The steel which is described in that code is mild and medium steel (governed by C.E.S.A.-S40). This latter standard after 1950 became the CSA - G40.x series. Carbon steel for plates and silicon steel appeared after the Second World War in addition to the original mild and medium steel which was used until 1964 (see Table 1). The injection of preheated oxygen rather than air into the modified Bessemer furnace and electric arc steel- making processes, led to better quality and the emer- gence of higher strength steels. Several types have appeared: general construction steel, weldable steels (regular and low temperature), corrosion resistant steels (regular and with improved low temperature properties), and quenched and tempered low alloy plates. The chemical analysis in CSA-G40.21 1964 for the first time The 1990 NBC introduced the rain components of snow load and the ground snow load was changed (generally for most areas ground snow load decreased) as well as the default snow density was increased from 2.4 kN/m to 3.0 kN/m3. This had a minor impact on the magnitude and the extent of snow accumulation on lower roofs adjacent to higher buildings. Since 1995, the snow accumulation was typically decreased in recognition of the fact that the amount of snow on upper is limited by the size of the upper roof and there is often not enough snow to fill the step. The extent of the lower roof zone impacted by snow accumulation increased. Generally, there should not be a problem resulting from snow load- ing if a component or building remains in the same geo- graphical location. designed for seismic load at all or much smaller load. Post 1990 buildings comply with current code seismic provisions. When comparing the current maximum seis- mic shear to the 1985 NBC, for ductile design, the design shears are almost identical, however for nominal ductility or non-ductile detailing, the 1990 and subse- quent NBC result in greater loads, 40% and 36% respectively. If the components are older than 70 years (prior to 1935), there are potentially other materials than steel available, such as cast and wrought iron, and it is more difficult to assess the properties. The following refer- ences are recommended: ASTM Standards A7 and A9. The publication "Appraisal of existing iron and steel structures" by The Steel Construction Insti- tute of the United Kingdom [Bussell, 1997]. CAN/CSA-S6-00 (Canadian Highway Bridge Code). FACILITATING GREATER REUSE AND RECYCLING OF STRUCTURAL STEEL IN THE CONSTRUCTION AND DEMOLITION PROCESS Action Plan 2000 on Climate Change www.reuse-steel.org This information paper was prepared by Vera Straka at the Department of ArchitecturaI Science, Ryerson University, with support from the Enhanced Recycling component of the Government of Canada Action Plan 2000 on Climate Change, Minerals and Metals Program and by the Canadian Institute for Steel Construction (CISC). Period
As described above there are recommended values for steel strength which can be used in absence of more detailed information available. The summary of chrono- logical research summarized above clearly supports the default value selection. The default value of steel strength is yield strength of 210 N/mm and ultimate strength of 380 N/mm . If the welded connections are to be used, it is important to carry out chemical analysis of steel to determine its weldability. Caution should be exercised when the unidentified steel is to be used on a project for rigid and braced frames member in seismic zones. When the frame is designed for seismic load with reduction factor R of 2 or greater, the accurate determi- nation of yield strength is very important as it control structural behaviour of a frame. Codes and Standards Although, the codes and standards are focusing on new materials and new construction, their scope accommodates reused material and adaptive building reuse. They may not be as specific as designers would like, but they give a sufficient framework which can be followed. The codes and standards should not be seen as an obstacle to material reuse and adaptive building reuse. Certainly, with the emergence of new set of objective based codes, it will be easier in the future to develop innovative solutions. ConcIusion Over the period of last 35 years there have been signifi- cant changes in loading. Very important was the emer- gence of the limit state approach to design in 1980?s in the NBC. New material standards since then started to adopt the limit states approach leading to full adoption of this design philosophy. Typically, the working stress steel design underestimates the capacity of the section by around 10% when compared with the ultimate design strength for the same grade of steel. As deflection crite- ria often govern the selection of sections for non- composite steel construction, both approaches yield the same section. Therefore, there should not be a problem when checking a steel section today which was designed to working stress design provided there were no changes to design loads. The first NBC was issued in 1941 which in many instances provided only guidance to load determination. The occupancy loads provided for in this code are quite similar to the current practice. One wind pressure is given for all locations. Its value is significantly greater for low rise buildings but generally satisfactory for most of the locations. The seismic provisions on the NBC 1941 are very general and generally inadeq uate. Between 1941 and 1970, the code has been republished four times with snow, wind and earthquake loads being more defined as well as climatic data building more readily available (shift from contour maps to tables). The load due to snow is generally greater than today's standards. Wind loads continue to be overestimated for low rise buildings. 1. General requirements Steel-Reuse Information Paper No.4 www.reuse-steel.org The Ontario Building Code (OBC) 1997 has additional provisions which deal with existing buildings. Part 10 of the OBC deals with performance requirements related to change in use. Part 11 deals with Renovation. This part considers extensively the issue of fire safety result- ing from change in use and increase in occupant load. It does not require a change in performance level in the case of alteration or repair which is consistent with the original design intention and use. However when the occupancy load is increased, this code requires reme- dial action to support the extra loads, although it accepts postings of restricted loading requirements for a portion of a floor. The NBC 2005 has adopted a different, objective based approach. It specifies the objectives which the code aspires to achieve and in a separate division it describes how these can be met. There are no longer firm require- ments which designers have to comply with. This approach will result in a significant change in the build- ing approval process and the mind set of the building officials. There is no longer the norm and prescriptive solution but the designer has the freedom to address the objectives of the code and provide relevant documenta- tion. This should make the approval process for innova- tive or non-standard construction far more readily achievable. CSA, (1960), CSA G40.8, Structural Steels with Improved Resistance to Brittle Fracture. Canadian Standards Association, Canada. CSA, (1959), CSA G40.7, Steel Sheet Piling. Canadian Standards Association, Canada. CSA, (1950, 1959, 1963, 1966.), CSA G40-6, Structural Silicon Steel. Canadian Standards Association, Canada. Further Information CSA, (1950, 1959, 1963, 1966), CSA G40-5, Carbon steel plates of structural quality, Plates 2" and under in thickness. Canadian Standards Association, Canada. CSA, (1950, 1959, 1963, 1966), CSA G40-4, Medium Structural Steel. Canadian Standards Association, Canada. CSA, (1959, 1963, 1966.), CSA G40-3, Structural steel for locomotives and cars. Canadian Standards Associa- tion, Canada. CSA, (1950), CSA G40-3, Mild Structural Steel. Canadian Standards Association, Canada. CSA, (1950, 1959, 1963, 1966), CSA G40-2. Structural Steel Rivets. Canadian Standards Association, Canada. CSA, (1950, 1959, 1963, 1966), CSA G40-1 to G40-6, General requirements for delivery of rolled steel plates, shapes and bars for structural use. Canadian Standards Association, Canada. CSA, (2000), CAN/CSA-S6-00. 2000. Canadian Highway Bridge Code. CSA, Ca. CSA, (2001,2003), CAN/CSA-S16-01. - Limit States Design of Steel Structures. Canadian Standards Associa- tion, Canada. CSA, (1964), CSA G40.12, General Purpose Steel. Canadian Standards Association, Canada. CSA, (1971, 1973, 1976, 1978, M1978, M81, 87, 98, 04), CSA G40.20/G40.21. General Requirements for Rolled or Welded Structural Quality Steel/ Structural Quality Steel. Canadian Standards Association, Canada. NRC. (1953,1960, 1965, 1970, 1975, 1977, 1980, 1985, 1990, 1995, 2005). The National Building Code of Canada. NRC, Ottawa, Canada. NRC. (1996). User's Guide - NBC 1995: Structural Commentaries (Part4). NRC, Ottawa, Canada. Bussell, M. (1997). Appraisal of Existing Iron and Steel Structures. SCI 138. The Steel Construction Institute, Silwwod Park, Berkshire, UK. CISC, 2004. Handbook of Steel Construction. Eighth edition. CISC & Quadratone Graphics Ltd, Toronto, Canada. 2. Loading The NationaI BuiIding Code History of steeI as refIected in standards The reason for this research work arose as a result of interviews and surveys of the professionals associated with steel industry which suggested that there is a concern that the main difficulty when reusing steel is the problem of identification of steel and its structural properties. Another issue which was brought up was related to the approval by building officials. It was decided that the investigation will be done to look into the national codes and steel standards to trace the evolution and identify potential problems, and ways to establish the characteris- tics of old steel. Although national standards and codes encourage new construction and use of new materials, the National Build- ing Codes (NBC) definition of the scope includes "altera- tion, reconstruction, demolition, removal, relocation and occupancy of existing buildings". Not only does the scope reiterate the application to old construction and new / different materials, but it has contained the following clause since 1985 - "Unless otherwise specified, used materials, appliances and equipment are permitted to be reused where they meet the requirements of this Code for new materials and are satisfactory for the intended use". It should be noted that equivalence is defined for materials and components failing to comply with Part 4 and past performance, tests (for structure a full-scale test) or model analogue are accepted. The third revision of the 1990 NBC included for the first time the relationship between NBC and other standards, testing and certification organizations, defining for design- ers authorities which can assist them to determine equiva- lencies. The 1995 Code was accompanied by the Struc- tural Commentaries on the National Building Code of Canada 1995 which for the first time included a section entitled "Application of NBC Part 4 for the Structural evaluation and Upgrading of Existing Buildings", assisting designers to deal with issues related to buildings designed to previous codes in the context of Part 4. This document is very important as it recognizes the shortcomings of Part 4 of the NBC with its focus on new construction (new or addition) and the lack of its application to existing build- ings which may contain a structural system or materials no longer in use. Used materials and systems are permitted if they comply with the NBC requirements for new construction. There is reasonable freedom given to designers to prove equivalency but the problem is that it is a depar- ture from the prescriptive, requirement based process. The non-prescriptive approach challenges building department officials leading to inconsistent interpreta- tion and varying attitudes and requirements. From the designer's point of view it results in uncertainty about what may be required and acts as a deterrent to taking an alternative design approach. 1. Review of steel properties It should be noted that the chemical composition of "old" steel is very similar irrespective of its origin. CAN/CSA-S16-01 (5.2) considers steel suitable for building construction only if its properties can be identi- fied by a mill or producer certificate or a colour marking which is defined in all the structural steel standards above. The two main alternatives which are open to the designer who wants to reuse steel components without documentation are to approve steel and use the prescribed properties (yield strength of 210 N/mm and ultimate strength of 380 N/mm ) or to have a testing agency carry out tests to determine the mechanical and chemical properties and thus identify the steel. Once the steel type is identified, the minimum values of yield and ultimate strength given in the product specifications for that type of steel (not actual tested values) must be used. It should be noted that the determination of 2 3 2 2 2 introduced carbon content (previously ladle analysis done by the manufacturer checked the carbon content), while phosphorus and sulphur remained unchanged, and further introduced limits on manganese and silicon. The maximum carbon content decreases with the increased steel strength. The next major revision of CSA-G40.21 was in 1973. The metric version was pub- lished in 1981. This revision covered a wide range of steel strengths and the types described above. The 2004 version of CSA-G40.21 is similar to the 1981 version in terms of strengths but the general construc- tion steel type was eliminated and corrosion resistant weldable and notch-tough steel, and quenched and tempered low alloy notch-tough steel types were add- edIt should be noted that all standards dealt with steel marking using colour codes to identify different steels. This is important for mills but through the fabrication process the marking gets lost. It should be noted that the Canadian Highway Bridge Code CAN/CSA-S6-00, Section 14.6 may be used as guidance. Besides identification of steel using project documentation including the mill certificates, the Code offers alternative approaches, namely: testing of samples to identify steel and use the minimum product specifications; selecting yield and ultimate strength from a given table based on the year of construction; or more rigorous testing described in that standard which includes the procedure for the evaluation of test result and strength determination. Table 2 gives the estimation of properties of structural steel by the age of construction which are recommended by S6 in the absence of more specific information. chemical composition to determine its weldability may be more important than its strength. A third alternative is an affidavit from the fabricator stating that the fabricated material conforms to material specifications. Table 1 Properties of steel in Canadian history From CAN/CSA-S6-00. Table 2 Properties of steel by the age of construction 2) 2) 1) From CAN/CSA-S6-00, Canadian Highway Bridge Code Recommendations The most significant changes are related to modifica- tions in seismic loads and snow loads. The major impact on the adaptive reuse of buildings designed before 1985 are the seismic loads. The previous code (NBC 1980) was based on peak horizontal acceleration and seismic contour map from 1970 with probability on 0.01 per annum. The 1985 NBC included a new zoning map, including both, peak accelerations and peak velocities and increased probability of 10% in 50 years. Other changes included the treatment of seismic load by limit state design approach. The load factor for seismic load since 1990 equals to 1.0. What this means for adaptive reuse is that all buildings designed prior to adoption on the 1980 NBC will require seismic retrofit and buildings designed prior to 1970 in some locations were not Steel components have great potential for reuse. The knowledge of steel history is important for the designer if reuse of components is to be adopted. The first Cana- dian steel code for buildings (C.E.S.A. S16) dates from 1935 and remained in place until 1948. The steel which is described in that code is mild and medium steel (governed by C.E.S.A.-S40). This latter standard after 1950 became the CSA - G40.x series. Carbon steel for plates and silicon steel appeared after the Second World War in addition to the original mild and medium steel which was used until 1964 (see Table 1). The injection of preheated oxygen rather than air into the modified Bessemer furnace and electric arc steel- making processes, led to better quality and the emer- gence of higher strength steels. Several types have appeared: general construction steel, weldable steels (regular and low temperature), corrosion resistant steels (regular and with improved low temperature properties), and quenched and tempered low alloy plates. The chemical analysis in CSA-G40.21 1964 for the first time The 1990 NBC introduced the rain components of snow load and the ground snow load was changed (generally for most areas ground snow load decreased) as well as the default snow density was increased from 2.4 kN/m to 3.0 kN/m3. This had a minor impact on the magnitude and the extent of snow accumulation on lower roofs adjacent to higher buildings. Since 1995, the snow accumulation was typically decreased in recognition of the fact that the amount of snow on upper is limited by the size of the upper roof and there is often not enough snow to fill the step. The extent of the lower roof zone impacted by snow accumulation increased. Generally, there should not be a problem resulting from snow load- ing if a component or building remains in the same geo- graphical location. designed for seismic load at all or much smaller load. Post 1990 buildings comply with current code seismic provisions. When comparing the current maximum seis- mic shear to the 1985 NBC, for ductile design, the design shears are almost identical, however for nominal ductility or non-ductile detailing, the 1990 and subse- quent NBC result in greater loads, 40% and 36% respectively. If the components are older than 70 years (prior to 1935), there are potentially other materials than steel available, such as cast and wrought iron, and it is more difficult to assess the properties. The following refer- ences are recommended: ASTM Standards A7 and A9. The publication "Appraisal of existing iron and steel structures" by The Steel Construction Insti- tute of the United Kingdom [Bussell, 1997]. CAN/CSA-S6-00 (Canadian Highway Bridge Code). FACILITATING GREATER REUSE AND RECYCLING OF STRUCTURAL STEEL IN THE CONSTRUCTION AND DEMOLITION PROCESS Action Plan 2000 on Climate Change www.reuse-steel.org This information paper was prepared by Vera Straka at the Department of ArchitecturaI Science, Ryerson University, with support from the Enhanced Recycling component of the Government of Canada Action Plan 2000 on Climate Change, Minerals and Metals Program and by the Canadian Institute for Steel Construction (CISC). Period
APPENDIX: Research notes Structural steel standards C.E.S.A. S16-1935 Steel Structures for Buildings until 1948 Composite construction allowed Type-A and Type-B C.E.S.A.-S39: Mild structural steel C.E.S.A.-S40: Medium structural steel Table 3 Steel Properties. (fromC.E.S.A. S16 1935) Elongation Steel type Chemical Analysis Yield stress (psi) Tensile strength (psi) 8 gauge (%) 2 gauge (%)
Mild
P acid 0.06 P basic 0.04 S 0.05 Medium Cu 0.20 33,000 min 0.5 of tensile strength 60,000 72,000 1.5E6/(tensile strength) 22
Standards Material Properties after 1950: CSA-G 40-1: General requirements for delivery of rolled steel plates, shapes and bars for structural use CSA-G 40-2: Structural steel rivets CSA-G 40-3: Mild structural steel CSA-G 40-4: Medium structural steel CSA-G 40-5: Carbon steel plates of structural quality, plates 2 and under in thickness CSA-G 40-6: Structural silicon steel General notes: All revised and reissued in 1959; G40-1 reissued in 1959 and last revised in 1963 G40-1 1959 has section headings Ladle analysis of molten steel from each heat of open-hearth or electric furnace is required by the Manufacturer to determine the percentage of carbon, manganese, phosphorous (P) and sulphur (S); of copper when copper (Cu) steel specifies; any other elements specified or restricted by the applicable specifications. Check analysis by the purchaser
Manufacturing process: open hearth or electric furnace; basic oxygen process added in 1959 Marking of steel required, typically of each piece but how to be done is vague (die stamp is referred to for plates). Tensile test and bend test (cold steel bent through 180without cracking on outside; ratio of inside diameter to thickness specified) are prescribed; two of each per each heat. Speed of loading for loads over one half of the yield is defined. The test specimen is either flat bar 9 long (8 gauge length) of actual material thickness or greater thickness than 1.5 when thickness can be used or 2.5 long (2 gauge length) rod test can be done. G40.3-1959: Structural Steel for Locomotives and Cars change from mild steel previously used. G40.7-1959: Steel Sheet Piling introduced. Table 4 Steel Properties. (fromG40 series 1959) Elongation Steel type Chemical* Analysis Yield stress (psi) Tensile strength (psi) 8 gauge (%) 2 gauge (%) P acid 0.06 P basic 0.04 S 0.05 Mild Cu 0.20 27,000 50,000 62,000 24 27 P acid 0.06 P basic 0.04 S 0.05 Medium Cu 0.20 33,000 60,000 72,000 21 22 P acid 0.06 Grade A 24,000 45 55,000 27 30 P basic 0.04 Grade B 27,000 50 60,000 25 27 S 0.05 Grade C 30,000 55 65,000 23 25 Carbon plates Cu 0.20 Grade D 33,000 60 72,000 21 22 C 0.40 P acid 0.06 P basic 0.04 S 0.05 Silicon steel Silicon 0.2 45,000 80,000 95,000 16 17 * Based on ladle analysis G40.3-1959, Structural steel for locomotives and cars G40.5-1959, Low and Intermediate tensile strength carbon steel plates of structural quality. Plates 2inches and under in thickness
CSA G40.1-1966: General requirements for delivery of steel plates, shapes, sheet piling and bars, for structural use Major differences in comparison with 1959 edition: Number of tests required is more precisely defined if there is a variation in tests from different heats or when the product size is less than 50 tons. It deals more elaborately with steel marking, especially for rolled sections which should be hot die stamped or embossed along the length of the web section of each piece or cold die stamped at one end of the web section of each piece. Remarking is required of all unmarked pieces removed from bundles and pieces cut from marked pieces. Colour marking is introduced (reference to ASTM A36). CSA G40.8-1960: Structural steels with improved resistance to brittle fracture This standard introduced three different grades of steel, namely A, B and C with the same strength but different chemical composition and different impact tests results (Grade A suitable for above zero F conditions, B for moderate cold temperatures and C for severe cold temperatures -25F to -60F). The maximum thickness of material covered by this Standard is 1.5 inches. The minimum yield strength is 40,000 psi for thicknesses up to 5/8 (38,000 psi for thickness between 5/8 and 1 and 36,000 psi for over 1 thickness). The tensile strength for all grades is between 65,000 and 85,000 psi. The thickness is related to web thickness for rolled sections. The minimum elongation in 8 inches is 20%. Marking of steel should be in accordance with G40.1 with colour marking as follows: Grade A: primary white plus secondary red Grade B: white Grade C: primary white plus secondary yellow Welding for surface repair should be done using low hydrogen electrodes E60XX or E70XX. CSA G40.12-1964: General purpose steel This new standard covers steel plates, shapes and bars used for riveted, bolted or welded connections in the structural field. It covers materials up to 2.5 inches thick. Steel can be manufactured by either open hearth, electric furnace, or the basic oxygen process, with material over 1.5 inches thick required to be made using a fine grain steelmaking practice. Table 5 Steel composition. (fromG40.12) Elongation Steel type Chemical* Analysis Max. Yield stress (psi) Tensile strength (psi) 8 gauge (%) 2 gauge (%) C 0.22 (0.25) P 0.04 (0.05) S 0.05 (0.06) M 1.50 (1.55) General Purpose Structural Steel Si+ 0.15-0.30 (0.13-0.33) 44,000 (40,000 for thickness >1.5 62,000 20 23 for thicknesses >1.5 * First value is from ladle analysis; value in the bracket from check analysis. + Applies to material over 7/8 thick.
Colour identifying this steel is green. CSA G40 series - 1971 G40.3, originally mild structural steel is not included. G40.4-1959 and subsequently revised is referenced here. No change in properties from 1950 version except in chemical composition acid and basic phosphorus is deleted and replaced by the maximum percentage of phosphorus of 0.040 from ladle analysis and 0.050 from check analysis. The colour marking for this steel is orange. G40.6 is withdrawn Structural shapes were required to be embossed at intervals along the length of each structural member with the producers name or brand. Color marking scheme introduced. CSA G40.20-1973: General requirements for rolled or welded structural quality steel This new standard defines products and processes, chemical composition, testing (types, specimens, method and frequency), defects, tolerances and their repair and markings. It applies to all types of steels described in G40.21-1973. Section 15 deals with welded shapes which in turn refers to CSA W59.1 for welding specification. CSA G40.21-1973: Structural quality steels This is a new standard dealing with six types of structural quality plates, shapes, and bars for general construction and engineering purposes. It is to be used in conjunction with G40.20-1973, General requirements for rolled or welded structural quality steel. Standards G40.4-1959, G40.5-1959, G40.7-1959 and G40.8-1971 are referred to in this standard. It introduces different type of steel as described below: Type G General Construction Steel: meets the minimum strength, chemical composition may not meet welding under normal field condition or controlled shop conditions. Bolted application. Type W Weldable Steels: meet the minimum strength requirements. Suitable for welded construction where notch toughness at low temperature is not of a prime importance. Application in buildings, compression members of bridges. Type T Weldable Low Temperature Steels: used where the notch toughness at low temperature is a prime consideration, eg. Tension members of bridges. Type R Atmospheric Corrosion Resistant Structural Steel: these steels have corrosion resistance 4-times of regular carbon steels. Copper content not exceeding 0.02 percent. Suitable for exposed, unpainted application. Weldable, similar to type W. Type A - Atmospheric Corrosion Resistant Structural Steel with Improved Low Temperature Properties: similar to type R but has an improved notch toughness at low temperature. Type Q Quenched and Tempered Low Alloy Steel Plate: exhibits a very high yield strength and good resistance to brittle fracture. May be weldable, but caution should be exercised so that the heat affected zone does not impact adversely its properties. Application in bridges.
Table 6 Steel types and grades (reproduced formG40.21- 1973.) Yield Strength, Ksi Type 33 38 42 44 50 55 60 70 100 G 33G 50G 60G W 33W 38W 42W* 44W 50W 55W* 60W 70W T 38T 44T 50T 55T* 60T 70T R 50R A 50A 60A Q 100Q * Available in hollow sections only. Plates, bars and structural shapes are available in all grades except 42, 55 and 100. The chemical composition and tensile strength tests are conducted on all type. In addition to these tests, grades T,A and Q have impact tests and grain size tests. The steel manufacturing process is one of the following, basic open hearth, basic electric furnace or basic oxygen process. Special delivery conditions such as stress relieved, annealed, normalized can be specified. Chemical and mechanical properties are given. The appendix contains the table of equivalencies with ASTM, BS and ISO. CSA G40.20-1976: General requirements for rolled or welded structural quality steel This is a new edited version of 1973 standard. The references, text and tables revised but there are no significant differences in comparison with the previous standard. Amended in 1979 and 1980. CSA G40.21-1976: Structural quality steels There are no changes to types but grade 42 was eliminated and grade 33 is only available for type G and introduces grade 70A. Revisions published in1980. CSA G40.20-M1978: General requirements for rolled or welded structural quality steel (SI units) This is a new edition of CSA G40.20-1976 which is in metric units. CSA G40.21-1978: Structural quality steels This is a new addition of CSA G40.20-1976 which is in metric units. CAN3-G40.20-M81: General requirements for rolled or welded structural quality steel This is the second edition of this Standard published originally in1978. Revised and re-published in 1987and 1992. CAN3- G40.21-M81: Structural quality steels This is the second metric edition of this standard. It includes revisions to the imperial version of the standard. Revised and re-published in 1987and 1992. CAN/CSA G40.20-87, General Requirements for Rolled or Welded Structural Quality Steel This is the third edition of this standard which was originally published in 1973. It includes all amendments published so far as well as amendments approved but not released. This Standard is in imperial units.
CSA G40.20/G40.21-98: General requirements for rolled or welded structural quality steel/ structural quality steel CSA G40.20/G40.21-04: General requirements for rolled or welded structural quality steel/ structural quality steel CAN/CSA-S6-00: Canadian highway bridge code Section 14.6 deals with the strength determination of existing bridge structures. According to this clause, the material strength can be determined adopting one of the following methods: 1. Review of original structural drawings and documents (the specified minimum yield strength of steel, compressive strength of concrete, yield strength of reinforcement). The values of yield strength from mill certificates should not be used but the guaranteed minimum strength for the steel specified should be used. 2. Test of samples from the bridge or its components. Samples should not compromise the structural stability, or integrity of the member. Location of each sample and its orientation should be recorded and any other information which may be useful when interpreting the test results. The test results should be evaluated and converted to the nominal material strength using A14.1 or other Approved method. See below. 3. Estimation by considering the date of construction. In the absence of more specific information, S6 recommends the use of the following values: Table 7 Default steel strength values (fromCAN/CSA-S6-00) Date of bridge construction
4. Other approved methods. Equivalent material strength fromtests Testing in accordance with CAN/ CSA-G40.20-M. At least three specimens should be tested. The yield strength is recorded for each test; if the coupon was taken from the flange, then its yield strength cam be increased by a factor of 1.05. f y = (f y average 28)exp(-1.3k s V), where f y is yield strength to be used in the design check f y
average is the average yield stress from the tests V is the coefficient of variation k s is the modification factor for coefficient of variation depend on number of strength tests n (see Table 8 below)
Table 8 Coefficient of Variation Modification Factors k s (fromCAN/CSA-S6-00) n k s 3 3.46 4 2.34 5 1.92 6 1.69 8 1.45 10 1.32 12 1.24 16 1.14 20 1.08 25 1.03 30 or more 1.00
Resistance of steel members: There is an Adjustment Factor U which modifies the material factor. U varies from 1.00 for flexure, to 0.87 for shear, 1.01 for tension and compression, 1.27 for bolts and 1.32 for welds. National Building Codes First National Building Code, 1941 The NBC 1941 requires that the alteration and repair of an existing building in access of 50% of the assessed value must bring the entire building to its requirements for new construction. Change in the use of an existing building results in the need for entire building to comply with the requirements for new construction. The exemption applies to change in occupancy for which it can be demonstrated that the existing structure is capable of supporting new occupancy with loading described in Section 3.6. If only portion of a building has a change in occupancy, only that part of the building must be brought to the codes standards, provided there is a separation between the tow parts. Additions greater than 50% of the area of the existing building must have fire separation complying with a special occupancy separation (cl. 4.2.3.3) unless the existing building, addition and alterations are in compliance with the new code. Structural alteration shall be made to conform to the standards for new buildings. But the extent of such work is to be determined by the authority having jurisdiction. New materials and methods of construction are permitted provided their suitability and working stresses determined by a publicly owned or recognized laboratory are approved by authority having jurisdiction. Steel Medium structural steel conforms to C.E.S.A. S40-1935 Mild structural steel conforms to C.E.S.A. S39-1935
Special steels conform to specifications approved by the authority having jurisdiction Unidentified structural steel is required to be tested by an approved laboratory in accordance with A.S.T.M. Standard E8-40T, Method of Tension Testing of Metallic Materials. Mild steel: the unit working stress permitted shall be 90% of those permitted for Medium Structural Steel. Unidentified structural steel: the unit working stress shall not exceed 6/10 of the yield point stress determined in accordance with A.S.T.M. Standard E8-40T, but in no case shall the stresses exceed those for mild structural steel. Loading Floor loads: (in pounds per square foot) Sleeping rooms or domestic rooms 40 Office 50 Corridors in hotels, hospitals 50 Corridors in public buildings 100 Assembly halls with fixed seating 60 Public spaces, dance halls, grandstands 100 Retail shops and stores 100 Wholesale shops and stores 125 Factories 125 Garages for passenger cars 75 Garages for trucks and busses 150 Sidewalks, driveways 250 Reduction of live load: Beams and girders: 15% when area supported by a member exceeds 200 square feet Columns, piers, walls, and foundation: the percentage reduction given in Table 1 (Section 3.6) and it is related to area supported (indirectly as the table deals with number of floors) and type of loading. Combination of wind and live load: for consideration of stresses in a structure and on the foundation from a combination of dead, live and wind, the assumed live load on floors can be reduced by one-half, provided the stresses or bearing pressure are not less than those resulting from a combination of dead and live loads. Ceiling load: 10 psf; ceiling joists must be able to support this load Snow load L: Roof with slope 20 or less shall be designed for snow load of 20 to 40 psf depending on the location. L = S + R,
Where: L is snow load S is sum of average snow falls in January, February and March, in inches over number of years R is sum of average rain falls in January, February and March, in inches over number of years
L (in) Live load due to snow (psf) Less than 20 20 20 30 30 More than 30 40 Roofs with slopes in excess of 20, shall be designed for snow load L 1 L 1 = L [1- 0.023 ( 20)] Minimum total load on roof member for slopes less than 20 and area less than 500 sqft shall be designed for 50 psf (wind + snow) but excluding wind. Wind loads: On vertical surfaces: Wind pressure: 0 to 300 ft 20 psf Over 300 ft increase by 0.025 lb/ft of height On plane sloping roofs (slopes both ways from the ridge) Windward face: measured normal to the plane of the roof 20 or less -12psf 20 to 30 (1.2 36) 30 to 40 (0.3 9) 60 9 Leeward face: suction of 9 psf Allowance for internal pressures or suctions: In normally enclosed buildings with percentage of openings n: Normal suction: (4.5 + 0.15n), or 9 psf, whichever is less Normal pressure: (4.5 + 0.25n), or 12 psf whichever is less For structures having open sides, e.g., grandstands Open side facing the wind: a pressure 12 psf Close side facing the wind: a suction 9 psf
Earthquake loads: The design provisions for every structure located in a region where destructive earthquake is probable (St. Lawrence basin- major shocks and elsewhere in Canada ref. Seismology in Canada Canada Year Book, 1938, pp.27-29): F is a horizontal force applied at structures centre of gravity W is the total dead load C is a constant depends on the soil conditions at the location C = 0.02, where soil allowable pressure more than 2000 psf C = 0.04, where soil allowable pressure less than 2000 psf For components: C = 0.25 for cantilevered parapets, walls, ornamentation, appendages C= 0.05 for bearing walls, curtain walls, enclosure walls, panel walls. The NBC 1953 This code is set up a set of by-law requirements. This code has climatic information which includes winter design temperatures (based on 2.5 % - i.e., 2.5% of temperatures fall below the listed value), mean annual total degree-days, min. January temperature, 15 minute rainfall, mean annual precipitation, maximum snow load on a horizontal surface, computed maximum gust speed, winter wind directions, earthquake probability. New materials and methods of construction are permitted provided their suitability and working stresses determined by a publicly owned or recognized laboratory are approved by authority having jurisdiction. Loads: The minimum loads are given. Occupancy loads: No change from the previous code; see Table 3.2. Snow load: Roof with slope 20 or less shall be designed for the uniformly distributed snow load L obtained from Chart 8, Part 2 of this NBC. For roofs with a slope x greater than 20, the snow load L 1 shall be determined as follows: L 1 = L [1- 0.0233 (x 20)] The code suggests that loads in excess of those given may occur, where the following conditions are present, the shape, differences in roof levels, insulating qualities or orientation of a building or proximity to other buildings. No provisions for snow accumulation given. Rain: Load resulting from 24 hour rain accumulation on the roof should be used.
Wind: Structures of buildings less than 50 ft in height and where adequate transverse shear resistance is provided by walls or bracing members to which wind load is transferred by floor or roof diaphragm do not need to be designed for wind if approved. Calculation of wind load P: p = 0.00256 C s (C h V 30 ) 2 , { or = C s (p) where p is from Table 4.1.A.1} where C s is coefficient consisting of the sum of appropriate coefficient from Table 4.1.1 together with appropriate internal pressure factors. C h is velocity height coefficient, C h = (H h /H 30 ) 1/7 for h up to 1000 ft. Internal pressures coefficient: One side open: + 0.5 Normal air infiltration: + 0.2 Wind overturning moment shall not exceed 75% of the moment of stability resulting from the dead load of the building, unless the building or structure is anchored to resist the excess overturning moment. Earthquake In earthquake zones (see Chart 11 of Part 2) all buildings with the exception of non-combustible construction Group C Division 2 One- or two-family dwellings must be designed to resist the horizontal force F applied in a horizontal direction at each floor or roof level. F = CW, Where: C is the numerical constant from Table 4.1.2 C = 0.15/ (N + 4.5), where N is number of storeys There were three zones assigned: Zone 1 C Zone 2 2C Zone 3 4C W is the total dead load (live load should be included for warehouses and storage tanks). Steel Structural steel is to conform to CSA G40.4. Mill test reports properly correlated to the materials shall constitute sufficient identity of any material as to specifications. Unidentified structural steel: can be used if approved. Test if required shall be carried by an approved testing laboratory in accordance with CSA G40.1. The test results shall be used to determine the working stresses. The NBC 1953 was revised in 1960. In 1965 new addition of the code was issued as the first edition of what was anticipated a five-year cycle.
The NBC 1965 It is still intended as by-law which will be accepted by local municipality. Live load There are no changes in live loads due to occupancy or rather loads due to use. There are two live load reduction factors, one (0.5 + 15/A) for buildings used for storage, manufacturing, garage or assembly applied when a member support an area in excess of 900 sq. ft. and another factor (0.3 + 10/A) for any other occupancy when a member supports an area in excess of 200 sq. ft. Minimum loads for railings separating a change in elevation in access of 18 in., 150 lf/ ft laterally and 100 lb/ ft vertically to be considered separately from lateral load. Vibration due to equipment and machinery: it gives the magnification factor for equipment weight or its live load. Snow load It introduces modification of 80% (C b = 0.8) to ground snow load given in the Supplement 1. Design snow load = C b x ground snow load Supplement No. 3 gives factors to account for snow accumulation. It also allows reduction of C b to 0.6 for exposed roofs. The ground snow load contours changed slightly as well as the magnitude of the snow load. Generally, there is no significant change in snow load for most locations. Wind load The minimum design wind load is given in climatic information included in Supplement No.1. This load should be modified for height above 40 ft. Or the following formula can be used: q h = q 30 (h/30) 1/5 The change in the exponent results in slightly greater values for design wind pressure. The minimum design load acting on a surface is again given as an algebraic pressure difference on both sides of the surface. Assistance with pressure coefficients is provided in Supplement No.3. Rain load There is no change in rain load. Earthquake load Significant changes in the determination of earthquake loading. The minimum base shear V = KW W is total dead load, including storage and weight of equipment and machinery, K = R* C*I*F*S R is the earthquake factor obtained from climatic information in Supplement No.1. It is a measure of earthquake intensity. C is a coefficient which reflects type of construction;
C = 0.75 for steel or reinforced concrete framed buildings with moment resisting connections, and sufficiently stiff floors diaphragm, and the frame alone must be able to carry 50% of the design based shear or shear walls reinforced in a ductile manner to carry design shear forces. C = 1.25 for all types of buildings I is importance factor; I = 1.3 for important bldgs. such as hospitals, power plants and large occupancy and 1.0 for the others. F reflects foundation conditions; F = 1.5 for buildings found on highly compressible ground and F = 1.0 for all other soil conditions S reflects number of storeys N is number of storeys S = 0.25/(9 + N) The distribution of the base shear V to shear at F x each floor is in accordance with the ratio of (floor weight w x x height above the base h x ) to the sum of (floor weight x height above the base) for all storeys. Also for the first time the overturning moment at base is given as M = F x h x . Structural Steel All structural steel should be accompanied by a Certified Mill Test Report, or Manufacturers certificate. The fabricator shall if requested provide an affidavit confirming that fabricated steel meets the specifications. Unidentified steel should be tested to identify both physical and chemical properties of steel in accordance with G40.1-1966. Steel then classified and appropriate allowable unit stress is determined. The NBC 1970 This edition of the code contains for the first time the limit on lateral deformations; storey deflection to storey height of 1/500 and total deflection to total height of 1/500. It introduces T load; load due to contraction or expansion due to temperature changes, shrinkage, moisture, creep or differential settlement. The load combinations which have to be considered in structural engineering design. The load combination factor is introduced for the first tome; 1.0 for combination dead and live; 0.75 for combination of dead with live load and wind or earthquake; 0.65 for combination of dead load with live load and wind or seismic load and temperature. Dead load The weight of permanent equipment and forces due to prestressing are added to the list of dead loads to be considered. Live load There is no significant change in live loads; except more guidance is given to circumstances when live load conditions were not covered. Snow load No significant changes to snow load occurred.
Wind load The impact of wind is defined by designed wind pressure p: p = qC e C g C p . This approach is similar to current NBC. The mean hourly wind pressures q which are used are not significantly different from