EXPERIMENT NO. : 1 AIM : To Measure Displacement using LVDT.

Principle and working : LVDT stands for linear variable differential transformer. It works on the principle of mutual induction LVDT illustrated in figure consist of three symmetrically spaced coils bound out and illustrated bobbin. A magnetic core , which moves through the bobbin, provides a path for magnetic flux linkage between coils. The position of the magnetic core control the mutual inductance between the primary coils and two secondary coils. When a carrier excitation is applied to the primary coil, voltage is induced in the two secondary coils that are wired in series opposing circuit. When the core is centered between the two secondary coils, the voltage induced in secondary coils are equal but cut of phase by 180 with series opposing circuit, the voltage in two secondary coils contact cancel each other and the O/P voltage is zero. When the core is moved from the centre position, an in-balance in the mutual inductance between the primary and secondary coils occurs and an o/p voltage develops. The o/p voltage is linear function of core position as long as the motion of the core is within the operating range of LVDT. The direction of motion can be determined from the phase of o/p voltage. Features : 1. The frequency of voltage applied to the primary winding can range from 50-25000 kHz. 2. Dynamic measurement is possible is the carrier frequency is 10 times greater than the highest frequency component in dynamic signal. 3. The I/P ranges from 5 15 watts / amp i.e. volts. 4. The power required is less than 1 watt. 5. Range of sensitivity is from 0.02 0.2 V / nm. 6. Available in operating range 2 to 150 mm. 7. Like LVDT rotary variable differential transformer (RVDT) is used for angular measurement. Advantages : 1. There is no contact between the core and the coils. Hence infinite resolution and no hysteresis 2. Non-contact ensures long life with no significant deterioration of performance. 3. Sensitivity is high as 40 mV/mm 4. Power consumption is less than 1 W. 5. better linear characteristics. Disadvantages : 1. The mass of core and the friction limits the capabilities of sensor for dynamic measurement. 2. Performance of transducer is affected by temperature.

Procedure : Make the connection between LVDT sensor and the digital display unit as directed in manual . Switch ON the circuit. Advance the LVDT core on one side. With the R/n I/P. Record the o/p. Repeat the procedure for possible range i/p in regular steps on one side. Withdraw the LVDT core to the null position in same steps it was advanced. Take o/p while drawing i/p. Repeat same on other side of null. Plot I/P vs O/P graph using least square fit method. Calculate linearity of instrument. Result : From graph, it is clear that O/P varies linearly with I/P in both sense i.e. forward and backward. Right hand sensitivity = 0.949 & Linearity = 00453 Left hand sensitivity = 0.949 & Linearity = 0.0488

EXPERIMENT NO. : 2 AIM : To Measure Load using Digital Load Indicator. Apparatus: A Link Type Load Cell, Cables, Weights, Weight Pan, Display Unit. Introduction: The various devices used for measurement of force are called load cells. The typical ways to measure force on can be illustrated as : i) Balance ii) Hydraulic Load Cells iii) Pneumatic Load Cells iv) Elastic Force devices Of this, the first three methods are broadly the mechanical way of force measurement. The elastic force devices employ the elastic members in the form of rings, diaphragms, strips, cylinder etc. Through mechanical methods employs dial gauges may be used in combination with elastic members. The use of strain gauges is more commonly in load cells. Principle and Working: The figure shows the constructional details of strain gauges. The form gauges are mounted on the periphery of cylinder. The two are mounted axially while other two are circumferentially mounted when the force is applied on the cylinders, it undergoes strain and hence the gauges depends responds by hanging their resistance. The two axially mounted gauges are subjected to longitudinal where as other two are subjected to transverse stresses. Since the two gauges sensing similar stress, are placed in its opposite arms and the gauges sensing dissimilar strains are placed in adjustment arms. The budge has the highest sensitivity. The voltage output across the Hodge is measure of the applied load the voltage signal is further converted to digital mode before displaced by the display unit. Features: 1. The sensitivity of load cell depends on v/s area of elastic element, modules of elasticity of element. The gauges & the I/P applied voltage. 2. High sensitivities are associated with low capacity cell. 3. The typical value of battery are up to 10V and the maximum rated load o/p is 30 mv/v. Procedure : As shown in figure, mount the pans to the load cell hook. Adjust the display to show 0 . For the pan of there is an initial bias record it, add weights to the pan in steps of 0.5 kg up to 10 kg. Note down the readings. Repeat the procedure for downscale readings. Plot the I/P O/P graph using least square fit method. Calculate the linearity of instruments.

Result : 1. From the graph, it is clear that output varies linearity with input 2. Linearity is found to be. Precautions : i) ii) iii) Check that all the connection are tight. See that the reading doubt fluctuate in the display. Check for proper placement of weight in the pan.

EXPEIMENT NO. : 3 AIM : To measure the Torque using Digital Torque Indicator and Torque Meter. Apparatus : A torque cell, cable for connection, display unit, weights, etc. Principle and working : Torque are very similar to load cell, they consist of mechanical element (usually a shaft with circular c/s) and a sensor (usually electric resistance strain gauges). A general configuration of a strain gauge budge circuit widely employed for torque measurement from a rotating shaft as shown in set up figure. Four bounded wire strain gauges are mounted on a 45 helix with axis of rotation and are placed in pairs diametrically opposite. If the gauges are accurately placed and have matched characteristic, the system is temperature compensated and is sensitive to bending and thrust or pull effects. Any change in gauge circuit, then results only for tensional deflection. When the shaft is under torsion gauges I & 4 will elongate as a result of tensile component of a pure shear stress on one diagonal axis, while gauges 2 and 3 will contact owing to compressive component on shaft between two flanges. A deflection of shaft may be read one directly, if the shaft is stationary, however, this is not possible in case of rotating shaft. A flashing light of stroboscope is directed other diagonal axis. This tensile and compressive principle strain can be measured and shaft torque can be calculated. In a solid shaft of diameter d, subjected to torque T, the following relation exist. d3 ---------16

T = fs

G d4 T = ------------32 L Where fs : G : : Shear stress induced in shaft. Shear modules (rigidity) Angle of twist in radians over a shaft length L.

Following are various ways to measure torque: i) Stroboscope method: A torque can be measured by means of measuring angular displacement of two attachments set on shaft at some distance apart depending upon convenience. This relative deflection may be measured by utilizing a stroboscope. For torque measurement two slotted flanges A & B are mounted on shaft. Flange A carries a scale while flange B carries a pointer, when torque is applied to a shaft, it causes displacement of pointer relative to scale on account of angular twist of length

of shaft between two flanges. A deflection of shaft may be read once directly, if the shaft is stationary, however, this is not possible in case of rotating shaft. A flashing light of stroboscope is directly on the scale and the flashing frequency or is adjusted till a stationary image is obtained. Scale reading can now be taken. Since deflection is small the accuracy of measurement is poor. But this method is simple and inexpensive. ii) Inductance torque transducer : In order to get the high sensitivity, the angular displacement between two flange must be measured with the help of linear displacement transducer which are specially designed for measurement of small displacement. Flange A carries a coil & Flange B an iron core . This core moves in and out of coil according to relative displacement of two flanges. Therefore inductance of the coil is altered on account of relative displacement. Since the displacements depend on the torque and hence the bridge output can be directly calibrated to load the torque. Advantages : i) Accurate and sensitive arrangements for torque measurement. ii) It cam be employed for rotating shaft by using strip rings for single transmission from rotating shaft to stationary budge circuit. Procedure : As shown in figure, mount the pan into the holes of arm of load cell. If the digital display unit shows sense value adjusts in to zero if possible otherwise note down the initial bias. Measure the distance of hole and a pan from centre of torque cell. Add weights to the pan in steps. Calculate the torque applied. Note down the torque display. Repeat the procedure by varying distance of pan from load centre. Result : The output values of torque varies linearly with input torque or applied torque. The linearity is found to be loss. Precaution : Reading of output strain should be noted only where reading reaches steady state.

EXPERIMENT NO. : 4 AIM : To measure Strain using Strain Gauge. Principle and Working : Electrical resistance strain gauges are thin metals foils, grids, that can be adhesively bonded to the surface of a component or structure is load, the strain develops and are transmitted to the foil grid changes in proportion to the body strain. The resistance are of uniform metallic conductor can be expressed as. L R = -----A And where

= Specific resistance of metal. L = Conductor length A = c/s area of conductor.

Gage Factor F of the conductor is defined by (dR/ R) / (dL/L) = (dR/ R) /

dR d ------ = ----R

dL ----- ( 1 + 2V) L

equation - 2

The strain sensitivity of metal is expressed as dR --- / a = ( d / ) / a + (1 + 2v) R

equation - 3

It is evident from the above equation that the sensitivity of a metal or alloy is due to two factors namely, the changes in the dimensions of conductor as expressed by the term ( 1 + 2v) & the change in specific resistance.

The Wheatstone Bridge Circuit : The output DR / R of strain gauge us usually converted to a voltage signal with Wheatstone bridge. The bridge is initially balanced and the o/p occurs across the point B C is zero. For this bridge null position, the. Condition,. R1 X R3 = R2 X R4 is satisfied

As the arms of the bridge changes resistance the o/p across B C is given expression. Eo = r / ( 1 r )2 X R1 R2 R3 R4 ---- - ----- - ----- - ---R1 R2 R3 R4

Where, r = R2 / R1 The gauge can be placed in R1, R1 and R2 and all the arms of the bridge accordingly referred as quarter wave half wave or full wave bridge. When all the resistances of strain gages are same, R1 = R2 = R3 = R4 The current flow through the galvanometer is zero and the bridge is said to be balance. When the resistance of strain gages changes then the bridge becomes imbalance and the current through galvanometer is given by Ig = - E dR1 / 4R1(R1 + Rg) = - E F / 4 (R1 + Rg) Features : 1. Though these are various types of gauge, most commonly used gauges are metal foil gauges. 2. The metal foil gauges are very fragile & easy to distort, wrinkle or tear. Hence metal grid is bounded to a thin plastic film. This also provides the electrical insulation between the gauge and the component, when the gauge is mounted. 3. The shortest available is 0.20 mm and the largest is 102 mm. 4. The gauges can sense the strain as well as temp change. The effect of temp. change by comported by using proper bridge arrangement. 5. The gauges can be manufactured in various combinations for special transducer applications. Advantages : 1. It gives electrical signals. 2. Easy to mount, can be bounded on component on which strain measurement is desired. 3. Sensitivity can be improved by using more no of bridges & proper combination. Disadvantages : 1. It need special care to achieve temp. compensation. 2. Ti cannot be reused once removed from component. 3. It o/p is usually small and need amplifier. Procedure : 1. Measure the length, width & thickness of cantilever beam.

2. Make the connection between the strain gauge. Terminal and the digital display unit as directed in the manual. 3. For the two gauge half wave bridge, connect the common terminal of the two gauges in position A and the other two in C & D positions. 4. Switched ON the circuit. Add then two weights to the weight pan. 5. Calculate the strain at the given c/s. 6. Wait for sufficient time so that the reading becomes stable. 7. Note down the o/p strain shown by the instrument. Increase the I/P in steps, note down the reading. Note down observations while decreasing the I/P in manual steps. Plot the I/P - O/P using least square fit method. Calculate linearity. Result : O/P of strain I/P strain, linearity =. Hence use of such gauges reduces error in the measurement.

EXPERIMENT NO. : 5 AIM : To measure the pressure using the pressure cell. Apparatus : A Pressure Cell, Cables for connection, display unit, pressure gauges etc. Principle and Working of Pressure Cell : Diaphragm gauges is a thin plate of circular shape clamped firmly around its edges. The diaphragm gets deflected in accordance with the pressure differential across the sides, deflection being towards the law pressure side. The deflection can be sensed by an appropriate displacement transducer i.e. it may be converted into electrical signal or may undergo in mechanical amplification to permit display of the O/P of an indicator dial. These are two basic types of diaphragms element design. i) Metallic diaphragm which depends upon its own resilience for its operation. ii) Non-metallic or stuck diaphragm which employs a soft-flexible material with no elastic characteristics. The movements of the diaphragm are opposed by a spring which determines the deflection for given pressure. The general requirement of the diaphragm are : 1. Dimensions and total load must be comparable with physical properties of intermediate used. 2. Flexibility must be such as to provides the sensitivity required by secondary transducer. 3. Volume of displacement should be minimize to provide the reasonable dynamic response. 4. Natural frequency of diaphragm should be sufficiently high to provide satisfactory frequency response. 5. The O / P should be linear. 6. The diaphragm to response linearly its maximum deflection y should be less than 1/3 of its thickness. 3 (1 - V2) -- P - ------16 Et3 ( R2 - r2)2

Where

P V E R r

= Pressure = Poissons ratio = Modules of elasticity of diaphragm. = radius of diaphragm = radius at point of interest

The deflection for diaphragm is given by above equation. The natural frequency of diaphragm should be high enough for good dynamic response.

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Advantages of Diaphragm : 1. Relatively small size and moderate cost. 2. Capability to withstand high over pressure and maintain good linearity over over a wide range. 3. Availability of gauges for absolute and differential pressure. 4. Minimum of hysteretic k no permanent zero shift. Disadvantages of pressure cell : 1. Ned protection from shock and vibration. 2. Cannot be used to measure high pressure & is difficult to repair. Application of diaphragm pressure cell : Typical applications are low pressure absolute pressure gauges and many types of recorders and controllers operating in low range of direct or diff. pressure. Procedure : Connect the Pressure Cell with the compressor and note down the initial pressure by releasing valve. Then Take corresponding o/p reading from digital display to pressure cell by releasing the pressure valve and note down the valves for difficult different readings. Plot the graph between I/P and O/P pressure. Result : The linearity is found to be and the slope calculated is & graphically is. Conclusion : From graph, it is clear that output varies linearly with input.

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EXPERIMENT NO. : 6 AIM : To measure speed using i) Magnetic Pickup. ii) Photoelectric Pickup. iii) Stroboscope Principle and working of i) Magnetic Pickup : The voltage is induced in the coil around to a magnetic subjected to change in magnetic field, this is principle of electromagnetic induction. The arrangement is shown in fig. As shaft rotates, the teeth pass in front of pick up and produce a change in field resistance of magnetic circuit. The density of a magnetic field increases and decreases as each tooth approaches and leaves away from the end of the bar magnet per second. Let T be no. of teeth on the rotor, N be be the revolutions per second and P be the no. of pulse per sec. Then, Pulses per sec. ----------------- = No. of teeth P --- x 60 rpm T

Speed N =

Procedure : Connect the motor to the dimmerstat to vary the I/P supply, by which speed changes. Connect the motor connection to speed measurement motor changing the speed take the corresponding reading of motor and note down on the observation table. Find out % error from the graph. ii) Photoelectric pickup : The photoelectric pick up tachometer utilize a rotating shaft to the intercept a beam of light flow on a photoelectric or photo-conductive cell. The shaft has an intermittent reflecting (white) and non reflecting (blade) surface. When a beam of light the reflecting surface on a rotating shaft, light pulses are obtained and reflected light is focused on the photoelectric cell. The frequency of the light pulses is proportional to shaft speed and so will be frequency of electrical o/p pulses from photoelectric. Another similar method consist in mounting an opaque disc on shaft. The rotating component the disc has a no. of evenly spaced peripheral. Holes. A light source on the side of disc and there is light sensor on opaque portion of disc between the lights source & the light sensor, no light falls on sensor and consequently on o/p results. But a pulse of voltage is produced every time a hole appear between the two is light illuminates the sensor. The frequency of pulse generations is determined by no. of holes in disc and its speed of rotations. Since no of holes is fixed, pulse of repetitions, frequency of transducers o/p is proportional to angular velocity of moving member.

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Procedures: Connect the motor to dimmerstat and dimmerstat to supply source. Switch the lights and passes through the light from hole and rotor. Switch the photo sensor and take reading from motor. III) Stroboscope: The phenomenon used in stroboscope depends upon the imperfect dynamic response of human eye. It consist of an electronic stroboscopic lamp which flashes at known and adjustable rate. The device has source of variable frequency flashing light. The disc with a mark attached to a motor is rotate in front of the flashing light of stroboscope, When the speed of the disc is adjusted with the flashing light, the mark on the disc appears stationary. The disc speed =speed of shaft = frequency of flashing light / no of images \ N = f / No of images Procedures : Connect the motor to dimmerstat and dimmerstat to supply source. Switch the lights of the stroboscope and keep it in front of the disc. Adjust the constant speed of the motor and adjust the frequency of flashing light of the stroboscope such that the image on the disc appears stationary. Note the speed and frequency. Repeat the procedure by changing the speed of the motor. Result : From graph, it is seen that input and output are linear. Precautions : 1. Always start the motor with help of zero speed., operate dimmerstat slowly. 2. Connect motor to earthing wire. 3. When experiment is over disconnect the photoelectric and magnetic pick up.

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