SPECTACLED CAIMAN NATURAL HISTORY

APPEARANCE
The spectacled caiman (Caiman crocodilus) is one of five caiman species in the Amazon River drainage system.
This species has a typically crocodilian appearance, but its maximum size is rather smaller than the black caiman
and other members of its family. The largest males reach about 8 feet (2.5 m) but average about 6 feet (2.1 m).
Females are about two thirds the size of males.

The name "spectacled" comes from a bridge between the orbits of the eyes that looks rather like a pair of
spectacles. The upper eyelids bear bony ridges, conferring a dinosaur-like appearance.

Adult spectacled caimans are uniformly olive-green whereas juveniles are khaki green with yellow and black
bands along the stomach and base of the tail. As with other crocodilians, this camouflage becomes less distinct in
the adult.

Of particular note is this species' chameleon-like ability to change color. Although the effect is subtle, other
crocodilians show this ability, which arises from migration of black pigment in skin cells. Caiman crocodilus is
classified into several different subspecies which vary in size and skull morphology, as well as skin color.

HABITAT AND DISTRIBUTION

The spectacled caiman is the most widely distributed crocodilian in the Americas. It is found throughout the
Amazon River basin from southern Brazil up through Central America to southern Mexico. The far west of its
range is limited by the Andes mountain range in Peru, but more northerly, in Ecuador and Colombia it is found to
the Pacific coast.

This species prefers quiet riversides and swampy areas where it lurks among floating vegetation, although it might
be found in any wetland habitat.

FEEDING AND DIET

The spectacled caiman is an opportunistic predator, taking advantage of whatever prey is most abundant. Its main
diet comprises fish, although adults are known to take large mammals such as capybara and peccary.

As juveniles grow in size, they graduate up to approriately sized prey. They begin with tiny aquatic invertebrates
(insects, crustaceans, molluscs). Larger juveniles prey on various vertebrates such as fish, amphibians, reptiles
and water birds, that make an increasing proportion of the diet. Only mature caiman are able to tackle large
mammals.

Caimans adapt to prevailing environmental conditions and during the dry season, decrease predatory activity. In
dire situations they may resort to cannibalism.

As top predator caimans play a pivotal role in the balance of the ecosystem. In the absence of a top predator, prey
species' populations can veer out of control and cycle wildly. Dominant species tend to take over. Where caimans
are heavily hunted, some researchers have reported that piranha numbers tend to be higher. Caimans also serve
as a conduit for cycling nitrogen through the ecosystem, as their waste serves to fertilize aquatic plants. (Nitrogen

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is an essential nutrient for plant growth.)

BREEDING
Caiman reproduction is closely matched to the Amazon's annual cycle of wet and dry seasons. Eggs (of females)
and testes (of males) grow larger as the rainy season draws near around May. From May to August, caiman
courtship and mating behavior peaks. Egg-laying follows, taking place mostly between July and August. Close by
the river's edge, Females dig a shallow pit in sandy soil with their front legs and lay 15 to 50 eggs. Clutch size
averages 25. This is then covered with a mound of dead leaves, reeds and grasses.

Heat from the nest's decaying vegetation helps maintain the nest at a constant temperature. Unlike most animals,
the sex of baby crocodiles (and some other reptiles) depends on the temperature in the nest, temperature-
dependent sex determination (TSD). A warm nest will result in more males, whereas a cooler nest skews the ratio
toward females. The location of the nest can therefore influence the numbers of males and females that hatch. A
nest under cover will have more females than a nest in the open. The phenomenon may prove useful in reptile
conservation since the developing eggs can be treated with sex hormones to result in a majority of females.

Females sometimes nest in groups, even sharing nests. This spreads the risk for females since a nest predator
will be less likely to take all the eggs of a particular female. Eggs may be eaten by lizards such as the tegu
(Tupinambis spp.) which often destroys the entire nest and may damage four fifths of nests in its range. To reduce
damage caused by predators the female caiman lurks close by and will chase off a potential marauder.

Due to the seasonal timing, young caiman have abundant prey upon hatching, about 90 days after laying.
Females provide a degree of parental care as the juveniles stay in here vicinity until they are large enough to fend
for themselves. Groups of females that shared nest sites may also share in caring for young.

Female caiman breed between 5 to 10 years of age, once they have reached 3 or 4 feet in length. Males reach
sexual maturity at a larger size but as they grow faster, are capable of breeding at the same age. The social rank
of the individual determines breeding success since lower rank animals feed less and grow more slowly, hence
take longer to reach breeding age.

CONSERVATION
With a wild population estimate in excess of 1,000,000, the spectacled caiman is the commonest of all crocodilian
species, but is locally threatened in many parts of its range.

It's not hard to hunt caiman. A hunter patrols a river bank at night, shining his flashlight among the reeds, looking
for a lurking caiman's tell-tale eye, shining red like a hot coal. He just shoots in the right direction, waits for the
thrashing to stop and motors over to hitch the dead animal into his boat.

For tourists hunting caiman, the procedure is a bit more complicated. The tricky part is to approach cautiously,
while all the time keeping the flashlight on the bright red spot. This apparently mesmerizes the beast. If all goes
according to plan, the caiman will remain paralyzed by the light while the boat approaches. The guide will then
lean over the boat, hanging on to whatever is to hand, to grab the hapless creature. After a round of picture taking
and brief overview of caiman natural history, the captive is released to no apparent ill-effect. Ecotour operators
hope this victimless hunting will pay off as the close encounters help educate and inform about these beautiful

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creatures.

Excessive hunting of other caiman species (such as the black caiman) has helped the spectacled caiman, which
has moved into its competitors' habitat. Most of the spectacled caiman's hide is too rough to make good leather.
Only the sides are suitable, so they were not as intensively hunted as other species. This changed as those
species became rarer, so to supply the trade, more spectacled caimans were hunted. Today this species provides
most of the crocodilian leather used in the United States. Illegal hunting fuelled by rising demand in Asia is the
main threat. However, the species' adaptability, high reproductive rate, and the increase in habitat resulting from
human activities (e.g., dams), have dampened the effect of excessive hunting.

Conservation of caimans is complicated by taxonomy (classification) which has yet to be fully resolved.
Morphological studies have led to the recognition of several sub-species, some of which are not accepted by
experts, others are. Because conservation decisions often depend on a desire to preserve particular species,
such information is essential in creating reserves and parks that will do the intended job.
Populations in the Brazilian Pantanal, Colombia and Venezuela seem relatively healthy, although Central
American populations seem severely depleted. Wildlife managers question the long-term prospects for farming
and ranching of caiman populations, although such programs have succeeded in Africa with the Nile crocodile.
The limited utility of the spectacled caiman's hide means a lot of animals are needed to meet demand. The best
approach to long-term conservation of caimans may be the creation of sustainable use preserves that permit
regular culling of local populations. This may provide an income for local people as well as incentive to conserve
natural habitat.

Links
Florida Museum of Natural History: Caiman crocodilus
Reptile Conservation International
Gulf States Marine Fisheries Commission: Caiman crocodilus (Linnaeus)
Wikipedia: Spectacled caiman
Digimorph: Caiman crocodilus (spectacled caiman): skull
Wikipedia: Alligatoridae
FAO: 3.3.1 Caiman crocodilus (spectacled caiman)
herpbreeder.com: Crocodiles of the World - Caiman
ITIS Report: Caiman crocodilus crocodilus (Linnaeus, 1758)
Institute for Tropical Ecology and Conservation: Caiman crocodilus Narrow-snouted Spectacled Caiman
The Taxonomicon: Caiman crocodilus taxonomy
CITES: Colombia - Export of Skins of Caiman crocodilus
Zoofarm de Colombia: The Spectacled Caiman
Geological Society of America: Triche, Nina E., Osteological and Ontogenetic Variation in Caiman crocodilus
The Herpetologists' League 2001: Stephen D. Busack and Sima Pandyab. Geographic Variation in Caiman
crocodilus and Caiman yacare (Crocodylia: Alligatoridae): Systematic and Legal Implications. Herpetologica 57(3):
294-312
Calderon M.L., De Perez G.R., Ramirez Pinilla M.P. (2004) Morphology of the ovary of Caiman crocodilus
(Crocodylia: Alligatoridae). Ann Anat. 186(1):13-24.

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Ebbesson S.O., Goodman D.C. (2001) Organization of ascending spinal projections in Caiman crocodilus. Cell
Tissue Res. 215(2):383-95.

Mainly photos
Animal Diversity Web: Caiman crocodilus (spectacled caiman)
wildherps.com: Common Caiman
Photovault: Caiman (Caiman Crocodilus) Paleosuchus
bnoonan.uta.edu: Caiman crocodilus (Linnaeus, 1758)
About.com: South America Wildlife Photo Gallery, Jacaré - Caiman crocodilus
Michael Rothhaar, Ag Krokodile

3.3 Caimans (from FAO document)

3.3.1 Caiman crocodilus (spectacled caiman)

Numbered among the neotropical fauna are nine species of crocodiles or caimans. Once
abundant in the rivers, lagoons and swamps of tropical America, the extensive commercial
hunting for their hides that began in the 1920s or 30s has now relegated them to islands of
residual populations (see 2.4.2.1).

Most of the prized crocodilians are endangered species (Table 23) in urgent need of
protection and recovery measures such as strictly protected areas or captive breeding.
Among the less persecuted species, dwarf caiman (Paleosuchus) are fairly important in
indigenous subsistence hunting, but their low numbers, small size and heavily ossified skins
render them of little commercial value.

The spectacled caiman (Caiman crocodilus), also known as C. sclerops (16, 377), is the only
species now locally abundant, of some commercial value, and conceivably an exploitable
resource in specific regions.

3.3.1 Caiman crocodilus (spectacled caiman)

Local names: Alligator (Guyana, Trinidad), baba (Venezuela), babilla (Colombia), yacaré,
yacaré tinga (Brazil), Kaaiman (Suriname), lagarto, lagarto chato (Mexico, Central America),
lagarto blanco (Ecuador, Peru), yacaré cascarudo (Argentina), yacaré jhu (Paraguay).

Geographical variation and distribution: This is the most widely distributed American
crocodilian, ranging from Mexico to Argentina. Brazaitis (77) recognizes four subspecies:
Caiman crocodilus fuscus from Oaxaca on the Pacific coast of Mexico down through Central
America to northern Colombia and the Maracaibo basin in Venezuela; C. c. crocodilus found
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 in the Orinoco river basin, Amazonia, the Guianas and the island of Trinidad; C. c.
apaporensis, only on the Apaporis river in southeastern Colombia, and C. c. yacare (103,
141, 377) in southern Brazil including the Mato Grosso, Bolivia, Paraguay and northern
Argentina.

Elevational range: C. crocodilus is restricted to the tropical lowlands; the limits of its range
coinciding with the annual isotherm of 24°C (118). The highest reported sighting was at 800
m in Colombia (377).

Size and weight: The spectacled caiman varies by size and weight according to sex, age
and locality. The total maximum length reported by Medem (377) was 240 cm for males and
173 cm for females, with maximum weights of 45 kg for males and 19 kg for females.
Maximum sizes and weights reported for males in the Venezuelan llanos were 231 cm and
58 kg, and for females 161 cm and 20 kg (31). Most adults grow to 120-200 cm, and weigh
7-40 kg. Mexican spectacled caiman, sometimes referred to as C. crocodilus chiapasicus,
may be smaller (16) compared to C. crocodilus yacare, which can reach 250 cm and weigh
58 kg (males). Adult females can weigh up to 14-23 kg (140).

Habitat: C. crocodilus can be found in a variety of habitats from rivers, creeks, lagunas and
estuaries in forest or savannah areas to bogs and brackish mangrove swamps in coastal
areas (16, 31, 377, 531, 599). They prefer calm, often turbid waters, with floating or
emerging vegetation. Most habitats have marked seasonal flooding and dry periods, the
animals congregating in the remaining bodies of water during the dry season. Which part of
the habitat caiman use and when depends on their age and sex (31, 531).

Table 23. Synoptic table of Latin American Crocodilia; sources of information: 16, 31,
77, 103, 377, 378

Species Local Total length (cm) Geographical Commercial IUCN status

name maximum length distribution value (246)
in parentheses
Caiman baba, 150-200 (250) From Oaxaca, Mexico medium vulnerable
crocodilus babilla through Central America
(spectacled lagarto and south to the River
caiman) amarillo Paraguay and Argentina
jacare
tinga
Caiman jacare de 200-250 (300) Western Brazil from Rio high endangered
latirostris papo Grande do Norte to
(broad-snouted amarelo northern Uruguay
caiman)
Melanosuchus jacare acu 300-400 (500) Amazon River basin in high endangered
niger caimán Brazil, Bolivia, Guyana,

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(black caiman) negro Colombia and Peru
Paleosuchus jacare 90-120 (200) From southern Colombia low
palpebrosus coroa through Venezuela
(dwarf caiman) cachirre Guyana and to southern
Brazil
Paleosuchus jacre coroa 100-130 (226) From southern Colombia low
trigonatus and Venezuela to Bahía,
(dwarf caiman) cachirre Brazil, Peru and the
Bolivian Amazon
Crocodylus cocodrilo 300-400 (700) Pacific slope from high endangered
acutus de río Nayarit, Mexico to
(American caiman de Torbes, Peru. Atlantic
crocodile) la costa slope from Florida to
Venezuela
Crocodylus caimán 400-450 (678) Orinoco River basin in high endangered
intermedius llanero, Colombia and Venezuela
(Orinoco caimán del
crocodile) Orinoco
Crocodylus cocodrilo 100-150 (250) Atlantic slope from high endangered
moreletii de Tamaulipas, Mexico to
(Morelet's pantano Guatemala and
crocodile) Honduras
Crocodylus cocodrilo 200-250 (350) Cuba high endangered
rhombifer perla
(Cuban
crocodile)

Abundance: The easiest way to estimate spectacled caiman population density is by night
counts during the dry season ((31, 530, 531). The average variation in population densities
(No./ha of water surface) on 19 farms in the Venezuelan llanos ranged from 57 to 1 119, and
crude density (No./ha of farm area) from 0.07 to 15.4 (31, 530, 562). These figures are
exclusive of animals under the age of one and most represent population saturation.
Vásquez (599) cites specific population densities of 0.77-8.22/ha in the Peruvian Amazon.

Behaviour: The spectacled caiman, like other crocodilians, is mainly static, preferring to
remain immobile and partially submerged, or to bask on the shores, particularly in mid-
morning and early afternoon (except on overcast days) (31, 530). Despite the animal's
apparent immobility, situations calling for a fight/flight response or the presence of potential
prey can elicit very rapid and agile movement. Spectacled caiman feed in the water at any
time, but mainly at night (16, 377). Adult males turn aggressive and, apparently, territorial at
the onset of the rainy season and of heat. They are fairly unsuspicious in quiet habitats but

6
timid where they have been hunted (377, 387). They have 13 visual and nine voiced patterns
(31).

Feeding habits: Neonates feed on aquatic and terrestrial insects, expanding to include
crustaceans, molluscs and fish as they grow. The basic adult diet varies from place to place,
and includes fish (478, 562) and crustaceans (16, 599), or a combination of molluscs,
crustaceans and fish (31, 377). Full-sized adults also prey on mammals, semi-aquatic or
aquatic reptiles, and birds. They also eat carrion.

Reproduction: C. crocodilus takes at least six years to reach sexual maturity, corresponding
to an approximate overall length of 114 cm (approximately 60 cm snout/vent) (242).
Courtship and mating coincide with the onset of the rains. The female then builds her nest -
a mound of earth and plant matter, some 40 cm high and at least 1 m in diameter - on a site
near water but not subject to flooding, often building over an earlier nest (31, 140). She lays
a clutch of eggs, usually at peak flooding, which is July-August in the llanos (377, 562) and
January-February in the Colombian Amazon (377) and the Pantanal de Mato Grosso (140),
although this is apparently not the definitive pattern for all sites (377, 599).

The number of eggs ranges from 12 to 44 with a mean clutch size of 29, depending on
female body size (497). During the 65-84 day incubation period (various authors), the female
guards the nest. The hatchlings emerge with the oncoming dry season, measuring 20-23 cm
in length (16, 140, 503, 562), and the mother remains with them during the first few months
of life.

Mortality: Despite maternal care, there is nest depredation by coatis (140), Tegu lizards (148,
562) and other animals, and some nests are destroyed by flooding, trampling or human
interference (egg collecting). A bare 20-25 percent of the eggs hatch successfully (31, 140,
148, 562 and 563). Hatchling predators include wader birds, raptors and other carnivores,
and almost all die before the age of one year. Adult mortality, on the other hand, is thought to
be extremely low (31, 148).

Hunting: Spectacled caiman are usually hunted at night from canoes, as the hunters can get
much closer than in the daytime and can easily find the animals by their eyes which shine
red in the torch beam. Rivero Blanco (468) reports on the principal technique in the
Venezuelan llanos: by day the animals are herded into a section of the lagoon where they
can be easily captured. Animals of legal size are then harpooned, pulled ashore with ropes
and finished off with clubs. They are easier to catch in the dry season when the waters have
receded.

They are hunted with harpoons, rifles or shotguns. The traditional harpoon with a wooden
handle and detachable head attached to a strong rope that comes off in the prey requires
more skill and less distance on the part of the hunter, but it does avoid the loss of wounded
animals that is so frequent when caiman are hunted with guns (377). Meat-baited hooks with
a wire and wood floater are also used (188, 599), and sometimes trawlnets or traps.

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Products: Some indigenous people (Table 6) (and campesinos to a lesser extent) hunt
caiman for its tasty but rather tough white meat, and they may sell it as salted and dried
slabs (like fish). It is recommended that animals hunted for their skins also be eaten to
increase the nutritional and economic contribution of the species (498). Fresh caiman eggs
are a preferred food in the llanos region.

Commercial hunting for spectacled caiman skins began on an intensive scale in the 1950s
(see 2.4.2). This is currently the only crocodilian that can be harvested in tropical America.
To remove the skin the animal is split down the back with a machete or chainsaw so as to
preserve the flanks and belly. With medium-sized animals measuring 3-5 feet (91-152 cm),
the entire body is used ("coverall" or mantle type). Only the soft leather of the flanks from the
throat to the vent (jacket or belt type) is used in the case of the highly ossified big males. The
hide is preserved salted and semi-dried and the meat is usually discarded. The commercial
value of a legal-size, raw caiman hide at producer level in Venezuela in 1988 was
approximately US$50. These prices make caiman harvesting very profitable. Desiccated
hatchlings and young are often sold as tourist souvenirs.

Management: The establishment of minimum harvest sizes of 120 and 150 cm in Colombia
(118), 200 or 150 cm in Peru (281) and 180 cm in Venezuela (603), plus bag limits per
hunter (to a lesser extent), have all been used to regulate caiman hunting. Hunters, traders
and tanners have all eluded both size and bag limits for lack of supervision, and so most
countries in the area have opted for a total ban as an emergency measure. Both
indiscriminate slaughter and blanket prohibitions minimize the potential contribution of the
species as an exploitable resource. The planning and implementation of rational
management and harvesting based on C. crocodilus biology are urgently needed.

The features of spectacled caiman life history, as for the other major reptiles, are high
reproductive capacity, high mortality at the egg and neonate stage, a long preamble to
sexual maturity and low adult mortality. This latter attribute has helped to maintain large
stable populations which can partially occupy the niche left vacant by Crocodylus (188, 377,
531). Commercial exploitation of adult caiman has had a very destructive impact on
population due to the low capacity for recovery. The impact of density/dependence on
population dynamics and growth, as well as the net production rate at whatever density, are
apparently unknown.

An experimental harvesting programme using wild populations in private farms was recently
launched in Venezuela. The population size was first estimated and low harvest rates
allowed (7 percent of the population aged one year or over) (Table 17). Complementary
and/or alternate measures were 1) the protection of nesting sites; 2) artificial incubation of
egg clutches and the captive breeding of hatchlings up to the age of one year followed by
release into the wild, and 3) captive breeding up to the age of three years (1 metre total
length), slaughter and sale (148, 603). Given the economic importance of the species in
Venezuela, both rural producers and reptile leather tanners set up associations in 1987 to
promote research, production and sustained utilization, which augurs well for C. crocodilus
management.
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Captive breeding: As a means of combating egg and hatchling depredation, experiments
have been carried out with artificial incubation using polyethylene shelters, wooden crates
and polyethylene bags as nests, as well as breeding hatchlings in tanks or cages (60, 497,
503). The mean growth of hatchlings fed a variety of diets of animal origin ranged from 1.5
cm (503) to 2.5 cm (497) per month (the individual monthly maxima were 3 cm and 29 g).
When group size per tank was increased from 15 to 35, mean growth dropped and individual
variations increased. A number of privately owned captive breeding establishments have
recently been set up in Venezuela, providing a growing backlog of experience on the
maintenance of this species in captivity.

Animal Classification: Crocodilians

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Home > Library > Animal Life > Animal Classification

Family: Gharials
Family: Alligators and Caimans
Family: Crocodiles and False Gharials

(Crocodiles, alligators, caimans, and gharials)

Class: Reptilia

Order: Crocodylia

Number of families: 3

Number of genera, species: 8 genera; 23 species

Evolution and systematics

There are 23 widely recognized species of crocodiles, alligators, caimans, and gharials, all members of the order
Crocodylia. Superficially they resemble reptiles, yet their closest cousins are birds and extinct Dinosauria, a
group known as archosaurs ("ruling reptiles"). Modern Crocodylia are the latest iteration of the Crocodylomorpha,
a major group whose evolutionary heritage spans almost 240 million years. Crocodylia are often described as
"living fossils," unchanged in millions of years, but this description is inaccurate. The Crocodylomorpha were a
diverse and successful group occupying terrestrial, freshwater, and marine ecosystems, and their modern

9
counterparts are barely less fantastic. This group is informally referred to as "crocodilians," although the term
"crocodylians" technically refers to members of the order.

Every successful group has a beginning. The earliest crocodyliforms were terrestrial hunters that shared an ankle
with modern Crocodylia, but little else, yet they were dominant predators whose legacy diversified throughout the
Jurassic and Cretaceous periods. Their success is evident in excavations, as more crocodyliform material than
dinosaur bones often turns up. Discoveries have been remarkable, such as curious peglike teeth and spiked
protective plates from Desmatosuchus that indicate a defensive, vegetarian lifestyle. Despite dabbling in
herbivory, it was in carnivory that crocodyliforms excelled. The awe-inspiring skulls of Sarcosuchus and
Deinosuchus paint a picture of massive killers over 35 ft (10.7 m) in length. From terrestrial beginnings,
crocodyliforms branched out into freshwater and marine habitats. In extreme thalattosuchians (marine
crocodiles), limbs were replaced with paddles and a fluked tail to compete with sharks and ichthyosaurs for
dominance of the sea. However, these marine forms were an evolutionary dead end, and freshwater species with
limited marine ability proliferated from the Jurassic onward. Modern Crocodylia first appeared over 100 million
years ago, and despite experiments with various and occasionally bizarre forms, the semiaquatic predator has
become their signature role.

Scientists disagree about crocodyliform classification and evolutionary relationships. In 2003, 23 species of
Crocodylia are widely recognized, divided into three families: Alligatoridae (alligators and caimans; eight species),
Crocodylidae (crocodiles; 14 species), and Gavialidae (gharial; one species). The Crocodylidae are further
divided into two subfamilies, Crocodylinae and Tomistominae. Some taxonomists also divide Alligatoridae into
two subfamilies: Alligatorinae and Caimaninae.

Physical characteristics

A crocodile may be thought of as an elegant solution to the problem of catching prey, surviving unpredictable
environments, conserving limited energy, and reproducing successfully. In appearance, crocodiles superficially
resemble lizards, having scales, a long tail, and four limbs. But appearances can be deceptive, and a closer look
reveals that crocodilians are unique.

All 23 species are broadly similar in appearance, varying mainly in size, scale patterns, color, and skull
morphology. The smallest species is Cuvier's dwarf caiman (Paleosuchus palpebrosus); adult males rarely
exceed 5 ft (1.6 m) in length and females 4 ft (1.2 m). Within the same family, the black caiman (Melanosuchus
niger) and American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis) vie for largest size, yet rarely exceed 14 ft (4.3 m).
Crocodylidae range from the diminutive dwarf crocodile (Osteolaemus tetraspis) at 6 ft (1.8 m) to the massive
estuarine crocodile (Crocodylus porosus) that can exceed 16 ft (5 m). The sole gavialid, the Indian gharial
(Gavialis gangeticus) can also reach 16 ft (4.9 m). Females are always the smaller sex, and this is most apparent
in estuarine crocodiles, where females of 10 ft (3 m) are considered to be very large.

As the largest living reptiles, males over 16 ft (4.9 m) may tip the scales at 1,100 lb (500 kg), but these are
lightweights compared to rare individuals that exceed 18 ft (5.5 m) and 2,200 lb (1,000 kg). Although several
species, including estuarine crocodiles and Indian gharials, are capable of attaining such sizes, evidence of these
giants is scarce. The largest crocodile reliably measured and published in the literature, an estuarine crocodile
from Papua New Guinea, was 20.7 ft (6.3 m) long. While unlikely to be the maximum possible size for this

10
species, stories of even larger animals are difficult to verify. One fact is certain—crocodiles over 20 ft (6 m) are
exceptionally rare.

Crocodilians undergo a dramatic increase in size from hatchling to adult. Over its lifetime, an estuarine crocodile
may grow from a 12-in, 2.8-oz (30-cm, 80-g) hatchling to a 20-ft, 2,650-lb (600-cm, 1,200-kg) adult. A 20-fold
increase in length and 15,000-fold increase in weight is quite a feat in the animal kingdom. Imagine, then, how
this compares with the extinct Sarcosuchus, which reached 35 ft (10.7 m) and over 19,800 lb (9,000 kg)! Growth
is most rapid when young, yet scientists are unsure whether adults reach a maximum size or continue to grow
slowly until they die. The enormous sizes attained by extinct species such as Sarcosuchus and Deinosuchus may
have been possible by maintaining those fast juvenile growth rates throughout a greater percentage of their lives.

Crocodilians are covered in a thick, leathery skin broken into various sizes and shapes of scales in particular
areas. Scales on the back are large and rectangular, lying in parallel rows from shoulders to pelvis and continuing
onto the tail. These dorsal "scutes" each contain a bony plate called an osteoderm ("skin bone") just below the
surface. A tough covering of beta-keratin helps minimize water loss, although the more flexible alpha-keratin is
found between the scales. Osteoderms not only offer protection, they are infused with blood vessels and function
as solar panels, transporting heat from the surface to the body core during basking. Adjacent osteoderms are
closely integrated like the beams of a bridge, providing support for the spinal column. Large nuchal plates protect
the nape. Scales on the flanks and limbs are generally smaller, rounder, and softer to allow bending. Those on
the belly are even, rectangular, and smooth to reduce friction sliding over the ground. Small osteoderms are
found in the belly scales of most species. Thick, rectangular scales are present on the tail, with sharp, upward-
pointing scutes providing extra surface area as the tail sweeps through water. Scales on the head are small,
irregular in shape and thin, housing blood vessels and sensory nerves. Each species has a unique pattern of
scales and osteoderms.

Deceptively, a layer of mud and dust often covers dry, basking adults, suggesting a bland coloration. However,
most species exhibit distinctive color patterns, which enhance camouflage and aid communication. Dorsal color
is typically tanned yellow to dark brown, overlaid with characteristic dark bands, spots, or speckles. Juveniles of
all species are more vivid, their bright colors fading in adulthood. Ventral scales are creamy white with varying
degrees of black pigmentation, except for the almost black bellies of dwarf caimans and dwarf crocodiles. Color
mutations where pigment is usually absent are rare, genetic anomalies. Leucistic and albino crocodiles are as
tempting to predators as their "white chocolate" appearance suggests, but they are popular tourist attractions in
captivity, where they must be shielded from excess sunlight. Both short- and long-term changes in skin color
have been recorded in several species. Changes in mood, such as those caused by stress, and environmental
temperature can dull skin color. Long-term change can be effected by the environment, with individuals from
shaded areas becoming darker as black pigment (melanin) accumulates in the skin.

The crocodilian head always draws attention. The skull, although massive and sturdy, is infiltrated with air
spaces. These spaces reduce weight without compromising strength, and provide extensive areas for muscle
attachment and expansion. Two pairs of openings on either side of the cranium classify the skull as diapsid.
There is considerable variation in skull and jaw morphology across all 23 species, and this has an ecological
significance: broad jaws are reinforced by bony ridges to resist strong bite forces for crushing prey, while slender
jaws slice with little resistance through water to seize slippery prey.

11
The head houses all the major sense organs, vital for navigation, communication, and hunting. Senses are
concentrated on the dorsal surface, so they remain exposed even when the head is partially submerged.
Remarkably, a crocodile can hide its entire body below the water while maintaining maximal sensory input from
its surroundings. As masters of stealth and ambush, crocodiles have no equal.

The eyes of the crocodile are placed high on each side of the head, turrets that provide 270° of widescreen
coverage plus 25° of binocular overlap directly ahead to accurately judge distance. The pupil, round and dilated
at night to permit maximum light entry, is compressed to a thin vertical slit during daylight to protect the sensitive
retina. Inside the eye, cone cells on the retina provide color acuity by day, and high densities of rod cells give
excellent low-light sensitivity at night. These rods can change shape to further alter sensitivity. A layer behind the
retina, the tapetum lucidum, is impregnated with guanine crystals to reflect light back across the visual cells. This
effectively doubles visual sensitivity at night, and shining a beam of light directly into a crocodile's eye rewards
the observer with a fiery red eyeshine. Visual cells are most concentrated in a horizontal band across the back of
the retina, a fovea providing highest visual acuity where crocodiles need it most—along the same plane as water.
To focus (accommodate), crocodilians change the shape of their lens using the ciliary body.

Three eyelids cover each eye. The upper lid contains bony ossification to protect the eye, large bony palpebrals
in caimans lending "eyebrows" to their appearance. The lower lid lacks ossification and is responsible for closing
the eye. The third eyelid, the nictitating membrane, sweeps laterally over the cornea to clean the eye and protect
it from abrasion underwater. Although the nictitating membrane is transparent except for the ossified leading
edge, crocodilians still see poorly through it. Lachrymal (tear) glands lubricate its passage via ducts connected to
the nasal cavities. Fluids may even accumulate when the crocodile remains out of water—real "crocodile tears,"
yet an unlikely source for the popular myth.

The ears are located immediately behind the eyes, the eardrum protected by an elongated flap of skin. Hearing
sensitivity can be altered by opening a slit in front of the flap, or lifting the flap upward. When submerged, the
ears normally close, as hearing becomes secondary to the ability to feel vibrations through the water. Detectable
frequencies range from below 10 Hz to over 10 kHz, and sound pressure levels below -60 dB can be detected
within certain bandwidths. In other words, crocodilians have excellent hearing, on a par with birds and mammals.
Peak sensitivities range from 100 Hz to 3 kHz depending on the species, which coincides with the bandwidth of
calls produced by juveniles. Vocalization is well developed in crocodilians, with over 20 different call types from
both juveniles and adults recognized.

Crocodilians can breathe when submerged by exposing the dorsal margin of their head and hence their raised
nostrils. Inhaled air passes through sinuses separated from the mouth by a bony secondary palate, where any
chemicals in the air are detected by sensory epithelial cells. The presence and direction to food is easily
discerned, and smell plays an important role in chemical communication. In early crocodyliforms, the internal
nostrils (choanae) opened in the front of the mouth, but over millions of years they moved back to the throat, a
phenomenon termed post-nasal drift. The palatal valve, a fleshy extension of the tongue, completely seals the
throat from the mouth, hence crocodilians breathe easily near the surface even if the mouth is flooded with water.
The glottis, an opening to the trachea and lungs, is located directly beneath the choanae. By varying tension in
muscles lining the opening, exhaled air is forced through a constriction capable of relatively complex vocal
sounds. Amplification is provided by expanding the throat using the hyoid apparatus, a curved cartilage beneath
the glottis. A curious bend in the trachea of several species may further amplify the sound, similar to the long,
curved necks of cranes.
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The tongue lies between each mandibular bone of the lower jaw, behind the mandibular symphesis (fusion).
Hence in slender-snouted species with extended sympheses, the tongue is greatly reduced. Although relatively
immobile, the tongue can be pushed against the roof of the mouth to manipulate objects or pulled down to create
a pouch for hatchlings. Typically bright yellow or orange, the tongue's color may provide a social or warning
signal when the jaws gape. Pores cover the surface of the tongue, through which "salt glands" produce a saline
fluid in brackish or sea water in Crocodylidae and Gavialidae. Alligatorid pores play no role in salt secretion,
supporting theories of a more recent marine dispersal phase for the Crocodylidae. Chemoreceptors lining the
tongue detect chemicals in water, yet little is known of their sensitivity. Their importance is implied in their ability
to detect food underwater, and in the role of pheromones secreted from chin and paracloacal musk glands.

High densities of dome pressure receptors (DPRs) cover scales on the head, particularly around the jaws.
Disturbances of the water surface create pressure waves easily detected by DPRs, rapidly alerting the crocodile
to potential prey near the head. Crocodilians also react rapidly to movement underwater (such as fishes) even
when vision is unavailable. Similar pressure receptors, Integumentary Sense Organs (ISOs), are located on the
caudal margin of body scales in Crocodylidae and Gavialidae, but not Alligatoridae. Their function is not fully
understood, nor is the reason why alligatorids entirely lack them. However, evidence of DPRs exists in extinct
crocodyliforms, suggesting their sensory role in water has long been part of their repertoire.

Betraying their terrestrial origins, crocodilians are surprisingly mobile predators on land. Although lacking the
stamina for pursuit, their explosive force catches most prey unaware. Like all archosaurs, the hind limbs are
significantly larger and stronger than the forelimbs, suited to the crocodilian propensity for launching the body
forward at speed. Five toes are present on the front feet and four on the back, although residual bones from the
fifth still exist. The inner three toes terminate with strong, blunt nails that provide traction; the outer one (back
feet) or two (front feet) lack claws and bend backward during walking. There is extensive webbing between the
toes on the back feet, but webbing is minimal or absent from the front feet.

The limbs are used to crawl, walk, and gallop. The crawl employs the limbs alternately to slide the body across
mud, sand, or grass. When sufficiently motivated, the limbs can propel the body forward in a slithering manner at
much greater speed, up to 6.2 mph (10 kph). In the uniquely crocodilian high walk, the feet rotate inward toward
the body and support it from below. Lifting the head and belly clear of the ground enables the crocodile to
traverse obstacles or rough terrain. In a few species, the front and hind limbs move in tandem to gallop. This
springlike gait accelerates the crocodile up to 10.6 mph (17 kph) for several seconds until the safety of water can
be reached. Cuban crocodiles (C. rhombifer) remind us of the frightening aggression of their terrestrial ancestors
when they gallop toward a threat.

Water is clearly the crocodilian's preferred domain, a home for prey that live in the water and a magnet for prey
that live on land. Mobility is possible through the powerful tail, which makes up half the body's total length.
Flattened dorsoventrally to provide extensive surface area for propulsion, the tail is undulated laterally by
powerful muscles. Limbs are swept back during rapid swimming, although when moving slowly they help the
crocodile steer, brake, reverse, or walk across the bottom. So powerful is the tail that it can drive hundreds of
pounds (or kilograms) of crocodile vertically out of the water to capture prey several feet (or meters) overhead.

Internally, the pleural cavity contains the lungs, and the visceral cavity houses major organs associated with
digestion and reproduction. These cavities are separated by the bilobed liver and diaphragmaticus, a sheet of
muscle analogous to the diaphragm in mammals. Inhalation is achieved by contracting the diaphragmaticus,
13
which pulls the liver backward and expands the pleural cavity. Thoracic (intercostal) muscles also expand the
chest, and reduced pressure in the lungs draws air in through open airways. To exhale, the diaphragmaticus and
thoracic muscles relax, compressing the pleural cavity and forcing air out of the airways. Crocodilians control
their buoyancy primarily through the volume of air in their lungs. By moving the liver, hind legs, and tail, subtle
postural changes are also possible. When diving, air is forced out of the lungs and the crocodilian, which is
considerably heavier than water, sinks rapidly. Swimming may facilitate this sinking, and by sweeping the hind
legs forward the crocodilian can reverse and submerge simultaneously. Swimming or pushing off the bottom
returns the crocodilian to the surface, and positive buoyancy is achieved by filling the lungs with air. Stones called
gastroliths in the stomach typically comprise 1–5% of the crocodile's total weight, and their presence may provide
additional ballast.

Situated between the lungs is the most complex heart in the animal kingdom, apparently the result of adaptation
to the demands of the crocodiles' semiaquatic lifestyle and their size. Unlike other reptiles, the crocodilian heart is
fully divided into four chambers, as are the hearts of birds and mammals. Uniquely, valves under nervous and
hormonal control can alter blood flow. These ensure that vital oxygenated blood circulates between essential
areas during oxygen stress, such as while diving, while deoxygenated blood is sent to nonessential areas. During
rest and normal exercise, blood in the right ventricle passes via a coglike valve to the pulmonary arteries and
lungs to acquire oxygen. During diving, this valve constricts, and deoxygenated blood is diverted to the left aortic
arch that leads to the nonessential visceral organs—a pulmonary-to-systemic shunt. Only a small volume is used
to collect residual oxygen in the lungs. A second valve, the foramen of Panizza, connects the base of left and
right aortic arches. The right aorta directs blood to the head, limbs and tail, and these vital areas require
oxygenated blood during oxygen stress. The foramen of Panizza allows oxygenated blood to pass from right to
left aortas (to visceral organs) only during rest and normal exercise, cutting them off when not needed.

Biochemical adaptations complement the action of the heart. Crocodilian blood contains complex hemoglobin
molecules capable of carrying more oxygen molecules than those of any other vertebrate. Crocodilians also
endure much higher levels of lactic acid (produced when oxygen is scarce) in their blood than any other
vertebrate. Blood pH has been measured below 6.1 without serious consequences, a level that would kill any
other vertebrate. The result? A submergence time of nearly two hours when quiescent, even longer under cool
conditions. American alligators have remained trapped under ice for eight hours and survived. Heavy activity
substantially reduces submergence time, but crocodilians need only to outlast their prey. The blood also houses
complex antibacterial proteins capable of fighting off infection. Living in bacteria-filled waters, where injuries from
fights are common, a strong immune system is essential. Crocodile blood has even been shown to kill
"superbugs" for which scientists have no known cure.

Distribution

Crocodilians are found in over 90 countries and islands, generally in tropical and subtropical regions warm
enough for successful reproduction. American and Chinese alligators, found in the highest latitudes of any
species, do have a limited ability to survive seasonal freezing where deep water or shelter is available. Large
adults can even endure being trapped in ice, as long as their internal organs do not freeze and their nostrils
project above the surface.

Alligatoridae are restricted to North, Central, and South America, except for the Chinese alligator (A. sinensis),
which occurs in eastern China. The stronghold of the Crocodylidae is Africa, India, and Asia, although a handful
14
are found in the Americas. The single member of Gavialidae is found in India and adjacent countries. Estuarine
crocodiles have the widest distribution (India to Vanuatu), although Nile crocodiles cover the greatest area (most
of Africa and Madagascar). Spectacled caimans (Caiman crocodilus) number in the millions and are the most
numerous throughout Central and South America. Introduced populations of certain species, particularly
caimans, are established outside their natural ranges.

Crocodilians favor freshwater habitats, although several members of Crocodylidae tolerate higher salinity.
Estuarine (also known as saltwater) crocodiles live in freshwater tidal rivers, hypersaline creeks, and along
coastlines, and can travel at sea. Their ability to excrete excess salt through lingual salt glands and produce
concentrated urine make this possible. All species frequent freshwater and low-salinity areas where available,
including tidal rivers, freshwater marshes, and both natural and artificial lakes and pools. Distribution is
influenced by the density and diversity of prey, available nesting habitat, shelter for juveniles and adults, thermal
conditions, seasonal changes, and competition between species. Temporary range extensions have occurred
when competition from one species over another has been reduced due to hunting, etc.

Feeding ecology and diet

Crocodilians are renowned for their ability to acquire food, often violently. All species are carnivorous, and mostly
generalist. A wide range of mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, crustaceans, mollusks, fishes, and insects are
taken readily by adults of most species. There are various restrictions, however. Young juveniles are limited to
small prey that enter or approach water, primarily insects, spiders, crustaceans, fishes, small reptiles, and
amphibians. Juveniles eat regularly, each day if possible. As they grow, the size and range of available prey
increases. Species with specialized foraging strategies as adults (such as gharials) begin to exhibit characteristic
preferences.

Although anything that moves within striking range is often considered fair game for adult crocodilians, most
species display some selection criteria. These may include prey availability, but also species-specific preferences
influenced by morphology and ecology. Broad-snouted alligatorids with strong bites and blunt teeth include hard-
shelled prey in their diet; slender-snouted species such as gharials have weaker bites, but their sharp,
undifferentiated teeth and slender jaws are ideal for sweeping quickly through water to seize slippery fish. Many
Crocodylidae possess jaws between these two extremes, reflecting a generalist diet influenced by prey
distribution and seasonal availability. Species with more specialized jaws will, however, take other prey where
available.

Crocodilians display several hunting techniques. Surprisingly, most prey are small and taken as they approach
the head, even in very large adults. The kill zone is an arc traced by the head and neck, although some species
literally dive onto prey just below the surface. Terrestrial prey are ambushed at the water's edge, the hunter is
either submerged or exposes only the eyes and nostrils. Once within striking range, there is an explosion of teeth
and water as the crocodilian propels itself forward using its tail and limbs. Larger prey are dragged into the water
where they drown. Although not pack hunters, the presence of several crocodilians in the water speeds a prey's
demise. However, capture is not always successful. Misses are common, and large prey bitten on the head,
limbs, or body may escape, only to die later from their injuries.

Although there are stories of crocodiles using their tails to sweep prey off their feet, hard evidence is sorely
lacking, though the tail is important in hunting. Larger crocodiles are often seen using the tail to herd small fish

15
into shallow water to be scooped up with a sweep of open jaws. The tail can be used to push the body vertically
out of the water, ideal for catching prey flying over the water or hanging in low branches. This behavior has been
witnessed in many species. Several species are reported to form a living dam with their bodies, preventing
migrating fish from escaping. By cooperating, many individuals increase their chances of success. Nile crocodiles
frequently cooperate after large prey is captured, taking turns to hold the carcass while others spins their bodies
to rip off mouthfuls of flesh. Crocodilians learn rapidly to associate events with outcomes, often attending
predictable events such as prey migrations.

Once captured, small prey is deftly manipulated by the jaws for immediate swallowing; head raised, the prey is
flicked into the throat under gravity. Larger prey is first crushed several times by the back teeth, perforating skin
and shell to assist digestion. Prey too large to be swallowed is typically held firmly in the jaws, then the head is
whipped violently to one side. This tears prey apart, and each piece is swallowed once retrieved. Very large prey
is first dismembered by holding onto a piece with the jaws, then spinning the body axis several times to twist it
off. The carcass is anchored by its own weight, or by other feeding crocodilians. Live prey are easily
incapacitated by rolling, as defense against this maneuver is impossible. Once inside the stomach, food is
subjected to highly acidic gastric juices. The action of the muscular stomach plus gastrolith stones slowly
macerates flesh and renders bone and shell into smaller pieces. Only keratin (found in hair, nails, and turtle shell)
is immune. Compacted balls of indigestible material are regularly coughed up.

Frequently classed as man-eaters, only a handful of species are considered a significant threat to humans. Most
fatalities are reported from American alligators, estuarine crocodiles, and Nile crocodiles, the latter responsible
for the greatest number of crocodile-related deaths each year with several hundred people estimated killed or
seriously injured. Threats can be reduced significantly by educating people to the danger posed by crocodilians,
and providing alternative means of accessing water.

Reproductive biology

The basic crocodilian breeding system is polygynous (one male, multiple females), although short-term
monogamous pair bonding has been described in Nile crocodiles and possibly other species. Multiple paternity
(several males, same female) has also been recorded in some social situations. Once sexual maturity is reached,
dictated by size rather than age, reproductive activity follows an annual cycle. Environmental triggers such as
changing temperature, rainfall, humidity, and day length trigger hormonal changes in each sex. In males,
testosterone levels rise, testes increase in weight, and sperm production increases. In females, estradiol levels
rise, triggering the liver to produce vitellogenin for yolk production in the ovaries, and follicle size increases prior
to ovulation. Double clutches have been reported in mugger crocodiles (C. palustris) and Nile crocodiles,
influenced by extended environmental conditions favorable to breeding.

As habitat and climate change geographically, the timing and duration of reproductive activities varies between
species and even within a species' distribution. Courtship, mating, and nesting may occur over a period of
several months (as in Nile and estuarine crocodiles), or may be concentrated into several weeks (as in American
alligators). Johnstone's crocodiles, or Australian freshwater crocodiles (C. johnstonii), nest within a two to three
week period, a phenomenon known as "pulse nesting."

Crocodilians exhibit two nesting strategies: hole nesting and mound nesting. In the former the female selects a
soft substrate, such as sand or mulch, and excavates a chamber several inches deep using her hind legs. After

16
laying her eggs, the chamber is concealed again. In mound-nesting species, the female first scrapes material,
such as vegetation, soil, or mud, into a mound using her front and hind legs. She also rips up fresh vegetation
with her jaws. The resulting mound can be over 3.3 ft (1 m) high and 6.6–9.8 ft (2–3 m) in diameter. Once the
mound is complete, the female behaves like a hole nester: she excavates a chamber into the top of the mound
with her hind legs, lays her eggs, conceals them, and compacts the nest using her hind legs and body. Only
Crocodylidae and Gavialidae excavate hole nests, in those species that nest during the dry season or when little
vegetative matter is available. Mound nests are built by Alligatoridae and some Crocodylidae, typically nesting
during the wet season or in areas that inundate easily, as the additional height reduces the risk of eggs being
drowned by floods. American and Cuban crocodiles have been reported to choose either hole or mound nests,
depending on climate and habitat.

Nesting location may be determined by available materials, proximity of water, temperature, and even social
factors. Females of more territorial species choose solitary nesting sites, isolated visually or by distance from
those of other females. Favorite sites may be reused each year, although not necessarily by the same female.
More gregarious species may use communal sites. Although under the vigilant watch of several females, there
are disadvantages to communal sites. Late nesters may inadvertently dig up older eggs, and predators have an
easier time finding eggs where nests are concentrated. Frequency of nesting is also under social pressure. In the
wild, between 10% and 80% of females of a given species may nest each year; the percentage determined by
the amount of nesting habitat available, the territorial nature of the females, and species-specific differences.

As with porcupines, people are curious how crocodilians manage to mate without causing each other grief! In
reality, it is a gentle affair (once the competition has been dispensed with, that is). To copulate successfully, males
must court females to gain their consent. Males of some species, such as estuarine crocodiles, establish
territories that contain a number of females, others, such as American alligators, display competitively to attract
females. Courtship may be elaborate or subtle, involving mutual signaling on a visual, olfactory, auditory, and
tactile level. Alligators combine rumbling bellows with infrasonic vibrations, the water dancing across their backs
proving a potent aphrodisiac for females. Gular musk glands are rubbed across the head and neck in mutual
appeasement, and several minutes of head- and tail-raising postures are necessary for consent. Once she
consents, the female allows the male to press her underwater. To align his vent with hers, the male rolls the
female's body in one direction while rotating his tail in the other, using limbs for purchase. Male crocodilians have
a single penis, unlike the hemipenes of most other reptiles. Copulation can last several minutes, and may be
repeated over a period of days, although most males attempt copulation with as many females as possible. In
captivity, males have been reported copulating with almost 20 females. Copulation may take place in shallow or
deep water.

After fertilization, eggs are retained in the oviduct for two to four weeks, although periods of six months have
been reported in some spectacled caimans. Embryos grow to around 20 somites (cells) before laying, with
development believed to resume once eggs are exposed to air. Freshly laid eggs are covered in a fraction of an
inch (several millimeters) of mucus, which cushions their impact as they slide into position. Mucus may also
prevent gas exchange and hence further development until laying is complete and the mucus dissolves. Clutch
size varies greatly: larger species lay up to 70 eggs, smaller ones as few as 10. It can take between 20 and 90
minutes to lay the entire clutch, during which time the female becomes curiously docile. Each egg contains the
yolk (nutrient storage), albumen (water supply), leathery inner shell membrane, and hard, calcified outer shell
membrane (protection, control of water and gas exchange). The embryo, lying atop the yolk, attaches to the inner

17
shell membrane 24 hours after laying. As development continues, an opaque white band spreads around the
egg's axis before eventually encompassing the entire egg.

Several important variables influence embryo development. Nest temperatures may fluctuate between 84.2°F
(29°C) and 93.2°F (34°C), but small changes have significant effects. On average, incubation time lasts 70–90
days, yet higher temperatures reduce this and lower ones increase it. Temperature also determines sex. The
phenomenon of temperature-dependent sex determination (TSD) is found in crocodilians, marine turtles, and
some lizards. Unlike genetic sex determination (GSD), the sex of the embryo is determined not by sex
chromosomes at fertilization, but by a critical temperature-sensitive period during incubation (the middle third). In
all crocodilians, the greatest percentage of males is produced around 87.8–89.6°F (31–32°C), with more females
produced above and below this temperature. Temperatures above 93.2°F (34°C) and below 84.2°F (29°C)
produce almost 100% females, although females produced at higher temperatures suffer higher mortality and
genetic deformities. Above 95°F (35°C) and below 80.6°F (27°C) embryos rarely survive. The size of hatchlings,
their growth rate, and even preferred basking temperatures are influenced by incubation temperature.

All species nest during warm seasonal climates, providing appropriate ambient temperatures for incubation. Solar
radiation provides additional heat, although many nests are built in the shade to reduce overheating, and nesting
substrate buffers the eggs from extreme temperature fluctuations each day. Mound nests generate heat from the
breakdown of plant materials, and even the developing embryos provide some metabolic heat during the later
stages of incubation. The smooth-fronted caiman (Paleosuchus trigonatus) typically nests in closed-canopy
forests, where ambient temperatures may be insufficient for optimal egg development. To address this, caimans
build nests within or adjacent to termite mounds—metabolic heat produced by the termites helps to warm the
nest. The female's presence is often required to break open the nest and free the hatchlings. Rainfall helps to
cool nests, and some females have been observed urinating on the nest. As a suggested cooling mechanism the
volume involved may be insufficient, but it may play a role in chemical marking as hatchlings recognize chemicals
in contact with their eggs.

Pores permeating inner and outer shell membranes allow gas exchange, and both high humidity and oxygen are
necessary for development. Embryo demands increase further as development continues. Development seems
highly susceptible to perturbation, yet crocodilian nests provide an effective environment for incubation. But not
always. Exposed nests can overheat, and those built in areas prone to flooding are easily submerged. More than
12 hours underwater, particularly later in development when oxygen demands are higher, can spell disaster.
Another threat faces developing eggs—nest predators such as monitor lizards, wild pigs, raccoons, even ants.
Females of most species defend the nest, often fasting for over two months to remain vigilant, but predators can
still catch her off guard.

Eventually the demands of the embryo exceed the capability of the egg and hatching occurs. Shortly before
emergence, the fully developed embryos may vocalize. Calls propagate from one egg to the next, producing a
chorus audible to the adult from 165 ft (50 m) away. The female is typically much closer to the nest, often
observed resting her throat directly above the nest chamber close to hatching. The female scrapes back sand,
mud, or vegetation from above the eggs with her front legs, and the vibration stimulates the eggs to hatch. Some
hatchlings head for water, but others remain and vocalize, often with head raised to encourage the female to
carry them in her jaws. By lowering the tongue, a gular pouch is created to hold hatchlings. Some species
transport hatchlings one at a time, others, such as Nile crocodiles, transport several. The female carries them to
water, opens her mouth, and washes the hatchlings out with a sweeping motion of the head before returning to
18
the nest. Hatchlings form small pods or crèches, hiding amongst shoreline vegetation. Not all species perform
hatchling transport, and puncture marks caused inadvertently by sharp-toothed females may indicate why not.
Infertile or dead eggs are normally eaten by the female, which led to early speculation that females ate their
young! In captivity, territorial males of certain species have been observed assisting the female to open nests,
hatch eggs, and transport hatchlings. Wild Nile crocodile males occasionally guard juveniles after hatching, but
male parental care is atypical.

Female protection of juveniles after hatching may last for days (as in Johnstone's crocodiles), weeks (as in Nile
crocodiles), or even up to two years (as in American alligators). Hatchlings remain in close proximity to the
female, often using her as a convenient basking platform. Vocalization is well developed in crocodilians, and is an
important component of juvenile life. Contact calls maintain group cohesion and alert siblings to the presence of
food. Distress calls scatter individuals and bring the adult female aggressively to bear. The level of parental care
in crocodilians is fascinating. In spectacled caimans, pods from different females may combine into larger
crèches tended by resident adults. Even more remarkable, adult females of three species (broad-snouted
caimans, Orinoco, and Siamese crocodiles) have been observed feeding juveniles. The female macerates the
carcass and juveniles tear off small pieces. This level of parental care is unprecedented for reptiles, and perhaps
reminds us of the closer taxonomic affinities between crocodilians and birds.

Conservation status

Four of the 23 crocodilian species (Chinese alligator, Orinoco crocodile, Philippine crocodile, Siamese crocodile)
are considered Critically Endangered, with a further three (Cuban crocodile, false gharial, Indian gharial) listed as
Endangered and considered at risk of extinction. In what is considered the most dramatic recovery of any large
vertebrae group, 16 of the 23 species went from Endangered to abundant or not threatened in the last 30 years
of the twentieth century. These species' previous decline was attributed primarily to overhunting (for skins) and
habitat loss. Recovery was due to a combination of species protection, habitat protection, suppression of illegal
trade, and enlightened management programs promoting sustainable use of wild populations as an incentive for
their conservation. Efforts to improve the status of the 7 remaining endangered species continue as of 2003.

Resources

Books:

Alderton, D. Crocodiles and Alligators of the World. New York: Facts on File, 1991.

Behler, J. L., and D. A. Behler. Alligators and Crocodiles. Stillwater, MN: Voyager Press, 1998.

Campbell, G., and A. L. Winterbotham. Jaws Too: The Natural History of Crocodilians with Emphasis on Sanibel
Island's Alligators. Ft. Myers, FL: Sutherland Publishing, 1985.

Grigg, G., F. Seebacher, and C. E. Franklin. Crocodilian Biology and Evolution. Sydney: Surrey Beatty and Sons,
2001.

Guggisberg, C. A. W. Crocodiles: Their Natural History, Folklore, and Conservation. Harrisburg, PA: Stackpole
Books, 1972.

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McIlhenny, E. A. The Alligator's Life History. Boston: Christopher Publishing, 1935.

Minton, S. A., Jr., and M. R. Minton. Giant Reptiles. New York: Scribner, 1973.

Neill, W. T. The Last of the Ruling Reptiles. New York: Columbia University Press, 1971.

Richardson, K., G. J. W. Webb, and S. C. Manolis. Crocodiles: Inside Out. A Guide to the Functional Morphology
of Crocodilians. Sydney: Surrey Beatty and Sons, 2002.

Ross, C. Crocodiles and Alligators. New York: Facts on File, 1989.

Webb, G. J. W., and S. C. Manolis. Crocodiles of Australia. Sydney: Surrey Beatty and Sons, 1989.

Organizations:

Crocodile Specialist Group, Florida Museum of Natural History. Box 117800, Gainesville, FL 32611-7800 USA.
Phone: (352) 392-1721. Fax: (352) 392-9367. E-mail: prosscsg@flmnh.ufl.edu Web site:

Other:

Bibliography of Crocodilian Biology. January 18, 1996 [cited January 2003].

Crocodilians: Natural History and Conservation. December 2002 [cited January 2003].

[Article by: Adam R. C. Britton, PhD]

Any of various tropical American crocodilians of the genus Caiman and related genera, resembling and closely
related to the alligators.

[Spanish caimán, from Carib acayuman.]

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Animal Classification: Alligators and caimans

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Home > Library > Animal Life > Animal Classification

(Alligatoridae)

Class: Reptilia

Order: Crocodylia

Suborder: Eusuchia

Family: Alligatoridae

Thumbnail description
Powerful animals with a long and muscular tail, four short limbs straddling a scaly body, and strong jaws lined
with obvious teeth

Size
4–20 ft (1.2–6 m) in total length

21
Number of genera, species
4 genera; 8 species

Habitat
Calm or slow-moving freshwater areas

Conservation status
Critically Endangered: 1 species; Lower Risk/Conservation Dependent: 1 species

Distribution
Central to northern South America, parts of southern and western Central America and Mexico, the southeastern
United States, and a small area of eastern China

Evolution and systematics

Although the order Crocodylia dates back at least 200 million years to the Age of Reptiles, its living members,
including those of the family Alligatoridae, can hardly be described as primitive. Instead, they survived the mass
extinction 65 million years ago that ended the dinosaurs' reign and evolved over the centuries into animals well
suited to their current place in the natural world. Like other members of the order, the family Alligatoridae are the
descendants of the Archosauria, or "ruling lizards," which included the dinosaurs. A defining characteristic of
these animals is a diapsid skull, which has two temporal openings. Turtles, by comparison, have anapsid skulls
with no temporal openings.

Within the crocodilians, the family Alligatoridae can be followed as far back as the Paleocene (57–65 million
years ago), when caiman ancestors are thought to have roamed the earth. Ancestors of other species, including
the American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis) and Chinese alligator (Alligator sinensis), date back to the
Miocene and Pleistocene, respectively. The alligatorids are separated into two major groups: the alligators
(subfamily Alligatorinae) and the caimans (subfamily Caimaninae). The former group has two living
representatives in the Alligator genus. The other six species of alligatorids fall under three genera within the
caimans. (Some systematists list only five caimans, with the Yacaré as a subspecies of the common caiman.) In
all, the eight species are as follows:

• American alligator, Alligator mississippiensis

• Chinese alligator, A. sinensis
• common caiman, Caiman crocodilus
• broad-snouted caiman, C. latirostris
• Yacaré, C. yacare
• black caiman, Melanosuchus niger
• Cuvier's dwarf caiman, Paleosuchus palpebrosus
• smooth-fronted caiman, P. trigonatus

Physical characteristics

In general appearance, alligators are similar to crocodiles, with stout bodies and powerful tails that are at least as
long as their bodies. They have long snouts and noticeably toothed upper and lower jaws. Alligatorids are
distinguished most notably from the crocodiles by their mandibular teeth, all of which slide inside the upper jaw

22
and out of view when the mouth is closed. In contrast, the fourth mandibular teeth in crocodiles are visible
outside the closed jaw.

Alligatorids are grayish, sometimes tending toward green, brown, yellow, or black, depending on the species. The
young are often banded. Adult size ranges from about 4 ft (1.2 m) in Cuvier's dwarf caiman (P. palpebrosus) to 13
ft (4 m) in the American alligator (A. mississippiensis).

Like the crocodile's body, the alligatorid body is armored with tough osteoderms and, frequently, large scales that
do not overlap. The osteoderms in some species do not extend onto the belly, making this smooth part of the skin
highly desirable as leather for human uses. Alligatorids have short legs tipped with claws. The forelimbs are
smaller than the hind limbs and have five, rather than four, partially webbed toes. Their body form allows them to
glide in a sinuous pattern through the water, normally with just the side-to-side motion of the tail providing the
locomotive force. On land the strength of their legs makes them quick and formidable predators.

Distribution

Primarily a New World group, all but the two Alligator species occur in southern Mexico, parts of Central America,
or northern to central South America. Alligator mississippiensis is the only member of this family to be found in
the United States, where it exists in southeastern states, from the Carolinas to Texas. A. sinensis makes its home
in eastern China, far distant from its New World relatives.

Habitat

Alligatorids are restricted to freshwater areas and frequently are found in lakes, slow-moving streams and rivers,
swamps, marshes, and other wetland habitats. Some species even make use of roadside ditches. They prefer
sites with slow-moving or still waters. They often inhabit vegetated areas, sometimes with muddy or murky water.

Behavior

Alligatorids are ectotherms ("cold-blooded" animals) and most often are seen basking on the shoreline to raise
their body temperature. Sometimes they are seen sliding along the shoreline on their bellies, using their feet to
push them through the mud and muck to the water. They also do the "high walk," which is somewhat similar to a
lizard's walk; alligatorids, however, hold their legs more upright than straddled. Although they may look sedate
much of the time, their short legs can give them quick acceleration for grasping a passing mammal.

Careful observers also see them floating at the surface of the water, where only their most dorsal surface and
occasionally just the nose and the tip of the head are exposed. Often, the animal actually is maintaining its
internal temperature through this activity, either lying in the sun-heated upper layers of the water column to warm
up or moving to shady, chillier waters to cool off. Their presence is made known when they begin to sweep their
tails slowly and propel themselves gracefully forward. While they usually are motionless or swim slowly, they can
make quick movements in the water. One noticeable trait is their ability to jettison almost vertically out of the
water. This maneuver typically is accompanied by a quick chomp of the jaws around a startled bird or other prey
item.

Alligatorids, including those in more temperate climates, do not hibernate. While temperatures in the
southeastern United States and China can approach freezing in the winter, American and Chinese alligators
23
remain active all year, though they are more subdued as temperatures dip and may even become dormant. To
beat the cold, they move to shallow water and lie motionless, with just the nose poking into the cold air. Young
alligators, on the other hand, may retreat to the mother's den to survive cold snaps. Juveniles and adults make
use of burrows during winter months.

Alligatorids often live in groups and form dominance hierarchies, at least during the breeding season and
sometimes all year. The highest-ranking individuals exert their dominance through various ritualized behaviors,
which may include slaps of the head against the surface of the water, loud vocalizations, and open-mouthed
charges.

Feeding ecology and diet

A typical juvenile diet includes snails and other invertebrates, whereas adults of various species commonly eat
fish, small mammals, other reptiles (including smaller alligatorids), or birds. Opportunistic feeders, alligatorids
continue to eat clams, snails, and invertebrates into adulthood. The larger species, including the black caiman,
are known to take large prey, such as small deer and cattle.

Predation of alligatorids occurs primarily among eggs and hatchlings. Raccoons, coati, skunks, foxes, and other
mammals, as well as snakes and various raptors, are known to raid nests or snatch up young alligatorids. Once
an alligatorid reaches about 3 ft (1 m) in length, the risk of predation decreases. Nonetheless, anacondas in
South America occasionally kill adult caimans, and alligatorids have been reported to have cannibalistic
tendencies. Cannibalism is rare, however, and alligatorids frequently live peacefully in large groups.

Reproductive biology

Alligatorids begin the reproductive season in the spring. Following courtship, which may include loud bellows,
tactile types of behavior, and underwater vibrations of the male's trunk, alligatorids use vegetation to construct
nest mounds, where they lay from one dozen to five dozen eggs, depending on the species. Egg laying generally
takes place once a year, in midsummer, with hatching one to two months later. Female alligatorids typically
respond to sounds emanating from the neonate, dig up the nest, and assist in their hatching. Temperature-
dependent sex determination has been associated with several species, including the American alligator and
common caimans. Low nest temperatures (below 88°F, or 31°C) produce female hatchlings, and high
temperatures (above 90°F, or 32°C) produce males.

Conservation status

The Chinese alligator is listed by the IUCN Red Book as Critically Endangered. This status stems primarily from
loss of habitat due to human encroachment. According to the IUCN Crocodile Specialist Group, "The Chinese
alligator is the most critically endangered crocodilian in the world. Thousands are bred in captivity, but fewer than
150 remain in the wild." The group is working with the Chinese government to protect the species and has
launched the Chinese Alligator Fund to assist in these efforts. In addition, many conservation efforts over the past
three decades have been implemented to prevent overharvesting of other alligatorids. The only other species
listed by the IUCN is the black caiman, which is listed as Lower Risk/Conservation Dependent.

Significance to humans

24
Although the benefit is difficult to quantify, some species of alligatorids play an important role in the tourism
industry. American alligators in the southeastern United States, for example, have become tourist attractions,
drawing visitors to the Everglades of southern Florida and the bayous of Louisiana. Several members of this
family are hunted, especially for their skin, which is used as leather for shoes, bags, and various accessories.
Humans also hunt these animals for meat and, recently, for their gonads, which are used to make perfume.

Species accounts

American alligator
Chinese alligator
Common caiman
Smooth-fronted caiman

Resources

Books:

Alderton, D. Crocodiles and Alligators of the World. New York: Facts on File, 1991.

Ashton, Ray E., and Patricia Sawyer Ashton. Handbook of Reptiles and Amphibians of Florida. Part 2: Lizards,
Turtles and Crocodilians. 2nd edition. Miami: Windward Publishing Co., 1991.

Behler, J. L., and D. A. Behler. Alligators and Crocodiles. Stillwater, MN: Voyager Press, 1998.

Campbell, G., and A. L. Winterbotham. Jaws Too: The Natural History of Crocodilians with Emphasis on Sanibel
Island's Alligators. Ft. Myers, FL: Sutherland Publishing, 1985.

Guggisberg, C. A. W. Crocodiles: Their Natural History, Folklore, and Conservation. Harrisburg, PA: Stackpole
Books, 1972.

Hirschhorn, Howard H. Crocodilians of Florida and the Tropical Americas. Miami: Phoenix Publishing Co., 1986.

King, F. Wayne, and Russell L. Burke, eds. Crocodilian, Tuatara and Turtle Species of the World: A Taxonomic
and Geographic Reference. Washington, DC: Association of Systematics Collections, 1989.

McIlhenny, E. A. The Alligator's Life History. Boston: Christopher Publishing, 1935.

Minton, S. A., Jr., and M. R. Minton. Giant Reptiles. New York: Scribner, 1973.

Neill, W. T. The Last of the Ruling Reptiles. New York: Columbia University Press, 1971.

Ross, Charles A., ed. Crocodiles and Alligators. New York: Facts of File, Inc., 1989.

Zug, George R, Laurie J. Vitt, and Janalee P. Caldwell. Herpetology: An Introductory Biology of Amphibians and
Reptiles. 2nd edition. San Diego: Academic Press, Inc., 2001.

Periodicals:
25
Brazaitis, P., M. Watanabe, and G. Amato. "The Caiman Trade." Scientific American 278 (March 1998): 70–76.

Stewart, D. "Visiting the Heart of Alligator Country." National Wildlife 38, no. 4 (June/July 2000): 20–27.

Thorbjarnarson, J. "The Hunt for Black Caiman." International Wildlife 29 no. 4 (July/August 1999): 12–19.

Thorbjarnarson, J., X. Wang, and L. He. "Reproductive Ecology of the Chinese Alligator (Alligator sinensis) and
Implications for Conservation." Journal of Herpetology 35, no. 4 (December 2001): 553–558.

Zimmer, C. "Prepared for the Past." Natural History 110, no. 3 (April 2001): 28–29.

Organizations:

Crocodile Specialist Group, Florida Museum of Natural History. Box 117800, Gainesville, FL 32611-7800 USA.
Phone: (352) 392-1721. Fax: (352) 392-9367. E-mail: prosscsg@flmnh.ufl.edu Web site:

Other:

Animal Diversity Web. [cited December 2002].

"Crocodilian Species List." 2002 [cited December 2002].

"Alligatoridae." The Reptipage. August 2002 [cited December 2002].

"Alligatoridae: Alligators, Caimans, and Their Prehistoric Relatives." December 1999 [cited December 2002].

"Crocodilian Biology Database." August 2002 [cited December 2002].

[Article by: Leslie Ann Mertz, PhD]

Britannica Concise Encyclopedia: caiman

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Home > Library > Miscellaneous > Britannica Concise Encyclopedia

Any member of several species of Central and South American reptiles of the
alligator family. Like the rest of the crocodile order, caimans are amphibious,
lizardlike carnivores. They live along the edges of rivers and other bodies of
water, and reproduce by laying hard-shelled eggs in nests built and guarded by
the female. The largest species is the black caiman (Melanosuchus niger), a
potentially dangerous animal with a maximum length of about 15 ft (4.5 m).
Average lengths for the other species (genera Caiman and Paleosuchus) are 4 – 7
ft (1.2 – 2.1 m).

26
For more information on caiman, visit Britannica.com.

Veterinary Dictionary: caiman

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Home > Library > Animal Life > Veterinary Dictionary

Crocodilian reptile of the family Alligatoridae, very similar to alligators; resident in Central and South America.
Genus name is Caiman, e.g. C. sclerops the spectacled caiman.

Wikipedia: Alligatoridae

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Home > Library > Miscellaneous > Wikipedia

Alligators and Caimans

Fossil range: Cretaceous -
Recent

American Alligator

Scientific classification

27
Kingdo
m:

Animali
a

Phylum:

Chordat
a

Class:

Saurops
ida

Order:

Crocodil
ia

Family:

Alligat
oridae
Gray,
1844

Living Genera

Alligator
Caiman
Melanosuchus
Paleosuchus
28
Alligators and caimans are archosaurs, species of crocodilians and form the family Alligatoridae (sometimes
regarded instead as the subfamily Alligatorinae).

Contents
[hide]

• 1 Differences from
crocodiles
• 2 True alligators
• 3 Caimans
• 4 Species

• 5 References

Differences from crocodiles

Alligators differ from crocodiles principally in having wider and shorter heads, with more obtuse snouts; in having
the fourth, enlarged tooth of the under jaw received, not into an external notch, but into a pit formed for it within
the upper one; in lacking a jagged fringe which appears on the hind legs and feet of the crocodile; in having the
toes of the hind feet webbed not more than half way to the tips; and an intolerance to salinity, alligators strongly
preferring fresh water, while crocodiles can tolerate salt water due to specialized glands for filtering out salt. In
general, crocodiles tend to be more dangerous to humans than alligators.

True alligators

Alligators proper occur in the fluvial deposits of the age of the Upper Chalk in Europe, where they did not die out
until the Pliocene age. The true alligators are now restricted to two species, A. mississippiensis in the
southeastern United States, which can grow to 4.24 m (14 ft) and weigh 1000 lbs (454.5 kg)[1], with the record
length of 5.81 m (19 ft 2 in), and the small A. sinensis in the Yangtze River, People's Republic of China, which
grows to an average of 1.5 m (5 ft). Their name derives from the Spanish el lagarto, which means "the lizard".

Alligator prenasalis fossil

29
Caimans

In Central and South America, the alligator family is represented by five species of the genus Caiman, which
differs from the alligator by the absence of a bony septum between the nostrils, and the ventral armour is
composed of overlapping bony scutes, each of which is formed of two parts united by a suture. Some authorities
further divide this genus into three, splitting off the smooth-fronted caimans into a genus Paleosuchus and the
Black Caiman into Melanosuchus. Caimans tend to be more agile and crocodile-like in their movements, and
have longer, sharper teeth than alligators.[2]

C. crocodilus, the Spectacled Caiman, has the widest distribution, from southern Mexico to the northern half of
Argentina, and grows to a modest size of about 2.2 meters. The largest is the near-threatened Melanosuchus
niger, the Jacare-assu, Large, or Black Caiman of the Amazon. Black Caimans grow to 16.5 feet (5 meters) [3],
with the largest recorded size 5.79 m (19 ft). The Black Caiman and American Alligator are the only members of
the alligator family posing the same danger to humans as the larger species of the crocodile family.

Although the Caiman has not been studied in-depth, it has been discovered that their mating cycles (previously
thought to be spontaneous or year-round) are linked to the rainfall cycles and the river levels in order to increase
their offspring's chances of survival.

Species

An alligator nest at Everglades National Park, Florida, United States.

• ORDER Crocodilia
o Family Alligatoridae
 Genus Leidyosuchus (extinct)
 Genus Deinosuchus (extinct)
 Subfamily Alligatorinae
 Genus Albertochampsa (extinct)
 Genus Chrysochampsa (extinct)
 Genus Hassiacosuchus (extinct)
 Genus Navahosuchus (extinct)
 Genus Ceratosuchus (extinct)
 Genus Allognathosuchus (extinct)
 Genus Hispanochampsa (extinct)
 Genus Arambourgia (extinct)
30
 Genus Procaimanoidea (extinct)
Genus Wannaganosuchus (extinct)
Genus Alligator
 Alligator prenasalis (extinct)
 Alligator mcgrewi (extinct)
 Alligator olseni (extinct)
 Chinese Alligator, Alligator sinensis
 Alligator mefferdi (extinct)
 American Alligator, Alligator mississippiensis
 Subfamily Caimaninae
 Genus Necrosuchus (extinct)
 Genus Eocaiman (extinct)
 Genus Paleosuchus
 Cuvier's Dwarf Caiman, Paleosuchus
palpebrosus
 Smooth-fronted Caiman, Paleosuchus trigonatus
 Genus Purussaurus (extinct)
 Genus Mourasuchus (extinct)
 Genus Orthogenysuchus (extinct)
 Genus Caiman
 Yacare Caiman, Caiman yacare
 Spectacled Caiman, Caiman crocodilus
 Rio Apaporis Caiman, C. c. apaporiensis
 Brown Caiman, C. c. fuscus
 Caiman lutescans (extinct)
 Caiman sorontans[citation needed] (extinct) - Not
reported in the literature, probably a 'nomen
nudum'
 Broad-snouted Caiman, Caiman latirostris
 Genus Melanosuchus
 Melanosuchus fisheri (extinct)
 Black Caiman, Melanosuchus niger

References

1. ^
<http://www.eparks.org/marine_and_coastal/marine_wildlife/alligator.asp>
2. ^ Guggisberg, C.A.W. (1972). Crocodiles: Their Natural History, Folklore,
and Conservation, pp.195. ISBN 0715352725.
3. ^ <http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/cnhc/cbd-faq-q2.htm>

Melanosuchus niger (SPIX, 1825)

NAMES | DISTRIBUTION | HABITAT | STATUS | APPEARANCE | IMAGES | DIET | BREEDING | CONSERVATION

31
FAMILY: COMMON NAMES:
ALLIGATORIDAE
Black caiman, Caimán, Caimán negro, Caïman noir, Lagarto negro,
Jacare Açu, Jacaré Assú, Jacare Açu, Jacare Uassu, Jaracé Una,
A. mississippiensis Yacare Assu
A. sinensis

C. crocodilus NAME ETYMOLOGY:

C. c. apaporiensis
> Melanosuchus means "black crocodile", derived from melas (Greek genitive for "black") +
C. c. fuscus
soukhos (Greek for "crocodile", leading to the Latin suchus)
C. latirostris
> niger means "black" (Latin), referring to the very dark colouration of this species
C. yacare

M. niger DISTRIBUTION:
P. palpebrosus [CLICK ON MAP FOR DETAILED RANGE]
P. trigonatus Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana,
Guyana, Peru, Venezuela (unconfirmed)
FAMILY:

CROCODYLIDAE HABITAT:
Found in various freshwater habitats (e.g. slow-moving
C. acutus
rivers, streams, lakes and flooded savannah and
C. cataphractus
wetlands). Although overlapping with the range of other caiman species in South America, it
C. intermedius
appears to occupy different habitat niches.
C. johnstoni

C. mindorensis

C. moreletii STATUS:
C. niloticus CITES: Appendix I
C. novaeguineae IUCN Red List: LRcd (LOW RISK, CONSERVATION DEPENDENT)
C. palustris Estimated wild population: 25,000 to 50,000
C. porosus Summary: Widely distributed, but historically heavily exploited. Most populations
C. rhombifer appear to be recovering well.
C. siamensis

O. tetraspis APPEARANCE:
T. schlegelii [click on image for enlargement]

Largest species in the family Alligatoridae (males can reach at least 4 metres,
FAMILY: and huge 6 metre caimans have been reported but not confirmed). General
GAVIALIDAE appearance not dissimilar to Alligator mississippiensis. As the common name
suggests, they have a dark colouration. The lower jaw has grey banding (brown in older
G. gangeticus
animals), and pale yellow or white bands are present across the flanks of the body, although
these are more prominent in juveniles. This banding fades only gradually as the animal
DICHOTOMOUS KEY
matures. Structurally dissimilar to other caiman species, particularly in the shape of the skull.
[German]
Has distinctly larger eyes, and a relatively narrow snout. The bony ridge extending from
above the eyes down the snout, as seen in other caiman, is present.
MAIN MENU

DENTITION:

32
5 pre-maxillary; 13-14 maxillary; 18-19 mandibular
Total no. of teeth = 72-76

IMAGES:
[click on image for enlargement]

33
Head
portrait of
juvenile

Juvenile
held in
hand

Juveniles
in a
holding
container

Juvenile's
disruptive
camouflag
e patterns

Adult
black
caiman
floating in
water

34
 NAMES | DISTRIBUTION | HABITAT | STATUS | APPEARANCE | IMAGES | DIET | BREEDING | CONSERVATION

Crocodylus acutus (CUVIER, 1807)

NAMES | DISTRIBUTION | HABITAT | STATUS | APPEARANCE | IMAGES | DIET | BREEDING | CONSERVATION

FAMILY: COMMON NAMES:

ALLIGATORIDAE
American crocodile, Cocodrilo americano, Crocodile d'Amérique,
Caimán de Aguja, Central American alligator, Cocodrilo de Rio,
A. mississippiensis Crocodile à museau pointu, Lagarto Amarillo, Lagarto Real, Llaman
A. sinensis Caimán, South American alligator, American saltwater crocodile
C. crocodilus

C. c. apaporiensis NAME ETYMOLOGY:

C. c. fuscus > Crocodylus is derived from the Greek krokodeilos which means literally "pebble worm"
C. latirostris (kroko = pebble; deilos = worm, or man) referring to the appearance of a crocodile.
C. yacare > acutus means "sharp" or "pointed" (Latin), referring to the shape of the snout
M. niger

P. palpebrosus DISTRIBUTION:
P. trigonatus [CLICK ON MAP FOR DETAILED RANGE]

Southern United States, Central and South America:

FAMILY: Belize, Cayman Islands (Extinct), Colombia, Costa
CROCODYLIDAE Rica, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador,
Guatemala, Haiti, Hispaniola, Honduras, Jamaica,
C. acutus
Margarita (poss.), Martinique (poss.), Mexico,
C. cataphractus
Nicaragua, Panama, Peru, Trinidad (poss.), United
C. intermedius
States (extreme south Florida), Venezuela
C. johnstoni

C. mindorensis HABITAT:
C. moreletii Both freshwater (including river, lakes and reservoirs) and brackish coastal habitats (including
C. niloticus tidal estuaries, coastal lagoons and mangrove swamps). A large population is present in Lago
C. novaeguineae Enriquillo (Dominican Republic), a landlocked hyper-saline lake. Crocodiles in these
C. palustris conditions osmoregulate primarily by drinking available freshwater. Possibly the most unusual
C. porosus location is a population which occupies the brackish water cooling canals at the Turkey Point
C. rhombifer nuclear power plant in Florida. This species also constructs long burrows for aestivation and
C. siamensis as a retreat from adverse conditions. Considerable overland distances can also be travelled
O. tetraspis in search of new habitats.
T. schlegelii

STATUS:
FAMILY: CITES: Appendix I

35
GAVIALIDAE IUCN Red List: VU A1ac (VULNERABLE)
Estimated wild population: 10,000 to 20,000
G. gangeticus Summary: Gradually recovering in the US, but relatively poor survey data in Central
and South America indicate some populations stable but others declining.
DICHOTOMOUS KEY

[German] APPEARANCE:
[click on image for enlargement]
MAIN MENU One of the larger crocodilian species. Males typically reach 5 metres, with
reports of 6 and even 7 metre animals (unconfirmed). Dorsal armour is
irregular and much reduced in comparison with other species. There is a
distinctive swelling in front of each eye, visible in all except the hatchlings. Juveniles are
lighter coloured (light tan) than more mature animals, with banding on the body and tail.
Adults take on an olive brown colour. Iris is silvery.

DENTITION:
5 pre-maxillary; 13-15 maxillary; 15 mandibular
Total no. of teeth = 66-68

IMAGES:
[click on image for enlargement]

36
Adult
crocodile
viewed
from the
front

Post-
occipital
and
nuchal
scales

Teeth
erupting
through
upper jaw

DIET:
Primarily fish, and other aquatic species including turtles and crabs. Also takes birds. Feeds
primarily at night. Juveniles take small fish and invertebrates. Often blamed for the
disappearance of domestic animals in more populated areas. Occasional reports of attacks
on humans, but authenticated records are very rare.

BREEDING:
Females reach sexual maturity at lengths of 2.5 m. Populations adapt their breeding strategy
to suit the environment. This species is mainly a hole nester, but populations without access
to suitable nest sites which can be excavated (relatively well drained) will build mound nests
using whatever nesting materials are available. Flooding creates high mortality. Nesting
occurs during the dry season (to minimise flooding, especially in hole nests which are in
danger of falling below the water table after heavy rains), following an extended courtship

37
period which can last up to two months. The minimum number of eggs laid in the nest can be
around 20 in some populations, but is usually between 30 and 60, the mean being around 38.
Nests are often found which contain eggs from two separate females. Hatching, after around
90 days, coincides with the beginning of the annual rains. At hatching, juveniles are around
25 cm in length. The degree of parental care seems to be variable, with some sources noting
minimal protection of the nest and the newly hatched juveniles, while others report a higher
degree of parental attention, from guarding the nest (a burrow is constructed nearby), to
assisting the hatching juveniles and subsequently protecting them (predators include birds,
wild cats, raccoons and even large fish). However, it appears that the juveniles move away
from the nesting area within a few days of hatching. They have been noted to vocalise less
than other species during the first few weeks of life. It has been suggested that this lack of
parental care and early juvenile dispersal is a direct result of the high hunting pressures that
the species was subjected to in the second quarter of the century - a rapid adaptation to
survive.

CONSERVATION:
Decline in numbers was primarily due to demand for the high-quality skin of this species,
mainly from 1930 to 1960 - and it is perhaps ironic that this high-value skin now makes
sustainable use management programs feasible. Presently, continuing hunting (on a lesser
scale) combined with habitat destruction (e.g. destruction of coastal mangrove habitat in
Ecuador for aquaculture) are the most immediate threats. In Nicaragua, for example, illegal
hunting occurs during the legal harvesting of caimans.

Although information on population and behavioural ecology is well documented, inadequate

survey data are available except in the United States. Current studies will hopefully improve
this situation. Presently, it appears that while the species has the most wide-ranging
distribution of any New World crocodile, it is depleted to a 'significant' extent over most of its
range, particularly so over almost a third of this. In a few areas, populations are considered to
be relatively healthy (e.g. Belize and Cuba). C. acutus is completely protected in most
countries where it occurs, but the enforcement of this protection is often inadequate -
although management programs exist in 8 countries within its range, legislation is ineffective
or simply not acted upon. In addition, it can be difficult to distinguish the skin from other
crocodilian species, making enforcement more difficult. Other measures include farming and
ranching in a small number of countries. This is likely to expand (e.g. Colombia, Jamaica),
although the status of wild populations from which stock would no-doubt be taken must be
carefully monitored, once basic survey data have been compiled. A percentage of farmed
stock should be incorporated into a reintroduction program (this strategy is necessary in Cuba
to assist the recovery of wild populations, as farming has been successful). In other areas
(e.g. Venezuela), much crocodile habitat exists, but there are few crocodiles remaining. A
restocking program would help to ensure the continued survival of these populations.
Successful programs include a population of C. acutus at Lago Enriquillo in the Dominican
Republic, which has a stable population of around 200 animals, together with a genetic
reserve of growing juveniles in captivity. In the US, the Fish and Wildlife service formulated a

38
 recovery plan in 1984 for this species, centering around habitat protection and management,
regular population surveys, reduction in mortality (increased education, plus other measures
such as road crossing culverts) and the consideration of captive propagation. Major threats in
the US are from habitat removal (e.g. mangrove swamps outside the Everglades National
Park) and direct human disturbance (e.g. shooting, road-kills, gill-net fishing, vandalism and
other disturbance of nests) which, although low, may be higher than the recruitment rate of
the remaining crocodile population. In 1993, 34 nests were recorded in Florida, and the
number is steadily growing.

MORE INFORMATION:
For more information on distribution and conservation issues for this species,see the CSG
Action Plan resource.

SIGNIFICANT REFERENCES:

Campbell, HW (1972). Ecological or physiological interpretations of crocodilian

nesting habits. Nature 238: 404-405

Departamento de Vida Silvestre (1993). Estudio y Protecion del Cocodrilo

Americano (Crocodylus acutus) en la Republica Dominicana. Secretaria de Estado
de Agricultura, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic. 209 pp.

Kushlan, JA & Mazotti, F (1989). Historic and present distribution of the

American crocodile in Florida. J. Herpetol. 23(1): 1-7

Kushlan, JA & Mazotti, F (1989). Population biology of the American crocodile. J.

Herpetol. 23(1): 7-21

Medem, F (1981). Los Crocodylia de Sur America. Vol. 1. Los Crocodylia de

Colombia. Colciencias, Bogota. 354 pp.

Moler, P & Abercrombie, C (1992). Growth and survival of Crocodylus acutus in

South Florida, USA. In: Crocodiles. Proceedings of the 11th Working Meeting of the
Crocodile Specialist Group. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. p.14

Schubert, A (1994). Conservation of American crocodile. Crocodile Specialist

Group Newsletter 13(3): 14

Thorbjarnarson, J (1989). Ecology of the American crocodile, Crocodylus acutus.

In: Crocodiles. Their Ecology, Management and Conservation. A Special Publication
of the Crocodile Specialist Group. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. pp. 228-258
NAMES | DISTRIBUTION | HABITAT | STATUS | APPEARANCE | IMAGES | DIET | BREEDING | CONSERVATION

Crocodiles in Costa Rica (FINAL PAPER)

This topic submitted by Elizabeth Nellums ( nellumek@muohio.edu) at 1:06 PM on 5/17/03.

39
The class gets ready to board Bahamas Air on San Salvador, Bahamas. See other beautiful phenomena from the
Bahamas.

Tropical Field Courses -Western Program-Miami University

I. Introduction
II. Evolutionary history of crocodiles
III. Physical and physiological characteristics
IV. Descriptions of behavior and psychology
V. Life cycle of crocodiles
VI. Crocodilian habitat requirements
VII. History of crocodilian exploitation
VIII. The Costa Rican population
IX. Global outlook for crocodiles
X. Recommendations

I. Crocodilians are a large family with a long history dating back to the Mesozoic. There are several subtypes of
crocodilians, including crocodiles, caimans, and alligators. There are no alligators in Costa Rica, but there are
several species of caiman, particularly the Spectacled Caiman (Caiman crocodilus) but also the brown or
American Caiman, (Caiman crocodilus fuscus), a subspecies of C. crocodylus. This paper focuses solely on the
crocodiles, of family Crocodylidae and subfamily Crocodylinae. (Kricher, 2002) This grouping includes Old World
Nile Crocodiles (C. niliticus), and the Indo-Pacific Crocodile (C. porosus). In the Neotropics, of the American
crocodile (C. acutus), the MoreletÕs crocodile (C. moreletii) the Orincono crocodile (C. intermedius), and the
Cuban crocodile (C. rhombifer), only the American crocodile is found in Costa Rica. Therefore most of this paper
is focused on C. actutus.
The nomenclature comes from the Greek krokodeilos which is translated as "pebble worm" (kroko = pebble;
deilos = worm, also man) and refers to the elongated crocodile shape. Acutus means "sharp" or "pointed" in Latin
and is probably describing the shape of the snout. (Britton, 2002) It is a large species but not the largest, is
aggressive but not notably so, and has a large range. It is found in Belize, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba,
Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Jamaica, Nicaragua, Mexico, Panama,
Peru, Venezuela and the United States, (Britton, 2002) - a small population exists in southern Florida.
Crocodiles have only recently come to prominence as an important species worthy or preservation; they have

40
been widely hunted as a threat to humans and livestock, and killed for their skins. But toay crocodiles are an
identified Òkeystone species,Ó meaning one that maintains ecosystem structure and function by their activities.
(Ross, J. 2000) They are known for selective predation on fish species, recycling nutrients, and maintenance of
wet areas in droughts by digging holes or burrows during dry periods. In this paper we will examine several
aspects of the Costa Rican crocodile, including its genealogy, physiology, behavior, life cycle, history, and future
prospects.

II. Crocodilian history is relatively well-known because their marshy habitats favor fossilization. They are the only
living relatives of a large and ancient group of reptiles, the Archosauria, (Òruling reptiles,Ó) which also contained
dinosaurs. They dominated the planet during the Mesozoic era, 245- 265 million years ago. (Ross, 1989) During
this period some of their relatives reached 50 meters in length. The Archosauria was comprised of dinosaurs,
pterosaurs, and the thecodontians, which may have been the precursor to modern crocodiles. This name
describes the setting of teeth in the animals; thecodont teeth are set into the jaw sockets rather than fused to
other sides of the jaw as is typical in other reptiles. (Ross, 1989) The earliest crocodilians and their immediate
precursors existed 215 million years ago and were probably terrestrial predators, with long slender limbs and
well-developed body armor. Only later did they become amphibious; in fact, they were probably fast runners.
These animals, called protosuchian (suchia is a common ending of words relating to crocodiles, coming from the
latin of Sobek, a crocodile god of ancient Egypt) (Ross, 1989) were hardly more than 1 meter long with a short
snout.
The earliest known crocodilianÐlike reptiles among the archosaurs are the sphenosuchians, found in rocks dating
to the late Triassic (230 mya) (Ross, 1989) and the oldest known true crocodiles are 200 million years old. These
sphenosuchians were found in Europe, South America and South Africa (Ross, 1989); in fact, the genus
Crocodylus was found all over the world in the tertiary period. The mesosuchians, intermediate crocodilian
ancestors, were much more diverse than modern eusuchians. They seem to have retreated to the equator just
before the Cretacious (65 mya) which may explain how they escaped the famous K-T mass extinction of that
period. The crocodiles that we know today appeared right around this period some 80 million years ago, (Ross,
1989) and have since been restricted to mainly warm or temperate regions. However, crocodilians survived in
Europe until less than 5 mya. They seem to have had limited success and diversity there due to the modern
cooling climate. (Ross, 1989)
Because it is known that they existed in the Cretacious, the crodocile's design plan has lasted about 200 million
years; few changes have affected the modern crocodile since then. (Ross, 1989) The evolutionary history of
modern extant crocodiles is fairly obscure, but they probably evolved originated in Eurasia. (Alderton, 1998)
Speaking of C. acutus specifically, it is likely to have evolved fairly recently, because it is mostly absent from the
fossil record. Scientists believe that it probably evolved in the Caribbean and migrated to its current range.
(Alderton, 1998)

III. Today crocodilians are the most advanced of all reptiles. They have a unique combination of reptilian and
mammalian/avian characteristics Ð in fact, they are more closely related to birds than lizards. (Ross, 1989) They
have a bird-like brain but no bladder and a reptilian digestive system. (Ross, 1989) Like the birds, crocodiles
have an elongate outer-ear canal, a muscular gizzard, and complete separation of the ventricles of the heart.
They are called advanced because of their four-chambered heart, reptile diaphragm, and cerebral cortex. (Ross,
1989)
The American crocodile is a relatively large species, with males having maximum lengths of 5Ð6 meter range,
although some 7 meter individuals have been reported. (Britton, 2002) It is two-thirds as heavy as and American

41
Alligator of the same length, and therefore moves more quickly. (Ross, 1989) Dorsal armor is irregular and much
reduced in comparison with other species, and in front of each eye is a distinctive swelling. Skin is formed from a
thick dermal layer covered with non-overlapping epidermal scales. The surface scales of each scute sloughs off
individually rather than shedding in large patches. Adults are olive brown all over, while the lighter-colored
juveniles are tan with banding on the body and tail. The American crocodile also possesses a distinctive silvery
iris. Like all crocodiles, the snout is pointed rather than rounded as it in Alligators, and the fourth tooth is visible
when the jaws are closed - the same tooth of an alligator (both have this extra-long tooth) fits into the upper jaw.
Crocodilians have strong muscles that allow the jaws to snap shut with incredible force Ð they are capable of
crushing bones, skulls, and cast iron. However, the muscles for opening the jaw are relatively weak, which allows
even a rubber band to keep the jaws of smaller crocodiles closed. This explains the trick of `gator wrestling. The
teeth are conical in shape and anchored to the sockets by connective tissue, and in C. acutus there are between
66 and 68 individual teeth. (Britton, 2002)They fall out throughout the lifespan and are replaced in alternate rows
along the jaw. (Alderton, 1998) Crocodiles have no lips, meaning that they cannot close their mouths underwater.
They are prevented from ingesting water, however, by a secondary palate which blocks the throat Ð the region
inside the mouth is actually still external to the body. Both salt and freshwater Ð crocodiles, unlike alligators, have
maintained salt glands on the tongue, even those that do not have contact with salt water, probably a holdover
from their marine ancestry. (Alderton, 1998)
The brain is small but complex, and the senses are well adapted. They have an excellent sense of smell and a
fine ability to hear, as evidenced by the complex vocalizations of crocodilian species. External ear openings are
covered with a flap to protect the inner ear during diving. (Ross, 1989) Both the eyes and nostrils are high on the
head, so that they are above the water when the crocodile swims. The eyes are typically vertebrate, with a
vertical pupil and a reflective layer behind the retina. They have moveable eyelids and a third transparent eyelid
called a nicitating membrane. They apparently posses color vision but they cannot focus under water, which
indicates that they use other senses when submerged. (Ross, 1989)
They are highly evolved predators, highly motile and metabolically efficient. They have fast reflexes and effective
locomotor ability on land, where they walk on erect legs, and in the water, where they use the long, powerful tail
to swim. They move by lateral S-shaped undulations of the tail with limbs held close to the body. (Ross, J. 2000)
On land they posses two distinct types of walk: the splayed low-belly sprawl of lizards, and the more mammalian
Òhigh walkÓ employed for in fast travel on land. The reason for this is the unusual ankle structure that they share
with the early thecodontians, unique from other reptiles. (Ross, 1989) Their feet have unusual flexibility so the
can support the crocs in various positions. They have five toes on the front feet and four on the back, all of which
are partially webbed to aid in swimming. Their body systems are well adapted to the marine environment, where
they attempt to maintain their body temperature within narrow limits by basking in the sun when cool and seeking
shade or water when hot. (Ross, J. 2000) Like all reptiles they are ectotherms, and do not regulate their body
temperature internally. However, the circulatory system can divert blood away from the peripheral systems during
dives or to reduce heat loss. They have well-evolved metabolisms that use and store nearly the entirety of a
meal. Because of this they ingest no more than 50 full meals a year (Ross, 1989) and a large crocodile can last a
year without eating. Newly hatched crocodiles do not need to eat for four months, surviving on the stored fat from
the yolk Ð in fact, 60 percent of the fat in crocodile diets is stored. The tradeoff for this efficient system is a low
oxygen count in the blood (it can also impair growth.) Crocodiles recover slowly from exercise and are easily
exhausted, and have high levels of lactic acid in the blood Ð however, they can also survive a blood acidity that
would kill most other animals. (Ross, 1989) They are, however, excellent and adaptive hunters, with an ability to
consume and digest almost everything they encounter. The stomach is the most acidic of any vertebrate. (Ross,
1989) Hatchlings eat mostly insects while juveniles eat fish, frogs, tutles, small mammals, and invertebrates.

42
Larger crocodiles also eat larger mammals and birds, as well as up to 70% fish. Crocodilian snouts are related to
their diets Ð narrow-snouted animals tend to favor fish, and a crocodileÕs narrow snout reflects this tendency
towards almost any fish they encounter.

IV. Crocodilians have complex behaviors including social interactions, communication, dominance hierarchies,
and coordinated feeding. Socially, crocodiles have uniquely complicated lives, related more closely to birds and
mammals than to other reptiles. They have a complex system of communication. It is apparent that crocodiles
recognize each other and respond accordingly. Physical, vocal, and chemical factors probably all play a part, not
all of which is completely understood. Chemosensory signals, for example, are widely suspected but little
studied. It is likely that crocodiles, with a keen sense of smell, rely on musk for recognition and mating cues.
There is much more that needs to be known in this area, but physical signals are widely reported and well
understood, especially in connection with vocal and auditory clues. For example, many crocodilians are known to
head-slap the water to assert dominance, snap their jaws in the water to produce a popping sound, and blow
bubbles. (Ross, 1989) Tail thrashing should be interpreted as a threat and often precedes an offensive charge.
Many of these cues indicate the arrival or presence of the speaker, but they are also used to attract attention or
to indicate aggression. Another well-known communication, especially in American crocodiles, is the raising of
the head, called snout lifting. This is a submissive signal used during courtship, mating, or between a dominant
and subordinate male. In C. acutus it is used almost exclusively by females during daily social interactions. It
probably conveys information about the individualÕs sex. The exposure of the vulnerable underside of the throat
is interpretated by researchers as a symbol of Ògood intentions.Ó
Vocally, American crocodiles do not lead the crocodilian pack. Alligators are especially vocal and are known to
bellow for extended periods, and among crocodilians there are distinct and well-documented calls for a variety of
purposes, including aggression, seduction, dominance, and distress. The American crocodile, however, is a
particularly silent species. Some scientists theorize that the reason for this is the difference in habitats; alligators
live in more densely vegetative environments that do not transmit sounds as far, resulting in more private
conversation. It is also probably that much crocodilian communication is subauditory or Òinfrasound,Ó or
otherwise thus far undetectable to researchers, for example auditory or aqueous vibrations. This may be
particularly true of our American crocodile friends.
However, the calls of juveniles signaling distress will illicit help from even unrelated adults.
In fact, researchers playing these calls from recordings have been attacked by adult crocodiles coming to the
rescue.
However they do it, it is apparent that crocodiles have used communication to set up complex dominance
hierarchies. They are a regular feature of crocodilian daily life, with dominant individuals usually possessing large
body size and aggressive temperaments. They are recognized by their fellow crocodiles as dangerous, and have
access to the best mates, nest spaces, food, and living space. Subadult males and small females occupy low
positions while large males rate the highest, as do the largest females in the female heirarchies. Dominant
crocodiles are recognized by their approaching other individuals, while submissive individuals move away. It is
also probable that body posturing tells individuals a lot about the status of the crocodiles they encounter. A
dominant crocodile swims lazily at the surface, while lesser ones will submerge readily. Actual combat is
comparatively rare, but dominant individuals grab lower-ranking ones at the base of the tail, where scarring or
injury can occasionally occur. (Ross, 1989) Crocodiles are also territorial, defending large areas from males that
pose a threat to their dominance or defending nest sites with ferocity. This behavior is however density-
dependent and worst during the breeding season, a period of intense communication among crocodiles. The
males first assert their position with increased aggression, and in American crocodiles large males fight with open

43
jaws directed at their rivals. Actual injury is rare but the victor will win dominance, giving him access to the
choicest mates. He will express his power by patrolling his territory conspicuously on the surface and self-
assertion with headslaps or vocalizations. A female, once attracted, will initiate courtship by indicating submission
Ð she must divert the maleÕs aggression away from herself and into the courtship display, or risk serious injury
by the male. In American crocodiles the snout-lifting behavior is used by the female to signify her receptivity to
the male. He will copulate for several minutes and then, depending on the density, both may proceed to a
number of other mates, or may copulate together repeatedly over the next several days.
Much of the crocodile brain is occupied with feeding itself, and it is logical that much of their behavior is geared to
this end. Crocodiles are generally idle hunters that lie in wait for their pray. They are adept at stealth and
camouflage. Once they lunge, they are truly impressive predators; they can leap, run, and are incredibly fast and
strong. They save energy in this manner. Cooperative hunting among crocodiles has been recorded, although not
specifically among American crocodiles. In Africa they line up to block rivers so that migrating fish will be trapped
against a barrier of crocodiles. They have been observed sharing foods that are too big for one animal to tear
apart alone without apparent hostility, and they have been seen taking turns to dismember and eat a carcass.
(Ross, 1989) These same crocodile barricades can be fatal to human beings, and human-crocodile interactions
are generally unpleasant on both sides. American crocodiles are less aggressive than other crocodilian species
and are not frequently implicated in man-eating attacks. American alligators, Nile crocodiles, and Indo-Pacific
species are all known to attack humans more frequently than this species.

V. A crocodileÕs life begins in the egg, buried with a clutch on the banks of a river or lake. Crocodiles lay eggs
that are less brittle than bird eggs and bury them in mounds of rubbish and vegetation or sand. American
Crocodiles are particularly known for digging hole nests, especially in Florida, but the extent of this behavior is
not well known. Clutch size is typically in the 30Ð60 range, although in some populations mean clutch size is in
the low 20s. As with most hole nesting species, C. acutus nests during the annual dry season with eggs hatching
around the beginning of the annual rainy period. (Ross, J. 2000) The extent of parental care is varied Ð many
females guard the nest assiduously, fasting until they hear the grunts of the young, and then dig them out, even
cracking the eggs to release the hatchlings. In laboratory studies, the eggs of American crocodiles were seen to
communicate even before hatching, where tapping sounds within an egg was replied to by neighboring eggs. It is
possible that this communication facilitates the synchronized hatching of the clutch.
Between 90 and 100 days after being laid the eggs hatch, right at the beginning of the rainy season. The young
crocodiles are around 25 centimeters in length. They are less vocal than other crocodilians, and within a few days
they move away from the nesting area. Other crocodilians have a much higher level of parental involvement, with
the mothers guarding the juveniles and keeping them together for up to several years in family groups. It is
possible that this behavior in American crocodiles is an adaptation to the high degree of hunting in the second
quarter of the century (Alderton, 1998) and maternal care was more intensive in the past Ð groups are more
easily hunted than individuals.
Even once the hatchlings are free of the nest, they remain highly threatened for their vulnerable period of youth.
Fish, birds, small mammals (especially raccoons and small cat species) all eat the young crocodiles. (Ross,
1989) Beyond one meter in length, mortality of crocodiles decreases. They have few natural predators, especially
if they can avoid being caught on land, although occasionally subadult animals can be killed by snakes or large
predators such as leopards.
Females grow more slowly and reach maturity at a smaller size than males, who continue growing and usually
exceed females in maximum size. Crocodilians can be long lived in the wild and there are records of particular
individuals residing for decades (Ross, 1989) They will spend much of their time basking in the sun and hunting;

44
feeding is lowest in the cool periods of winter but increases with temperature during the spring and summer
months. Crocodiles do not chew their food; large teeth impale the animals and then the crocodile positions it for
swallowing and depends on gravity to move food down the gullet with a toss of their head.
The greatest threat to adult crocodiles, besides human influence (the subject of another paragraph or probably
another paper of its own) is other crocodiles, particularly for young males by larger males. However, cannibalism
seems to be rarer than popularly believed. It is more frequently social than nutritional and often occurs in the
breeding season. Females reach sexual maturity at lengths of 2.5 meters, regardless of age. When the mating
season begins, an extended courtship period can last up to two months. (Britton, 2002)
When it becomes time for the female to nest, she must be extremely careful in selecting the site. Nest mortality is
high; even during the dry season, flooding can kill an entire clutch, especially in hole nests which can fall below
the water level during periods of heavy rains. (Zappalorti, 1976) Crocodiles cannot adjust the temperature and
humidity of nests like birds can, and the nest cannot be rebuilt. There is only one large clutch a year, unlike birds
which lay several small clutches. The nests often flood or the eggs can drop in temperature below what is
required for the embryos to survive. (Ross, 1989) Eggs require oxygen diffusion through the porous shell, so
many can asphyxiate under imperfect conditions. Likewise, although many crocodiles guard the nest assiduously,
predation is common among crocodile clutches. Small mammals, fungus, insects, and reptiles all dig out and
consume the eggs. If the female can successfully protect her nest to the hatch, another cycle of crocodile life can
begin.

VI. The characteristics of the American crocodile described so far are especially significant when considering
their needs for conservation. It is only through understanding the behavior and physiology of any species that we
can know how best to serve them, and this species of crocodile is no exception. Unfortunately, the problems that
loom large in the global environmental battlefront are especially relevant to crocodilians, which means there are
no easy answers to their problems. For example, almost any issue of water quality has a direct impact on the
American crocodile. Because of their almost exclusively fish diet, (Alderton, 1998) any influence on the aquatic
food chain will work its way up to crocodiles. For example, eutrophication of lakes kills of algae and fish species,
so even though crocodiles can endure brackish water quite well, they may still be lost if their prey species are
eliminated. Furhermore, salinization of water resources is a problem for crocodiles; even though adults are quite
adept in both salt and fresh water, the juveniles have larger surface area ratio and cannot survive in salty water.
(Ross, 1989) Salinization occurs as water sources are depleted, a universal problem in our water-guzzling world.
Even if the water can be to some degree protected, the crodociles are in an unfortunate situation: they require
hundreds of kilometers of undisturbed wetlands (Ross, J. 2000) and large shallow bodies of water such as slow
rivers, swamps, and marshes, because they require such a large territory for each individual. This is unfortunate
because wetlands are being lost at a high rate all over the world. They are drained for farming or for
pasturelands. Also, crocodiles avoid strong wind and wave action because they require calm water to swim
effectively. It is theorized that the still water allows them to keep only the nostrils above water, but if it is windy the
snout must be raised at a steeper angle. This makes it more difficult to swim. (Ross, 1989) The crocodiles
therefore need protected waters and will avoid the open water if it is rough. This means that tree cover is
important and deforestation can disturb their habitats even if water quality is preserved.

VII. Crocodiles have faced over-hunting threats since the very dawn of human civilization. In fact at least one
primitive terrestrial crocodilian, Mekosuches inexpectatus, was probably lost to human influence. Its extinction, in
New Caledonia, occurred in less than 2000 years Ð it was gone before the arrival of Europeans and its rapid
disappearance points to hunting by primitive peoples. (Ross, J. 2000) Our record has not improved much since

45
then. Crocodilians of all sorts have been widely hunted for hides, made into leather shoes and handbags, and
have also been used for meat and traditional remedies and folk medicine. Of the 22 recognized varieties of
crocodilians, at least 15 have been commercially exploited. (Thorbjarnarson, 1999) The effect has been universal
and devastating. During the 1950s nearly 60,000 Nile Crocodiles skins were exported from East Africa. In 1926
36,000 American Alligators were bought in Lousinana. In 1888 a single hunter took 500 in one season, and
another took 42 in a single night. (Ross, 1989) In South America it is largely Caimans that have been hunted for
their ÒclassicÓ skins and that species has proportionally lost thousands of individuals. The American crocodile
has not escaped this exploitation: the population in Isla Fuerta, on the Caribbean coast of Columbia, was driven
to extinction when the mangrove forest was destroyed. Cattle ranching has removed nearly two-thirds of Central
AmericaÕs primary forest, pushing the American crocodile there to the periphery of its range. The current low
population size can be attributed to the extensive commercial harvesting that occurred from the 1930s into the
1960s.

VIII. Before Spanish explorers came to Costa Rica, in the person of one Christopher Columbus in 1502, the
native peoples were relatively scattered and, despite at least one well-developed city in the past, had a low
degree of organization. The Spaniards killed most of the natives with their foreign diseases when they came to
the Òrich coast,Ó although in actuality there was not much easily available gold. (Rosera and Palloni, 1999) The
local species have been under assault ever since. Hunting was a fairly widespread problem in the country in the
past, but today around twenty-five percent is protected lands and the American crocodiles are being given a
chance to recover. In Costa Rica thereÕs a reported population of around 300 individuals in the Rio Grande de
Tarcoles and around 35 in Estero Roto. (Ross, J. 2000) While these populations are considered viable, the
standard minimum variable population (MVP) for any animal species is 500 individuals. (Rosera and Palloni,
1999) Habitat degradation continues, even in the well-protected island, and poaching problems can persist. In
1993 Costa Rican officials were forced to act when crocodiles were being killed following some attacks on
humans. (Moyen, 2000) Because the large animals are predators and carnivores, it is natural for them to kill and
even consume humans if given the opportunity. Public sentiment was strongly anti-crocodile, but it is slowly
softening. The collection of adult breeders to stock farms could become a serious problem (see next paragraph)
if not carefully regulated by the appropriate authorities. (Ross, J. 2000)

IX. The current estimated wild population of American crocodiles is between 10,000 to 20,000 individuals.
(Britton, 2002) There are only about 500 in the state of Florida, at the edge of the species range, (Alderton, 1998)
and the rest are spread mostly (but not entirely) across Central America. Although the species has the widest
range of any New World crocodile, it is depleted to a significant extent over most of its range and in a third of its
range is quite dangerously low. The populations of a few regions, especially Belize and Cuba, are somewhat
safe, and the Costa Rican range is to a lesser extent the same, but there is still much to be desired. C. acutus is
completely protected in most countries where it occurs, (Britton, 2002) but the enforcement of this protection is
often inadequate - although there are programs in 8 countries within its range, legislation is ineffective or poorly
enforced.
Crocodilians as a whole are threatened by hunting and habitat loss, and the black caimen, broad-snouted
caimen, American crocodile, the Orinoco crocodile, the MoreletÕs crocodile, Nile crocodile and the Cuban
crocodile are all listed on the CITES appendix of endangered animals. (Kricher, 2002) There are currently 12
species of crocodiles remaining, most of which are to some degree threatened by human activities. Since the
increase in international conservation legislation from 1973 (Ross, 1989) numbers are increasing, but they are
still poorly protected throughout most of their range. Today two million skins are harvested annually, mostly

46
caiman from south America, more than half taken from wild populations in violation of national wildlife regulations.
Even though poaching is widespread, the real killer for crocodilians today is habitat destruction, and that will be
the real battleground to protect crocodiles of all species in the future.

X. All crocodiles, if given the chance, would choose to avoid humans; there is no need for our two species to
compete. Today, however, because of increasing populations, increasing needs, and an ever-widening ecological
footprint, we do not give crocodiles that chance. We can no longer afford to; in most cases human intervention
has become necessary to protect genetic diversity and healthy populations for most crocodile species. Simply
preserving the animals and their habitats is an important first step, certainly; since the 1970Õs, when we become
aware that the devastation of the past was causing serious problems for crocodiles, many species have
benefitted from improved protection and reduced exploitation. But it is widely recognized that Òthe majority of the
species require a more creative approach that provides incentives to people living with crocodiles to offset their
real and perceived costs. Sustainable use has become a key element in the conservation of crocodilian
species.Ó (Ross, J. 2000) Crocodiles are not flagship species for conservation efforts. Local people tend to
regard them, not unreasonably, as dangerous and unattractive to live near. When conservation programs
succeed, human problems with crocodiles frequently escalate, (Ross, J. 2000) and the crocodiles often need
continued protection. But today new methods of utilization and protection combined are providing a chance for

Caiman latirostris
Broad-nosed Caiman
(except the population of
Argentina)
• Status: Not Listed (IUCN 2000); Endangered (ESA)
• Distribution: Argentina, Brazil, Bolivia, Paraguay,
Uruguay
• Threats: illegal leather products confiscated regularly
(German Customs 2000); habitat destruction, illegal
hunting (Ross 1998)
• Keep: 49 males, 160 females, and 23 animals of
unknown sex in captivity (ISIS 2000)
• Breed: only ranching activities in Argentina, while
captive breeding is known only from University of
Sao Paulo, Brazil, where the first breeding in captivity
was successful (Ross 1998, Verdade and Sarkis
1998); no offspring produced in past six months (ISIS
2000)
Melanosuchus niger
Black Caiman
(except the population of
Ecuador)
• Status: Lower Risk: Conservation Dependent (IUCN
2000); Endangered (ESA)
• Distribution: Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, French
Guyana, Guyana, Peru
• Threats: illegal leather products confiscated regularly
(German Customs 2000); habitat destruction, illegal
hunting (Ross 1998)
• Keep: 4 females and 2 animals of unknown sex in
captivity (ISIS 2000)
• Breed: only a ranching program in Ecuador,
experimental farming in Columbia and Bolivia (Ross
1998); captive breeding not successful (Sommerlad
1998); no offspring produced in past six months(ISIS 2000)

47
Caimán Negro

Melanosuchus niger

Bibliografía

En esta presentación se encuentran las obras que hemos

consultado en nuestros estudios del Caimán Negro (Melanosuchus
niger). Incluimos citas a otras obras que tal vez sean de utilidad a
quien necesite más información.

• Alderton, David. 1998.

“Crocodiles & Alligators of the World”
Blandford, London. 190 páginas. (ISBN: 0-7137-2382-3) (en inglés)

• Bartlett, R. D. y Patricia P. Bartlett. 2003.

“Reptiles and Amphibians of the Amazon: An Ecotourist's Guide”
University Press of Florida. Gainesville, Florida. 291 páginas. (ISBN
0-8130-2623-7) (en inglés)

• Behler, John L. y Deborah A. Behler. 1998.

“Alligators & Crocodiles”
Voyageur Press. Stillwater, Minnesota. 72 páginas. (en inglés)

48
• Bothwell, Richard. 1962.
 The following crocodilian-related websites may be useful.
Please note that many of these links will change as websites appear and disappear.

Essential information
• IUCN
• IUCN - SSC
• IUCN - Red List of Threatened Species

• CITES
Conservation, Management & Research in general

• Gharial Conservation Alliance (GCA)

• Crocodilians Natural History & Conservation
• The EMBL Reptile Database
• The Bibliography of Crocodilian Biology
• Tomistoma Task Force
• Crocodilian, Tuatara, and Turtles Species of the World
• Fauna and Flora International
• Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services 'FL - Alligator.com'
• Florida Fish & Wildlife Conservation Commission's 'Alligator Management'
• National Library of Medicine's 'PubMed' (useful for searching for scientific
publications on various crocodilians)
• Proyecto Jacaré (Español versión or English version), caiman conservation and
ecotourism
• Yacare.net, the website for Argentine caimans
• Zoocriadero Cerros Azules, caiman conservation in Uruguay
• American University's 'Nile Crocodile Trade Case'
• CITES Resolution Conf. 11.12 'Universal tagging system for the identification of
crocodilian skins'
• Conservation Biology: 'Economic Incentives for Management of Venezuelan
Caiman'
• 'Crocodylomorpha: Overview' of crocodilian phylogeny and fossil history
• International Reptile Leather Federaton / Internationale Reptilleder Verband e.V.
Offenbach
• 'Monitoring Caiman Population Trends on the Ibera Marsh'
• Systematic Biology: 'Data set incongruence and the phylogeny of crocodilians'
• University of Texas's 'The Visible Alligator Skull'

• University of Utah's 'Alligators on Treadmills Hint at How Dinosaurs Breathed'

General Information & Captive Collections
• University of Florida's Electronic Data Information Source on 'Alligators and
Crocodiles'
• University of Florida's 'Alligators and Crocodiles: Quick Reference Sheet'
• Discuss crocodilian issues on 'The Crocodilian List'
49
 • Animal Planet's 'Ferocious Crocs'
• Burris Mill & Feed Alligator and Crocodile Feeds (search on Alligator 'Species
Types')
• Clemson University's 'Crocodilians'
• Discovery Channel's 'What is a Crocodilian'
• Florida Power & Light's 'Crocodiles and Alligators Overview'
• The Paleosuchus Page by Collin Stevenson
• Mike Godwin's 'The Gator Hole'
• India4u.com's 'Crocodile Species in India'
• The Reptipage's 'Crocodylians'
• Kent Vliet's 'Crocodilians'
• St. Augustine Alligator Farm

• Crocodopolis
Crocodilian Care
• Crocodilian Captive Care FAQ
• Recommendations on the Care of Amphibians and Reptiles in Academic
Institutions. Use the 'Find' function under your browser's 'Edit' button to search
this site for 'alligators' and 'crocodiles'.

Reproduction
(Reed Books: Sydney);
K. Richardson, G. Webb and C. Manolis (2000). “Crocodiles: Inside and Out”
(Surrey Beatty and Sons: Sydney).

Crocodilians

50
 Online Journal of the IUCN-SSC Crocodile Specialist Group

Background
Crocodilia was developed by the IUCN-SSC Crocodile Specialist Group to
provide an international forum for the publication of articles on research
on the world's 23 species of crocodilians. The journal is intended to have
a broad focus, ranging from pure biology and ecology to management
and conservation issues. We hope that contributions to the journal will
add to our general knowledge and understanding of crocodilians and
their role in the ecosystem, and improve our ability to manage and
conserve wild populations throughout their range.

Crocodilia invites contributions of original research, reviews on current

management and conservation issues, methods or techniques papers
and editorials. Recognising the extent of important "grey" literature that
remains unpublished and unavailable to crocodilian researchers,
Crocodilia will consider such articles for publication.

Access
All contributions are published online (www.iucncsg.org) with open
access.

51
Review
All contributions are peer-reviewed by at least three expert reviewers.
Acceptable manuscripts will be returned to the author for consideration
of comments and criticism.

Production Editor
Charlie Manolis (cmanolis@wmi.com.au)

Editorial/Review Committee
Ruth Elsey, Louisiana Department of Wildlife and Fisheries, USA
Richard Fergusson, Crocodile Conservation & Consulting (Pty) Ltd,
Zimbabwe
Craig Franklin, University of Queensland, Australia
Sally Isberg, Porosus Ltd, Australia
Valentine Lance, San Diego State University, USA
Jeffrey Lang, University of Minnesota, USA
Charlie Manolis, Wildlife Management International Pty. Limited, Australia
Mark Merchant, McNeese State University, USA
Chris Moran, University of Sydney, Australia
Carlos Piña , CICyTTP-CONICET, Argentina
J. Perran Ross, University of Florida, USA
Grahame Webb, Charles Darwin University, Australia
Allan Woodward, Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, USA
Alvaro Velasco, Wildlife: Products and Services, Venezuela
Kent Vliet, University of Florida, USA

(Note: Additional reviewers will be used as required)

Submission of Manuscripts
New manuscripts should be sent as one (1) electronic file, in MS Word
format containing complete text, tables and figures, as an e-mail
attachment, to the Production Editor (cmanolis@wmi.com.au).

The final, revised, accepted version of the manuscript should be

submitted in electronic form, in MS Word (text, tables) and tiff (figures)
format, as separate files. That is, the text, each figure and each table will
comprise a separate file, labeled with the author's name and number (eg
JonesText.doc, JonesFig1.tiff, JonesTable1.doc, JonesTable2.doc, etc.). Files
can be sent e-mail attachments (csg@wmi.com.au) or on CD (mail to:
Editor - Crocodilia, P.O. Box 530, Sanderson, N.T. 0813, Australia).

To facilitate the production process, please ensure that format conforms

52
to the journal style guidelines (see Guidelines for Authors). Manuscripts
that do not conform will be returned.

Copyright
Publications appearing in Crocodilia have been refereed and improved.
These publications, and all parts thereof, are therefore protected by
copyright. This covers the exclusive rights of the publisher to sell,
reproduce (including photographic or electronic means), to distribute
(including photocopies, reprints or electronic means), and to store this
material. The acceptance conditions of a manuscript for publication
automatically include the consent of the author(s) to transfer the
copyright to the publisher. Permission for exceptions to these rules must
be obtained in writing from the publisher at the time of manuscript
submission.

Disclaimer
Publisher, editors, reviewers and authors do not accept any legal
responsibility for errors, omissions or claims, nor do they provide any
warranty, express or implied, with respect to information published in
Crocodilia.

Guidelines for Authors

All manuscripts must written be in English. See example article for
format.

53
a
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A
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Enquiries should be addressed to:
Crocodilia
Crocodile Specialist Group
P.O. Box 530, Sanderson, N.T. 0813, Australia
Telephone: 61.8.89224500 Facsimile: 61.8.89470678 E-mail:
csg@wmi.com.au

Crocodile Specialist Group Newsletter

The Crocodile Specialist Group Newsletter provides current
information on the conservation, status, news and current events
concerning crocodilians, and on the activities of the CSG. Quarterly
intervals.

Proceedings of CSG Working Meetings

Proceedings contain all papers presented at CSG Working Meetings
held every 2 years.

Proceedings up to the 16th meeting, are available from:

Zoo Book Sales, 403 Parkway Ave. N., P.O. Box 405, Lanesboro,
MN 55949-0405, USA [Tel: (1) 507 4678733, Facs: (1) 507 4678735;
http://www.zoobooksales.com; E-mail: zoobooks@means.net].

Proceedings of 17th meeting are available from Wildlife

Management International, P.O. Box 530, Sanderson, N.T. 0812,
Australia (E-mail: csg@wmi.com.au).

Proceedings of the 18th meeting are now only available on disk (as
PDF version).

A listing of all publications that have appeared in CSG Proceedings

up to the 16th CSG Meeting are at the Florida Fish and Wildlife
Cooperative Research Unit webpage
(http://www.wec.ufl.edu/coop/CSGbib.htm).

55
The Action Plan for Crocodile Conservation
It was first published in printed form in 1992, but a revised and
continuously updated version now is available on the web.

Printed Edition
Crocodiles: An Action Plan for Their Conservation. 1992. J.
Thorbjarnarson, compiler; H. Messel, F.W. King & J.P. Ross, editors.
IUCN Gland Switzerland. 136 pp. ISBN 2-8317-0060-4.
Comprehensive accounts of species status by country and
recommended conservation actions, with extensive bibliography.
[Out of print.]

WWW Edition
Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan: Revised Action Plan for
Crocodiles 1998. J.P. Ross (ed.). IUCN–The World Conservation
Union, Gland, Switzerland. World Wide Web Edition. The web edition
is published in a form that allows each species account to be
printed out complete with bibliographic references.

CITES Identification Guide - Crocodilians

Environment Canada has produced a series of identification guides,
including one for crocodilians, specifically designed to assist
individuals responsible for the application of CITES in various
countries. The Guide provides a simple, visual approach that
facilitates the identification of several crocodilian species that are
traded and require CITES permits.

International Trade in Crocodilian Skins

Review and analysis of the trade and industry dynamics for market-
based conservation. 2002. James MacGregor. The definitive
authority on international trade and markets in crocodilian skins.

Reports/Publications/Articles
Various CSG reports, research publications and articles featured in
the Newsletter are available as PDF versions.

Species Accounts

Melanosuchus niger
56
Common names: Black caiman, Jacar� assu (also a�u, uassu,
gua�u), Jacar� negro, Caim�n negro, Caim�n, Cocodrilo

Range: Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Peru

Revised by John Thorbjarnarson

Conservation overview

CITES: Appendix II in Ecuador (ranching) subject to quota from 1997; Appendix I in all other countries.
CSG Action Plan: Availability of Survey Data � Poor
Need for Wild Population Recovery � High
Potential for Sustainable Management � Moderate
1996 IUCN Red List: EN. Endangered. Criteria A.1.c. d. Inferred decline >50% in 3 generations, exploitation over
much of range. Current recovery may be trending toward Vulnerable.
Principal threats: Illegal hunting, habitat destruction.

Ecology and natural history

The black caiman is the largest member of the Alligatoridae, with adult males surpassing 4m in length. This
species is widely distributed throughout the Amazon River basin, but populations are also known from peripheral
areas outside the Amazon (the Rupununi and upper Essequibo River drainage in
Guyana; the Kaw region of French Guyana; Vasquez 1991). Until recently the
black caiman had been little studied. However, during the 1980s research on wild
and captive populations was carried out by Herron and collaborators (1985, 1990,
1991, 1994) in southern Peru, Pacheco (1990a and b, 1993a and b, 1994) in
Bolivia, and Asanza (1985, 1992) in Ecuador. Ecological studies are presently
being carried out in Brazil (Sociedade Civil Mamirau�), Ecuador (EcoCiencia),
and Colombia (Universidad Nacional de Colombia). Additionally, information on aspects of the ecology of this
species was gathered during survey work conducted by Brazaitis et al. (1990a and b), and King and Videz-Roca
(1988). Hines and Rice (1992, 1994) have conducted recent surveys of population status in Ecuador. Gorzula
and Woolford (1990) surveyed black caiman in the Essequibo region of Guyana. These studies have augmented
the work done by Medem on this species in Colombia throughout the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s (Medem 1981),
and the studies of Otte (1978) in Peru.

The black caiman occupies a wide variety of habitats including large rivers and streams, oxbow lakes, and in
some areas seasonally flooded savannas. Ecological habitat partitioning between this species and the other
Amazonian caimans appears to be taking place in many areas, but habitat relations among the species have
been blurred by the severe reduction in numbers of black caiman in most areas (Magnusson 1982). Herron
(1994) found that common caiman and black caiman were spatially separated in a Peruvian oxbow lake. Fittkau
(1970) hypothesized that black caiman played a vital role in nutrient cycling in the rivers and mouth-lakes of the
lower Amazon. The demise of Melanosuchus populations has been linked anecdotally with a decrease in

57
fisheries productivity. However, little ecological evidence is available to confirm or refute these ideas. Peres and
Carkeek (1993) provide an interesting account of how large caiman populations in the Brazilian Amazon protect
fish stocks by destroying fishing nets.

The black caiman, like all alligatorids, is a mound nester, however, many aspects of this species� reproductive
ecology are poorly known. Available information suggests that females reach sexual maturity when ca. 200cm
total length (TL). Mean adult female size is 280cm TL, and clutch size averages 39.3. Melanosuchus lays very
large eggs averaging 143.6g (Thorbjarnarson 1996). Herron et al. (1990) report on a Melanosuchus nest in Peru
observed throughout the entire period of incubation. Pacheco (1990a and b) presents information on the
reproduction of captive Melanosuchus in Bolivia.

Conservation and status

Commercial hunting of the black caiman did not begin in earnest until the 1940s,
when stocks of the South American crocodiles (Crocodylus acutus, Crocodylus
intermedius) were becoming very low. Hunting peaked during the 1950s, and
declined markedly through the 1960s, when trade in Caiman crocodilus began to
increase. However, in some areas significant trade in black caiman extended into the 1970s (Plotkin et al. 1983,
Gorzula and Woolford 1990). Commercial hunting continues to be a problem in some areas. In the upper
Amazon of Brazil, most hunting is for the sale of meat which is reportedly sold in Par� or Leticia. Ecological
competition with the smaller common caiman may also be playing an important role in slowing natural population
recovery (Magnusson 1982, Brazaitis et al. 1988).

Some recent census work has been conducted throughout most of the range of the black caiman. Although it is
widely distributed (principally in the Amazon basin) past overhunting and continued poaching has drastically
reduced populations. Populations of black caiman are considered to be severely depleted in four of the seven
nations in which the species occurs, and are depleted in the remainder. Relatively good populations remain
scattered in isolated areas of Guyana, Peru, and Ecuador, particularly in oxbow lakes and other marshy, non-
riverine wetlands where access is difficult. The population in the Kaw region of French Guiana has been
decimated by hide hunting, and in Bolivia and Colombia black caiman appear to be still widely distributed, but
occur in low numbers. Some Brazilian populations are locally dense but in most areas they represent but a small
fraction of their former levels. While commercial exploitation has been illegal and minimal in recent years, people
throughout the region continue to utilise black caiman for other purposes. The fat is collected for medicinal
purposes and the meat is reportedly used to bait traps for edible tortoises. For human consumption, the meat of
black caiman is considered rank and, in comparison to the meat of Caiman and Paleosuchus, is poorly regarded
by indigenous people, (Ortiz van Halle 1995, Alvarez 1995).

Ecuador is initiating a trial ranching program. In all other countries management programs for the black caiman
are exclusively based on the legal protection of wild populations. However, as in the majority of developing
countries, the enforcement of these laws is difficult.

Columbia

Black caiman were at one time abundant in the Colombian Amazon region from the southern city of Leticia to the
R�o Atacuari along the border with Peru, and in the Putumayo, Caquet�, and lower Apaporis rivers (Medem

58
1981; Plotkin et al. 1983). Commerial hide hunting began in the 1940s and populations were rapidly depleted.
Wild populations of black caiman have been virtually extirpated in Colombia. Surveys by biologists in the 1970s
found very few individuals in the Amazon and Putamayo region (Medem 1981, Plotkin et al. 1983). Based on
interviews in the vicinity of Leticia, Pachon and Rios (1993) believe that little hunting is currently taking place and
populations are slowly recovering. However, only three adults were seen during five diurnal foot surveys, and
none were observed during nocturnal counts by boat. Additional surveys and ecological studies were planned for
1994�95.

Melanosuchus were legally protected in Colombia in 1969 with the implementation of a total ban on hunting
(Resolution No. 411). Hunting and egg collection is also specifically banned for Melanosuchus (INDERENA
Resolution No. 573 of 1969; Plotkin et al. 1983), but little enforcement has been in effect and significant
commercial hide hunting continued into the 1970s. Recently, it has been reported that Melanosuchus has been
removed from the list of totally protected species because population status was judged to be secure in well
protected habitat (Jenkins et al. 1994). One farm was reported to be registered for experimental captive breeding
of black caiman (breeding stock 2 males, 8 females in 1994). However, INDERENA officials have stated that
commercial exploitation would not begin before a wild population monitoring program was established and the
farm registered under CITES regulations (King 1994).

Ecuador

In Ecuador, Asanza (1992) reports that Melanosuchus was heavily exploited between 1930 and 1970, with
approximately 500,000 skins being traded, mostly through Leticia and Manaus. In the 1970s, Medem (King 1973)
believed that Ecuador was the only place where Melanosuchus was not on the verge of extinction. Populations
are known to exist in several parts of the Ecuadorian Amazon, particularly in isolated oxbow lakes. Miyata (in
Groombridge 1982) reports that the species may be relatively common in the lower R�o Aguarico and the R�o
Yasuni-Lagartococha area near the Peruvian border. The Zancudococha population appears to be a healthy one
with an estimated population size of 100 to 150 (Jahoda 1990, Bowes 1992); however, based on two years�
census data, Asanza (pers. comm.) estimated the total population size to be 260, with a mean density of 23/ km.
Asanza (1992) reports that significant populations are still found in the Aguarico River system (Cuyabeno lakes
and river, Imuya Pacuya and Zancudococha lakes, and the Cocaya River), the Napo River system (Jivino,
Indillana, Tipitini and Yasuni rivers, and Limoncocha, Taracoa, Arango, Challuacocha, Panacocha, Garzacocha
and Jatuncocha lakes), the lower Nashino and Cononaco rivers, the lower and middle Curaray River, the lower
Pindoyacu, the lower Yaupi and upper Morona, and the Pastaza River system (Bufeo, Capahuari, and lower
Ishpingo rivers). Population densities in the Cuyabeno region have been relatively stable since 1978, with mean
values of 5.68/km in the lakes and 3.15/km in the lakes and rivers. Densities in Zancudococha (23.5/km) and
Lagartococha (23.6/km) lakes have been high based on five and two years of surveys respectively. However,
Asanza (1992) reports a decline in the population of Melanosuchus in Limoncocha between 1983 and 1990.

Hines and Rice (1992, 1994) conducted caiman censuses in Ecuador during 1992 and 1993 along 18 survey
routes (131.2km total) of optimal habitat. Black caiman were observed at 16 of 17 locations and densities ranged
from 0/km to 13.25/km, with a mean value of 4.65/km. The highest densities were found at Challuacocha
(11�13/km), Lagartococha (up to 13.25/km), and Limoncocha (10.25/km). In a total of 28 surveys, 309
Melanosuchus and 188 Caiman were observed. The size class distribution reflected an abundance of juvenile
animals.

59
The black caiman was not protected in Ecuador by the wildlife resolution of 1970, but is included in the total ban
on export of commercial wildlife (Plotkin et al. 1983). Asanza (1982) reports that Decreto 487 (of 1980) and Ley
No. 74 (1981) prohibit the commercial hunting of all reptiles and the export of indigenous species. The population
in Limoncocha is protected as result of the site being a research station. Efforts are underway to have the
Zancudococha lagoon included in the national park system, and a biological station similar to the one on
Limoncocha established (Asanza, pers. comm.). In 1995�6, population surveys and ecological research on
black caiman in and around the Yasuni National Park were planned by EcoCiencia, an Ecuadorian NGO, as part
of the SUBIR (Sustainable Use of Biological Resources) project.

In the late 1980s, an illegal trade in small (40�120cm TL) live Melanosuchus was reported. Although their final
destination is unknown, numbers of these animals were reported to be illegally exported over the Colombian and
Peruvian borders (Asanza, pers. comm.). At the 1994 CITES meeting, a ranching program for Melanosuchus in
Ecuador was approved. This program will be managed by the government wildlife management authority
INEFAN. However, due to questions pertaining to the readiness of the management program, a two-year zero-
export quota was voluntarily agreed to by the Ecuadorian authorities. Ecuador has drafted a management plan
for the ranching program, and assigned an INEFAN representative to manage it. A three-year trial program will
collect a maximum of 1,500 eggs and/or hatchlings per year, with only one company licensed to participate.
INEFAN and the company will jointly conduct population monitoring. All captive animals will be tagged, and
exported skins will not exceed 2.2m in length. Provisions will also be made to permit export of live animals (up to
15% of the export quota, of one sex only).

Peru

Plotkin et al. (1983) considered the black caiman to be on the verge of extinction in Peru. Historically the species
was common throughout the upper Amazon drainages in Peru, but was depleted by hunting which began around
1950 (Plotkin et al. 1983). Surveys by Otte (1974) found no Melanosuchus along the Sotileja, Heath and the
Pariaman� Rivers, but some black caiman were observed in the upper R�o de las Piedras. Based on
information from caiman hunters and skin buyers, Otte (1974) concluded that exploitable populations were only
found in the upper regions of the Tambopata, Man�, Piedras and Amigo Rivers. More recently, viable
populations were observed in lagoons along the Tampopata River (Plotkin et al. 1983), and some evidence
suggests that populations may be recovering in the Manu-Madre de Dios region. Population surveys have been
conducted in Cocha Cashu in Man� National Park since the early 1970s. Otte (1974) estimated a population
size of 37 in 1971�1972. Similar counts carried out in 1978 suggested a 50�60% increase in population size. A
census in 1982 estimated population size to be 213 (Vasquez 1982�3). During nocturnal counts in Cocha Cashu
(4.0km) by Herron (1985), 99�111 black caiman were sighted (uncorrected population estimate; density =
24.74�27.75/km shoreline), with a population heavily skewed towards juveniles. Researchers studying otters in
the Manu region indicate that the park contains a good population of black caiman, with smaller numbers being
found in the Madre de Dios River, the Rio de los Amigos, the Rio de la Torre, the Rio Tambopata, and the Rio
Heath (C. Schenck and E. Staib, in litt., 6 August 1993). In the Manu park, black caiman were seen in the cochas
(oxbows) of Cashu, Lagarto, Brasco, Salvador, Huarez and Garza.

Another small population remains in the Pacaya-Samiria National Reserve. Nocturnal counts in the Samiria river
found a mean Melanosuchus density of 0.28/km (Verdi et al. 1980). During the early 1970s, Vasquez (1981)
conducted nocturnal counts of black caiman in the Jenaro Herrera region and found densities of 0.46/km in lake

60
habitat to 3.11/ha in swamp areas (4.5ha surveyed). Vasquez (1982�3) suggests that Melanosuchus
populations have recovered to some degree since the decline in illegal hide hunting.

Hunting of black caiman is prohibited in all cases except for subsistence purposes, although in some areas illegal
commercial hunting continues (Plotkin et al. 1983). Ecological studies of Melanosuchus in the Manu region have
been conducted by Otte (1978), Herron (1985, 1991, 1994) and Herron et al. (1990).

Bolivia

Black caiman were historically widespread throughout northern and eastern Bolivia, but were heavily impacted by
hide hunting during the period 1942�1960 (Plotkin et al. 1983). Surveys in 1986�1987 found black caiman to
still be distributed throughout most of its historical range, but in very low numbers (King and Videz Roca 1989).
Of the very few individuals that were encountered, most were juveniles or sub-adults. Recent surveys in certain
parts of the Beni and Santa Cruz lowlands indicate that populations in some areas are still locally abundant.
Melanosuchus was found to be relatively abundant within the Beni Biological Station protected area (Pacheco
1993). Densities in six lagoons ranged from 0.47�19.5 individuals/km. Densities of M. niger in rivers were lower
(to 1.4/km), but Pacheco considers the Beni Biological Station to harbor an important population of this species.
Surveys conducted in rivers in the Rios Blanco y Negro Wildlife Reserve in Santa Cruz have found densities of
1.4/km in the Rio Negro (168km surveyed) and 0.9/km in the Rio Blanco (A. Taber, pers. comm.). Surveys in
lakes have not yet been conducted. Reports also suggest the presence of localized populations in floodplain
lakes along the Rio Itenez within the Noel Kempff Mercado National Park (D. Rumiz, pers. comm).

Prior to 1979, Bolivian laws permitted the legal cropping of wild Melanosuchus populations (Decreto Supremo
08063 of 1967). Hunting was prohibited between 31 July and 1 January, and the minimum legal size was 2.5m
(Medem 1983). Nevertheless these regulations had little effect in controlling the widespread hunting. Presently,
the species is fully protected under Decreto Supremo 16606 of 1979 (Klemm and Navid 1989), but some illegal
hunting continues (King and Videz-Roca 1989). Pacheco (1990a and b, 1993a and b) presents information on
captive breeding and rearing of Melanosuchus in Bolivia.

In August 1990, a total of 25 adult black caiman (>2.2m TL) were released in the Laguna Normandia, located
adjacent to the Beni Biological Station near San Borja. These animals came from a group of approximately 150
captive individuals on the El Dorado cattle ranch. They had been brought there in the late 1970s for the
establishment of a commercial farm. The release project was sponsored by PRODENA, a Bolivian conservation
group, in association with the Beni Biological Station and the owners of El Dorado. Monitoring showed that only a
small percentage of these animals remained in the lagoon (Vaca 1992). Pacheco (1995) reports that 8�10 of the
group remain resident and reproduction was observed in 1995.

Brazil

Black caiman were at one time found throughout much of the Brazilian Amazon, but today have been extirpated
from many of these areas (Plotkin et al. 1983, Brazaitis et al. 1992). Hide hunting was particularly intense in the
early 1950s (Fittkau 1973), but was still in evidence in the late 1970s (Magnusson 1979). Magnusson (1979)
reported a small population of Melanosuchus in the Tapajos National Park. The largest concentration was in a
small lake, Lago das Piranas, where a total of 16 individuals were seen over a distance of 3km. Brazaitis et al.
(1988, 1990a and b, 1992) report that the species is seriously depleted throughout central and southern Brazil.

61
Of 47 sites in the Amazon basin, localized populations were only found at six sites: the R�o Galera in Mato
Grosso, the R�o Madeira (Borba) in Amazonas, the Lago Comprido, Pracuba in Amap�, parts of the Rio
Branco and Rio Ajarani in Rondonia, the Rio Amazonas at Paran� do Trinidade, Amazonas, and the Rio
Uraricoera, Igarap� Grande, in Rondonia.

Magnusson et al. (1994) report a low density of black caiman in the Anavilhanas Archipelago in the Rio Negro,
and that some nesting is taking place. Peres and Carkeek (1993) note that although populations of
Melanosuchus were intensively hunted in the Brazilian Amazon, and that small-scale hunting for meat continues,
populations of both Caiman crocodilus and Melanosuchus niger are recovering in parts of the Amazon and its
major tributaries, and illustrates this claim with their experience in the Rio Juru�. In June�July 1994, R. da
Silveira (pers. comm.) censused over 700km of rivers, streams and lakes within the nearby Mamirau�
Ecological Station. Although these surveys were done during a period of high water, Melanosuchus were
observed at low densities at most sites within the reserve. Population surveys by Silveira during lower water
periods (October) have demonstrated a healthy population of Melanosuchus, with some densities in excess of 30
individuals/km.

In Brazil, commercial hunting, farming or ranching of the black caiman is prohibited. Illegal hunting continues
throughout much of the Amazon. In the Mamirau� Ecological Reserve, dry season hunting for caiman is
widespread, with the meat being sold in Leticia (Colombia) or along the lower Amazon (Par�) as piraruc� fish
(Arapaima gigas) (da Silveira, pers. comm.). Peres and Carkeek (1993) suggest that this trade is widespread in
the Brazilian Amazon. No hide hunting is reported.

Black caiman, Melanosuchus niger, Mamiraua, Brazil, where a substantial population of this
depleted species is reported to be recovering. Photo by J. Thorbjarnarson.

Guyana

Medem (1983) reported that the black caiman was restricted to the upper and middle Essequibo, Rupununi,
Rewa, and Berbice Rivers, as well as to two Amazon basin rivers (the Takatu and the Ireng) in Guyana. Gorzula
62
and Woolford (1990) noted a similar distribution but were unable to confirm the reports from the Berbice River.
Medem�s survey (1983) found black caiman to be close to extinction in Guyana following a period of intensive
hide hunting. During the period of peak hunting, Guyanese residents would apply for permits, then have Brazilian
hide dealers from Boa Vista cross the border and organize hunting parties of local Amerindians (Plotkin et al.
1983). Gorzula and Woolford (1990) reported that large-scale commercial hunting took place from 1955 to 1965,
and that most of the skins went out via Brazil. Some hunting was reported into the 1970s.

The survey by Gorzula and Woolford (1990) found that Melanosuchus populations had apparently made a
recovery in the northern Rupununi region, where they were locally abundant. The overall mean uncorrected
population density was 7.4/km (41.2km surveyed). They estimated the total population in the North Rupununi
Savanna region to be 2,000�4,000 non-hatchlings. Anecdotal reports suggested that a similar population
recovery was taking place downstream to the Tambio Inlet on the Essequibo River.

Following a period of intensive hunting, the Guyanese government initiated a five year ban on caiman hunting in
1968 (Plotkin et al. 1983). As with Caiman, this species was classified as a game animal under the Fisheries
Regulations of 1966 (Klemm and Navid 1989). No management program is currently in operation.

French Guiana

In French Guiana, black caiman are found in the coastal Kaw region in the northeast of the country, principally in
the seasonally flooded grasslands bordering the Kaw River, and in the neighboring Savanne Angelique swamp.
Smaller numbers of black caiman were also reported from the area between the lower Approuague River and the
Ounary River located to the east of the Kaw, and in the small Ouapou Creek to the south of the Montagnes de
Kaw. Formerly, Melanosuchus was also known from areas to the west of the Kaw including the Gabrielle Creek,
and the Mahury River, but has since been extirpated. Along the border with Brazil black caiman were known from
the lower Oyapock River and its tributaries, but have been virtually eliminated from this area by Brazilian hunters
(Plotkin et al. 1983).

The population in the vicinity of the Kaw was reported to be quite large, but has been severely impacted in recent
years by hide hunting (Plotkin et al. 1983). Recent surveys by Behra (1994a) have confirmed the presence of
Melanosuchus in the Kaw Swamp and in the Approuague River, but reported that they are absent from the
Onanary and Kourouai Rivers. In the Approuague River, the caiman are living in an estuarine environment near
islands where freshwater enters the river (Behra 1994a). Most of the animals observed by Behra during a 1993
survey were juveniles, and he suspects that the population increased between 1989 and 1993.

Black caiman were protected in French Guiana in 1968 (Plotkin et al. 1983) but this law apparently did little to
stop the commerce in Melanosuchus skins. Stronger legislation was enacted in 1975 which was not immediately
effective, but resulted in officials seizing skins and appears to have reduced illegal trade (Plotkin et al. 1983).
Black caiman are included in Article 1 of the Decree No. 77- 1295, which provides complete protection
throughout the country (Behra, in litt 13 July 1990). This species is also protected in the newly designated Kaw
Swamp Sanctuary (Behra 1990). However, Behra (1994a) reports that night time hunting of other crocodilians is
allowed, making protection of black caiman difficult.

63
Black caiman, Melanosuchus niger, Kaw River, French Guiana. Photo by M. Blanc.

Venezuela

Donoso-Barros (1966a, 1996b) reported Melanosuchus in Venezuela, citing a specimen from the Rio Negro
originating from the region south of Cocuy. Gorzula and Paolillo (1986) noted the imprecise locality data, and
cited Medem (1983) for a lack of confirmed specimens from Venezuela. Based on their observations in Bolivar
and Amazonas states they concluded that no firm evidence suggested Melanosuchus to be found within
Venezuela. King (1991) reported a black caiman killed just southeast of Puerto Ayacucho (presumably in or
around the Rio Cataniapo) in 1967 by Jay Wilson, a caiman hide dealer. King (1991) suggests that this area and
other sites in the upper Orinoco be revisited to confirm this record.

Priority projects

High priority

Population Status Surveys: The lack of population status information throughout the species� range is a major
limiting factor for the development of conservation and management programs for this species. Countries such
as Colombia are interested in developing management programs based on controlled commercial utilization,
once adequate information has been obtained on the species status in that country. Very little information is
available from throughout most of Brazil, Bolivia, French Guiana (particularly the Kaw Swamp), and Peru. There
is anecdotal evidence that population recovery is taking place in certain areas, and this needs to be documented
through systematic survey work. Historically, Marajo island at the mouth of the Amazon held huge populations of
black caiman which were killed off by ranchers. Recent reports of a recovering population should be investigated.
In Ecuador, basic surveys have been carried out, but need to be continued in the form of population monitoring
as part of the ranching program.

Basic Ecological Studies: Although it has a wide distribution and in some areas is
found in locally dense populations, few ecological studies have been conducted on
Melanosuchus. Certainly, in comparison to Caiman crocodilus, very little is known
about black caiman. Ecological investigations now underway in Brazil at the

64
Mamirau� Ecological Station should be continued and expanded. Ecological studies should be incorporated into
the ranching and population monitoring program in Ecuador.

Initiate management programs in Brazil: Brazaitis et al. (1988) strongly urged the development of a
coordinated management program for black caiman and the other crocodilians in Brazil. This program should
include long-term ecological investigations in areas such as the R�o Guapore (near Guajara Mirim and Costa
Marques) and the R�o Galera in Mato Grosso. Several sites in Amazonas state, particularly the Mamirau�
Ecological Reserve, are good candidates as well.

Regional management coordination: Coordinated efforts between the range states of this species to develop
compatible sustainable use programs and to control illicit trade are needed. Efforts need to be directed at
controlling the illegal sale of caiman meat (including international control of the trade in meat between Brazil,
Colombia, and Peru, particularly in Leticia) as a first step towards evaluating the potential for controlled
commercial management. Initiatives to achieve this are underway under the auspices of the Amazonian Treaty
and under the leadership and coordination of Colombia.

Visit these reference and conservation sites dedicated to the crocodilian species.

Crocodilians: Natural History & Conservation

Crocodile Specialist Group

The Gator Hole

Tim Wiegmann's Crocodile Library

kingsnake.com: Alligator & Crocodilian Forum

Animal Diversity Web: Order Crocodylia

The Crocodile Hunter Fan Site

Ask a Croc Expert

Dr. Adam Britton first became fascinated by betoothed crocodyliforms when he was about 5 or 6 years old.

Crocodilians have been his obsession ever since. The doctor of zoology is currently a research officer with Wildlife

Management International. His research has focused on crocodilian biology, behavior, ecology and conservation

management as well as bioacoustics and sensory capabilities of crocodiles. Britton has consulted on a number of

documentaries and movies on crocodiles, including Discovery Channel's Ultimate Guide to Crocodiles and Crocodile

Dundee in L.A.. Britton is also the author of crocodilian.com, a comprehensive online guide to information on

crocodiles and alligators.

65
 Read Dr. Britton's responses to your croc questions, below.

Crocodile Predators
Crocodile Speed
Croc/Human Interaction
Crocodile Size
Crocodile Hunting
Crocodile Defense
Alligators vs. Crocodiles
Crocodile Mothering
Crocodile Infections
Crocodile Bites
Crocs in Water
Croc Body Heat

doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2006.07.009

Copyright © 2006 Elsevier Ltd All rights reserved.

Genetic structure, population dynamics, and

conservation of Black caiman (Melanosuchus niger)

Benoit de Thoisya, ,
, Tomas Hrbekb, c, Izeni Pires Fariasb, William Rangel Vasconcelosb and Anne
Lavergnea, d

a
Association Kwata, BP 672, F-97335 Cayenne cedex, French Guiana

b
Universidade Federal do Amazonas (UFAM), Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Laboratório de Evolução e
Genética Animal, Mini Campus ICB, Av. Gen. Rodrigo Octávio Jordão Ramos, 3000 – Coroado, CEP 69077-000,
Manaus, AM, Brazil

c
University of Puerto Rico – Rio Piedras, Biology Department, Box 23360, UPR Station San Juan, PR 00931-
3360, Puerto Rico

d
Institut Pasteur de la Guyane, BP 6010, F-97306 Cayenne cedex, French Guiana

Received 27 March 2006;

revised 18 June 2006;

66
accepted 17 July 2006.

Available online 27 September 2006.

Abstract

Microsatellite DNA polymorphisms were screened in seven populations of the largest Neotropical predator, the
Black caiman Melanosuchus niger (n = 169), originating from Brazil, French Guiana and Ecuador. Eight loci were
used, for a total of 62 alleles. The Ecuadorian population had the lowest number of alleles, heterozygosity and
gene diversity; populations of the Guianas region exhibited intermediate diversities; highest values were recorded
in the two populations of the Amazon and Rio Negro. During the last century Melanosuchus populations have
been reduced to 1–10% of their initial levels because of hunting pressure, but no strong loss of genetic diversity
was observed. Both the inter-locus g-test and the Pk distribution suggested no recent important recovery and/or
expansion of current populations. On a global scale, the inter-population variation of alleles indicated strong
differentiation (FST = 0.137).

Populations were significantly isolated from each other, with rather limited gene flow; however, these gene flow
levels are sufficiently high for recolonization processes to effectively act at regional scales. In French Guiana,
genetic structuring is observed between populations of two geographically close but ecologically distinct habitats,
an estuary and a swamp. Similar divergence is observed in Brazil between geographically proximate “black
water” and “white water” populations. As a consequence, the conservation strategy of the Black caiman should
include adequate ecosystem management, with strong attention to preservation of habitat integrity. Distribution of
genetic diversity suggests that current populations originated from the central Amazonian region. Dispersal of the
species may thus have been deeply influenced by major climatic changes during the Holocene/Pleistocene
period, when the Amazonian hydrographic networks were altered. Major ecological changes such as glaciations,
marine transgressions and a hypothesized presence of an Amazonian Lake could have resulted in extension of
Black caiman habitats followed by isolation.

Keywords: Black caiman; Melanosuchus niger; DNA microsatellite polymorphism; Population dynamics

Article Outline
1. Introduction

2. Material and methods

2.1. Study sites and sample collection

2.2. Microsatellite genotyping

2.3. Genetic analysis

3. Results

3.1. Genetic diversity

3.2. Gene flow and structuring of populations

67
 3.3. Population trends

4. Discussion

Acknowledgements

References

Journal of Herpetology
Article: pp. 181–192 | Abstract

Volume 33, Issue 2 (June 1999)

Diets of Spectacled and Black Caiman in the Anavilhanas

Archipelago, Central Amazonia, Brazil
Ronis Da Silveira and William E. Magnusson

Coordenação de Pesquisas em Ecologia, Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia, Caixa Postal 478,
69011-970 Manaus Amazonas, Brasil

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Stomach contents were collected from 213 Caiman crocodilus with snout-vent lengths (SVL) between 15
cm and 115 cm, and 25 Melanosuchus niger with SVLs from 15 cm to 95 cm, in the Anavilhanas
Archipelago, Rio Negro, Central Amazonia. The prey types consumed by the two species were generally
similar. However, fish were common in the diet of C. crocodilus but absent from the M. niger. Snails
(Pomacea) occurred in 24% of stomachs of M. niger, but in only 2% of C. crocodilus. The mean mass of
food and the mean proportion of fish consumed increased, while the mean proportion of terrestrial
invertebrates decreased significantly with the size class of C. crocodilus. The mean proportion of molluscs
consumed increased significantly with the size class of M. niger, but there was no relationship between the
mean mass of food or the mean proportion of other prey categories and size class in this species. However,
the sample included only subadults. The mean size of all prey consumed, and of fish, increased
significantly with size of C. crocodilus. However, there was no relationship between the mean size of prey
in the categories terrestrial invertebrates, shrimps, or crabs, and the size of C. crocodilus. The mean size of
all prey consumed was positively related to the size of M. niger. The mean mass of food consumed by C.
crocodilus varied with the water body type (lake or canal), but there was no effect of season as indexed by
the water level of the Rio Negro. Seasonal variation in the proportion of fish, terrestrial invertebrates, and
shrimps consumed by C. crocodilus differed among water body types. Empty stomachs occurred in 24% of

68
the C. crocodilus and 20% of the M. niger. Individuals with food in the stomach had eaten small volumes,
suggesting that the caiman are unlikely to impact fisheries in the region.

Wilderness and Environmental Medicine: Vol. 17, No. 4, pp. 267–270.

Caiman Bite
George Hertner, MD, FACEP

From the Memorial Hospital Emergency Department and Department of Hyperbaric Medicine,
Colorado Springs, CO

Caiman crocodilus, commonly called the spectacled caiman, is a very widely distributed resident of the
western-hemisphere wetlands. Caiman bites to humans can cause trauma and infection. There are few reports of
caiman bites; however, there is information about bites by other members of the same family, including Alligator
mississippiensis. A case of acute caiman bite to the hand is described, including initial treatment and outcome.
The bite resulted in multiple lacerations, interarticular fracture, and infection. One of the lacerations was closed,
and the patient was started on moxifloxacin hydrochloride. Preventive care and treatment including wound care
and antibiotics are discussed. The patient recovered with only a slight long-term functional deficit.

Key Words: caiman, bite, attack, alligator, crocodile, Caiman crocodilus

Introduction Return to Top

Caiman crocodilus (Figure 1 ), commonly called the spectacled caiman, belongs to the family Crocodylidae
and subfamily Alligatoridae. All caimans are quite violent during initial capture and are unpredictable when
aggravated.1,2 Caiman bites to humans pose several clinical problems.3–10 The force of the bite itself produces
crush injuries, fractures, and soft tissue injury. Bite force is proportional to animal size and complicated by head
thrashing.10 The teeth often leave multiple puncture wounds, and the animals tend to thrash once they have
bitten down, leading to skin tears and further injury. The location of caiman habitat and attacks could lead to
drowning. Delayed sequelae could include infection, tetanus, and retained foreign body.

Case report Return to Top

The patient, a 37-year-old man, traveled to Brazil during January with a group of researchers doing collections
and specimen study for an upcoming museum exhibit. They spent a part of their time on the Rio Negro section of
the Amazon Basin, approximately 150 km south of the equator. The patient was involved in catch-and-release
studies of caimans, concerned mostly with size data. While being captured in a wire snare, a 180-cm spectacled

69
caiman bit down on the patient's left hand. The caiman, once closing its mouth, proceeded to shake and bite
down a second time with more thrashing, followed by a voluntary release of the patient's hand. Control of the
caiman was then gained. Scientific measurements were performed and the caiman was released. Immediate
medical attention was available from an on-site physician. The patient had received a crush injury to the hand, as
well as 12 puncture or tearing skin wounds to the fingers. All the wounds were smaller than 1 cm in length with
the exception of a longer tear to the lateral portion of the forth digit. Clinically, the patient was neurovascularly
intact but had a significant amount of pain. Tendon function was normal. Several punctures were at joint lines.
Because of pain, evaluation for bony injuries was difficult; however, no obvious bone or ligament injury was seen.
No radiographs could be performed secondary to the remote location of the group.

The patient was taken to base camp, which was a riverboat, for further treatment. Persistent bleeding
continued from the fourth digit injury. A wedding band was present on this finger. Ring removal was difficult
because of fairly immediate swelling and pain. A digital block was performed and the ring was removed. The
large wound was explored and irrigated with 2 L of sterile water and then loosely approximated with 4-0 Prolene
with simple interrupted sutures. Loose approximation was deemed necessary because of the large size of the
wound. Bleeding then stopped. All other wounds were irrigated and explored. No foreign bodies were found.

The patient was started on moxifloxacin hydrochloride 400 mg orally per day. Bacitracin Zinc-Neosporin
sulfate-Polymyxin B sulfate topical antibiotic ointment was applied in addition to bandages. Oral acetaminophen
and oxycodone were also dispensed for pain control. The patient's tetanus immunization was up-to-date. Initially,
no immobilization was used because of patient preference secondary to work activities. The patient was given
instructions regarding limiting use, wound care, and daily re-exams with a group physician. Within 12 hours, the
patient was experiencing increasing pain and edema. On exam, he had considerable edema and erythema to all
the digits of the left hand. Range of motion was greatly limited because of pain and swelling. Most notable was
the proximal interphalangeal joint of the third finger. No abnormal drainage was seen from any of the wounds.
The patient's hand and wrist were immobilized in a short arm volar splint. During the following days he had
persistent pain, edema, and erythema, which gradually decreased (Figure 2 ). He did not develop any fever,
drainage, or lymph node swelling. On day 5, he reached an airport and began travel home. After arrival to the
United States, he saw a hand surgeon on day 8.

The patient was found to have an intra-articular fracture of the distal portion of the proximal phalanx of the
third digit. No fracture was seen at the site of the large, partially closed laceration of the fourth digit. His pain and
swelling had decreased, and he completed a 14-day course of the moxifloxacin hydrochloride. At 5 months
postinjury, he has continuing problems with the use of this digit and is considering surgical repair secondary to
decreased range of motion of the third digit of his left hand.

Discussion Return to Top

Caimans are found throughout lowland, wetland, and river habitats of Central America and South America. C
crocodilus has the widest distribution of any of the Alligatoridae. The endangered black caiman (Melanosuchus
niger) and several subspecies of caimans share the same habitat. As adults, male C crocodilus are relatively
small to medium sized, ranging from 2 to 3 m in length; adult females are slightly smaller. Adult caimans range
from 1.5 m in the dwarf caiman (Paleosuchus palpebrosus) to 6 m in the black caiman. The common name
70
(spectacled caiman) refers to a bony ridge between the front eyes that gives the appearance of spectacles.
Dentition includes a range of 68 to 86 teeth. Teeth are often lost during feeding and are replaced. Caimans are
aggressive hunters but tend to avoid human contact. Their carnivorous diet ranges from fish and invertebrates to
large mammals and reptiles. Females are sexually mature at 1.2 m and between 4 and 7 years. They lay 14 to
40 eggs during the wet season of May to August and aggressively protect their nests from anything that
approaches until hatching at near 90 days. Very little literature regarding caiman bites or attacks is available,
especially from Central America and South America. More information is available about Alligator
mississippiensis from studies in the southern United States.3–5,8 Information is also available about crocodiles
from Australian and African studies.6,8 Two studies that specifically discuss black caimans concentrate on the
description of the attack and are limited in any clinical information.11,12

Prompt and aggressive wound care is important for all bite wounds. Initial treatment should include providing a
safe environment for the patient and care providers. Local wound care and immobilization at the scene should be
followed by medical care. Care should include recognition of all injuries and appreciation for possible unseen
problems. Exploration and radiographs for foreign bodies are paramount. Treatment should include tetanus
prophylaxis and thorough wound irrigation and debridement. For most wounds, healing gradually by secondary
intention or delayed primary closure will decrease incidence of infection. Some studies suggest wound culture,4,7
though this may apply more to obviously infected wounds. Little is published on the bacterial content of caiman
bites; however, there is information about bites and oral flora of A mississippiensis: bacteria are predominately
gram negative, and organisms include Aeromonas hydrophila, Proteus vulgaris, Pseudomonas, and
Clostridium.3–6,8 If the flora is similar for caimans, it would be logical to treat with broad-spectrum antibiotics with
good gram-negative coverage such as quinolones, third-generation cephalosporins, or antipseudomonal
penicillins.

Conclusions Return to Top

This case demonstrates the need for proper care of a patient after sustaining a caiman bite. A high level of
suspicion for deep injuries and infection should be maintained. Certainly, caiman bites and attacks may be very
similar to those of alligators and crocodiles, but little literature is available for the former. Additional studies would
be required to determine if the oral flora, bite severity, incidence of infection, and frequency of attacks are
different for caimans from other members of the family Crocodylidae. Educational points for potential victims
would include avoiding nests especially during the wet season, avoiding handling or cornering caimans without
proper experience and equipment, and seeking immediate medical attention for all bites. Most crocodilians, if
given the chance, would choose to avoid humans. However, because of increasing human populations and an
ever-widening ecological footprint, humans do not always give them that chance. In certain areas some types of
crocodiles and alligators are considered nuisance animals and have to be destroyed or removed.

References Return to Top

1. Britton A., Caiman crocodilus. Available at:

www.flmnh.ufl.edu/natsci/herpetology/brittoncrocs/csp_ccro.htm.

71
 Accessed May 24, 2005.

2. Woodward AR, Cook B., Nuisance-alligator (Alligator

mississippiensis) control in Florida, USA. Crocodiles. Proceedings of
the 15th Working Meeting of the Crocodile Specialist Group,
Veradero, Cuba, January 17–20, 2000. IUCN—The World
Conservation Union. Gland, Switzerland; 2000:446–455.

3. Burgess GH, Callahan MT, Howard RJ. Sharks, alligators,

barracudas and other biting animals in Florida waters. J Fla Med
Assoc. 1997;84:428–432.

4. Flandry F, Lisecki EJ, Domingue GJ, Nichols RL, Greer DL,

Haddad RJ. Initial antibiotic therapy for alligator bites:
characterization of the oral flora of Alligator mississippiensis. South
Med J. 1989;82:262–266.

5. Howard RJ, Burgess GH. Surgical hazards posed by marine and

freshwater animals in Florida. Am J Surg. 1993;166:563–567.

6. Langley RL. Alligator attacks on humans in the United States.

Wilderness Environ Med. 2005;3:119–124.

7. Meskisic AP, Wardill JR. Crocodile attacks in the Northern Territory

of Australia. Med J Aust. 1992;157:715–754.

8. Raynor AC, Bingham HG, Caffee HH, Dell P. Alligator bites and
related infections. J Fla Med Assoc. 1983;70:107–110.

9. Vanwersch K. Crocodile bite injury in Southern Malawi. Trop Doct.

1998;28:221–222.

10. Caldicott DG, Croser D, Manolis C, Webb G, Britton A. Crocodile

attack in Australia: an analysis of its incidence and review of the
pathology and management of crocodilian attacks in general.
Wilderness Environ Med. 2005;16:143–159.

11. Evans P, Wilkinson P. Black caiman attack. Crocodile Specialist

Group Newsletter. 1997;16:35–6.

12. Hall PM. Dangerous to man? A record of an attack by a black

caiman in Guyana. Herp Rev. 1991;22:9–11.

• 关于 Population genetic analysis of Caiman crocodilus

(Linnaeus, 1758) from South Ame 的问题
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 • 文发布者：来源：寻医问药网
• 关于 Population genetic analysis of Caiman crocodilus (Linnaeus, 1758) from South Ame 的原因,关于
Population genetic analysis of Caiman crocodilus (Linnaeus, 1758) from South Ame 的相关知识。
ABSTRACT

The genetic structure of Caiman crocodilus was investigated using a 1085 bp mtDNA fragment of the
cytochrome b gene. Inferences were based on 125 individuals from nine localities in Peru, Brazil and French
Guiana. With the exception of Mamirauá Lake, Anavilhanas Archipelago and the Tapará Community which show a
signal of demographic expansion, the sampled localities are in a mutation-drift genetic equilibrium. Divergence
between the Amazon basin and extra-Amazon basin localities is significant; however, inference from Nested Clade
Analysis cannot distinguish between continuous range expansion, long distance colonization or past fragmentation;
however, past fragmentation is unlikely due to low number of mutational steps separating these two regions. The
divergence is probably maintained by the reduced ability of C. crocodilus to cross salt water barriers. Within the
Amazon basin, continuous range expansion without isolation-by-distance is the most likely process causing
genetic structuring. The observed genetic patterns are compatible with the ecology of C. crocodilus, and history of
human exploitation. As commercial hunting depleted more valuable species, C. crocodilus expanded its range and
ecological niche, prompting hunters to harvest it. Following a period of intense hunting, C. crocodilus is now
experiencing recovery and a second population expansion especially in protected areas.

Key words: genetic structure, phylogeography, genetic diversity, demographic expansion, cytochrome b, Caiman
crocodilus.

Introduction

The study of spatial and temporal distribution of intraspecific genetic variability is one of the principal foci of
molecular ecology. They provide important data that shed light on evolutionary processes and spatio-temporal
dynamics of often complex natural populations of the Neotropics. It is these evolutionary processes that allow
species to adapt to dynamically changing environments that should be conserved (Smith et al., 1997; Smith et al.,
2001). Therefore, molecular ecological studies can provide vital information for the conservation and management
of biological diversity.

Brazil, and in particular Amaz?nia, is rich in biodiversity (Myers et al., 2000). Of the seven alligatorid
crocodilians (family Alligatoridae), five to six species occur in Brazil and four to five of those occur in Amaz?nia.
The Brazilian species are classified in the genera Caiman, Melanosuchus and Paleosuchus. Melanosuchus is
restricted to the Amazon, Essequibo and Oiapoque basins, while Paleosuchus is also found in the Orinoco basin
and coastal drainages of The Guianas and the littoral of Brazil. Caiman has a much wider distribution, and is found
from southern Mexico to northern Argentina, including all major South American drainages. Caiman crocodilus
(the spectacled caiman) can reach 2.5 m of total body length. Females reach sexual maturity at three to four years
of age (Staton and Dixon, 1977), the same age as Alligator mississipiensis, which is much less than the average
age of nine years at female sexual maturity found in other crocodilian species (Brisbin Jr., 1988).

The taxonomy of Caiman is not firmly established, but most recent taxonomic studies recognize the species C.

73
crocodilus, C. yacare and C. latirostris (Busack and Pandya, 2001). Caiman latirostris is found in the Paraná and
S?o Francisco River basins, and C. yacare maily occurs in the Pantanal and Bolivian basins but also extends along
the Madeira River into the Amazon basin. Caiman crocodilus is the most widely distributed species, found from
southern Mexico south to the Amazon River basin (Ross, 1998). Caiman crocodilus has been classified into three
subspecies in addition to the nominal subspecies. However, the only analysis that investigated morphological
differentiation among regions of occurrence, and thus the validity of these subspecies, failed to show any
consistent differences among the subspecies, rejecting their validity (Busack and Pandya, 2001). Caiman yacare,
which sometimes is included as a subspecies of C. crocodilus, was significantly differentiated from C. crocodilus
at a series of morphological and morphometric traits (Busack and Pandya, 2001).

Populations of C. crocodilus became severely threatened by the hide trade between 1960 and 1969, when more
than 1.5 million skins were exported legally from the Brazilian Amazon (Smith, 1980). Harvest started focusing on
C. crocodilus when commercially more desirable species, such as Melanosuchus niger, became too severely
depleted to be harvested profitably. A little more than two decades thereafter, in studies conducted between 1993
and 1996 in the Jaú National Park, Rebêlo and Lugli (2001) found little demographic evidence of past
overexploitation. The authors attributed the apparent well being of C. crocodilus in this area to a demographic
recovery from past overexploitation. A pattern of demographic recovery is also observed in other regions of
Amaz?nia (George Rebêlo personal communication).

Little is known about population genetic structuring and gene-flow patterns of C. crocodilus. Up to now, the
only population genetic study is that of Farias et al. (2004) which investigated C. crocodilus from two localities in
Brazil (Piaga?u-Purus Reserve and Janauacá Lake) and one locality in French Guiana (Approuague River). The
authors found a signal of population expansion and high levels of genetic polymorphism in all three populations.
They also found significant genetic differentiation between French Guiana and Brazil. However, the sampling
scheme of Farias et al. (2004) was inadequate to discriminate among alternative historical processes underlying the
observed differentiation between French Guiana and Brazil. It was also unable to test the hypothesis of panmixia
within the Amazon basin.

The objective of this study was to quantify genetic variability and its spatial distribution in C. crocodilus. We
used these patterns to test two specific hypotheses: 1) have C. crocodilus populations experienced a demographic
and genetic recovery, as hypothesized by Rebêlo and Lugli (2001) and Farias et al. (2004); and 2) does C.
crocodilus of the Amazon basin form a panmictic population, as alluded to in Farias et al. (2004) and observed in
other large Amazonian vertebrates (Cantanhede et al., 2005; Hrbek et al., 2005).

Materials and Methods

Samples

Samples of caudal scutes were collected from 125 individuals at nine localities during the years 2002, 2003 and
2004. The nine localities were: Approuague River (Kaw Swamps N.R.) in French Guiana; Ua?á River (A.I. Ua?á)
in Amapá State, Brazil; S?o Miguel Island and the Tapará Community in Pará State, Brazil; the Anavilhanas
Archipelago (E.E. Anavilhanas), Janauacá Lake, lower Purus River (Piaga?u-Purus RDS) and Mamirauá Lake
74
(Mamirauá RDS) in Amazonas State, Brazil; and Pacaya-Samíria National Reserve in Peru (Figure 1). The
majority of the samples was collected at night, and samples were preserved in 95% ethanol at ambient temperature
until being processed in the laboratory.

Laboratory protocol

Total genomic DNA was extracted using a standard phenol/chloroform method and precipitated with 70%
ethanol (Sambrook et al., 1989). The mitochondrial cytochrome b gene was amplified via Polymerase Chain
Reaction (PCR) using the primers L14254 (5’-ATGACCCACCAACTACG AAAAT-3’) from Glenn et al. (2002)
and H15982 (5’-TCC CTRGCTTTGGTAGCCAGG-3’) from Farias et al. (2004).

PCR reactions were carried out in a final volume of 25 mL and contained 11.7 mL of ddH2O, 3 mL of MgCl2
(25mM), 2.5 mL of dNTPs (10 mM), 2.5 mL of 10x buffer (100 mM Tris-HCl, 500 mM KCl), 2 mL of each
primer (2 mM), 0.3 mL of Taq DNA Polymerase (5 U/mL) and 1 mL of DNA (concentration varied between 50 ng
and 100 ng). PCR conditions were as follows: denaturation at 92 °C for 35 s, primer annealing at 55 °C for 35 s,
and primer extension at 72 °C for 90 s; these three steps were repeated 35 times, and followed by a final extension
at 72 °C for 5 min. Purification of products was done using the GFXTM PCR DNA Kit (Amersham Bioscience,
S?o Paulo) following the manufacturer’s protocol.

Purified PCR products were sequenced directly. Each reaction contained 4 mL of amplified DNA product (~ 30
ng), 2 mL of primer (L14254 for the 5’ segment of the amplified DNA fragment, and L14731 (5’-TCGTGCCAT
GAATTTGAG-3’) from Glenn et al. (2002) as an internal primer for the 3’ portion of our DNA fragment), 2 mL of
5x replacement buffer (400 mM Tris-HCl pH 9.0, 10 mM MgCl2) and 2 mL of DYEnamic ET Dye Terminator
mix (Amersham Bioscience, S?o Paulo). Cycle sequencing PCR conditions were as follows: denaturation at 93 °C
for 15 s, primer annealing at 50 °C for 35 s, and primer extension at 60 °C for 120 s; these three steps were
repeated 35 times. Resulting fluorescently labeled product was precipitated using a mixture of 70% ethanol and
175 mM ammonium acetate. Precipitated DNA product was resuspended in Hi-Di Formamide, and resolved on a
MegaBACE 1000 automatic DNA analysis system (Amersham Bioscience, S?o Paulo) using the manufacturer’s
recommended settings.

Data verification

Identity of the 125 DNA products was verified by comparing the data with cytochrome b sequences of Alligator
mississippiensis (AF318548-AF318557) (Glenn et al., 2002), Melanosuchus niger and Caiman crocodilus
(AY462456-AY462487) (Farias et al., 2004), and C. crocodilus (NC002744) (Janke et al., 2001) deposited in
GenBank. Sequences were aligned by eye in the program BioEdit (Hall, 1999), and conceptually translated into
amino acids. The 1085 bp alignment did not show insertions or deletions, and translation produced no unexpected
stop codons.

Intraspecific analytical methods

Relative contributions of historical and ongoing processes are not easy to distinguish, thus various strategies
75
have been proposed (Templeton et al., 1987; Bernatchez, 2001). In this study we used the Nested Clade Analysis
(NCA) developed by Templeton and colleagues (Templeton and Sing, 1993; Templeton et al., 1995; Templeton,
2001; 2004). The program TCS 1.18 (Clement et al., 2000) was used for haplotype network estimation following
the cladogram estimation rules laid out in Templeton et al. (1992) and elaborated in Templeton (1998; 2004). The
program Geodis 2.0 (Posada et al., 2000) was used to test significant changes in haplotype and nested clade
geographic distribution relative to other haplotypes and nested clades within their higher-level nesting clades
(Templeton et al., 1995). The program PAUP* 4.0b10 (Swofford, 2002) was used to estimate a Neighbor Joining
tree based on FST values.

The number of segregating sites between sequences (S), Nei’s (1987) nucleotide diversity (p), Nei’s (1987) gene
diversity (), and Watterson’s (1975) theta (q) were calculated using the programs Arlequin ver. 2000 (Schneider et
al., 2000) and DnaSP (Rozas et al., 2003). These programs were also used to compute pair-wise FST statistics
(Weir and Cockerham, 1984), Analysis of Molecular Variance (AMOVA) (Excoffier et al., 1992), and tests of
selective neutrality of Fu (1997) and Tajima (1989). Fu’s Fs is in general more powerful than the test of Tajima in
detecting demographic events.

Wright’s inbreeding coefficient (F), the classic population genetic measure, was used to characterize
intrapopulational variation and differentiation between populations. We used the method of Cockerham and Weir
(1993) to estimate FST. Statistical significance of F values was estimated using bootstrapping implemented in
Arlequin 2000 (Schneider et al., 2000), and adjusted using the method of Bonferroni for multiple comparison
(Rice, 1989). We tested the hypothesis of isolation by distance using the Mantel test (Mantel, 1967) implemented
in the program Arlequin ver. 2000 (Schneider et al., 2000), estimating the significance of correlation between
matrix of ln FST values and between-locality river distances with 10000 permutations.

Analysis of Molecular Variance (AMOVA) (Excoffier et al., 1992) tests if molecular variation is non-randomly
distributed among user-defined or natural groups. In this study we used AMOVA to test two hypotheses: 1) that
samples from the Amazon basin do not have a significantly different genetic composition from samples originating
in the non-Amazonian Atlantic Ocean drainage systems, and 2) that sampling localities from the Amazon basin are
not genetically differentiated from each other. Both test the null hypothesis of panmixia, however, at different
hierarchical levels. Inferences from AMOVA were confirmed by Raymond and Rousset’s test of exact population
differentiation (Raymond and Rousset, 1995).

Results

We sequenced 1085 base pairs (bp) of the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene in 125 individuals sampled from
nine localities (Figure 1). We found a total of 38 haplotypes (Tables 1 and 2) that included one common haplotype;
this haplotype (H1) is the most frequent one and is widely distributed, two characteristics that are representative of
a most likely ancestral haplotype (Castelloe and Templeton, 1994). The conceptual translation of the 1085 bp
fragment in the program BioEdit (Hall, 1999) resulted in a sequence of 361 amino acids without unexpected stop
codons, confirming that we have not amplified and sequenced nuclear pseudogenes. We also found an incomplete
stop codon at the end of cytochrome b characteristic of crocodilians (Glenn et al., 2002). A characteristic mtDNA
anti-G bias (Zhang and Hewitt, 1996) was observed in all sequences. Haplotypes are deposited in GenBank under
76
the accession numbers DQ246626 to DQ246663.

In the NCA (Templeton et al., 1995) we encountered two levels at which we could not reject the null hypothesis
of no association of geographic distance and distribution of genetic diversity. Nesting scheme and significant
levels are shown in Figure 2. Using the 14 July 2004 NCA interpretational key (see
http://darwin.uvigo.es/software/geodis. html), we inferred continuous range expansion, long distance colonization
or past fragmentation in nesting level 3-1 (Table 3). This inference pertains to the contrast between sampling
localities from the Amazon basin and those outside the Amazon basin. For localities from within the Amazon basin
we infer continuous range expansion at level 2-2 (Table 3).

Hierarchical AMOVA analysis (Excoffier et al., 1992) implemented in the program Arlequin ver. 2000
(Schneider et al., 2000) was used to investigate differentiation between the sampling localities of the Amazon basin
and those of the Atlantic coast drainages. Results show that 35.30% of variation occurs between the two groups,
6.97% occurs among localities within the two groups, and 57.73% occurs within sampling localities. The genetic
difference between the Amazon basin and the Atlantic coast drainages is significant (FCT = 0.3530, p = 0.023),
and is graphically illustrated in Figure 3.

A second AMOVA analysis concentrated exclusively on the Amazon basin. When the Amazon basin was treated
as one group, 8.39% of the observed genetic variation occurred between localities, and 91.61% within localities.
However, among locality differentiation is significant (FST = 0.0839, p < 0.001). Global test of exact population
differentiation (Raymond and Rousset, 1995) also supported the hypothesis of differentiation among localities (p <
0.001). We tested if this differentiation may be due to isolation-by-distance by testing for significant association of
geographic distance and genetic divergence of sampled localities using the permutational procedure of Mantel
(1967). Results of the Mantel test indicate that isolation-by-distance is not a significant structuring factor, neither
for all populations analyzed (r = 0.4621, p = 0.058), nor for the Amazon basin only (r = 0.1036, p = 0.354).
Estimates of the gene flow parameter Nm derived from FST values indicate that high levels of genetic exchange
exist between nearly all sampled localities (Table 4).

Analyses of mutation-drift equilibria (Tajima, 1989; Fu, 1997) indicate that almost all sampled localities are in a
genetic equilibrium (Table 5). Only for the Anavilhanas Archipelago, the Mamirauá Lake and the Tapará
Community does Fu’s Fs test show a significant genetic disequilibrium. However, when the Amazon basin is
treated as one large population, both statistics indicate a significant genetic disequilibrium (Tajima’s D = -2.548, p
< 0.0001; Fu’s Fs = -30.965, p < 0.0001).

Discussion

Cytochrome b polymorphism and genetic equilibria tests

Gene diversity encountered in the present study was high ( = 0.733; 1085 bp), and comparable to the values ( =
0.692; 1142 bp) found in the study of Farias et al. (2004). These values are much higher than the value observed
for Alligator mississippiensis ( = 0.153; 1317 bp) by Glenn et al. (2002). These values indicate that Caiman
crocodilus populations retain high levels of genetic diversity in spite of historical events which reduced its
77
population size. Neither the hypothesized climatic changes in the Amazon basin (Ab’Saber, 1977), nor recent
commercial overexploitation (Smith, 1980; Da Silveira and Thorbjarnarson, 1999) appear to have affected the gene
diversity of C. crocodilus populations. In contrast to C. crocodilus, the only other alligatorid crocodilian for which
a comparable data set has been generated, the American alligator A. mississippiensis, shows much lower gene
diversity (Glenn et al., 2002). This low gene diversity was attributed by the authors to severe reduction in
population size during the Pleistocene, with a subsequent demographic expansion in the Holocene, but not to
commercial overexploitation that also significantly reduced the census numbers of this species.

Of the nine localities studied, three (Table 5) show a significantly negative value for Fu’s Fs test. Although this
test was formally designed to test for selection, in the absence of selective advantage among haplotypes, a
significant negative deviation from genetic equilibrium in mtDNA alleles is most probably the result of recent
population expansion (Rand, 1996; Hartl and Clark, 1997). Fu’s Fs statistic is more sensitive to demographic
events than is Tajima’s D (Rand, 1996). Thus, the inference drawn from our analyses suggests that while the
Anavilhanas and Mamirauá localities - both of which are strictly protected at the federal and state level,
respectively - and the Tapará locality have experienced a recent population expansion, this expansion was not very
strong, and has been registered only by the most sensitive statistic. Some areas, however, show very little genetic
evidence of population expansion, or of census number increase. These areas include the Pacaya-Samíria National
Reserve (BM, pers. obs.) and the Ua?á Indigenous Area (Ruffeil, 2004) where C. crocodilus remains a popular
food item, and is harvested in significant numbers. When all sampled localities are analyzed as one population,
both Tajima’s D and Fu’s Fs statistics are significantly negative. This result suggests an overall population
expansion of this species that also has been registered as growth in census numbers (Rebêlo and Lugli, 2001).
Again, the signal is not very strong and is only observed when the statistical power of the tests is increased by
analyzing all samples together.

The genetic signal of overall population expansion is compatible with historical data and current observations.
Caiman crocodilus is a habitat generalist. It also has been much less affected by the commercial trade than other
sympatrically occurring species, such as Melanosuchus niger, Crocodilus intermedius or Crocodilus acutus, being
harvested in large numbers only after these latter species became too severely depleted to support commercial
operations. Because of the lack of ecological specialization (Herron, 1994), C. crocodilus was able to expand into
habitats previously occupied by sympatrically occurring species (Da Silveira et al., 1997). Even when commercial
hunters started harvesting the then plentiful C. crocodilus and precipitated its demographic decline, the present
population is probably larger than were historical populations, which had to co-exist with large numbers of well
established crocodilian species (Ross, 1998). Caiman crocodilus also has, once again, expanded following global
and local harvest moratoria and regulations, experiencing two cycles of recent expansion, with an intervening
period of decline, and it is this second expansion we are observing in the current pattern of genetic diversity.

Inference of population genetic structure

A minimum-spanning haplotype network was nested into higher level nesting categories (Templeton et al.,
1992) and analyzed for non-random distribution of genetic diversity over geographic space (Templeton et al.,
1995). The Nested Clade Analysis (NCA) allows identification of population genetic structure and the
discrimination of various historical and ongoing processes responsible for the current pattern of genetic
78
structuring. Its greatest power lies in that it requires no a priori hypothesis of population structure. Once patterns
are observed, they can then be tested further.

Using the NCA approach we observed two hierarchical levels which have a significantly non-random
distribution of genetic diversity. Inferences from level 3-1 suggest that the main populational dynamics responsible
for the observed genetic differentiation of the Atlantic drainage systems not connected to the Amazon basin and
Amazon basin localities are continuous range expansion, long distance colonization, or past fragmentation.
However, past fragmentation is not very likely due to the small number of mutational steps separating the Ua?á
and Approuague Rivers haplotypes from haplotypes found in the Amazon basin. When only the Amazon basin is
analyzed, the inference at level 2-2 is continuous range expansion. Thus, continuous range expansion is likely to be
the main dynamic within the Amazon basin, but due to insufficient sampling, we cannot differentiate between
continuous range expansion or long distance colonization as the main populational dynamic responsible for the
observed genetic differentiation between the Atlantic drainages not connected to the Amazon basin and Amazon
basin sampling localities. Analysis of Molecular Variance (Excoffier et al., 1992), as well as pair-wise FST values
also support the inference that the Ua?á and Approuague Rivers are significantly differentiated from localities of
the Amazon basin.

A possible factor that could have contributed to this distribution of genetic diversity is the present day
distribution of river basins relative to their paleogeographic positions. The direction of the inferred colonization or
range expansion is from the Amazon basin into the coastal drainages of French Guiana and Amapá State of Brazil.
This could have occurred during the last Pleistocene glacial maximum when sea levels were up to 200 m lower
than present. The Amazon delta extended much further east than its present position, and many of the now isolated
coastal drainages were connected to the Amazon basin via the delta of the Amazon River. This would have
facilitated dispersal and colonization of new areas, now outside the Amazon basin, during the glacial maximum.
Modern alligators are less tolerant to salt water than other crocodilians since they posses neither a tongue gland in
their mouth cavities that excretes salt, nor a reno-cloacal complex adapted for the excretion of salt and
conservation of fresh water (Taplin and Grigg, 1989). For this reason, salt water is considered a major barrier to
dispersal of Alligatoridae (Brochu, 2001), and it is unlikely they would have colonized the French Guiana and
Amapá coastal drainages recently.

NCA analyses within the Amazon basin indicate that continuous range expansion is the most likely processes
responsible for the observed distribution pattern of genetic diversity. Both AMOVA and Raymond and Rousset’s
test of exact population differentiation reject the hypothesis of panmixia; however, the distribution of genetic
diversity is not compatible with the model of isolation-by-distance. In spatial autocorrelation analysis (Koenig,
1999; Diniz-Filho and Telles, 2002) which tests the hypothesis of isolation-by-distance, geographic distances are
partitioned into classes of connectivity or lack thereof at ever increasing distances. The spatial autocorrelolegram
predicts elevated correlation at lower distances of connectivity with eventual leveling off, a pattern not observed in
our data. The observed structure is therefore most likely the result of genetic subsampling of parental populations
during periods of range expansion. However, range expansion did not proceed in a linear manner. Range expansion
possibly proceeded locally as commercially more valuable species were being locally depleted by commercial
hunters, and the resulting ecological space was being filled by an expanding C. crocodilus population.
Alternatively, we may be observing a signature of coalescent processes in a species distributed over a large
79
geographic area, thus a historical record rather than an ongoing process.

Another pattern which contributes to the rejection of panmixia within the Amazon basin is the significant
differentiation of the Anavilhanas locality from all but the geographically closest Mamirauá Lake, Purus River and
Janauacá Lake localities. The locality from the Anavilhanas archipelago is the only one sampled from a black
water system (Sioli, 1984). Black water systems are limnologically and ecologically differentiated from white
water systems, often supporting different animal and plant communities (Sioli, 1984; Goulding et al., 2003). There
are a number of black water systems in the Amazon basin, but the Negro River is the largest. The observed
differentiation of the Anavilhanas locality corroborates, in principle, the findings of Farias et al. (2004). Although
Farias et al. (2004) did not include C. crocodilus from Anavilhanas in their analyses, they observed weak genetic
differentiation between black water (Anavilhanas) and white water (rest of the Amazon basin) sampling localities
of Melanosuchus niger, the other large alligatorid crocodilian found in Amaz?nia. Ecological differences between
caiman populations occupying black water and white water habitats were also observed by Da Silveira (2002).
Together, these genetic and ecological findings suggest that the observed black water / white water differentiation
might be a real geographic structuring factor in Amaz?nia that reduces genetic exchange between limnologically
differentiated systems. The two other significant pair-wise FST comparisons observed within Amaz?nia occur
between geographically distant localities.

The lack of pattern of genetic structuring among localities within the Amazon basin contrasts with the study of
Verdade et al. (2002) who studied five geographically proximate populations of Caiman latirostris from the state of
S?o Paulo. Based on an analysis of four microsatellite loci, Verdade et al. (2002) observed significant correlation
between geographic and genetic distance. The habitat occupied by these populations is fragmented, which,
combined with high mortality and low birth rates, should result in a low number of successfully dispersing
individuals per generation leading to the pattern of isolation-by-distance (Verdade et al., 2002). The fragmented
and discontinuous habitat occupied by C. latirostris contrasts with what is essentially a continuous habitat of the
Amazon basin available to C. crocodilus. Nevertheless, the fragmented populations of C. latirostris outside the
core continuous habitat of the Pantanal basin show a certain degree of differentiation, which is a classic pattern of
peripatric differentiation observed in diverse taxa (Mayr 1963).

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank Sociedade Civil Mamirauá, The Mamirauá Institute, The Wildlife Conservation Society,
The Nature Conservancy of Brazil and FAPEAM (Funda??o de Amparo a Pesquisa no Estado do Amazonas) for
financial support, RAN/IBAMA for permission to conduct field work, and CGEN/IBAMA for permission to
conduct laboratory work. Renato Da Silveira, Pedro Alexandre Sampaio, Eduardo Matheus von Muhlen, Augusto
Ruffeil and Marcelo Crossa helped in the field, and Richard Bodmer facilitated fieldwork in Peru, and the
comments of two anonymous reviewers improved this publication.

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 Verdade LM, Zucoloto RB and Coutinho LL (2002) Microgeographic variation in Caiman latirostris. J Exp Zool
(Mol Dev Evol) 294:387-396.

Watterson GA (1975) On the number of segregating sites in genetical models without recombination. Theor Pop
Biol 7:256-276.

Weir BS and Cockerham CC (1984) Estimating F-statistics for the analysis of population structure. Evolution
38:1358-1370.

.::::: Crocodiles of the World - Caiman :::::. Last update: 23 May, 2004

83
Estado Actual y Perspectivas del Caimán 

Negro (

Melanosuchus niger

), con Énfasis 

en la Amazonía Colombiana 
Año 2002

Volumen III

Número 3

BRIEVA, Claudia
3

84
R

ESUMEN

El caimán negro (Melanosuchus niger), habita exclusivamente la región de la cuenca amazónica de América del Sur.

Es un reptil del orden Crocodylia, familia Alligatoridae, caracterizado por ser el mayor crocodílido del neotrópico, 

llegando a alcanzar una longitud de 6 metros. Prefiere habitar en lugares de aguas quietas y tranquilas. 

El caimán negro fue muy abundante en el pasado, pero debido a la cacería indiscriminada e incontrolada a la que fue

sometido durante las décadas de 1.950 y 1.960, sus poblaciones llegaron casi a la total extinción. Actualmente se

hallan algunos reductos en áreas alejadas y poco perturbadas, pero en general la situación de la especie es tan crítica

que figura en el apéndice I del CITES. 

Las instituciones nacionales e internacionales son concientes de la necesidad de conservar la especie para lograr

poblaciones estables, susceptibles de explotar racionalmente. El primer paso para ello es realizar un diagnóstico

acerca del estado actual de las poblaciones libres, para posteriormente formular planes de manejo y conservación, los 

cuales deben basarse principalmente en la conservación de los ecosistemas que albergan la especie. 

Directora URRAS. Médica Veterinaria. Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Bogotá – Colombia . Correo electrónico:

Brieva@WildlifeRehabilitators.com

Page 2
ESTADO ACTUAL Y PERSPECTIVAS DEL CAIMÁN NEGRO (

Melanosuchus niger

), CON ÉNFASIS EN LA AMAZONIA COLOMBIANA

28 / 2002 VOLUMEN III: 3 

BSTRACT

The black caiman (Melanosuchus niger), inhabits only in the Amazonian region of South America. It is a reptile of the

order Crocodylia, family Alligatoridae, the biggest crocodile of the neotropics, with 6 meters of lenght. It prefers quiet

waters to live. 

The black caiman was abundant in the past, but due to the indiscriminated hunting during the decades of 1.950 and

1.960, its populations are almost in complete extinction. Actually there are some reducts in distant an nondisturbed

areas, but in general the situation of this species is very critical, therefore it is in the appendix I of the CITES. 
85
The national and international institutions are conscious about the need of preservation of the black caiman to obtain 

steady populations, for the reasonable usage. The first step to obtain this purpose is the diagnosis about the present

status of free populations, to make further management and conservation programs. These programs will be based in

the preservation of ecosistems that contains this species. 

NTRODUCCIÓN

Dentro del orden Crocodylia se encuentran muchas especies que han sido tradicionalmente utilizadas por los 

habitantes de las zonas neotropicales para su alimentación y para la elaboración de artículos de cuero. Este hecho ha

llevado a que casi la totalidad de poblaciones de crocodílidos en el mundo se encuentren amenazadas por la cacería

indiscriminada y sin control, que se inició en la primera mitad de este siglo, con el fin de abastecer los mercados

mundiales de los artículos elaborados en cuero. Otro factor que ha incidido en la acelerada disminución de las 

poblaciones es la destrucción de los ecosistemas que habitan. La situación descrita ha llevado a muchas instituciones 

nacionales e internacionales a interesarse en los crocodílidos, tomando conciencia de la necesidad de formular planes 

de manejo y conservación del recurso. Como una contribución a este propósito, se llevó a cabo un trabajo de revisión

bibliográfica y análisis del estado actual y perspectivas de una de las especies de crocodílidos colombianos más 

amenazada y menos estudiada: el caimán negro (Melanosuchus niger). 

ARACTERÍSTICAS 

ENERALES

Melanosuchus niger (Spix, 1.825). 

Nombres comunes: Caimán negro, black caiman, lagarto negro, jacaré açu. 

Es la especie más grande de crocodílido del Nuevo Mundo; se han reportado ejemplares que sobrepasan los 6 metros

de longitud. La especie antiguamente se extendía por toda la región amazónica, desde la desembocadura del río

Amazonas en el oriente, hasta Ecuador, en el occidente. Los hábitats preferidos por la especie incluyen los ríos

quietos de aguas estancadas, lagunas, bosque inundable y gramalotales. (Webb y col, 1.987; Da Silveira, 1.993) 

Para la clasificación taxonómica, Medem (1.983) emplea características externas morfológicas. El M. niger se

caracteriza por poseer un cráneo ancho pero no corto, con una arista interorbital y un par de aristas maxilares 

86
longitudinales elevadas. El vómer es visible tanto en juveniles como en adultos.

Distribución en Colombia: Según Medem (1983), la especie se encontraba en todo el Trapecio Amazónico. Ocupaba

igualmente el Putumayo, hasta Caño Concepción, y el Bajo y Medio Caquetá, con sus afluentes Cahuinarí y Mirití ­

Paraná. En 1.943 se hicieron ensayos para introducir la especie (25 ejemplares juveniles) en el Alto Caquetá, pero no

prosperaron.

Alimentación: De nueve ejemplares coleccionados por Medem (1.983), cuatro tenían el estómago vacío. Los cinco 

restantes presentaban restos del esqueleto de una nutria (Lutra longicaudis), restos de grillos (ortópteros), plumas 

negras de ave pequeña, dos peces de escama no identificados, restos de una sardina. No se encontraron gastrolitos.

Webb y colaboradores (1.987) reportan el consumo de chigüiro (Hidrochaeris hidrochaeris). 

Reproducción: La época de desove comienza a fines de Noviembre y dura hasta principios de Enero. Los nidos, en

forma de montículo, se encuentran en los bosques de galería, cerca a la orilla de los ríos o en sitios elevados

situados en juncales que cubren parte de los terrenos pantanosos. Los nidos contienen entre 35 y 50 huevos. La 

hembra se queda acostada en el nido por largo rato, al parecer para proteger los huevos de una sobreexposición a la

luz solar; luego permanece cerca del nido, dispuesta a atacar a quien intente acercarse a él. Las crías nacen entre 

Enero y principios de Abril. (Gorinsky, McTurk y Thompson, 1.972, citados por Medem, 1.983; Webb y col, 1.987; 

Neira, 1.987) 

Page 3
BRIEVA, Claudia

Grupo de Estudio de Animales Silvestres (Boletín GEAS) 

2002 VOLUMEN III, Núm 1­ 6 / 29

Depredadores: Según indígenas de la región, el jaguar caza con frecuencia a los juveniles y subadultos que

permanecen separados de los adultos en los pantanos y cerca a la orilla de las lagunas. Neil, 1.971, reporta un caso 

de predación de un caimán negro adulto por una anaconda. 

Vocalizaciones: Los caimanes negros, al igual que otras especies, responden a la imitación de sus vocalizaciones.

Los ejemplares juveniles emiten una serie de sonidos bajos, parecidos a ladridos o gruñidos; los ejemplares grandes

emiten un sonido similar a un "puje" ronco impresionante que, según el autor, hace vibrar el aire. Después de

vocalizar, los adultos dan varios coletazos fuertes. En la época de celo, hay mayor emisión de vocalizaciones. Al 

parecer existe un comportamiento colectivo, en el cual un grupo es estimulado por el gruñido de un individuo, y 

contestan al unísono, dando coletazos. En estos hábitos, la especie difiere de los demás cocodrílidos suramericanos. 

87
(Medem, 1.983; Campbell, 1.973). 

Territorialidad: El M. niger es más gregario que otras especies, pero no obstante los individuos grandes ocupan un

lugar en el lago o pantano, que defienden ferozmente de los invasores de la misma especie. En algunos lugares es

posible observar individuos amontonados. Son menos agresivos que otras especies, pues no se observan colas 

cortadas, extremidades mutiladas o cicatrices en la cabeza, comunes en otras especies. Al colocarlos en compañía

de individuos de otra especie, son más bien tímidos y asustadizos. (Medem, 1.983). 

STADO DE LAS 

OBLACIONES

El caimán negro fue abundante en muchas áreas durante el siglo pasado, pero ha venido siendo indiscriminadamente

explotada por cazadores de pieles desde principios de la década de 1.930. Su gran tamaño y su relativa carencia de

osteodermos, la colocan entre las especies preferidas para la comercialización. (Webb y col., 1.987). 

Según Medem (1.983), a principios de la década de los 50 la especie era muy abundante, principalmente en el Bajo

Caquetá y el Putumayo. La caza comercial empezó en el Amazonas antes de 1.945, intensificándose posteriormente. 

En el Bajo Caquetá comenzó en 1.950, y al final de la década la especie era muy escasa en la zona. En 1.968,

Medem no observó ningún ejemplar en el Bajo Caquetá y sus afluentes. A pesar de la protección estatal (1.968), el

M. niger fue perseguido sin medida hasta principios de la década del 70. Según estadísticas oficiales y datos 

obtenidos por Medem, se exportaron legalmente 41.600 pieles y 19.700 animales vivos desde Leticia, Bogotá, 

Barranquilla y Cali, en 1.970. 

Según reportes de Foote (1.975) y de Morales y Chiriví (INDERENA, 1.977), el M. niger había desaparecido

virtualmente del territorio colombiano. 

Actualmente las poblaciones de caimán negro se encuentran notablemente disminuidas a lo largo de todo su rango de

distribución, y están localmente extintas o en vía de extinción. La mayor población conocida (cerca de 1.000

individuos adultos) se localiza en Kaw (Guyana Francesa). Otras poblaciones abundantes se localizan al este de 

Ecuador (Limón Cocha) y en el Parque Nacional Manú, en el Perú. (Webb y col., 1.987). 

En el censo realizado por Barahona, Bonilla, Martínez y Naranjo (1.996), se obtuvieron los siguientes resultados, con

relación al estado actual de las poblaciones de M. niger en Colombia: 

88
Durante el censo se contaron 217 ejemplares en los ríos Putumayo, Curilla y Caucayá, y en las lagunas La Apaya, 

Yarinas y Sunicocha; se hallaron 4 animales en el sector superior del río Caquetá, pero no en el sector inferior ni en 

los ríos Caguán y Apaporis. En la cuenca del Amazonas se encontraron 51 individuos (ríos Amazonas, Loretoyacu y 

Boiahuasú, y en los lagos El Socó, Tarapoto y Garzacocha). Los núcleos con mayores valores tanto absolutos como

relativos se hallan en las tres lagunas el Putumayo (76,7% de los caimanes negros censados); en el lago Garzacocha

del Amazonas también se encuentra un núcleo de alta densidad. El restante 16,9% de los animales hallados se

encontraron principalmente en áreas marginales de los ríos, las cuales no son el hábitat preferido por esta especie. 

En cuanto a la estructura poblacional, hay una fuerte tendencia hacia el equilibrio entre clases de tamaños; esta

condición indica que la población está siendo explotada. Se identificó la prevalencia hasta 1.991 de caza ilegal de

cocodrílidos en el río Caquetá, donde sólo se encontraron 3 ejemplares. En las cuencas del Putumayo y el Amazonas 

se identificaron procesos de colonización y aprovechamiento forestal como causas que presionan al M. niger a 

desplazarse hacia zonas sin tensiones ambientales.

Según los reportes mencionados, la situación actual indica una leve recuperación de las poblaciones, con

concentración en áreas sin tensiones ambientales, principalmente lagunas. La explotación de la especie parece

continuar, aunque probablemente responda a cacería de subsistencia y de comercialización ocasional. 

Page 4
ESTADO ACTUAL Y PERSPECTIVAS DEL CAIMÁN NEGRO (

Melanosuchus niger

), CON ÉNFASIS EN LA AMAZONIA COLOMBIANA

30 / 2002 VOLUMEN III: 3 

De acuerdo a testimonios de los pobladores de las riberas del río Amazonas (P.N.N. Amacayacu), ocasionalmente se 

observan ejemplares de caimán negro en algunos lagos, aunque anteriormente eran mucho más abundantes. 

EGISLACIÓN

El Decreto 1608 de 1.978, que regula todo lo relacionado con fauna silvestre dentro del territorio colombiano,

establece la sanción indefinida para la cacería y para la recolección de huevos de esta especie. En 1.973 se establece

una veda total para la cacería de todas las especies de crocodílidos en Colombia. 

En la Resolución 0017 de 1.987, por la cual se regula el Acuerdo 039 de 1.985, se establece el número máximo de

ejemplares que podrán conformar la población parental para el establecimiento de zoocriaderos. Se mencionan 10
89
ejemplares para la especie Melanosuchus niger, y se hace la salvedad de que esta especie se encuentra en peligro

de extinción, por lo cual sólo se autoriza su aprovechamiento a partir de la segunda generación, una vez el 

zoocriadero haya superado la etapa experimental. 

El Melanosuchus niger figura en el apéndice I del CITES (especies amenazadas de extinción). Implicaciones: se 

requieren permisos especiales tanto del país exportador como del importador para comerciar cualquier subproducto

de las especies contempladas en la lista. 

RÍA EN 

AUTIVERIO

Algunas experiencias de cría en cautiverio con otras especies de crocodílidos se han llevado a cabo en países como

Estados Unidos, Australia, Papúa Nuava Guinea y Zimbabue. En Colombia existen experiencias principalmente en la

cría de babilla (Caiman crocodilus), con resultados aparentemente satisfactorios, y se está incentivando la cría en

cautividad de otras especires amenazadas, como el Crocodylus intermedius. (Ortegón y Quintero, 1.994; Lugo, 1.995;

Da Rocha, 1.981). 

Actualmente el caimán negro no es objeto de explotación comercial debido principalmente a las restricciones 

internacionales (CITES), al estado crítico de sus poblaciones y al desconocimiento de muchos aspectos sobre biología

de la especie y estado de las poblaciones libres. 

Aunque parezca que no hay esperanzas para las poblaciones de cocodrilos, aún no es demasiado tarde. Con una 

intervención inteligente y bajo buenas condiciones, los crocodílidos pueden llegar a recuperarse rápidamente. Los 

cocodrilos maduros no tienen predadores distintos al hombre, y con el adecuado cuidado y protección, un pequeño

número de reproductores pueden producir una gran cantidad de crías cada año. Las hembras maduras de varias

especies de crocodílidos pueden poner entre 30 y 70 huevos por año, y bajo condiciones normales la mayoría de

estos huevos llegan a eclosionar. La clave de la conservación de las poblaciones es proteger a los pocos animales 

maduros en sus hábitats. Muchos países han comenzado a implementar programas de protección y cría en cautiverio

(Australia, India, Zimbabue, Kenia, Papúa Nueva Guinea y Tailandia). El éxito de muchos de estos proyectos hacen 

pensar que con un adecuado trabajo de protección e investigación, los crocodílidos se pueden convertir en un

importante recurso para los países tropicales. Las poblaciones en su hábitat natural deben mirarse como un recurso 

90
que tiene que ser manejado adecuadamente para garantizar su conservación. Esto requiere una legislación estricta,

cooperación internacional e investigación, así como un cuidadosos monitoreo de la comercialización. De esta manera

se contribuirá igualmente a preservar los delicados ecosistemas acuáticos que so habitados por los crocodilianos.

(National Research Council, 1.993; Brazaitis; Delany, 1.987; Hines y Percival, 1.987; Pachón, 1.982). 

Crocodílidos como Animales de Granjas

Los crocodílidos bien alimentados crecen rápidamente. Existe la creencia de que estos animales son comedores 

voraces, pero no es cierto. Muchas especies tienen una tasa de conversión del 50% es decir, ganan 1 Kg. de peso 

por cada 2 Kgs. de comida suministrado; después de dos años de crecimiento, esta tasa disminuye al 25 o 30%, 

convirtiéndolos en los animales de granja más rentables, junto con algunos peces. La eficiente conversión se debe a 

su reducida tasa metabólica, pues son animales muy letárgicos, y no necesitan energía para termoregulación por ser 

reptiles. (National Research Council, 1.993; Hall, 1.985) 

La cría de cocodrilos también es eficiente en cuestión de utilización del espacio. Cientos de juveniles y docenas de 

adultos pueden colocarse en espacios pequeños. Se conoce relativamente poco acerca de las enfermedades de los 

reptiles, pero éstos tienen la ventaja de que producen anticuerpos rápidamente ante infecciones externas. En vida

libre es común encontrar animales mutilados o con protrusión ocular, los cuales sanan rápidamente. Por el contrario,

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BRIEVA, Claudia

Grupo de Estudio de Animales Silvestres (Boletín GEAS) 

2002 VOLUMEN III, Núm 1­ 6 / 31

las infecciones internas como la salmonelosis, pueden diezmar una población en cautiverio. (National Research

Council, 1.993; IUCN, 1.989) 

Limitaciones de las Granjas de Cocodrilos

Las granjas de cocodrilos no son una fuente de enriquecimiento rápido y fácil. Establecer un sistema de granjas

puede tomar más de 10 años, y requiere de una gran inversión antes de obtener resultados biológicos y económicos. 

Sin embargo, es vital establecer una industria organizada, pues las granjas rurales sólo son viables si existe alguien

que compre y comercialice el producto con toda la documentación requerida. Igualmente se requiere asistencia

técnica a todos los niveles. (National Research Council, 1.993; IUCN, 1.989) 

Ross y colaboradores, identifican tres tipos de zoocriaderos: 

Las granjas, establecimientos de ciclo cerrado, que solamente toman del medio reproductores para renovación
91
genética de la población. Todos los ejemplares comercializados han nacido en el establecimiento. Deben demostrarle 

al CITES que son capaces de producir una segunda generación viable de la especie. 

Los ranchos, que toman del medio crías, adultos o huevos (rancheo), para hacer levante con fines comerciales. Hay 

dos tipos de rancho: las estaciones de cría, que toman huevos y juveniles y los crían hasta obtener ejemplares de

tamaños comercializables, obteniendo ingresos de la venta de pieles y ocasionalmente del turismo. El otro tipo de

rancho es aquel que toma del medio animales de tamaño comercializable, además de huevos y crías; uno de sus 

objetivos principales es la conservación del hábitat y de las poblaciones, para mantener un volumen constante de

cosecha. Deben demostrarle al CITES que la recolección de huevos y crías no pone en peligro la supervivencia de la

especie. 

Los bancos, que tienen fines educativos, de conservación o de rehabilitación. Crían especies en peligro para su

posterior uso en planes de repoblamiento en zonas protegidas. Reciben ingresos por turismo o por subvenciones 

gubernamentales o de otras entidades. Muchos parques zoológicos están dentro de esta categoría. 

Existen experiencias exitosas de zoocría en muchos países. En Estados Unidos, la región de Luisiana es pionera en

cría de cocodrílidos. El más destacado es el Refugio Rockefeller, que se inició con investigaciones previas sobre las 

dimensiones adecuadas de los estanques para el buen desarrollo de los caimanes, la nutrición y sus efectos en la

fertilidad, el tiempo que los animales pasaban en la tierra y en el agua, y el número adecuado de machos y de

hembras para una producción óptima de huevos. En este refugio se generaron metodologías para la recolección e 

incubación de huevos y para la cría de juveniles con fines comerciales. Para ello se desarrollaron investigaciones 

sobre la dieta de las crías, la determinación del sexo por la temperatura, las causas de malformaciones y la

prevención de las enfermedades más comunes. Los métodos implantados en esta granja, modificados según las 

características de cada región, se utilizan hoy en día en muchos países. (National Research Council, 1.993; King). 

ONSERVACIÓN VERSUS 

XPLOTACIÓN

La demanda de pieles de cocodrilo se incrementa anualmente, y pasarán muchos años hasta que las granjas puedan 

suplir las necesidades del mercado. El trabajo de las granjas debe complementarse con la protección de ejemplares

en su medio, en reservas y parques naturales, y con la conservación de los hábitats acuáticos. Si los ecosistemas 

92
naturales se destruyen, las especies de cocodrilianos y muchas otras, desaparecerán sin remedio. (National Research

Council, 1.993; Fuchs y col.) 

Muchos países han fallado en proteger las poblaciones silvestres por no poseer los recursos humanos y económicos

suficientes, y por lo extenso y apartado de las áreas a patrullar. Así mismo, se está intentado proteger a un animal

que no goza de la simpatía popular. (National Research Council, 1.993; Magnusson, 1.979) 

Un ejemplo de cómo compaginare la conservación con la explotación comercial es el programa de Papúa Nueva

Guinea, el cual usa la estrategia de recurrir a los pobladores locales como directos encargados de la protección del

hábitat natural, pues de él derivan su sustento. De esta manera se conserva un ecosistema que alberga una gran

diversidad genética y que, de otra manera, habría sido destruido. (National Research Council, 1.993; King) 

Contrario a la creencia popular, observaciones preliminares indican que los cocodrilos benefician la pesquería

comercial. Son parte importante de los ecosistemas de ríos y lagos, pues son los más grandes habitantes de los 

ambientes de agua dulce; sus movimientos inhiben el crecimiento de plantas acuáticas en los cuerpos de agua, y, en 

zonas con estación seca prolongada, algunas especies mantienen charcos de agua residual que benefician a

pequeños organismos acuáticos. En estuarios y lagos, los cocodrilos enriquecen el contenido de nutrientes del agua, 

Page 6
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Melanosuchus niger

), CON ÉNFASIS EN LA AMAZONIA COLOMBIANA

32 / 2002 VOLUMEN III: 3 

pues convierten las presas terrestres en heces que son consumidas por invertebrados y peces. En lugares donde los 

cocodrilos han sido eliminados (Brasil, Kenia e India), se ha presentado una disminución sustancial en la pesca para

consumo humano. (National Research Council, 1.993: Fittkau, 1.970) 

ERSPECTIVAS

Existen algunos estudios de prefactibilidad para el uso sostenible del caimán negro mediante la cría en cautiverio, 

pero la mayoría de ellos son demasiado superficiales y dejan de lado aspectos de biología y comportamiento de la

especie; además de ello trabajan toda la parte financiera sobre supuestos, pues no existe un mercado real de

subproductos de caimán negro. 

Para el montaje de un proyecto de explotación sostenible del caimán negro, mediante cría en confinamiento o 
93
rancheo, se debe tener muy en claro que uno de los objetivos primordiales es la investigación tanto en vida libre como

en cautiverio, pues se conoce muy poco sobre esta especie. No se deben crear falsas expectativas en la comunidad

para tratar de difundir la zoocría de caimán negro como una alternativa de captar ingresos, pues no existen

experiencias previas exitosas, y falta mucho camino en investigación y experimentación. El único renglón en el cual

es factible la utilización inmediata de la especie para la captación de ingresos es el ecoturismo. 

Para los aspectos técnicos de un criadero de caimán negro, puede extrapolarse información disponible para otras 

especies (Caiman crocodilus, Alligator mississippiensis, Crocodylus intermedius) en cuanto a infraestructura, dieta,

cuidado sanitario y manejo, sin dejar de lado la investigación de características propias de la especie. El 

mantenimiento en cautiverio sin pretensiones comerciales puede llegar a ser exitoso, pues se reportan experiencias 

similares en zoológicos (zoológico de Leticia, Amazonas). 

RIORIDADES DE 

NVESTIGACIÓN Y

ANEJO

La prioridad número uno es el monitoreo del estado actual de las poblaciones, y la identificación de sitios donde haya 

poblaciones estables; dichos lugares son estratégicos para programas de conservación. Es necesario continuar con

la protección legal de la especie, pues ha sido sobreexplotada y se requiere mucho tiempo para que se recuperen sus 

poblaciones naturales. Otra prioridad es la protección y conservación de los ecosistemas que albergan un mayor 

número de ejemplares, pues la deforestación y la contaminación atentan de manera indirecta contra el caimán negro y 

hacen que se desplace a zonas marginales, inadecuadas para su supervivencia a largo plazo. Un último aspecto de

importancia es la urgente necesidad de investigar sobre esta especie tanto en vida libre como en cautiverio,

principalmente en aspectos relacionados con estructura poblacional, comportamiento, reproducción y ecología. 

La explotación comercial del caimán negro no es posible a corto plazo, pues esta especie se encuentra en estado

crítico y se desconocen muchos de sus aspectos biológicos. Otra alternativa es la combinación de zoocría y rancheo

(recolección de huevos y neonatos), método que ha dado resultado en otros países en vías de desarrollo (Papúa

Nueva Guinea, Zimbabue, Bangkok), pues incentiva a las poblaciones locales a conservar los hábitats que albergan a

94
los crocodílidos, como fuente de suministro de huevos y neonatos, representando ingresos económicos. En otras 

palabras, la conservación del ecosistema se convierte en una fuente de ingresos. 

Para establecer métodos de rancheo sin que peligren las poblaciones naturales, se debe tener una idea bastante

aproximada del estado de las poblaciones naturales para establecer cuotas de extracción. Para ello es necesario 

implementar una serie de estudios basados en el monitoreo anual mediante la realización de censos (conteos

nocturnos), como los llevados cabo en el territorio de Florida, los cuales sirvieron de base para la formulación de

planes de manejo en vida libre y cautiverio de las poblaciones de Alligator mississippiensis. 

IBLIOGRAFÍA

1. BARAHONA, S., P. BONILLA, A. MARTINEZ y H. NARANJO. 1.996. Estado, distribución, sistemática y

conservación de los crocodylia colombianos Censo 1.994­1.995 Ministerio del Medio Ambiente ­ Dirección

General Forestal y de Vida Silvestre ­ Subdirección de Fauna, Bogotá. 

2. BRAZAITIS, P. El comercio de cocodrilos. Los cocodrilos y el hombre. 

3. CAMPBELL, H. 1.973. Observation on the acoustic behaviour of crocodilians. Zoológica, New York. 

4. CHIRIVI, H. 1.971. Notas sobre la problemática del manejo de los Crocodylia en Colombia con especial referencia

a la babilla (Caiman crocodilus), y la factibilidad de su cría en cautividad, INDERENA, Bogotá 

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2002 VOLUMEN III, Núm 1­ 6 / 33

5. DA ROCHA, R y P. DE TARSO. 1.981. Reproduçao em cautiverio de Caiman latirostris (Daubin), o jacaré de

papo amarelo, no jardim zoológico do Rio de Janeiro. Rev. Brasil. Biol.41(4):883­885, Noviembre. Río de Janeiro. 

6. DA SILVEIRA, R. 1.993. Distribuçao, abundancia, áreas de nidificaçao e hábitos alimentares de Caiman 

crocodilus crocodilus e Melanosuchus niger (Crcocodylidae / Alligatorinae) no archipélago das Anavilhanas, 

Amazonia Central, Brasil. INPA ­ UFAM, Manaus. 

7. DELANY, M. 1.987. What do alligators eat ?. Florida Wildlife, Nov­Dic. 

8. _____________. 1.986. Bird band recovered from american alligator stomachs in Florida. North American Bird

Banding 11(3), Jul ­ Sept. 

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9. _____________ y C. ABERCROMBIE. 1.986. American alligators food habits in Northcentral Florida. J. Wildl.

Manage. 50(2): 348­353. 

10. FITTKAU, E. 1.970. Role of the caimans in the nutrient regime of mouth lakes of Amazon affluents (an

hypothesis). Biotropica 2(2): 138­142. 

11. FLORIDA POWER & LIGHT COMPANY. 1.987. Florida's alligators and crocodiles. Florida. 

12. FUCHS, K., C. ROSS, A. POOLEY y R. WHITAKER. Artículos de piel de cocodrilo. Los cocodrilos y el hombre. 

13. HALL, P. 1.985. Embryo growth curves as a method of determining the age of clutches of New Guinea crocodiles 

(Crocodylus novaeguineae). Jour. Herpet. 19(4):538­541. 

14. HINES, T y F. PERCIVAL. 1.987. Alligator management and value­added conservation in Florida. Valuing wildlife ­ 

Economic and social perspectives. Westview Press, New York. 

15. IUCN. 1.986. A directory of crocodilian farming operations 

16. _____. 1.989. Crocodile specialist group ­ Newsletter. Vol. 8, Jul ­ Sept. 

17. KING, W. Protección y conservación. Los cocodrilos y el hombre.

18. LUGO, M. 1.995. Cría del caimán del Orinoco (Crocodylus intermedius) en la Estación Biológica Tropical Roberto

Franco, Villavicencio, Meta. Rev. Acad. Colom. Cien. 19(74), Abril.

19. MAGNUSSON, W. 1.979. Distribution of caiman within the Parque Nacional da Amazonia (Tapajós). INPA. 

20. MEDEM, F. 1.983. La crocodylia de Sur América. Universidad Nacional de Colombia, COLCIENCIAS. Bogotá. 

21. NARANJO, H. 1.995. Metodologías para la evaluación de poblaciones silvestres de cocodrilos. Informe de

avance I. Informe presentado a INDERENA, Bogotá. 

22. NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL. 1.993. Crocodiles as a resource for the tropics. National Academis Press,

Washington. 

23. NEIRA, J. 1.987. Informe sobre la reproducción del caimán negro (Melanosuchus niger SPIX, 1.828) en cautiverio. 

COA. 

24. ORTEGON, T. y M. QUINTERO. 1.994. Proyecto participativo de manejo para la conservación y el uso sostenible 

del caimán negro. Universidad Externado de Colombia, Facultad de Finanzas y Relaciones Internacionales, 

Bogotá. 

25. PACHON, E. 1.982. Algunos aspectos relativos a la conservación y manejo de los Crocodylia en Colombia.

INDERENA, Bogotá. 

26. ROSS, C., D. BLACK y V. ONIONS. La cría de cocodrilos. Los cocodrilos y el hombre. 

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27. WEBB, G., C. MANOLIS y P. WHITEHEAD. 1.987. Wildlife management: Crocodiles and alligators. Surrey Beatty 

& Sons Pty Limited. Australia. 

Caiman Population Health Monitoring in the Argentine Chaco, 2001

Recently, FVP Wildlife Health Fellow Dr. Marcela Uhart

finished up a 2-year caiman health-monitoring project.
Below is her report:

Ranching of caiman (Caiman yacare and C. latirostris) in

the Argentine Humid Chaco is being developed by the local
NGO, Fundación Vida Silvestre Argentina (FVSA) at Estancia “El Cachapé”, as a wildlife
sustainable use project directed towards wetland ecosystem conservation. This type of
undertaking is a model strategy for environmental protection that is being promoted by
FVSA. It involves a private landowner as an investor and direct beneficiary, the provincial
wildlife authorities as controls, and an NGO as project supervisor and technical support
provider.

Enforced regulations on adult caiman harvest for the last ten years has allowed wild
populations in Argentina to recuperate from extensive past over-exploitation. With quotas on
the harvest of wild caiman nests and captive incubation and raising of youngsters, this
ranching system intends to provide enough young to both satisfy market demands and the
restocking of wild populations. Prior to project implementation, information on population
parameters and habitat were obtained by FVSA biologists through aerial nest census, night
counts, and satellite image analysis. Since 1998, animals raised in captivity have been
reintroduced to their nest collection sites. To minimize disease risks associated with this
"catch and release system", strict sanitary controls on the captive raised animals together with
baseline wild population health information is necessary. In 1999, the Field Veterinary
Program began a collaborative effort with FVSA to survey caiman population health. During
January 2000 and February 2001, a total of 24 samples were collected from wild caiman and
46 from captive raised animals. Blood samples were collected for disease analysis and all
sampled animals received a complete physical examination and were marked prior to release.
All samples from 2000 have been analyzed and results presented at scientific meetings.
Samples from 2001 are currently being analyzed.

Tests that were run on samples from 2000 included: blood biochemistry and mineral levels,
infectious disease serology including Leptospirosis and several
arboviruses, and examination of fecal samples for parasite
identification. Both captive and wild caimans were negative for
most tests run. However, all caiman samples tested highly positive
for the uncommon Leptospira interrogans strain L. Sarmin. In
addition, some of the samples tested positive for two other
uncommon strains of Leptospirosis, which is the first time these
pathogens have been described in free-ranging caimans in
Argentina. These preliminary results suggested a low but still
97
significant incidence of pathogens in both wild and captive populations; therefore sanitary
conditions of artificially raised animals must continue to be strictly monitored. Additionally,
other important pathogens, such as Salmonella sp. have been included in sampling efforts this
year. To improve our knowledge on Leptospirosis’ role in these populations, attempts of
isolation of L. Sarmin are also being conducted during this season. (For more detailed results
from laboratory tests, see below.)

In the following years a commercial stage of the project will begin under the direction of the
local owner and the Fundación Vida Silvestre Argentina, when all environmental and legal
requirements are reached. This wildlife management system might become a model for
successful conservation and sustainable use of caimans and their habitat in northern
Argentina.

Laboratory Results:
Biochemistry and mineral determinations on samples from 2000 (17 wild and 18 captive
caiman) were performed by Wild Life- Lab (Dr. Maria Cristina Ferreyra Armas). Fecal
samples from captive caiman were analyzed by Dr. Pablo Beldoménico at Lab. Parasitología,
Fac. de Cs. Veterinarias (UNL), with negative results. Samples for infectious disease serology
were submitted to several diagnostic centers. Laboratorio Azul (Drs. Alfredo Martinez and
Juan Carlos Bardon) analyzed 8 Leptospira interrogans serovars, resulting negative for all
individuals. Instituto Nacional de Enfermedades Virales Humanas (Dra. Gabriela Avilés)
performed IHA (hemagglutination inhibition analysis) for arboviruses, including Easter
Equine Enchephalitis (EEE), Western Equine Encephalitis (WEE), Venezuela Equine
Encephalitis (VEE) and San Luis Encephalitis (SLE). All animals (captive and wild) were
negative. Finally, Dr. Carlos Rossetti from Instituto de Patobiología (CICV, INTA Castelar)
analyzed the samples for 24 L. interrogans serovars, including many uncommon strains. All
caiman were strongly positive to L. Sarmin, and the highest antibody titers were found in five
captive C. latirostris. Twenty-five samples also tested positive for other serovars, especially
L.pyrogenes (15) and/or L.ranarum (19). This is the first report of the presence of this
pathogen in free-ranging caiman in Argentina, and is only comparable to previous findings by
Dr. William Karesh (FVP-WCS, pers. communication) in Belize, Brazil and Bolivia.

Black Caiman

[CITIES-listed Endangered Species]

Crocodilian Species - Black Caiman (Melanosucus niger): NAMES: Black caiman,

Caimán, Caimán negro, Caïman noir, Lagarto negro, Jacare Açu,
http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/natsci/herpetology/CITEScroc/citesenglish/Blue8eMniger.htm

Blue Page 8 - Melanosuchus niger - E: Black caiman. CITESMelanosuchus niger. Nu +2+2-4-

4 in contact with each other.
http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Melanosuchus_niger.html

ADW: Melanosuchus niger: Information: Melanosuchus niger (black caiman). ...

Reproduction. Good information concerning
http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/classification/path/Crocodylidae.html.html

ADW: Crocodylidae: Classification: ...caiman). Species Caiman yacare (Jacare caiman).

98
specimens. Genus Melanosuchus
http://www.hipark.austin.isd.tenet.edu/projects/fourth/rainforests/wildlife/wildlife.html

Wildlife: ...caiman. It measures about 4 ft. long. The largest of all the caimans is the
http://nativenet.uthscsa.edu/archive/nl/9704/0123.html

NATIVE-L mailing list: urgent action on French Guiana: Additionally, the Kaw wetland
system contains one of the few remaining, viable,
http://web.mit.edu/12.000/www/m2006/teams/taoeyang/tables.html

Table(s) of Different Fauna in the Amazonian Rainforest: ...leeches, snails. Reptiles,

Anaconda, black caiman, spectacled caiman, turtles,
http://elib.cs.berkeley.edu/photos/fauna/com-Reptile.html

CalPhotos: Browse Reptile Common Names: 1) Basilisk Lizard (2) Beaarded Dragon (1)
Bearded Dragon (2) Belding Orange-throated
http://www.bioweb.uncc.edu/bierregaard/tucano_journal.htm

Tucano Journal: Saw a few black caiman and an iguana, but the highlight was an adult Spectacled
http://itech.pjc.edu/jkaplan/zootech/Course%20Materials/herplec26.htm

Crocodylians: American Alligator. Chinese Alligator. Spectacled Caiman. Black Caiman. Family
http://itech.pjc.edu/jkaplan/zootech/Course%20Materials/herplec27.htm

Herp Regulations & Management: Requires permit and 5 foot chain link fence. • Crocs
(except dwarf), gharial, black
http://www.duke.edu/~manu/home/Bibliography/CASHU.HTM

Cocha Cashu Bibliography: Growth-Rates of Black Caiman Melanosuchus-Niger and

Spectacled Caiman Caiman-Crocodilus,
http://www.duke.edu/~djb4/Quest%20for%20the%20Blue-throated%20Macaw.htm

Quest for the Blue Throated Macaw: Heinz pointed out two large Black Caiman, about 8 and
10 ft. long, that were
http://darwin.bio.uci.edu/~sustain/bio65/lec05/b65lec05.htm

Chapter 5: As these species became scarce, hunters turned their attention to the black caiman
http://www.msu.edu/~hagersha/Templates/spectacled_caiman.htm

Virtual Amazon Tour-Spectacled Caiman: ...hence the name. Young caiman are yellow and
have black stripes and spots. As they
http://www.nmnh.si.edu/botany/projects/cpd/sa/sa11.htm

CPD: South America, Site SA11, Lowlands of Manu National Park ...: Cocha Cashu
Biological Station was founded in 1969-1970, initially to facilitate
http://www.nmnh.si.edu/botany/projects/cpd/sa/sa24.htm

CPD: South America, Site SA24, Llanos de Mojos Region, Bolivia: ...such as rhea,
capybara (Hydrochaeris hydrochaeris), "lagarto" or yacaré (Caiman
http://people.uncw.edu/bruce/hon%20120/amazon%20animal%20list.htm

Amazon Animal List: ...army ant. Megan Ennes (Feb 16), jaguar. leaf-cutter ant. Ian Shriner (Feb
99
9), black
http://hitchcock.itc.virginia.edu/Suriname/texts/proposal.html

A Proposal to Fund a Process to Design a Tourism Development ...: Suriname

contains some of the best sea turtle nesting beaches in the world and is
http://people04.albion.edu/WBL10/dp/amazon.htm

pics: A baby Black Caiman grabbed out of the water by one of our guides while spotlighting
http://www.press.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/hfs.cgi/00/14609.ctl

Willink, Philip W.: A Biological Assessment of the Aquatic ...: Pantanal--essential

sanctuaries for migratory birds, critical nursery grounds for
http://www.cstars.ucdavis.edu/~jongreen/tbs/aquatic.html

Aquatic Systems: Lago Lago at TBS. Baby black caiman. The dock. Video: click on the pictures
below
http://eebweb.arizona.edu/collections/herp/BiotaWeb/Species1.htm

Species Records, Page 1: Melanosuchus niger (Spix, 1825) (1 Specimen). Common Name:
Black Caiman. Genus
http://www.webster.edu/~corbetre/haiti/history/revolution/caiman.htm

Haiti: THe Bois Caiman Meeting of 1791: ...the wife of Louis Michel Pierrot, who led a black
battalion at Vertieres and later
http://academic.ursinus.edu/anso/anso_2003_syl_A222.htm

ANTHROPOLOGY 222: Chapter 1: “Through the Emerald Door.�. Chapter 2: “The

Search for
http://www.bio.davidson.edu/people/midorcas/research/Field%20trips/Tortuguero2003/Tortuguero.htm

Tortuguero, Costa Rica - August 2003: Crocodilians Caiman crocodylus Crocodylus acutus.
... blue heron Tricolored heron Little
http://www.fiu.edu/~acaten01/references/bibcc.html

Scientific publications from Cocha Cashu, Manu NP (Peru): Growth rates of black
caiman (Melanosuchus niger) and spectacled caiman (Caiman
http://utweb.ut.edu/faculty/mmeers/bcb/dh.html

The Bibliography of Crocodilian Biology: DH: Dangerous to man? A record of an attack by

a black caiman (Melanosuchus niger) in
http://utweb.ut.edu/faculty/mmeers/bcb/sz.html

The Bibliography of Crocodilian Biology: SZ: J. Sci. 20: 13-18. Vasquez, PG 1991.
Melanosuchus Gray black caiman. Catalogue of
http://plaza.ufl.edu/wlme/peru/splist.htm

species list: 1 April 2002- Manu River, Manu Reserve Zone. White Caiman-Caiman crocodilus.
http://plaza.ufl.edu/wlme/peru/rainforest.htm

Rainforest: Squirrel Monkey-Saimiri sciureus. Amazon Horned Frog-Ceratophrys cornuta. Black

http://www.library.wwu.edu/ref/subjguides/ed/edtopics/win02black.htm

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 Education Topic - Celebrating Black History: Maman-Caiman = Mother Crocodile.
[English]. Birago Diop. Trans. Rosa Guy. Illustrated
http://www.american.edu/projects/mandala/TED/reptile.htm

REPTILE Case: Illegal, black market trading continues all over the world in ivory, elephant feet
http://www.uwsp.edu/geo/faculty/heywood/geog358/exotics/exoticRL.htm

COMMON NAME: ...reptile; lizard black iguana, Ctenosaura spp. South America, USA, ... reptile;
lizard
http://www.southampton.liu.edu/news/travel/tropicalfieldstudies/reflections.html

Travel Programs: The initial rush hit me when I pictured a black caiman slipping down the mud into
http://bio.bd.psu.edu/biobd497g/CostaRicaTrip0203/reptiles.htm

Reptiles: Spectacled Caiman, Caiman crocodilus. Glass Frog, Centrolenella hyalinoatrachium.

http://wildlife.tamu.edu/publications.cfm?catID=17

wildlife.tamu.edu - Extension Wildlife and Fisheries Sciences ...: Caimans (Caiman

spp.), imported from Central and South America, are occasionally
http://www.lib.lsu.edu/lib/lis/awards/cskalph.html

• Search
• Species
• Families
• Contact Us
• reptile-database.org

REPTILES DATABASE

Paleosuchus palpebrosus CUVIER, 1807

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102
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104
105
 Higher Crocodylidae (Alligatoridae) Crocodylia, crocodiles
Taxa (alligators
Subspecies
Common E: Dwarf caiman, Cuvier's smooth-fronted caiman
Name Local names: Jacaré pagua, Cachirre, Cocodrilo, Musky
caiman.
G: Brauen-Glattstirnkaimans
Synonym Crocodilus palpebrosus CUVIER 1807: 35
Jacaretinga moschifer SPIX 1825 (fide DUMÉRIL &
BIBRON 1836: 69)
Champsa gibbiceps NATTERER 1840: 324
Champsa palpebrosa — WAGLER 1830: 140
Alligator palpebrosus — DUMÉRIL & BIBRON 1836: 67
Paleosuchus palpebrosus — KING & BURKE 1989
Paleosuchus palpebrosus — GORZULA & SEÑARIS
1999
106
 Location Bolivia, Brazil (Goias etc.), Colombia, Ecuador, French
Guiana, Guyana, NE Paraguay, Peru, Surinam, Venezuela.

Terra typica: "Cayenne," French Guiana

Holotype Holotype: MNHN 7530, according to Vaillant 1898, and
MNHN 7531 according to Vaillant 1898
Comment Slightly larger distribution than that of the sympatric
Paleosuchus trigonatus, extending into Paraguay and
further into Brazil
References • Barban Zucoloto, Rodrigo; Priscilla Marqui Schimidt
Villela; Luciano Martins Verdade and Luiz Lehmann
Coutinho 2006. Cross-species microsatellite amplification
in South American Caimans (Caiman spp and Paleosuchus
palpebrosus). Genetics and Molecular Biology 29 (1): 75-
78
• Campos, Zilca and Tãnia M. Sanaiotti. 2006. Paleosuchus
palpebrosus Nesting. Herpetological Review 37 (1): 81
• Cuvier, G. 1807. Sur les différentes especes de crocodiles
vivans et sur leurs caracteres distinctifs. Ann. Natl. Mus.
Hist. Nat. Paris 10: 8-86.
• Duméril, A.M. C. and G. Bibron. 1836. Erpetologie
Générale ou Histoire Naturelle Complete des Reptiles.
Vol.3. Libr. Encyclopédique Roret, Paris, 528 pp.
• Gorzula Stefan & Senaris J. Celsa 1999. In: Contribution
to the herpetofauna of the Venezuelan Guayana. I: a data
base. Scientia Guaianae, Caracas, No. 8 [1998], 269+ pp.;
ISBN 980-6020-48-0
• Hoogmoed M.S.; de Avila-Pires T C S 1991. Annotoated
checklist of the herpetofauna of Petit Saut, Sinnamary
River, French Guiana. Zoologische Mededelingen 65: 53-
88
• Magnusson W E 1992. Paleosuchus palpebrosus.
Catalogue of American Amphibians and Reptiles 554
1992: 1-2
• Magnusson W E 1992. Paleosuchus. Catalogue of
American Amphibians and Reptiles 553 1992: 1-4
• Medem, F. 1953. Contribuciones a la taxonomía y
107
 distribución del yacaré negro, Paleosuchus palpebrosus
(Cuvier) en Colombia Rev. Colomb. Antropologia 1 (1):
409-419
• Medem, F. 1967. El genero Paleosuchus en Amazonia Atas
do Simp.sobre Biota Amaz. 3: 141-162
• Medem, F. 1972. El primer nacimiento de Paleosuchus
palpebrosus (Crocodylia, Alligatoridae) Rev. Acad.
Colomb. Ci., Ex., Fis., Nat. 53: 33-36
• Natterer 1840. Ann. naturhist. Hof. Mus. Wien 2: 322, 324
• Nickel, H. & Auliya, M. 2004. Krokodile - faszinierende
Überlebenskünstler. Draco 5 (20): 4-19
• Roos, Jonas; Ramesh K. Aggarwal, Axel Janke 2007.
Extended mitogenomic phylogenetic analyses yield new
insight into crocodylian evolution and their survival of the
Cretaceous–Tertiary boundary. Molecular Phylogenetics
and Evolution 45: 663–673
• Scott, N.J.;Aquino, A.L.;Fitzgerald, L.A. 1990.
Distribution, habitats, and conservation of the caimans
(Alligatoridae) of Paraguay Vida Silv. Neotrop. 2 (2): 43-
51
• Spix, J. B. von 1825. Animalia nova sive species nova
lacertarum quas in itinere per Brasiliam annis
MDCCCXVII-MDCCCXX jussu et auspicius Maximiliani
Josephi I Bavariae Regis suscepto collegit et descripsit Dr.
J. B. de Spix. Lipsiae: T. O. Weigel; F. S. Hübschmanni,
Monachii, 26 pp.
• Thireau, Michel;Sprackland, Robert George;Sprackland,
Teri 1998. A report on Seba's specimens in the
herpetological collection of the Muséum National
d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, and their status as Linnaean
types The Linnean 13 (4): 38-45
• Trutnau, L. & Sommerlad, R. 2006. Crocodilians. Their
natural history and captive husbandry. Edition Chimaira,
Frankfurt, 646 pp. [review in Reptilia GB 48: 8-10]
• Trutnau, L. & Sommerlad, R. 2006. Krokodile - Biologie
und Haltung. Edition Chimaira, Frankfurt, 646 pp. [review
in Reptilia Münster 11 (6): 95-96]
• Vaillant, M.L. 1898. Contribution à l'Etude des

108
 émydosaurians. Catalogue raisonné des jacaretinga et
alligator de la collection du museum. Nouv. Arch. Mus.
Hist. Nat. Paris (3) 10: 143-212
• Vaz-Silva, W. et al. 2007. Herpetofauna, Espora
Hydroelectric Power Plant, state of Goia?s, Brazil. Check
List 3(4): 338-345
• Wermuth,H. & Fuchs,K. 1978. Bestimmen von Krokodilen
und ihrer Häute. Gustav Fischer Verlag, Stuttgart - New
York, 100 pages, [ISBN 3-437-30268-X]
• Ziegler, T. & Olbort, S. 2004. Genitalstrukturen und
Geschlechtsunterscheidung bei Krokodilen. Draco 5 (20):
39-47

• Ziegler, T.; Behrmann, H.-J.; Beek, B. & Rütz, N. 2004.

Erste Naturbruten des Brauen-Glattstirnkaimans
(Paleosuchus palpebrosus) im Aquarium des Kölner Zoos
Draco 5 (20): 28-31

Publications
Several thousand papers cited in the database can be obtained from our sponsors:

Journals Book publishers

• Gekkota • Kirschner und Seufer
• Herpetofauna Verlag
• Sauria • Natur und Tier Verlag
• Herpetologica • Glaw und Vences
• Herpetological Verlag
Monographs • Squamata Verlag
• Phyllomedusa
• PaKo Verlag
• Reptilia (English &
German)

109
Historical Herp Literature available from The Reptile
Database:

• Linnaeus - Systema Naturae, Herpetological part, pages 194-229 [2.8 MB]

• Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia 1841-1899
• Duméril & Bibron (1854): descriptions of new snakes

CD-ROM Releases:

• Annals and Magazine of Natural History (1838-1899, all reptile papers) (CD-
ROM 6-12/2002)
• Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia 1841-
1899, all reptile papers (CD-ROM 3/2001)
• Zoologischer Anzeiger, 1880-1905, all 127 reptile papers (CD-ROM 2008).
• Duméril & Bibron (1854): Érpetologie Génerale, Vol. 1 - General
Herpetology, 450 pp. (CD-ROM 3/2005)
• Duméril & Bibron (1835): Érpetologie Génerale, Vol. 2 - Turtles, 680 pp.
(CD-ROM 6/2003).
• Duméril & Bibron (1836): Érpetologie Génerale, Vol. 3 - Geckos, monitors,
chameleons, crocodiles, 528 pp. (CD-ROM 7/2004)
• Duméril & Bibron (1839): Érpetologie Génerale, Vol. 4 - Agamas and
iguanas, 571 pp., as PDF (CD-ROM 9/2006)
• Duméril & Bibron (1839): Érpetologie Génerale, Vol. 5 - Skinks, wall lizards,
etc. 860 pp. (CD-ROM 3/2006)
• Duméril & Bibron (1844): Érpetologie Génerale, Vol. 6 - Boas, pythons, and
blind snakes (CD-ROM 12/2003)
• Duméril & Bibron (1854): Érpetologie Génerale, Vol. 7 - Snakes, 1536 pp. (2
vols., see samples; CD-ROM 12/2002).
• Duméril & Bibron (1854): Érpetologie Génerale, Vol. 8 - Amphibians (to be
released as an addendum in 2008).
• Duméril & Bibron (1854): Érpetologie Génerale, Vol. 9 - Turtles 2, iguanas 2,
to be released in 2008.

Order CDs online by credit card via Kagi.com (secure web site)

Other digital library projects

• Open Content Alliance (OCA)

• Biodiversity Heritage Library Project (e.g. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.)
• Google Book Search
• The Million Book Project
• Project Gutenberg
• World Digital Library (US Library of Congress)
• i2010 Digital Libraries Initiative (EU)
• Göttingen Digitization Project (e.g. Laurenti 1768, Linnaeus 1758)
• Animalbase (e.g. Cuvier/Latreille 1817, Gmelin/Linnaeus 1789, etc.)
• The Open Library (including the Open Conten Alliance)
• University of Michigan Museum of Zoology (Misc./Occ. Publications)

110
 • Girard, S.F. (1858) United States Exploring Expedition..., C. Sherman &
Son, Philadelphia, xv, 492 pp.
• Günther, A.C.L.G. (1885-1902) Reptilia and Batrachia. Biologia Centrali-
Américana. Taylor, & Francis, London, 326 pp

Publications from and on the database:

Uetz, P. (1996)
Herpetologie im Internet.
Elaphe 4 (3): 60-64

Uetz,P. & Etzold,T. (1996)

Die EMBL-Reptiliendatenbank.
Elaphe 4/96: 49-53

Uetz,P. & Etzold,T. (1996)

The EMBL/EBI Reptile Database.
Herpetological Review 27 (4): 174-175

Uetz,P. (2000)
How many reptiles species?
Herpetological Review 31 (1): 13-15

Hallermann,J., Dirksen,L. & Uetz,P. (1999)

Liste der Neubeschreibungen von Reptilien des Jahres 1998, mit Nachträgen der Jahre 1996 und 1997.
Elaphe 7 (1): I-VII

Hallermann,J., Schmitz,A.. Dirksen,L. & Uetz,P. (2000)

Liste der Neubeschreibungen von Reptilien des Jahres 1999, mit Nachträgen der Jahre 1998 und 1997.
Elaphe 8 (2): 53-61

Hallermann,J., Schmitz,A.. Dirksen,L. & Uetz,P. (2001)

Liste der Neubeschreibungen von Reptilien des Jahres 2000, mit Nachträgen des Jahres 1999.
Elaphe 9 (2): 40-45

The papers by Hallermann et al. provide annual lists of newly described

species. All those species are also included in the EMBL Reptile Database
(of course!). A cumulation of these and other species described in the
1990ies is available (see below).

Uetz,P. & Schmitz,A. (2001)

Fast 1000 in 10 Jahren - ein Nachtrag zum Thema "Neue Reptilientaxa" [pdf].
Elaphe 9 (4): 51-53

111
 This paper gives an update on a preceding paper by Schmitz et al. that
listed (almost) all species that have been described from 1990 to 1999.
The updated list is available as pdf file.

Uetz,P. (2002)
Alte Bücher - neue Technik: Das Projekt "Historische Literatur" bei der EMBL-Reptiliendatenbank.
Beiträge zur Literatur und Geschichte der Herpetologie und Terrarienkunde, Bd. II: 41-46

Hallermann,J. & Uetz,P. (2002)

Liste der Neubeschreibungen von Reptilien des Jahres 2001, mit Nachträgen des Jahres 2000.
Elaphe 10 (2): 90-96

Hallermann,J. & Uetz,P. (2004)

Liste der Neubeschreibungen von Reptilien des Jahres 2002, mit Nachträgen des Jahres 2001.
Elaphe 12 (2): 85-90

Hallermann,J. & Uetz,P. (2005)

Liste der Neubeschreibungen von Reptilien des Jahres 2003.
Elaphe 13 (2): 69-74

Uetz, P.; Goll, J. & Hallermann, J. (2007)

Die TIGR-Reptiliendatenbank.
Elaphe 15 (3): 16-19

Reptile Systematics:

• Terrestrial Vertebrates (Tree of Life)

• Zoological Record: Resource Guide - Reptilia
• Reptile sequences in the GenBank DNA Database
• CROCODILIAN, TUATARA, AND TURTLE SPECIES OF THE WORLD (by F. W.
King and R. L. Burke, eds.)
• Turtles of the World (Iverson et al.)
• Turtles of the World (Ernst, Altenburg & Barbour)

Herpetological Directories:

• Reptiles (Yahoo)
• Combined Index to Herpetological Collections

Herpetological Bibliographies:

• Biodiversity Heritage Library Member Projects:

• Girard, S.F. (1858) United States Exploring Expedition..., C. Sherman &
Son, Philadelphia, xv, 492 pp.
112
 • Günther, A.C.L.G. (1885-1902) Reptilia and Batrachia. Biologia Centrali-
Américana. Taylor, & Francis, London, 326 pp

Historical Litearture:

• Current contents of herpetological journals

• HERPFAUN (faunistic bibliography by Charles H. Smith)
• Historical Documents of the Virginia Herpetological Society

Other Vertebrate databases or checklists:

• Amphibians: Frost's Amphibian Species of the World; Amphibiaweb;

Globalamphibians.org
• Birds: Avibase, The Sibley/Monroe World List of Bird Names
• Fish: CAS Fish Database , Fishbase
• Mammals: Mammal Species of the World
• Introduced reptiles to North America: CNAH

Systematic Zoology (General):

• The Tree of Life Home Page

• Zoology Resource Guide (BIOSIS Index)
• Index to Organism Names (TRITON/BIOSIS)
• SPECIES 2000 HOME PAGE
• IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals
• Interagency Taxonomic Information System (ITIS)
• International Code of Zoological Nomenclature
• Phylogenetics Databases and Information

Other sites:

• Reptile Chromosome database

• Snake Scalation at Wikipedia
• Herpfaun (herpetofaunistic bibliography by C.H. Smith)

Melanosuchus niger - Jacaré-açu, Jacaré-gigante

113
Taxonomia:

Filo: Cordado

Sub-filo: Vertebrado

Super-Classe: Tetrápodo

Classe: Reptilia

Sub-Classe: Diapsida

Infra-Classe: Archosauria

Ordem: Crocodylia

Sub-Ordem: Eusuchia

Família: Alligatoridae

Gênero: Melanosuchus

Espécie: Melanosuchus niger (Spix, 1825)

Nome Científico: Melanosuchus niger (Spix 1825). Melanosuchus significa "crocodilo negro", derivado de melas (genitivo grego para

“negro”) + soukhos (grego para "crocodilo", precedente para o latim suchus); niger significa "negro" (latim), referindo a coloração muito

escura dessa espécie.

Nomes Comuns: Jacaré-açu, Jacaré-negro, Jacaré-gigante, “Black caiman”, “Caimán”, “Caimán negro”, “Caïman noir”, Lagarto-negro,

Jacaré-Assú, Jacare-Uassu, Jacaré Una, “Yacare Assu”.

114
Características: É a maior espécie da

família Alligatoridae (os machos podem

alcançar pelo menos 4 m de comprimento,

chegando a extremos de até 6m). Sua

aparência é semelhante à do Alligator

mississippiensis. Como o próprio nome

comum sugere, tem uma coloração escura.

A mandíbula tem faixas acinzentadas nos

jovens e marrons nos mais velhos. Juvenis

possuem faixas amareladas ou brancas na

lateral do corpo, que vão desbotando

gradualmente com a maturidade do animal.

Tem olhos grandes, nariz relativamente

estreito e uma crista ossificada que se

estende dos olhos até o nariz, como em

outros jacarés.

Status: Recentemente o jacaré-açu foi excluído da Nova Lista Nacional das Espécies da Fauna Brasileira Ameaçadas de Extinção. Por

115
 Bibliografia sobre Crocodilianos

AZEVEDO, J.C.N. Crocodilianos: Biologia, Manejo E Conservação. JOÃO PESSOA: ARPOADOR, 2003. 122 P.

CAMPOS, Z. Efeito do habitat na fecundidade das fêmeas, sobrevivência e razão social dos jovens dos
jacarés do Pantanal. Corumbá: Embrapa Pantanal, 2003, 22 p. (Boletim de Pesquisa e Desenvolvimento, 42).

CAMPOS, Z. Observações sobre a biologia reprodutiva de 3 espécies de jacarés na Amazônia Central.

Corumbá: Embrapa Pantanal, 2003, 17 p. (Boletim de Pesquisa e Desenvolvimento, 43).

CAMPOS, Z., COUTINHO, M.E., ABERCROMBIE, C. Ecologia e estado de conservação do jacaré-paguá na serra
do Amolar, Pantanal sul. In: Simpósio sobre recursos naturais e sócio-econômicos do Pantanal, 4. 2004, Corumbá,
Anais. Corumbá, 2004.

DA SILVEIRA, R. Conservação e manejo do jacaré-açu (Melanosuchus niger) na Amazônia. In: VERDADE, L.M.
e LARRIERA, A. [Eds]. Conservação e manejo de jacarés e crocodilos da América Latina, v. 2. Piracicaba: C.N.
Editora, 2002. p. 61-78.

DA SILVEIRA, R., MAGNUSSON, W.E., CAMPOS, Z. Monitoring the distribution, abundance, and breeding areas
of Caiman crocodilus crocodilus and Melanosuchus niger in the Anavilhanas Archipelago, Central
Amazonia, Brazil. Journal of Herpetology, v. 31, n. 4, p. 514-520, 1997.

FARIA, I.P., DA SILVEIRA, R., THOISY, B., MONJELÓ, L.A., THORBJARNARSON, J., HRBEK, T. Genetic diversity and
population structure of Amazonian crocodilians. Animal Conservation, v. 7, p. 265-272, 2004.

MAGNUSSON, W.E., SILVA, E.V.DA, LIMA, A.P. Diets Of Amazonian Crocodilians. JOURNAL OF HERPETOLOGY, V. 21,
N. 2, P. 85-95, 1987.

MARQUES, E.J., MONTEIRO, E.L. Ranching de Caiman crocodilus yacare no Pantanal de Mato Grosso do Sul.
In: VERDADE, L.M. e LARRIERA, A. [Eds]. La conservación y el manejo de caimanes y crocodilus de América
Latina, v. 1. Santa Fé: Fundación Banco Bica, 1995. p.189-211. (232 p.)

SANTOS, S.A. Drieta E Nutrição De Crocodilianos. CORUMBÁ: EMBRAPA-CPAP, 1997. 59 P.

SARKIS-GONÇALVES, F., BOSCOLO, F.N., CASTRO, A.M.V., VERDADE, L.M. Influencia da dieta na formação de
osteodermos em filhotes de jacarés-de-papo-amrelo (Caiman latirostris) em cativeiro. In: VERDADE, L.M.,
LARRIERA, A. [Eds]. Conservação e manejo de jacarés e crocodilos da América Latina, v. 2. Piracicaba: C.N.
Editora, 2002. p.157-165.

THORBJARNARSON, J.B. Diet of the spectacled caiman (Caiman crocodilus) in the Central Venezuelan
Lhanos. Herpetológica, v.49, n.1, p.108-117, 1993.

VERDADE, L.M. A exploração da fauna silvestre no Brasil: jacarés, sistemas e recursos humanos. Biota
Neutropica, v. 4, n. 2, p. 1-12, 2004.

VERDADE, L.M. Biologia reprodutiva do jacaré-do-papo-amarelo (Caiman latirostris) em São Paulo, Brasil.
In: VERDADE, L.M. e LARRIERA, A. [Eds]. La conservación y el manejo de caimanes y crocodilus de América
Latina, v. 1. Santa Fé: Fincación Banco Buca, 1995. p.57-79. (232 p.)

VERDADE, L.M., SANTIAGO, M.E.B. [Eds.] Jacaré do papo amarelo – Caiman latirostris. In: Workshop sobre
conservação e manejo do jacaré-do-papo-amarelo (Caiman latirostris), I. Anais... Piracicaba: CIZBAS/ESALQ,
1990.

ZUCOLOTO, R.B. Desenvolvimento de seqüências de DNA microsatélite para estudo de populações

remanescentes de Jacaré-de-papo-amarelo (Caiman latirostris), da região central do Estado de São Paulo.
Piracicaba, 2003. 118p. Tese (Doutorado). Escola Superior de Agricultura Luiz de Queiroz, Universidade de São Paulo.

Id: 365948

Autor: Cabrera Peña, Jorge; Protti Quesada, Maurizio; Urriola Hernández, Mario; Cubero
Murillo, Rolando.

Título: Distribución y abundancia de Caiman crocodilus en el Refugio Nacional de Vida

116
 Silvestre Caño Negro, Costa Rica / Distribution and abundance of Caiman
crocodilus in the Caño Negro National Wild Life Refuge, Costa Rica

Fonte: Rev. biol. trop;51(2):571-578, jun. 2003. tab, maps, gra.

Idioma: Es.

Resumo: The distribution and abundance of a population of Caiman crocodilus fuscus were
estimated by monthly counting of eye-shines at night, from February 1999 to March
2000 in six transects of Río Frío in the Caño Negro National Refuge (RNVSCN),
Northern Costa Rica. March was the month with the greatest abundance of caimans
observed. The visible fraction of the population (PV2 index) fluctuated between
42.59% to 54.71% during the wet season and 35.49% to 53.93% in the dry season.
The transects of river with greater abundance of caimans were Terrón-Sabogal and
Sabogal-Playuela. Significant differences were determined in the abundance of
caimans between transects, except the transects Entrada San Sebastían-Las Cubas
and Las Cubas-Entrada Caño Los Patos and Entrada Caño Los Patos-Terrón and
Boca Sabogal-Playuela. The population of estimated brown caiman in this study was
2283.48 +/- 313.5. The statistical analysis by seasons did not show significant
differences in the number of caimans observed. Estimated mean number of caimans
per km of river was 74.36/km for 30.7 km of habitat. The results of this study
indicated that the fluctuation in population density during the seasons is attributable
to local movements. (AU)

Descritores: Jacarés e Crocodilos/classificação

-Dinâmica Populacional
Densidade Demográfica
Estações do Ano
Costa Rica

Limites: Animais

Responsável: BR1.1 - BIREME

PRODUCCIÓN DE YACARÉS
N Ir a
º
Título y autor/es versión:
Categoría

Interés por la producción de yacarés - G. Graña Velasco H Periodístic

1 ---
TML o

Resolución 3/04 de la Secretaría de Ambiente y Desarrollo H Resolució

2 ---
Sustentable TML n

3 Uso sustentable de los yacarés - W. S. Prado H PD Monografí

TML F a

4 Ranching de yacarés overos (Caiman latirostris) y negros H PD Monografí

(Caiman yacare) en el Nordeste de Argentina - W. S. Prado TML F a

5 El yacaré overo - Ambiente Ecológico H --- Monografí

117
 TML a

6 El yacaré ñato - Fauna Argentina H PD Monografí

TML F a

7 Producción del yacare overo y yacare negro mediante el H PD Monografí

sistema ranching - F. A. Martínez TML F a

8 Cría de reptiles: producción del yacaré overo y yacaré H PD Monografí

negro mediante el sistema ranching - F. A. Martínez TML F a

9 Conservación - W. S. Prado H PD Monografí

TML F a

1 Descripción del yacaré - W. S. Prado H PD Monografí

0 TML F a

1 Distribución en el mundo - W. S. Prado H PD Monografí

1 TML F a

1 Explotación del yacaré como un recurso sustentable - H PD Investigac

2 Martinez, F. A., Binda, J. L. y Maza, Y. TML F ión

1 Caimanes de Formosa: de yacaré a billetera - C. de Castro H PD Periodístic

3 TML F o

1 El uso sustentable de fauna como herramienta PD Presentac

---
4 conservacionista - A. Larriera F ión

1 Experiencias de manejo en el proceso de aprovechamiento PD Investigac

---
5 sostenible del lagarto (Caiman yacare) en Bolivia (1995 F ión
-2004) - J. Aparicio E. y J. N. Ríos
Estado poblacional y uso del lagarto (caiman yacare) en
1
áreas de uso de recursos naturales del territorio --- PD Investigac
6 F ión
comunitario de origen (tco) tacana, prov. Iturralde, La
Paz, Bolivia - J. N. Rios
1 Cria en granjas: una alternativa de manejo para los H PD Revisión
7 caimanes argentinos - Larriera, A. TML F

1 Exportación de carne de yacaré desde Formosa, Argentina H PD Periodístic

8 - El Diario Digital y otros TML F o

Cambios fisiológicos de glucemia y fructosaminemia en

1 PD Investigac
9
ejemplares cautivos de Caiman latirostris y Caiman ---
F ión
yacare (Crocodylia: Crocodylidae) - Barboza, N.N.; Fioranelli,
S.A.; Koza, G.; Prado, W.; Mussart, N.B. y Coppo, J.A.
2 Explotación del yacaré como un recurso sustentable - PD Investigac
---
0 Martinez, F. A., Binda, J. L. y Maza, Y. F ión

Variaciones estacionales del leucograma de Caiman

2 PD Investigac
latirostris y Caiman yacaré (Crocodylia; Crocodylidae) ---
1 F ión
en cautiverio - Barboza, N.N.; Fioranelli, S.A.; Prado, W.S.; Mussart
de Coppo, N.B. y Coppo, J.A.
2 Manejo en cautiverio del caimán overo (Caiman latirostris) PD Investigac
---
2 y del caimán negro (Caiman yacare) en la reserva F ión
ecológica El Bagual (Argentina) - Yanosky, A.A. y C. Mercolli
2 Programa para la conservacion y el aprovechamiento H PD Monografí
3 sustentable del yacare negro caiman yacare en TML F a
Argentina - Ecodigital
2 Reproducción y cosecha de huevos de yacaré overo y --- PD Investigac

118
4 negro - Martínez, F. A., Ledesma, S., Rigonatto, T., Antonchuk, L. A. y F ión
Fescina, N. H.
2 Investigan la variabilidad genética del yacaré overo - Prensa H PD Investigac
5 U.N.Litoral TML F ión

2 Programas Yacarés de Entre Ríos - Prov. de Entre Ríos H PD Periodístic

6 TML F o

2 Programa de uso sostenible - Proyecto Yacaré provincia de Santa Fe H PD Monografí

7 TML F a

2 Programa de conservación y aprovechamiento sostenible ---

PD
Programa
8 del lagarto (Caiman yacare) en Bolivia - Ministerio de F
Desarrollo Sostenible
2 Escocia, el primer destino de la exportacion de carne de H PD Periodístic
9 yacare - El Diario TML F o

3 Liberaron 160 yacarés en humedales de Corrientes - La H PD Periodístic

0 Región TML F o

3 Marco legal criaderos provincia de Corrientes - Oficial H PD Reglamen

1 TML F tos

REGLAMENTO PARA LA CONSERVACION

3 H PD Reglamen
2 Y APROVECHAMIENTO DEL LAGARTO. TML F to
DECRETO SUPREMO Nº 24774 - REPÚBLICA DE
BOLIVIA

PROYECTO YACARÉ; COSECHA DE

3 PD Monografí
3 HUEVOS PARA CRIA EN GRANJAS DEL ---
F a
GÉNERO CAIMÁN EN LA ARGENTINA -
A. LARRIERA Y A. IMHOF
3 Caracterización cualitativa de la carne de yacaré (Caiman H PD Investigac
4 yacare y Caiman latirostris) criado en cautividad - Cossu, TML F ión
M.E., González, O., Wawrzkiewicz, M., Moreno, D. y Veltes, C.
3 Carne de lagarto overo (Tupinambis merianae) y yacaré H PD Investigac
5 (Caiman yacare y latirostris); Calidad comparativa - TML F ión
Panella, F., Cossu, M.E., Yeites, C.M. y González, O.M.
Variaciones fisiológicas de electrolitos séricos (Na, K, Ca, P,
3 PD Investigac
6
Mg, Cu) en Caiman latirostris y Caiman yacare ---
F ión
(Crocodylia: Alligatoridae) alojados en criaderos - J.A.
Coppo, N.B. Mussart, N.N. Barboza, S.A. Fioranelli, G.A. Koza y W.S. Prado
Edad, sexo, estación del año y sistema de manejo
3 modifican los parámetros leucocitarios durante el ---
PD Investigac
7 cautiverio de Caiman latirostris y Caiman yacare F ión
(Crocodylia: Alligatoridae) - Mussart, N. B., Barboza N. N., Fioranelli
S. A., Koza, G. A., Prado, W. S. y Coppo, J. A. (en inglés)
3 Carnes no tradicionales - M. Epstein y R. Fernández Pardo H PD Monografí
8 TML F a

3 Cambios del eritrograma durante el cautiverio de Caiman ---

PD Investigac
9 latirostris y Caiman yacare - Barboza, N. N., Mussart, N. B., Prado, F ión
W., Koza, G. A. y Coppo, José A.
Influencia de la especie, sexo, edad, alimentación y
4 PD Investigac
0
temperatura ambiental sobre los electrolitos séricos de ---
F ión
caimanes autóctonos - Barboza, N. N., Mussart, N. B., Ortiz, L., Prado,
W. y Coppo, J. A.
4 Intervalo de referencia y cambios fisiológicos del --- PD Investigac

119
1 lipidograma de Caiman latirostris y Caiman yacare - F ión
Barboza, N. N., Mussart, N. B., Prado, W., Fioranelli, S. A. y Coppo, J. A.
4 Carnes No Tradicionales - R. Pildo H PD Periodístic
2 TML F o

4 Cambios fisiológicos del lipidograma sérico durante el H PD Investigac

3 cautiverio de caimanes del nordeste argentino (C. TML F ión
latirostris y C. yacare) - J.A. Coppo, N.B. Mussart y N.N. Barboza
4 Estudios citogenéticos de Caiman yacaré y C. latirrostris H PD Investigac
4 (Reptilia: alligatoridae) del Noreste Argentino - Gutiérrez, J., TML F ión
Ledesma, M. A. y Gunski, R. J.
4 Zoocriadero de Yacarés "Cerros Azules" - A. Fernández Buzó H PD Monografí
5 TML F a

4 Investigan la variabilidad genética del yacaré overo - Prensa H PD Periodístic

6 UNL TML F o

4 Una producción poco tradicional: carne y cuero de yacaré - H PD Periodístic

7 J. Urbieta TML F o

Criadero modelo de yacarés en

4 H PD Periodístic
8 Corrientes, un proyecto de caimanes TML F o
de Formosa y yacarés santafesinos - El
Comercial
4 Aislamiento de Salmonella infantis en yacarés criados en H PD Investigac
9 cautiverio - Schettino A., Uhart M., Soto P., Prado W., Moreno, D., Terragno TML F ión
R. y Caffer M.
5 Evaluación clínica de reptiles - N. Varela H PD Monografí
0 TML F a

5 Análisis de producciones animales alternativas con PD Monografí

---
1 potencial de desarrollo inmediato y mediato en la F a
República Argentina - SAGPyA
5 ¿Ternera, pescado, pollo o cerdo...? Nada de eso: yacaré - F. H PD Periodístic
2 Czubaj TML F o

5 Poblaciones en recuperación - La Nación H PD Periodístic

3 TML F o

5 Oscilaciones del eritrograma en caimanes criados por

4 sistema ranching - Barboza, N.N.; Mussart, N.B.; Coppo, J.A.; Fioranelli,
S.A.; Koza, G.A.

Singing to the Plants

Shamanism and the Medicine Path

120
 Steve Beyer

has doctorates in religious studies and in psychology. He has been a

university professor, lawyer, wilderness guide, and peacemaker. He has
studied both wilderness survival and the indigenous cultures of North and
South America. He has studied sacred plant medicine with traditional
herbalists in North America and with ayahuasqueros in the Upper Amazon,
where he received coronación by banco ayahuasquero don Roberto Acho
Jurama. He has worked with ayahuasca and other sacred plants in the
Amazon, peyote in ceremonies of the Native American Church, and
huachuma in Peruvian mesa rituals. He has served as an editor of the
Journal of Shamanic Practice and is a contributing editor of
Ayahuasca.com. His book on shamanism, sorcery, and plant medicine in
the Upper Amazon, Singing to the Plants: A Guide to Mestizo Shamanism
in the Upper Amazon, is to be published this fall by the University of New
Mexico Press.

View my complete profile

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121
 Wednesday
Male Potency Enhancers

In the Amazon, products purporting to enhance male sexual potency are sold in stalls
and shops all over the jungle. These drinks are probably as well known for their names as for their ingredients —
Rompecalzón, Rip-Your-Shorts; Levántate Lázaro, Arise Lazarus!; Para Para, Stand up! Stand up!; Tumba
Hembra, Knock Her Over; Siete Veces Sin Sacar, Seven Times Without Pulling Out; Levántate Pájaro Muerto,
Arise Dead Bird!

These aphrodisiacs are made from both plants and animal parts, the latter primarily the ullo, penis, of various
animals — the achuni, coatimundi (Nasua nasua), a relative of the raccoon, which is believed to have a penis
that is always erect; the machín, capuchin monkey (Cebus spp.); and the lagarto negro, black caiman
(Melanosuchus niger). It is popularly said that ingesting achuni ullo induces a priapism so profound as to survive
death, requiring that a hole be cut in the coffin to accommodate it.

Two plants in particular are thought to have male potency enhancement effects —
chuchuhuasi (Maytenus macrocarpa), shown at right, with the cut bark above at left; and clavohuasca, clove vine
(Tynanthus panurensis). Clavohuasca is reputed to work as a libido enhancer for women as well. Interestingly,
both of these — along with a number of the plants with which they are mixed — are considered hot plants, used
to treat cold conditions, such as arthritis and rheumatism; in addition, the bark with which they are mixed comes
from trees that produce strong durable hardwood used in construction for posts, supports, and uprights — a good
example of the doctrine of signatures. The most frequently used hardwoods for this purpose are cocobolo
(Schinopsis peruviana), cumaseba (Swartzia polyphylla), huacapú, ironwood (Minquartia guianensis), icoja
(Unonopsis spp.), and tahuari (Tabebuia spp.).

122
 Herbs and bark are then dissolved in aguardiente. Aguardiente is, literally, agua ardiente, burning water. It is
distilled from the fermented first squeezing of sugar cane, unlike rum, which is made from molasses, a byproduct
from the processing of the sugar cane into sugar. The same drink is called cachaça in Brazil. In Colombia,
aguardiente is sometimes flavored with anise. But in the Peruvian Amazon, aguardiente is straightforward,
unflavored, potent, sold in recycled bottles or by the shot in tin-roofed bars and thatched bodegas throughout the
jungle.

Some recipes are relatively straightforward: the chuchuhuasi drink is a maceration in aguardiente of chuchuhuasi
bark; abejachado is the chuchuhuasi drink with honey added; achuni ullo, coatimundi penis, is a maceration in
aguardiente of scrapings from the dried penis of a coatimundi. More complex recipes can add to chuchuhuasi
both hot plants, such as abuta (Abuta grandifolia) and ipururo (Alchornea castaneifolia), and the bark of such
hardwood construction trees as huacapú and cumaseba, mixed with honey. The various Rompecalzón recipes
use, in similar fashion, clavohuasca bark instead of chuchuhausi.

I am sorry to report that empirical studies of efficacy are lacking.

General tonics such as Siete Raíces, Seven Roots, and Veintiun Raíces, Twenty-One Roots, often contain
chuchuhuasi or clavohuasca or both, and thus claim potency enhancement along with numerous other benefits.

The term raíces is metaphorical, since most of the ingredients are tree bark rather than roots.
The ingredients can vary from place to place; I have collected four different recipes of Siete Raíces, all of which
contain chuchuhuasi and three of which contain clavohuasca. These drinks are basically aguardiente flavored
with bark and herbs, and make a very pleasant apéritif, apart from their claimed uplift.

The capinurí palm (Maquira coriacea) is also worth mentioning. The ends of its fallen branches — pictured on the
left — look remarkably like erect penises, and wearing a two- or three-inch piece of the branch end on a string
around the neck is considered to increase virility — another example of the doctrine of signatures. The phallic
ends of the branches are also the subject of a great deal of ribald humor.

Black caiman (Melanosuchus niger)

• Facts & Status
• Description
• Range & Habitat
• Biology
• Threats & Conservation
123
• Further information
• Glossary & References

Facts
Previously known as: Caiman niger

Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Chordata
Class Reptilia
Order Crocodylia
Family Alligatoridae
Genus Melanosuchus (1)

Size Length: at least 4 m (2)

Status

Classified as Lower Risk / Conservation Dependent (LR/cd) on the IUCN Red

List 2007 (1) and listed under Appendices I and II of CITES (3).

Description

This impressive aquatic hunter is the largest of all alligator species, with
reports of individuals measuring six metres (2). The black caiman superficially
resembles the American alligator (4), and as its name suggests, its protective
armoured skin is dark in colour. Pale yellow or white bands of dots pattern the
sides of the body, while the lighter grey head has dark bands across the jaws
(4). As the caiman matures, this banding gradually fades (2). The snout is
fairly wide at the base but becomes rather narrow and pointed and (4), like

124
other caiman, a bony ridge extends from above the large eyes, down the
snout (2).

Range

The black caiman occurs mainly in the Amazon Basin, although its range does
also extend further north (4). It occurs in Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador,
Guyana, Peru, Venezuela (2), and in French Guiana, where the largest
populations remain (4).

View a distribution map for this species at UNEP World

Conservation Monitoring Centre.

Habitat

This aquatic reptile occurs in shallow, freshwater habitats such as slow-

moving rivers, streams and lakes, and ventures into flooded savannah and
wetlands (2) (4).

Biology

Black caiman typically hunt at night, using their acute sight and hearing to
locate their prey (2). Fish comprise the major part of the black caiman's diet,
particularly catfish and the much-feared piranha, but adult black caiman also
tackle much larger prey such as capybara, turtles and deer (4). Domestic
animals such as dogs and pigs may be taken by large adult caiman, and there
are even reports of people being the victim of an attack. Juvenile black caiman
stick to smaller foods, including crustaceans, other invertebrates such as
snails, and fish (4).

Female black caiman are thought to start nesting during the dry season when
water levels fall and fish are forced to congregate in shallow pools, providing
an easy and plentiful meal (4). Plant material is used to build a mound nest
measuring about 1.5 metres across, into which a large clutch of up to 65 eggs
are laid (4). The female will remain close to the nest, waiting for between 42
and 90 days until the eggs begin to hatch, before opening the nest to assist
with the hatching process (2). As many females often nest within close
proximity, large numbers of hatchlings all emerge at once at the beginning of
the wet season, gaining some safety in numbers (2).

125
Threats

For many years, the black caiman was heavily hunted for its tough skin which
produces shiny, black leather (2). Intensive hunting began in the 1940s, and
continued into the 1970s and beyond (2) (4), with around an incredible 66,000
hides being exported from Colombia each year in the early 1970s (4). As a
result of this extreme hunting pressure, the overall population of black caiman
declined by 99 per cent over the last century and it is now virtually extinct in
some locations, such as Colombia and the Amazon River itself (4).

Illegal hunting continues to impact the black caiman, in addition to the

destruction of its habitat, through deforestation and the burning of
swamplands (2). Competition with the more numerous spectacled caiman
(Caiman crocodilus) may also inhibit the recovery of black caiman populations
(2).

The impact of reduced black caiman numbers can be felt in some areas, such
as Brazil and Bolivia, where capybara populations, free from this voracious
predator, have increased, causing a rise in crop damage. Similarly, an
increase in piranha numbers in flooded pastures has resulted in an increase in
attacks on cattle (4).

Conservation

Except for certain populations in Brazil and Ecuador, the black caiman is listed
on Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered
Species (CITES), meaning that international trade in this species is only
permitted in exceptional circumstances. Those other populations are listed on
Appendix II of CITES, meaning that annual quotas are set and the trade is
carefully monitored (3). In nearly all the countries in which the black caiman is
found, the species is protected or is included in laws prohibiting commercial
hunting. However, these laws can be difficult to enforce and illegal hunting
remains a significant problem (5), compounded by the fact that black caiman
skins can be difficult to differentiate from the more common spectacled
caiman (2) (5). In 1990, a captive breeding and reintroduction programme was
initiated in Bolivia (5). As well as enforcing existing laws, captive breeding and
reintroduction programmes need to be implemented in other countries to
assist the recovery of this remarkable reptile (2).

Further Information

For further information on the black caiman see:

126
 • Crocodilian Species List:
www.flmnh.ufl.edu/cnhc/csp_mnig.htm

Authentication

This information is awaiting authentication by a species expert, and will be

updated as soon as possible. If you are able to help please contact:
arkive@wildscreen.org.uk

Glossary

Crustaceans: Diverse group of arthropods (a phylum of animals with jointed

limbs and a hard chitinous exoskeleton) characterised by the possession of
two pairs of antennae, one pair of mandibles (parts of the mouthparts used for
handling and processing food) and two pairs of maxillae (appendages used in
eating, which are located behind the mandibles). Includes crabs, lobsters,
shrimps, slaters, woodlice and barnacles.
Invertebrates: Animals with no backbone.

References

1. IUCN Red List (June, 2007)

http://www.iucnredlist.org
2. Crocodilian Species List (May, 2008)
http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/cnhc/csp_mnig.htm
3. CITES (June, 2007)
http://www.cites.org
4. Alderton, D. (2004) Crocodiles and Alligators of the World. Facts on
File, Inc, New York.
5. Ross, J.P. (1998) Crocodiles: Status Survey and Conservation Action
Plan. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK.

An analysis of the effect of hunting on Caiman

crocodilus and Melanosuchus niger based on the
sizes of confiscated skins

127
 George Henrique Rebêlo* and William E. Magnusson

Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia, C.P. 478, 69.000, Manaus, AM, Brazil

Available online 26 June 2003.

Abstract

The size distributions of skins of Caiman crocodilus and Melanosuchus niger confiscated by the Instituto
Brasileiro de Desenvolvimento Florestal in the regions of Manaus and the Rio Trombetas were compared with
the size distributions of wild populations. The comparison indicates that hunting is selective, with 110 cm and 100
cm being the approximated lower limits for C. crocodilus and M. niger respectively. The size difference between
animals entering the hunted population and those entering the breeding population combined with presumed
growth rates of the two species indicate that there could be some recruitment to the breeding population of C.
crocodilus one year after intensive hunting but that M. niger would require approximately three years.

Article Outline
• References

*
Present address: Instituto Brasileiro de Desenvolvimento Florestal, Brasilia.

Crocodilian Biology Database

EVOLUTION | MORPHOLOGY | BIOLOGY | BEHAVIOUR | CONSERVATION | LORE | FAQ

INDEX: EVOLU TIO N & TAXO NOMY

128
Introduction

C.
crocodilus

C.
latirostris

C. yacare

Subspecies

M. niger

Paleosuchus

Conclusion

References

Glossary

EVOLUTION

MORPHOLOGY

GENERAL BIOLOGY

BEHAVIOUR

CONSERVATION

LORE

FREQUENTLY
ASKED
QUESTIONS

129
MAIN MENU

130
to warrant placing it in
another genus. It is interesting that
Schmidt refrained from doing so because it would ignore the uniqueness of the broad-
snouted caiman, which he also retained in Spix's Caiman; recent analyses by Poe (1996)
indicate that these two taxa may be sisters, and implies that Melanosuchus should be
returned to the genus Caiman.

Paleosuchus:
The dwarf or smooth-fronted caimans were reviewed
by Medem (1958). The specific epithets of the
caimans, palpebrosus and trigonatus, follow the first
descriptions by Cuvier and Schneider, respectively.
Both were originally described as members of the now-
defunct genus Crocodilus. Paleosuchus was first
proposed by Gray (1862) as a subgenus of Caiman and included only Schneider's
trigonatus. Müller (1924) pointed out that Laurenti's (1768) figure of Crocodylus niloticus
(the Nile crocodile) is in fact a smooth-fronted caiman, specifically Schneider's smooth-
fronted caiman (cf., P. trigonatus). This revealed a problem. Later, Mller published a
revision, assigning C. niloticus to the taxon formerly known as Caiman trigonatus
(subgenus Paleosuchus) Gray and thereby, as noted by Schmidt (1928), wreaking havoc
on crocodilian nomenclature. While Müller was certainly justified under the auspices of the
Code in making the name change, Schmidt (1928) correctly (in my opinion) argued that to
follow Müller would result in such chaos that the ICZN should invoke its plenary powers
(as per Article 79) to rectify the situation. In the interim, Schmidt opted to follow Gray
(1862), except that he considered the smooth-fronted caimans "generically-distinct," and
for this reason, used Paleosuchus as their generic name. It is worth noting that Schmidt
was the first worker to use the combination of generic and specific epithets in common
use today. In his review, Medem agreed that Müller's recommendations would be
disastrous and "should under no circumstances be followed (1958: 228)."

CONCLUSION:
In conclusion, therefore, what can we say about caiman taxonomy? I have illustrated
some of the circuitous routes we have taken to arrive at our present caiman
nomenclature. According to a recent analysis by Poe (1996), the generic distinctness of
Melanosuchus may be questionable. The black and broad-snouted caimans were found to
be sister taxa in a combined analysis of available phylogenetic data on caiman
relationships. The black caiman was Spix's "other Caiman," Caiman niger. This name has
priority over Werner's Melanosuchus, and, as Poe suggested, should be applied to this
taxon. Beyond this change, and my current investigation into the nature of the Caiman
crocodilus subspecies, caiman taxonomy has achieved some degree of stability, as most
crocodilian biologists accept the names of the dwarf caimans and the common caiman.
On the other hand, in the absence of a universally-accepted phylogenetic-based
taxonomic system (and a pragmatic viewpoint dictates that such an absence will always
exist), stability in terms of the number of caimans recognized by specific or subspecific
nomenclature will remain elusive.

131
As more and more systematists come to accept the relatively new ideas about
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 Journal of Herpetology
Published by: The Society for the Study of Amphibians and Reptiles

« previous article : next article »

Journal of Herpetology 42(4):768-772. 2008

doi: 10.1670/07-306R1.1

Feeding Behavior of Two

Sympatric Caiman Species,
Melanosuchus niger and
Caiman crocodilus, in the
Brazilian Amazon
Boris Marioni1,2, Ronis Da Silveira3, William E. Magnusson4, and John Thorbjarnarson5
1
Instituto Piagaçu, Rua UZ, Quadra Z, Numero 8, Conjunto Morada do Sol, Aleixo, 69060-
000, Manaus/AM, Brazil bmarioni@mac.com
3
Departamento de Biologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal do
Amazonas, Rua General Rodrigo Otávio Numero 3000, 69.077-000, Manaus-AM, Brazil
ronis@ufam.edu.br
4
Coordenação de Pesquisas em Ecologia, Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia, CP
478, 69011-970, Manaus-AM, Brazil bill@inpa.gov.br
5
Wildlife Conservation Society, PO Box 357625, Gainesville, Florida 32635-762, USA
jthorbjarnarson@wcs.org
2
Corresponding Author.

Abstract
We studied the feeding behaviors of two sympatric species of caimans (Melanosuchus niger and
Caiman crocodilus) during the dry season in the Mamirauá Sustainable Development Reserve,
Amazonas State, Brazil. Observations were made in 50 × 13 m plots located along the land-water
interface. We investigated the influence of interspecific density and the effects of temperature and
water depth on the feeding behaviors of both species. We identified three principal categories of
feeding behavior: trapping (with the body perpendicular to the shore, the caiman captures prey
swimming close to the shore), active search (with the head under the water, the caiman searches for
benthic prey), and jumping (leaping partially out of the water and capturing fish or other under water

133
invertebrates prey). Using multiple linear regression, we found that water temperature had a negative
effect on trapping by M. niger; and water depth did not affect feeding behaviors in either species.
Density of M. niger did not affect either the density or the frequency of feeding by C. crocodilus.
Results suggest that environmental factors have little influence on the feeding behaviors of the
caimans we studied, and there is probably little interspecific competition for food during the dry
season.

Accepted: April 16, 2008

Caimans are abundant apex predators in the Neotropics and consume a variety of terrestrial
and aquatic prey (Magnusson et al. 1987; Thorbjarnarson, 1993a; Da Silveira and
Magnusson, 1999; Horna et al., 2001). The feeding behaviors of caimans have previously
been studied in seasonally flooded savannas in the Venezuelan Llanos (Ayarzagüena, 1983;
Thorbjarnarson, 1990a, 1993b) and the Brazilian Pantanal (Schaller and Crawshaw, 1982;
Olmos and Sazima, 1990). However, little is known about the feeding behavior of caimans in
the forested parts of the Amazon basin. Melanosuchus niger is the largest Amazonian
predator (Ross and Magnusson, 1989), and males of this species can exceed 4 m in length
(Ross, 1998). Males of Caiman crocodilus can reach 2.5 m of total length (Ross, 1998), but
individuals of this size are rare in the Brazilian Amazon (Da Silveira and Thorbjarnarson,
1999; Da Silveira, 2001). In many parts of the Amazon basin, these two species are broadly
sympatric, and studies of feeding behavior may help us understand the ecological
relationships between these caimans.

Our study was undertaken during the dry season and examined feeding behaviors of Black
Caiman (M. niger) and Spectacled Caiman (C. crocodilus) in the Mamirauá Sustainable
Development Reserve in the western Brazilian Amazon. Highest densities of these species
in the Amazon basin are found in this reserve. Large and sympatric populations have been
effectively protected from hunting for the past 10 years offering a unique opportunity to study
the behavior of these species without significant human interference (Da Silveira, 2002).

The specific questions addressed in this study were (1) Does the abundance of M. niger affect density
and the feeding behaviors of C. crocodilus? and (2) do air and water temperature or water depth affect
the feeding behavior of either species?

Materials and Methods

The study was carried out during the annual dry season (24 September and 2 November
2001) in the southeastern portion (03°08′S to 64°45′W and 02°36′S to 67°13′W) of the

134
Mamirauá Sustainable Development Reserve (MSDR), Brazilian Amazon. The MSDR covers
1,124,000 ha of seasonally inundated varzea forest at the confluence of the Solimões
(Amazon) and Japurá Rivers (Ayres, 1993). Caiman feeding behavior was observed in 42
plots located along the shores of the Lago Mamirauá, which is one of the largest water
bodies in the MSDR. During the wet season, it is approximately 10 km long and 400 m wide
(Ayres, 1993). Further observations were made along the shores of Cano Mamirauá, a 10-
km long channel that connects the lake to the Solimões River. Additional information on the
MSDR is available from its management plan (Mamirauá, 1996, available at
www.mamiraua.org.br).

We carried out general ad libitum observations (Altman, 1974) for 20 h to define categories
of feeding behavior. After that, we classified them into three categories: trapping, active
searching, and jumping. Trapping is a passive behavior with the caimans remaining
immobile, body oriented perpendicular to the shore, with the head and most of the body in
shallow water and usually with at least a portion of tail on land. In this position, the caimans'
body will block underwater moving prey along the shore, and caimans can capture them with
a rapid lateral movement of the head and the tail. Searching is an active foraging technique
with caiman moving slowly in shallow water along the shoreline and periodically submerging
the head and moving it in sweeping motions from side to side in search of submerged prey.
Jumping is also an active feeding behavior with caimans using their hind legs and tail to
propel their body forward and partially out of the water. As observed sometimes, submerged
prey (e.g., fish, crab) was captured as the caiman splashes back down into the water.

A total of 42 observational plots (50 m long and 13 m wide [10 m into the water and three
meters on land]) was marked with wooden sticks placed two or three days before
observation began, so caimans would become accustomed to them. We carried out
observations of caiman feeding behaviors from a blind 20–50 m from the plots (mostly on
the same shore) and covered by a green plastic mosquito net. We undertook two
observation sessions of 20 min each in each of 34 plots, with a 40-min interval between the
end of the first and the beginning of the second. We used means of two sessions in each
plot in the statistical analyses. Only one observation session was made in eight plots
because only one or two individuals were found during the first observation session. The 76
observation sessions totaling 25 h of data collection were carried out between 0700 and 800
h. We carried out 36 observation sessions between midday and 1600 h. We did not
performed nocturnal observations because artificial light would be needed and could
potentially affect caiman behavior (Santiago et al., 1998). We measured air temperature at
the beginning and end of observations at each plot and water temperature at 0.3 m depth
and 10 m from the shore at the end of the data collection in each plot. We measured water
depth at 10 m from the shore in six equidistant points along the 50-m extension of the plot,

135
and in 69% of the plots mean depth was less than 50 cm. We used mean depth and air
temperature of each plot in the statistical analyses.

The SVL of approximately 50% of the individuals present in each plot was visually estimated
before each observation session based on the field experience of the authors (Magnusson,
1983; Da Silveira et al., 1997). Throughout all sessions, the number of individuals of each
species was counted every 2 min. Immediately after each count, the number of feeding
(jump and search) attempts by each species was recorded for each 2-min period. The large
number of caimans in some plots did not permit quantification of individuals' feeding
attempts. Also, we were unable to accurately determine the prey captured or the percentage
of successful fishing attempts for any of the behaviors. The number of individuals in the
characteristic trapping position along the shoreline was also noted during each 2-min period.

Multiple regression analysis was used to investigate the influence of M. niger density, water and air
temperatures, and depth on the feeding behavior of each species. The effect of M. niger density on C.
crocodilus feeding was also investigated. Density was indexed as the maximum number of individuals
counted in each plot during the 40-min observation. All analyses were carried out in the Systat 8.0
package (L. Wilkinson, SPSS Inc. Chicago, 1998).

Results
The total number of both species of caimans in the 42 plots was 696; 88% were M. niger
and 12% were C. crocodilus. The number of M. niger in the plots varied between zero (N =
2) and 50 individuals (Fig. 1A). In 45% of the plots, more than 15 M. niger were present.
Estimated SVL (ESVL) of 276 M. niger varied between 30 and 170 cm. Forty-five percent of
the observed M. niger (N = 126) were between 85 and 105 cm ESVL (Fig. 1B) size-classes,
which are principally male and female subadults (Da Silveira, 2001).

enlarge figure

136
Figure 1 Observed density (A) and size structure of Melanosuchus niger (B) and Caiman crocodilus
(C) in 42 sampled plots in the Mamirauá Reserve.

The number of C. crocodilus in the plots varied between zero (N = 14) and nine individuals
(Fig. 1A). ESVL of 54 C. crocodilus ranged between 40 and 110 cm. Fifty-seven percent of
the C. crocodilus (N = 31) observed were between 65 and 85 cm ESVL (Fig. 1C), which
corresponds to adult females and subadult males (Thorbjarnarson, 1994). No hatchlings
(SVL < 20 cm) of either species were observed.

In total, we observed 10 jumps and 16 active searches by C. crocodilus and 252 jumps and
244 active searches by M. niger, suggesting these two feeding behaviors are used in similar
proportion by both species. The density of M. niger significantly affected the frequency of
the three feeding behaviors observed for this species (Table 1A). The relationship between
this variable and the three feeding behaviors was linear, and more M. niger number in a plot
resulted in more feeding attempts recorded. However, density of M. niger did not
significantly affect any of the three feeding behaviors carried out by C. crocodilus (Table 1B)
or the number of C. crocodilus present in each plot (Table 1C).

Table 1 Summary of the multiple regression analyses: effect of three independent variables on (A)
Melanosuchus niger and (B) Caiman crocodilus feeding behaviors and (C) C. crocodilus density in
the 42 plots observed in the Mamirauá Reserve.

Air temperature varied between 25 and 37°C (mean = 30.8°C, SD = 3.3) and water
temperature varied from 29–38°C (mean = 32.8°C, SD = 2.4). Air temperature was highly
correlated to mean water temperature (r = 0.7) and was not included in the models. Water
depth varied between almost zero and 220 cm (mean = 46 cm, SD = 42.2). The only
environmental factor found to influence feeding behavior was water temperature, which was
negatively correlated with trapping behavior of M. niger (P = 0.006; Fig. 2). Water depth did
not significantly affect any of the three feeding behavior of either species (Table 1).

137
enlarge figure

Figure 2 Partial regression between the water temperature and the number of Melanosuchus niger
carrying out the trapping behavior. Some numbers of the axes are negatives because the partial
regression represents deviations from the expected result if all others variables were held constant at
their observed means.

Discussion
Crocodilians are generalist feeders, eating a wide variety of animal prey (Lang, 1987). Black
Caiman and Spectacled Caiman principally feed on insects (coleoptera), spiders, crabs,
snails, fishes, and rarely other vertebrates as birds, mammals, and reptiles (Magnusson et
al. 1987; Thorbjarnarson 1993a; Da Silveira and Magnusson 1999; Horna et al. 2001).
Although some crocodilians, such as the Narrow-Snouted Gharial (Gavialis gangeticus) or
the Australian Freshwater Crocodile (Crocodylus johnsoni), have morphological
specializations for the capture of aquatic prey; the Broad-Snouted Caiman (Caiman
latirostris) depends largely on behavioral specializations (Thorbjarnarson, 1990b, 1993b;
Olmos and Sazima, 1990).

Crocodilians, including C. crocodilus, have been reported to use a fish trapping technique
that uses the body and tail to trap prey against the shore (Pooley and Gans, 1976; Schaller
and Crawshaw, 1982; Thorbjarnarson, 1993b). We never observed this trapping technique
being used by M. niger in the Mamirauá Reserve; and occasionally we saw a similar
behavior in C. crocodilus, when the caiman was swimming parallel to the shore and used a
very slow movement of the tail to drag water throughout its open mouth obviously trying to
catch small fish. However, we did not quantify this foraging technique because it was not
observed during the initial ad libitum observations.

Water temperature was the only environmental factors that influenced M. niger trapping
behavior in the Mamirauá Reserve. During this feeding behavior, the individuals stay
immobile with the whole dorsal part of the body exposed to the sun, and probably during the
hottest hours of the day, it becomes difficult to maintain an ideal body temperature. Thus,
caimans stop this behavior and submerge most of their body to regulate their body
temperature, as it was already observed in C. crocodilus (J. W. Lang, Thermal ecology and
social behaviors of Caiman crocodilus in the Llanos of Venezuela. Progress Report to the
National Zoological Park, Smithsonian Institution, unpubl. data, 1977). Water temperature
does not have any effects on jumping and searching behaviors of both species. Probably
138
overheating is easier to avoid because during these behaviors caimans' body surface were
mostly submerged.

Water depth did not affect any of the behaviors we investigated. However, the study was
undertaken during the dry season, and water depth in our study plots was shallow and
varied little. Probably the three feeding behaviors described in this study can only be
performed in shallow water. When water levels rise more than 10 m during the annual wet
season, shallow habitats are very rare in the MSDR, and we presume the caimans change
their foraging techniques or may simply stop eating during this period of the year, as
apparently happens in the Anavilhanas Archipelago (Da Silveira and Magnusson, 1999).

We did not observe caiman fishing while floating on the water surface as observed in
Venezuela and the Brazilian Pantanal (Schaller and Crawshaw, 1982; Thorbjarnarson,
1993b; Olmos and Sazima, 1990). Also the weir fishing technique (Schaller and Crawshaw,
1982; Thorbjarnarson, 1993b) used in narrow canals to capture fish swimming upstream was
not seen in the MSDR.

Other studies have found that jumping has a very low success rate in capturing fish (M. A.
Staton and J. R. Dixon, Breeding biology of the Spectacled Caiman, Caiman crocodilus
crocodilus, in the Venezuelan Llanos, Wildlife Research Report Vol. 5, unpubl. data, 1977;
Thorbjarnarson, 1993b). How jumping may help capture prey is not well understood, but it
may serve to disorient aquatic prey and facilitate anticipation of prey perception by other
caimans. We periodically observed that, when one M. niger jumped, the behavior appeared
to be contagious and nearby individuals would also start jumping, and this may be some
form of social facilitation or group feeding behavior.

In Venezuelan Llanos, M. A. Staton and J. R. Dixon (Breeding biology of the Spectacled

Caiman, Caiman crocodilus crocodilus, in the Venezuelan Llanos, Wildlife Research Report
Vol. 5, unpubl. data, 1977) considered jumping behavior as a sexual display that was part of
the reproductive behavior in C. crocodilus and that it could have an alimentary function too.
The present study was not carried out during the caimans mating period (Da Silveira, 2001);
thus, we did not consider jumping as part of the reproductive behavior in the Mamirauá
Reserve but primary as a feeding behavior.

Preliminary research suggested that M. niger can affect the ecology of C. crocodilus (Magnusson,
1982; Magnusson and Rebelo, 1983). In our study, M. niger density did not affect either the density or
feeding behavior of C. crocodilus, suggesting there may be little interspecific competition for food
during the dry season in the Mamirauá Reserve and probably most of the Amazonian flooded forests.

139
Acknowledgments
This study was supported by the Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Cientifico e Tecnológico do
Ministério da Ciência e Tecnologia (CNPq/MCT do Brasil), Sociedade Civil Mamirauá (SCM),
Instituto de Desenvolvimento Sustentável Mamirauá (IDSM), the European Union and the Wildlife
Conservation Society (WCS). It was part of the graduate thesis of Boris Marioni at the Université de
Neuchâtel (UniNe), Switzerland. The Wüthrich Fund (Switzerland) paid for Boris Marioni's plane
ticket from Europe and some equipment. We would like to thank the professors of the UniNe-
Switzerland, Claude Mermod and Louis-Félix Bersier for their help during the study. Special thanks
to all the inhabitants of the Mamirauá Reserve; without them, this study would not have been
possible.

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Title

Biomechanics of the rostrum in crocodilians: a comparative

analysis using finite-element modeling
Author/Creator
McHenry, Colin R.
142
 Author/Creator
Clausen, Philip D.

Author/Creator
Daniel, William J. T.

Author/Creator
Meers, Mason B.

Author
/Creat
or
Pendharkar, Atul

Descri
ption
This article reports the use of simple beam and finite-element models to
investigate the relationship between rostral shape and biomechanical
performance in living crocodilians under a range of loading conditions. Load cases
corresponded to simple biting, lateral head shaking, and twist feeding behaviors.
The six specimens were chosen to reflect, as far as possible, the full range of
rostral shape in living crocodilians: a juvenile Caiman crocodilus, subadult
Alligator mississippiensis and Crocodylus johnstoni, and adult Caiman crocodilus,
Melanosuchus niger, and Paleosuchus palpebrosus. The simple beam models were
generated using morphometric landmarks from each specimen. Three of the
finite-element models, the A. mississippiensis, juvenile Caiman crocodilus, and
the Crocodylus johnstoni, were based on CT scan data from respective
specimens, but these data were not available for the other models and so these -
the adult Caiman crocodilus, M. niger, and P. palpebrosus - were generated by
morphing the juvenile Caiman crocodilus mesh with reference to three-
dimensional linear distance measured from specimens. Comparison of the
mechanical performance of the six finite-element models essentially matched
results of the simple beam models: relatively tall skulls performed best under
vertical loading and tall and wide skulls performed best under torsional loading.
The widely held assumption that the platyrostral (dorsoventrally flattened)
crocodilian skull is optimized for torsional loading was not supported by either
simple beam theory models or finite-element modeling. Rather than being purely
optimized against loads encountered while subduing and processing food, the
shape of the crocodilian rostrum may be significantly affected by the
hydrodynamic constraints of catching agile aquatic prey. This observation has
important implications for our understanding of biomechanics in crocodilians and
other aquatic reptiles.

143
 R
Anatomical Record Part A: Discoveries in Molecular Cellular and Evolutionary
Biology Vol. 288A, Issue 8, p. 827-849

http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ar.a.20360

2006

John Wiley

crocodiles

skull biomechanics

finite-element analysis

feeding

hydrodynamics

aquatic/marine tetrapods

comparative modeling

journal article

http://hdl.handle.net/1959.13/26909

ISSN:1552-4884

Brazilian alligators survive extinction threat, paper says

144
Asian Economic News , Oct 28, 2002

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RIO DE JANEIRO, Oct. 24 Kyodo

Two alligator species in Brazil that are threatened with extinction may survive as their numbers are increasing, a
newspaper reported Wednesday.

The populations of the black caiman (melanosuchus niger), the largest of the four Amazonian alligator species,
and the broad-snouted caiman (caiman latirostins), found in the Pantanal Wetlands in central Brazil, have soared
chiefly because of breeding in captivity, according to environmentalists quoted by the daily O Estado de Sao
Paulo.

The two species of alligators are illegally hunted in the wilderness with harpoons and rifles. The commercial value
of a large-size alligator skin is approximately $50, the daily said.

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The two species are listed in the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and
Flora (CITES), an agreement under which governments are pledged to ensure that trade in specimens of wild
animals and plants does not threaten their existence.

''We believed that in the 1980s the caiman populations were smaller, but we have concluded they are more
abundant than we thought,'' the newspaper quoted agronomist Luciano Verdade as saying.

The main threat for the survival and preservation of the two species is not hunting, but the loss of their natural
habitat, chiefly in the Pantanal Wetlands, according to Verdade.

The agronomist recommended the expansion of extensive breeding of alligators in the wetlands as a strategy to
curb the expansion of cattle growing in the region.

The Brazilian Wildlife Law of 1967 authorizes the breeding of wild animals for commercial purposes and
environmentalists have said this practice has been decisive in the expansion of the alligator populations.

The environmentalists have gathered in Sao Paulo for a workshop sponsored by the federal Environment Agency
(Ibama) to debate the private breeding of the two species threatened with extinction.

The agency has registered 75 ranching operations that produce alligator skins and some of them already have
started exports of the product.
145
The caiman was abundant in the rivers, lagoons and swamps of tropical South America, but extensive
commercial hunting that began in the 1920s has relegated them to ever-dwindling islands of residual populations.

COPYRIGHT 2002 Kyodo News International, Inc.

COPYRIGHT 2008 Gale, Cengage Learning

Abstract
The effect of mark-recapture experiments on the wariness of Caiman crocodilus and Melanosuchus niger
in two lakes in Amazonian Ecuador was examined. Three experiments were conducted with five, seven,
and 10 sampling replicates, respectively. Each sampling replicate consisted of one nocturnal spotlight
count around the lake, during which caimans were captured, marked, and released. There were negative
correlations between the number of individuals seen in each sampling replicate and sampling replicate
sequence in both lakes and both species. In one lake, there was a positive correlation between the
percentage of wary caimans and the sequence of sampling replicates. Our findings indicate that
observation and capture, even if harmless, affect the spatial distribution and wariness of crocodilian
populations. /// Examinamos el efecto de la conducción de experimentos de captura-recaptura en la
cautela de Caiman crocodilus y Melanosuchus niger en dos lagunas de la Amazonía Ecuatoriana. Se llevó
a cabo tres experimentos con cinco, siete y 10 muestreos respectivamente. Cada muestreo consistió en
un conteo nocturno al rededor de la laguna a lo largo del cual se capturó, marcó y liberó caimanes. En
ambas especies se observó correlaciones negativas entre el número de individuos vistos en cada
muestreo y la secuencia de los muestreos. En una de las dos lagunas hubo una correlación positiva entre
el porcentaje de caimanes ariscos y la secuencia de los muestreos. Los resultados de este estudio
indican que influencias humanas, incluso si son inofensivas, afectan la distribución y cautela de las
poblaciones de cocodrilianos.

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Journal of Herpetology 41(1):164-167. 2007

doi: 10.1670/0022-1511(2007)41[164:NOTBCM]2.0.CO;2

146
Nesting of the Black Caiman
(Melanosuchus Niger) in Northeastern
Ecuador
Francisco VillamarÍn-Jurado1,2 and Esteban Suárez3
1
Escuela de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador, Quito, Ecuador
3
Wildlife Conservation Society, Ecuador Program, Quito, Ecuador
2
Corresponding Author. Present addres: Pasaje Kodaly D-52 y Luis de Beethoven, Quito,
Ecuador; E-mail: franciscovillamarin@yahoo.com.ar

Abstract
Seven Black Caiman (Melanosuchus niger) nests were located and monitored at Limoncocha and
Añangu lagoons (northeastern Ecuador), between October 2002 and March 2003. Melanosuchus
niger nesting coincided with the annual low water level season in the Ecuadorian Amazon. Mean
number of eggs per nest was 28 and 34 eggs at Limoncocha and Añangu, respectively. Egg chamber
temperature was monitored in two nests during the incubation period and showed no relationship with
external air temperature, suggesting that the nests have their own heating sources. Mean hatching
success was 42.4%, and flooding of the nests was identified as the main cause of egg mortality (29%
of all the eggs).

Accepted: October 12, 2006

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to Brazilian crocodilian populations. Oryx 30:275–284. CSA

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abundance and breeding areas of Caiman crocodilus crocodilus and Melanosuchus niger in the
Anavilhanas archipelago, central Amazonia, Brazil. Journal of Herpetology 31:514–520.
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Nogales , P. Salvador , M. L. Torres , J. Valencia , F. Villamarín , M. Yánez , and P. Zárate ,
editors. eds. Lista Roja de Reptiles del Ecuador. 20. Fundación Novum Millenium, UICN-Sur,
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Ecuador.

Herron, J. C. 1991. Growth rates of Black Caiman, Melanosuchus niger and Spectacled
Caiman, Caiman crododilus, and the recruitment of breeders in hunted caiman populations.
Biological Conservation 55:103–113. CrossRef, CSA

Herron, J. C. 1994. Body size, spatial distribution, and microhabitat use in the caimans,
Melanosuchus niger and Caiman crododilus, in a Peruvian lake. Journal of Herpetology
28:508–513. CrossRef, CSA

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Black Caiman, Melanosuchus niger. Journal of Herpetology 24:314–316. CrossRef, CSA

Kushlan, J. A. and T. Jacobsen . 1990. Environmental variability and the reproductive success
of Everglades Alligators. Journal of Herpetology 24:176–184. CrossRef, CSA

Magnusson, W. E. , A. P. Lima , and R. M. Sampaio . 1985. Sources of heat for nests of

Paleosuchus trigonatus and a review of crocodilian nest temperatures. Journal of Herpetology
19:199–207. CrossRef, CSA

Magnusson, W. E. , A. P. Lima , J. M. Hero , M. Sanaiotti , and M. Yamakoshi . 1990.

Paleosuchus trigonatus nests: sources of heat and embryo sex ratios. Journal of Herpetology
24:397–400. CrossRef, CSA

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Medem, F. 1983. Los Crocodylia de Sur América. Venezuela, Trinidad-Tobago, Guyana,
Suriname, Guyana Francesa, Ecuador, Perú, Bolivia, Brasil, Paraguay, Argentina, Uruguay.
Volumen II. Universidad Nacional de Colombia y Colciencias. Bogotá, Colombia.

Palacios, W. , C. Cerón , R. Valencia , and R. Sierra . 1999. Las formaciones naturales de la

Amazonía del Ecuador. In Sierra, R. , editor. ed. Propuesta Preliminar de un Sistema de
Clasificación de Vegetación para el Ecuador Continental. 109–119.Proyecto INEFAN/GEF-BIRF
y Ecociencia. Quito, Ecuador.

Rebêlo, G. H. and L. Lugli . 2001. Distribution and abundance of four caiman species
(Crocodylia: Alligatoridae) in Jaú National Park, Amazonas, Brazil. Revista de Biología
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Melanosuchus niger (Crocodylia: Alligatoridae), en dos localidades de la Amazonía
ecuatoriana. Unpubl. bachelor's thesis,. Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador. Quito,
Ecuador.

Titre du document / Document title

Genetic structure, population dynamics, and conservation of Black caiman (Melanosuchus niger)
Auteur(s) / Author(s)
DE THOISY Benoit (1) ; HRBEK Tomas (2 3) ; PIRES FARIAS Izeni (2) ; RANGEL VASCONCELOS William (2) ; LAVERGNE Anne (1 4)
;
Affiliation(s) du ou des auteurs / Author(s) Affiliation(s)
(1)
Association Kwata, BP 672, 97335 Cayenne, GUYANE FRANCAISE
(2)
Universidade Federal do Amazonas (UFAM), Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Laboratório de Evolução e Genética
Animal, Mini Campus ICB, Au. Gen. Rodrigo Octávio Jordâo Ramos, 3000 -Coroado, CEP 69077-000, Manaus, AM, BRESIL
(3)
University of Puerto Rico -Rio Piedras, Biology Department, Box 23360, UPR Station, San Juan, 00931-3360, PORTO RICO
(4)
Institut Pasteur de la Guyane, BP 6010, 97306 Cayenne, GUYANE FRANCAISE
Résumé / Abstract
Microsatellite DNA polymorphisms were screened in seven populations of the largest Neotropical predator, the Black caiman
Melanosuchus niger (n = 169), originating from Brazil, French Guiana and Ecuador. Eight loci were used, for a total of 62
alleles. The Ecuadorian population had the lowest number of alleles, heterozygosity and gene diversity; populations of the
Guianas region exhibited intermediate diversities; highest values were recorded in the two populations of the Amazon and Rio
Negro. During the last century Melanosuchus populations have been reduced to 1-10% of their initial levels because of hunting
pressure, but no strong loss of genetic diversity was observed. Both the inter-locus g-test and the Pk distribution suggested no
recent important recovery and/or expansion of current populations. On a global scale, the inter-population variation of alleles
indicated strong differentiation (FST = 0.137). Populations were significantly isolated from each other, with rather limited gene
flow; however, these gene flow levels are sufficiently high for recolonization processes to effectively act at regional scales. In
French Guiana, genetic structuring is observed between populations of two geographically close but ecologically distinct
habitats, an estuary and a swamp. Similar divergence is observed in Brazil between geographically proximate "black water"
and "white water" populations. As a consequence, the conservation strategy of the Black caiman should include adequate
ecosystem management, with strong attention to preservation of habitat integrity. Distribution of genetic diversity suggests that
current populations originated from the central Amazonian region. Dispersal of the species may thus have been deeply
influenced by major climatic changes during the Holocene/Pleistocene period, when the Amazonian hydrographic networks
were altered. Major ecological changes such as glaciations, marine transgressions and a hypothesized presence of an
Amazonian Lake could have resulted in extension of Black caiman habitats followed by isolation.
Revue / Journal Title
Biological conservation ISSN 0006-3207 CODEN BICOBK
Source / Source
2006, vol. 133, no4, pp. 474-482 [9 page(s) (article)] (1 p.1/2)
Langue / Language
Anglais
149
Editeur / Publisher
Elsevier, Oxford, ROYAUME-UNI (1968) (Revue)
Mots-clés anglais / English Keywords
Vertebrata ; Reptilia ; Crocodilia ; Africa ; Polymorphism ; Microsatellite DNA ; Niger ; Environmental protection ; Conservation ;
Population dynamics ; Population structure ; Population genetics ;
Mots-clés français / French Keywords
Crocodylidae ; Vertebrata ; Reptilia ; Crocodilia ; Afrique ; Caiman ; Polymorphisme ; DNA microsatellite ; Niger ; Protection
environnement ; Conservation ; Dynamique population ; Structure population ; Génétique population ;
Mots-clés espagnols / Spanish Keywords
Vertebrata ; Reptilia ; Crocodilia ; Africa ; Polimorfismo ; DNA microsatélite ; Niger ; Protección medio ambiente ; Conservación
; Dinámica población ; Estructura población ; Genética población ;
Mots-clés d'auteur / Author Keywords
Black caiman ; Melanosuchus niger ; DNA microsatellite polymorphism ; Population dynamics ;
Localisation / Location
INIST-CNRS, Cote INIST : 14169, 35400014510516.0070

Vasconcelos WR, Hrbek T, Da Silveira R, De Thoisy B, Ruffeil LA, Farias IP.

Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Laboratório de Evolução e Genética Animal, Universidade

Federal do Amazonas (UFAM), Manaus, AM, Brazil.

We assessed the spatial distribution of the genetic variability of Melanosuchus niger

from 11 localities in South America using 1,027 base pairs of the mitochondrial
cytochrome b gene. Screening 132 animals, we found 41 haplotypes, high values of
genetic diversity, low values of nucleotide diversity and significant deviations from
neutral expectation of allelic frequencies in some localities. Mantel test and nested-clade
analysis indicated that isolation-by-distance was an important population dynamic for
the species as a whole. Wright's fixation indexes analyses showed that
hydrogeographically separated populations from French Guiana together with Amapá
state population in Brazil are genetically differentiated from all other populations that
are found in the Amazon drainage basin. These indexes also disclosed that the
population from Ecuador is genetically differentiated in relation to the populations from
Brazil, Peru and French Guiana. Within the Amazon Basin little differentiation exists, and
genetic and geographic distances are not correlated. Demographic data as well as
population genetic data suggest that M. niger is recovering in some protected regions.
However, part of this apparent recovery may be owing to the movement of animals into
protected regions. (c) 2008 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

Distribution and abundance of four caiman species (Crocodylia: Alligatoridae) in Jaú

National Park, Amazonas, Brazil.

Rebêlo GH, Lugli L.

Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia, Coordenação de Pesquisas em Ecologia, Caixa Postal

478, 69011-970 Manaus-AM, Brazil. jacare@inpa.gov.br

Jaú National Park is a large rain forest reserve that contains small populations of four
caiman species. We sampled crocodilian populations during 30 surveys over a period of
four years in five study areas. We found the mean abundance of caiman species to be
very low (1.0 +/- 0.5 caiman/km of shoreline), independent of habitat type (river,
stream or lake) and season. While abundance was almost equal, the species'
150
composition varied in different waterbody and study areas. We analysed the structure
similarity of this assemblage. Lake and river habitats were the most similar habitats,
and inhabited by at least two species, mainly Caiman crocodilus and Melanosuchus
niger. However, those species can also inhabit streams. Streams were the most
dissimilar habitats studied and also had two other species: Paleosuchus trigonatus and
P. palpebrosus. The structure of these assemblage does not suggest a pattern of species
associated and separated by habitat. Trends in species relationships had a negative
correlation with species of similar size, C. crocodilus and P. trigonatus, and an apparent
complete exclusion of M. niger and P. trigonatus. Microhabitat analysis suggests a
slender habitat partitioning. P. trigonatus was absent from river and lake Igapó (flooded
forest), but frequent in stream Igapó. This species was the most terrestrial and found in
microhabitats similar to C. crocodilus (shallow waters, slow current). Melanosuchus
niger inhabits deep, fast moving waters in different study areas. Despite inhabiting the
same waterbodies in many surveys, M. niger and C. crocodilus did not share the same
microhabitats. Paleosuchus palpebrosus was observed only in running waters and never
in stagnant lake habitats. Cluster analysis revealed three survey groups: two constitute
a mosaic in floodplains, (a) a cluster with both M. niger and C. crocodilus, and another
(b) with only C. crocodilus. A third cluster (c) included more species, and the presence
of Paleosuchus species. There was no significant difference among wariness of caimans
between disturbed and undisturbed localities. However, there was a clear trend to
increase wariness during the course of consecutive surveys at four localities, suggesting
that we, more than local inhabitants, had disturbed caimans. The factors that are
limiting caiman populations can be independent of human exploitation. Currently in
Amazonia, increased the pressure of hunting, habitat loss and habitat alteration, and
there is no evidence of widespread recovery of caiman populations. In large reserves as
Jaú without many disturbance, most caiman populations can be low density, suggesting
that in blackwater environments their recovery from exploitation should be very slow.

Ethyl-branched aldehydes, ketones, and diketones from caimans (Caiman and

Paleosuchus; Crocodylia, Reptilia).

Krückert K, Flachsbarth B, Schulz S, Hentschel U, Weldon PJ.

Institut für Organische Chemie, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Hagenring 30, 38106
Braunschweig, Germany.

Secretions from the paracloacal glands of alligators (Alligator spp.) and caimans
(Caiman spp., Melanosuchus niger, and Paleosuchus spp.) were examined by GC-MS.
The secretions of the common caiman (C. crocodilus), the broad-snouted caiman (C.
latirostris), the yacare caiman (C. yacare), the dwarf caiman (P. palpebrosus), and the
smooth-fronted caiman (P. trigonatus) yielded a new family of 43 aliphatic carbonyl
compounds that includes aldehydes, ketones, and beta-diketones with an ethyl branch
adjacent to the carbonyl group. The identification of these glandular components and
the syntheses and stereochemical investigations of selected compounds are described.

151
 Melanosuchus Niger

Melanosuchus Niger is also known as the Black caiman are endemic to Bolivia,
Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Peru, Venezuela and are
found in various freshwater habitats like slow-moving rivers, streams, lakes and
flooded savannah and wetlands. It belongs to the kingdom of Animalia, with
the phylum of Chordata, from the class of Sauropsida, by the order of
Crocodilia.

In appearance these are the largest species among its family and a normal adult grow to a length of 4-6 metres with a
dark colouration where its lower jaw has grey banding and pale yellow or white bands are present across the flanks of
the body and this banding fades with age. It is structurally dissimilar in its shape of the skull and has distinctly larger
eyes, with a relatively narrow snout along with a bony ridge extending from above the eyes down the snout. These
feed on fish, piranhas, catfish and aquatic vertebrates like large Capybara rodents and is more a terrestrial hunter and
very active at nights and is famous for its sharpest sight and hearing capability. These lay about 30-60 eggs and
hatching takes about 40-90 days.

Anaconda vs Alligator: anacondas are known for killing other large reptiles such as the Melanosuchus
niger (black caiman), and alligators are smaller then these, which would mean the constrictor would
have the advantage. In shallow waters, anacondas are nearly invincible, however the largest species
of crocodilians such as the Nile and Saltwater crocodiles would be formidable opponents, and
perhaps emerge victors.

BLACK CAIMAN NATURAL HISTORY

APPEARANCE
Like a monster from the age of the dinosaurs, the primitive-looking black caiman (Melanosuchus niger) inspires
fear and dread. Also called jacaré, it could be mistaken for the well-known American alligator and belongs in the
same taxonomic family, Alligatoridae. It is the largest member of the family, ranking among the biggest
crocodilians. It averages 10 to 13 feet (3 to 4 meters) and reaches a maximum 16.5 feet (5 meters). Indeed, this is
the largest predator in South America.

In appearance, the black caiman is characterized by a dark gray to black skin covered in scales (as with all
reptiles), some of which are thickened and raised. The skin color may serve to camouflage the caimain during

152
nocturnal hunting, while during the day, it helps absorb heat.

A distinctive feature is gray banding across the lower jaw and yellow to beige bands along the sides. These
markings fade as the animal ages and may be more or less absent in fully mature adults. Like the spectacled
caiman, the black caiman has a bony ridge between the eyes that extends either side down the snout. In contrast,
the black caiman has a relatively narrow snout and large eyes. The latter feature may be related to its nocturnal
feeding habits.

HABITAT AND DISTRIBUTION

The black caimain inhabits remote rivers throughout lowland Amazonia. Its geographic range extends east of the
Andes to the Atlantic, and north of the Brazilian Pantanal to southern Venezuela. Its range overlaps with that of
the spectacled caiman, but the two species occupy quite different ecological niches. The black caiman favors
areas along river banks with steep sides, among entangled roots and fallen branches. Rebelo and Lugli (2001)
report that it prefers deep, fast moving waters. Juveniles are often found on floating mats of vegetation.

FEEDING AND DIET

Such a large animal is, as you might expect, not a fussy eater. The caiman's diet includes fish, birds and turtles.
The majority of the diet is comprised piranhas, catfish and aquatic molluscs. As with other crocodilians, they
ambush terrestrial animals, particularly capybara, but also peccaries and tapir when they drink at riversides or
swim across a stream or swamp. Juveniles feed on small aquatic prey such as freshwater crabs, insects and
other invertebrates. As they grow, the animals graduate to larger prey and sometimes hunt on dry land, mainly at
night. Mature individuals occasionally attack on humans and livestock.

BREEDING
Few details are known of the breeding habits of wild caiman. (Perhaps unsurprisingly considering the courage
needed to study the animal up close in its own domain!) In most respects, it appears similar to that of other large
crocodilians. As the rivers recede and rain falls off during the dry season, the female caiman looks for a suitable
spot, ususally by the side of a slow-moving river or swampy lake. The site may be out in the open or relatively
hidden. Once situated, she shovels leaf litter, twigs and drying aquatic vegetation to form a large nest about 6 feet
across. She then scoops out the center and lays between 30 and 65 (average 40) eggs in the mound. The eggs
are oval-shaped, weighing about 5 ounces (143 g). For 40 to 100 days, she will zealously guard her horde,
remaining in the vicinity to fend off egg predators. Around the beginning of the dry season, the eggs are ready to
hatch, whereupon the female opens the nest, releasing the hatchlings. This is their most vulnerable stage of life.

The female's interest in her offspring remains strong but she cannot protect them all. Often, many females choose
nest locations close together, so if lots of hatchlings emerge together, there is a better chance at least some of
them will escape and grow large enough to be relatively safe. As with other crocodilians, the gender is determined
by temperature within the nest (in contrast to mammals and most other animals in which gender is determined by
chromosomal arrangements). In turn, nest temperature depends on the heat of decomposing vegetation and
exposure to sunlight.

CONSERVATION
The adult caiman is at the top of the food chain, except for humans who hunt it for food and leather. The black
caiman once teemed throughout the Amazon but hunting greatly reduced numbers and it is now quite rare, less

153
common than the spectacled caiman whose range overlaps. It is listed in the IUCN Red Book as Endangered. It
remains locally common in isolated patches but good census data hampers efforts to establish long-term
management programs.

Locals sometimes justify hunting by arguing that caiman eat a large amount of their potential catch, but scientists
found that the favored commercial species (such as tambaqui and pacu comprise only a small proportion of
stomach contents. Economically, the species is most important as a source of meat and skin.

The hunting technique is simple. Patrol a river bank at night, shining a flashlight into thick banks of reeds and
riverside grasses. The eye of the caiman reflects back red, glowing like a hot coal. The hunter with a rifle needs
only to shoot in the proximity of this target for the chance of a hit. Such an easy prey and lucrative trade in caiman
skins for boots, purses, belts and other leather goods led to the demise of populations. Although today considered
at low risk of extinction, it remains on the endangered species list.

Efforts are underway to ensure the future of the black caiman. Captive breeding programs combined with
controlled harvest studies suggest that the species is a good candidate for commercial farming. Such an
approach would relieve pressure on wild populations and provide local people with a source of income.

Links
Wikipedia: Black caiman
Animal Diversity Web: Melanosuchus niger
Florida Museum of Natural History: Melanosuchus niger
Enchanted Learning: Black Caiman
Iwokrama: Black Caiman, Prehistoric Top Predator
Wildlife Conservation Society: Black Caiman
Thinkquest: Caimans
The Black Caiman, By Mateo
Tiscali: caiman or cayman
Mark O'Shea Black caiman, Melanosuchus niger
Taxonomicon: Taxonomy of Melanosuchus niger
ITIS: Melanosuchus niger
CNN Archives: Amazonian alligator bounces back from the brink
Skulls Unlimited: Black Caiman Skull
National Wildlife Federation: The Hunt For Black Caiman
Rebelo GH, Lugli L. (2001) Distribution and abundance of four caiman species (Crocodylia: Alligatoridae) in Jau
National Park, Amazonas, Brazil. Rev Biol Trop. 49(3-4): 1095-109.
National Geographic: Listing of crocodilian TV shows
Mongabay: Links to black caiman websites
FAO: 3.3.1 Caiman crocodilus (spectacled caiman)

Mainly photos
National Geographic: Black Caiman

154
 Alligators and Caimans
Animal Pictures Archive: Black caiman
Wikimedia: Melanosuchus niger
visuals unlimited: eye of an adult black caiman
Florida Museum of Natural History: Caiman Photo Gallery

Longevity Records:
Life Spans of Mammals, Birds, American Alligator.
Amphibians, Reptiles, and Fish (larger version).

Index Search
Scientific classification
Melanosuchus niger (Black
Kingdom:
caiman)
Animalia
Order/Family Genus/Species Common Name Wild Capt. M/F

Reptilia

Alligatoridae Melanosuchus niger Black caiman 13.1 m

Phylum:
References:
Chordata

[2]
Bowler, J.K., 1975. Longevity of reptiles and amphibians in N. American collections as of 1 November, 1975.
Class:
Society for the Study of Amphibians and Reptiles, Miscellaneous Publications, Herpetological Circular 6:1-32.

Reptilia

Order:

Crocodyli
a

Alligator Family:

Alligators and caimans are reptiles closely related to the Alligat

crocodiles and forming the family Alligatoridae oridae
(sometimes regarded instead as the subfamily
Alligatorinae). Together with the Gharial (family
Gavialidae) they make up the order Crocodylia.

Alligators differ from crocodiles principally in having the head

broader and shorter, and the snout more obtuse; in having
the fourth, enlarged tooth of the under jaw received, not into
an external notch, but into a pit formed for it within the upper
one; in lacking a jagged fringe which appears on the hind
legs and feet of the crocodile; and in having the toes of the

Genera
155
Alligator
Caiman
Melanosuchus
Paleosuchus
hind feet webbed not more than half way to the tips. In general, the more dangerous crocodilians to human
beings tend to be crocodiles rather than alligators.

Alligators proper occur in the fluvial deposits of the age of the Upper
Chalk in Europe, where they did not die out until the Pliocene age.

The true alligators are now restricted to two species, A. mississippiensis

in the southern states of North America, which grows up to 4 m (12 ft).
in length, and the small A. sinensis in the Yang-tse-kiang, China. Their
name derives from the Spanish el lagarto, "the lizard").

In Central and South America alligators are represented by five species

of the genus Caiman, which differs from the alligator by the absence of a
bony septum between the nostrils, and the ventral armour is composed
of overlapping bony scutes, each of which is formed of two parts united
by a suture. Some authorities further divide this genus into three,
splitting off the smooth-fronted caimans into a genus Paleosuchus and
the Black Caiman into Melanosuchus.

C. sclerops, the Spectacled Alligator, has the widest distribution, from southern Mexico to the northern half of
Argentina, and grows to a bulky size. The largest, attaining an enormous bulk and a length of 20 ft., is the
near-extinct Melanosuchus niger, the Jacare-assu, Large, or Black Caiman of the Amazon. While all wild
animals should be treated with respect, the Black Caiman is the only member of the alligator family posing the
same danger to humans as the larger species of the crocodile family.

Some crocodiles can be found in salty water, but most alligators stay in fresh water.

Species
• ORDER CROCODILIA
o Family Crocodylidae: crocodiles
o Family Alligatoridae
 American Alligator, Alligator mississippiensis
 Chinese Alligator, Alligator sinensis
 Spectacled Caiman, Caiman crocodilus crocodilus
 Rio Apaporis Caiman, C. c. apaporiensis
 Brown Caiman, C. c. fuscus
 Broad-snouted, Caiman Caiman latirostris
 Yacare Caiman, Caiman yacare
 Black Caiman, Melanosuchus niger
 Cuvier's Dwarf Caiman, Paleosuchus palpebrosus
 Smooth-fronted Caiman, Paleosuchus trigonatus
o Family Gavialidae: Gavial

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Cultural aspects

In Native American and African American folklore, the alligator is revered, especially the teeth, which can be
worn as a charm against witchcraft and poison.

Often, it is the butt of practical jokes by tricksters like Brer Rabbit.

An urban legend states that people buy baby alligators after visiting Florida or other places where they are
native and flush them down the toilet once they get big. The story goes that full grown alligators exist in the
sewers of cities like New York City. Small released alligators and caimans, though, are occasionally found in
northern lakes.

Alligator skin was once a hot commodity, and was farmed in some areas, as pictured in the panoramic image
below. Alligator is sometimes eaten as an exotic meat.

South Beach Alligator Farm

(larger version) (5mb uncompressed tif)

Pop culture references

A top hit from 1956 was "See You Later Alligator", as sung by Bill Haley & His Comets

CAIMANS

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Southern Mexico & the
remainder of the Central
American countries
through South America
to the northeastern
portion of Argentina.
Chile is the only South
American nation which
caimans to not inhabit.

HABITAT:

Estuaries, swamps,
lakes, streams, rivers,
floodplains, and the
surrounding terrestrial
environment

POPULATION:

GLOBAL

Varies according to
species.

STATUS:

IUCN

Varies according to
species.

CITES

Varies according to
species. Listed on CITES
Appendix I & II.

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