BEGINNINGS: THE PALI SUTTAS Samanera Bodhesako Respectfully dedicated to my Upajjhaya, Venerable Phra Somdet Nanasamvara CONTENTS Preface

Beginnings: he Pali Suttas he Buddha!s eaching Syncretism Beginnings he Venerable "nanda he #our Ni$ayas he #irst %ouncil &ater "dditions he #ifth Ni$aya %onclusions %hoosing a Standard "ppendi' Postscript "bout the "uthor

Preface " discussion of beginnings (ould be entirely unnecessary (ere it not that beginnings seem invariably to precede (hatever conclusions may e'ist) herefore any (ho hope to arrive at a conclusion in their life must perforce begin) But (here* he present (or$ is concerned entirely (ith this +uestion) ,erein our discussion is, by design, t(ofold) #irst, (e (ill discuss the human situation, and the inherent need to discover a method, a (ay, (hereby (e may resolve the dilemma of that situation) his method must be coherent: (e must have a standard (hereby (e can judge (hich

actions (ill and (hich (ill not lead us to(ards a conclusion) "ccepting a standard is, precisely, our beginning) Second, (e (ill discuss (hether the collection of te'ts $no(n as the Pali Suttas might not offer such a standard) hese te'ts, the oldest (e have from among the various Buddhist schools, have much to recommend them) ,o(ever, objections have been raised concerning their authenticity) hese objections refer to the very origins and the early transmission of the Suttas) -n order to evaluate these objections an understanding is needed of ho( these te'ts came into being and ho( they (ere passed on) his is the second sense in (hich (e are concerned about beginnings) "lthough this historical point occupies the bul$ of our essay, it is thematically subservient to our primary +uestion .. /here does one begin* .. and is relevant only to the e'tent that the primary +uestion is seen to be relevant) his (or$, then, is not historical as such) Rather, it happens that an in+uiry into the primary +uestion turns out to involve an historical consideration) he objection may be raised that any teaching (hich calls itself akalika, or non. temporal, as the Pali Suttas do, can never be understood by raising an historical +uestion, (hich is necessarily temporal) his of course is perfectly true) he problem of e'istence, in its very nature, can never be resolved by such a method) -t is only through a non.historical approach .. specifically, one that is personal, passionate, and persistent .. that our perilous situation in the (orld can ever be comprehended) -n this sense the only basis for judging the Suttas (ould be to put their advice into practice and resolve the personal dilemma, thereby coming to $no( for certain that the Suttas are (hat they claim to be) But herein (e are not yet at the point of discussing ho( to proceed) /e are still involved (ith the prior +uestion of (hether these Suttas offer a standard (hich, if ac+uiesced to, (ill lead to an end) "nd although an historical in+uiry can never in itself lead us to a conclusion, it is at least possible that it might lead us to a beginning inasmuch as it can serve as an initial indication to our +uestion: /here does one begin* 0'cept (here other(ise noted, all factual information in this essay is garnered from the Pali Suttas and their companion.piece, the Vinaya) -n these te'ts (e find accounts of the first months follo(ing the Buddha!s a(a$ening 12handha$a -, 3ahavagga, Vinaya4, of the final months before his decease 1Sutta 56, 7igha Ni$aya4, of the events leading up to the #irst and Second %ouncils, together (ith an account of those %ouncils 12handha$as 8- and 8--, %ulavagga, Vinaya4, and,

scattered through the te'ts, incidental information and clues about the middle period of the Buddha!s ministry) %onsiderable additional information is available in te'ts of later date, such as the %ommentaries) ,o(ever, for our purposes such data are not needed, for though our account in no (ay contradicts the $no(n facts available from primary sources, it is our intention to present here not a factual history but an imaginative one) /e may recall the dictum: 9,igher than actuality stands possibility)9 /e are not attempting to set forth (hat did happen but (hat must have happened) :ur account is morereasoned than reportorial) "s such our methods are not those of scholars; nor do our conclusions rest upon ever finer points of contention, but rather upon a commonly.held understanding of ho(, in their broad outlines, things generally evolve: gradually and piecemeal rather than suddenly and definitively) his is not to say that (hat follo(s (ill be of no interest to scholars) :n the contrary, because of the broadness of the base upon (hich our findings rest, it is hoped that scholars may (ell regard them as a significant as (ell as an original contribution to their discipline) ,o(ever, an understanding of (hat follo(s re+uires no $no(ledge of or interest in scholarly +uestions) #or most, perhaps, this account (ill be sufficient) #or those (ho feel that they (ould benefit by further e'ploration into the substantial scholarly literature on the early history of Buddhism, this account can serve as a standard for evaluating the various conflicting vie(s and judgements that are to be encountered therein) "voiding those conflicts, (e offer herein, using the data of the te'ts themselves, the most reasonable account of their beginnings and a reasonable assessment of ho( much confidence (e can place in them, in order to ma$e our o(n beginning) Sutta references are to discourse number and, in parentheses, volume and page of the Pali e't Society edition, e'cept for heragatha, 7hammapada and Sutta Nipata, for (hich reference is to the verse number) Vinaya references are to the 2handha$a number of the 3ahavagga or %ulavagga, in Roman numerals, follo(ed in "rabic numerals by subsection and paragraph as (ell as volume and page number) Vin) 7) 3) S) ") : : : : Vinaya Pita$a 7igha Ni$aya 3ajjhima Ni$aya Samyutta Ni$aya 1Roman numerals indicate Samyutta number, according to P) )S) enumeration4 : "nguttara Ni$aya 1Roman numerals indicate Nipata number4

hag) : heragatha 7h) : 7hammapada Sn) : Sutta Nipata Ud) : Udana Beginnings: The Pali Suttas /here does one begin* his is obviously the first +uestion) "nd (hen the issue at hand is the manifest need to e'plore and resolve the root.problem of our personal e'istence, then this +uestion ta$es on a primacy in terms not only of se+uence but of importance) :ne begins, of course, from (here one is, for from (here else can one begin* ,erein the intelligent person, he (ho does not shrin$ from unpleasant truths, (ill ac$no(ledge the problem) ,e may describe it in any of a number of (ays .. an'iety, loneliness, insufficiency, frustration, inconstancy, boredom, uncertainty, bondage, meaninglessness, impermanence, despair .. but ho(ever it appears it (ill be seen, if it is seen at all, to be fundamental, for it is bound up in one (ay or another (ith a sense of one!s o(n mortality) /hen (e apprehend the ever.present possibility of our o(n immediate dying, .. the impossible possibility, says ,eidegger, .. then any notions (e may have about our golden and glittering prospects in the (orld (ill be seen to be illusory inasmuch as they, and (e as (ell, end in death)<5= he gold is no( seen for the leaden bondage that it really is, the alchemy has failed, and (e see ourselves to be in perpetual subjugation to the uncertainty inherent in the (orld) "nd (e then feel, deeply, the need to act) here must be release from this over(helming fact of our o(n mortality: (e cannot believe other(ise) But, e+ually certain, (e don!t $no( the (ay to that release else, surely, (e (ould already have ta$en it) %an (e find this (ay* #ine and earnest people have tried before us .. that (e $no( .. and have admitted failure) :ur tas$, then, cannot be easy) But having recogni>ed our e'istence in this (orld as inherently unsatisfactory, (e no( sense the utter necessity of see$ing the means to transcend it) /e are un(illing to plunge yet again .. again? .. into that endless round of pastimes (herein most people (aste their lives in the effort to avoid facing the truth of their o(n mortal e'istence) "lthough (e don!t $no( the (ay ourselves, it is yet possible that there e'ists some teacher, some teaching, to provide guidance) "nd so (e loo$ about us, and (e find))) orators, teachers, therapists, huc$sters, salvation.mongers, apostles, psychologists, preachers, gurus,

s(amis, saviours and salesmen by the score, each offering his o(n brand of salvation) "nd thus (e arrive again at our original +uestion: (here does one begin* hey can!t all be right) -f it (ere so easy, (e (ould have no need of a teacher, for (e and everyone else (ould already have done the (or$ ourselves) Besides, many of these teachings, anti.teachings, disciplines, non.disciplines and (ee$ends are manifestly in contradiction (ith one another and sometimes even (ith themselves, both in doctrine and in practice) "nd therefore, unless (e abandon consistency of both thought and effort, (e must ac$no(ledge the importance of choosing among them intelligently, unless (e believe them to be uniformly mistaken, in (hich case the choice (ould again seem unimportant) #or the choice (e ma$e (ill be our beginning, and from that beginning .. made (isely or foolishly .. everything else (ill follo() Nor need (e believe ourselves to be totally incompetent to ma$e that choice) #or although it is a truism that, as is sometimes argued, the only (ay to $no( for certain (hich teaching or teachings are in accordance (ith truth is to see truth for oneself, yet (e can even no( ma$e a reasonable assessment of these teachings) o be unenlightened is not to $no( nothing; for (ere that the case (e should not long survive in this uncertain (orld) /e are free from confusion at least to the e'tent that (e no( see the need to free ourselves from it totally)<@= ,aving ac$no(ledged the problem, (e can sort out from among those teachings (hich offer themselves to us those that at least address themselves to that problem from those that merely pander in one (ay or another to the (orld!s proclivity for any comfortable, or even uncomfortable, notion in order to avoid facing the problem) #or underlying each practice (ill be a doctrine or general attitude, and from this (e can come to $no( the general nature of each teaching and can thereby separate the relevant from the superfluous) "nd thus it is that, eventually, (e (ill come to the Buddha!s eaching)

The Buddha's Teaching he Buddha!s eaching: (hat images it conjures .. compassion, serenity, ac+uiescence, (isdom, bliss, selflessness) -n such terms is it often described, even from afar, even among those (ho $no( only its general outlines) Such is the image of this eaching that is in (orld.(ide circulation; and (ith such +ualities does it invite see$ers of peace to ta$e a closer loo$) /ith such a reputation it may perhaps prove to be the fount of advice and guidance (e so need) "nd therefore (e eagerly

approach it, to find))) heravada Buddhism, 3ahayana, %h!an, 2orean Aen, Vajrayana, antric and do>ens of other sects and sub.sects, large and small, ne( and old, all claiming to be the eaching of the Buddha) "nd so it is that again (e return to out original +uestion: /here does one begin* "re these schools different in name only* :r do they differ as (ell in attitude, approach, doctrine and practice* -s all one* -s all a diversity* 7oes nothing really e'ist* 7oes everything really e'ist* :r are these disparate vie(s merely (orldly (isdom, best abandoned in favour of seeing that 9Whatever isarises dependent on conditions and is not (ithout conditions9* 3ust (e save others before (e (ill be able to save ourselves* :r must (e save ourselves before (e (ill be in a position to save others* -s everything already perfect* :r is it only suffering that arises, suffering that ceases* 7o (e all have Buddha Nature* :r is all e'istence empty, (ithout essence* /ill (e all eventually arrive at eternal salvation* :r do only those achieve liberation (ho see that all conditions are impermanent* -snibbana 1S$t) nirvana4 to be found in samsara, the round of e'istences, or are they mutually e'clusive* /hat is the sound of one hand clapping* -f (e accept that truth, (hatever else it may be, is at least not self.contradictory, then the +uestion necessarily arises: (hich among these paths, diverse and often at odds (ith one another, (ill offer us that (ay to liberation (hich (e see$*<B= "nd if these teachings are all different .. or even if they arenot .. (hich of them is that eaching set forth @,CDD years ago by a certain member of the Eotama family of the Sa$yan clan, in northern -ndia, $no(n today as the "(a$ened :ne, the Buddha* -f it (ere only possible to come to a reasonable judgement on this point, then (e might be able (ith one stro$e to cut through the tangle of confusion (e meet (ith (hen (e in+uire into the nature of 9Buddhism9) #or (e (ill then find .. if the eaching lives up to its reputation .. one coherent, sufficient and, above all, relevant eaching (hich can serve as a standard in our in+uiry into the nature of our mortal e'istence) "nd perhaps this is possible) /e $no( that the Pali Suttas .. the discourses in the Pali language .. are ac$no(ledged by all Buddhist schools to be the oldest record (e have of the Buddha!s eaching) /e $no( that nearly a century ago the scholars of the /est performed an about.face from their original majority position and no( fully ac$no(ledge the primacy, as regards age, of those Suttas) But (e also $no( that certain objections have been raised (ith regard to the origin and transmission of those discourses) "re these objections valid* /hat is the difference here, if any, bet(een 9oldest9 and 9original9* ,o( trust(orthy are these te'ts as (e no( have them* /ith (hat degree of confidence are (e able to ascertain the truth of the

matter* #ortunately, it is possible to $no(, (ith reasonable confidence, the (ay in (hich these te'ts (ere first gathered together and then handed do(n to us) &et us in+uire)

S ncretis!" -t may be objected at this point 1or even sooner4 that all this inquiry is absurd and that the 9obvious9 approach, for goodness sa$e, is to ta$e whatever is useful wherever (e find it and to get on (ith the thing already instead of dancing about the starting line for, after all, truth isn!t the e'clusive preserve of any one narro( sectarian doctrine, is it* "nd this eclectic attitude sounds very good until one tries to 9get on (ith the thing9 by taking 9(hatever is useful9 etc), for it is at precisely this point .. the point of beginning .. that the +uestion arises: (hat is useful* "nd (hat merely seems to our blind eyes to be so* /ithout a standard (e (ould be unable to choose bet(een meditation, ascetic austerities, or prayers to the heavens as paths to liberation) -t is precisely this .. a standard .. that (e felt ourselves to be in need of (hen (e decided to see$ guidance beyond our personal opinions and judgements) "lthough the +uestion of specific doctrines lies outside our present in+uiry 1for (e are not yet (ell.placed to ma$e the necessary distinctions4, something can nevertheless be said about the approachto specific doctrines, i)e) ma$ing a beginning) ,ere the +uestion is not 9Where does one begin*9 but 9How does one begin*9: perhaps the +uestion that immediately follo(s upon 9(here*9 and (hich is still prior to any actual beginning) "nd there seem to be t(o general ans(ers to this +uestion, ,o( does one begin*, (hich (e can conveniently label as the 9syncretistic9 approach and the 9crystalline9 approach) -n the syncretistic approach one vie(s spiritual teachings as if they (ere a smorgasboard spread out on an enormous table, to be parta$en of by all (ho see$ spiritual sustenance) he see$er, plate in hand, helps himself to (hatever he cares to, in (hatever +uantity and variety appeals to him .. let!s see no(, a bit of 3 on toast, some 2arma Foga and cole sla(, a dash of Sufism for spice, a bit of this, a bit of that .. and if he has chosen (isely, he (ill consume, spiritually, a satisfying and nutritious blend (hich .. (ho $no(s .. just might lead to)))) he crystalline approach, on the other hand, assumes that no truth can be more consistent or relevant than the teaching by (hich it is revealed, and that therefore a

teaching that truly leads .. i)e) is one.pointed and consistent rather than an amorphous collection of spiritualisms .. is a$in to a many.faceted crystal, (herein each facet may reflect its o(n prismatic colours, but each is nonetheless inseparable from the crystal as a (hole, for the crystal, being an organic unity, is indivisible) -n this approach there can be no pic$.and.choose attitude, for to fragment such a teaching is to miss its holistic essence) -n such a case, having once made the decision that this is the standard (e choose to follo(, (e (ill thereupon voluntarily subjugate our personal preferences in favour of the advice of our teaching, even if it is directly contrary to our own wishes) his does not preclude ta$ing 9(hatever is useful9) Rather, it gives us a basis for judging (hat is and is not useful) "nd if it should happen that (ithin our chosen teaching (e already find all that (e need in order to 9get on (ith it9, then so much the better) But if the charge of narro(ness is nonetheless made, then (e (ill note first that an arro( that is broad and (ide is far less li$ely to hit its mar$ than one that is properly shaped for one.pointed flight; and second that the charge of narro(ness is made (ithout understanding) #or no point of vie( can be understood e'cept from its o(n frame of reference, an observation (hich already suggests the crystalline approach, for all that it is true of syncretistic vie(s as (ell)<G= -t is most commonly the case that people do not +uestion the assumptions that underlie their o(n basic attitudes .. after all, it!s obvious, isn!t it* .. but until they do so, they (ill be necessarily unable to understand a point of vie( that does not arise from those assumptions e'cept from (ithin their o(n vie(point, (hich is to say that they (ill not be able to understand it at all) "nd the charge of narro(ness is made from the syncretistic point of vie( (ithout comprehending the crystalline point of vie() he collection of discourses $no(n as the Pali Suttas heartedly recommends itself to the concerned individual as being that guidance to the transcendental (hich he see$s) hey inform the see$er firstly that his life.problem arises dependent for its condition upon a (rong vie( of things, and secondly that a right vie(, (hich (ould undermine and end that problem, is to be achieved by follo(ing right.vie( guidance, namely, the training.course set forth by the Buddha) here can be no doubt after even a brief loo$ at these te'ts that they staunchly advocate the crystalline approach to(ards liberation) -n many (ays do they declare themselves to be all.of.a.piece,<Ca= a eaching not to be understood by ta$ing from it according to personal preference)<Cb= herefore (hen in+uiring into the Pali Suttas it is a necessity, if one hopes to understand (hat is meant therein by 9right vie(9, to adopt the crystalline approach, and (e do so here) #$$tn$tes:

%& 9 his body (ill perish; it!s old; a nest of distress) -t brea$s up, this putrid mold: life ends in death)9 .. 7h) 5GH '& 9 he fool (ho does his folly see is a sage to that degree) /ho to sagacity gives airs, that fool, he is !" fool?! declared)9 .. 7h) 6B (& -f one does not accept that truth is at least consistent (ith itself .. i)e) that truth is not false .. then this +uestion (ill not arise) -nstead, one (ill remain lost in one!s inconsistencies and (ill fail to see that coherent movement (herein one can achieve freedom from confusion and an'iety) )& "n e'treme e'tension of the eclectic vie(, common enough no(adays, is that 9all teachings lead to a common goal9 or, at least, that the deepest teachings 1I 9those - most approve of94 do) " discussion of this idea is beyond our scope; but since this vie( so accords (ith the spirit of the times that it is particularly liable to be accepted uncritically, it is (orth(hile to note that if 1as is the case4 it is a mista$en vie(, then its adoption (ould be an insurmountable barrier to reali>ation of that (hich transcends (hat is common) *a& 0)g): 93on$s, just as the great ocean has but one flavour, the flavour of salt, so too this eaching has but one flavour, the flavour of freedom)9 .. %ulavagga -8,5,G 1ii,@B64 I ") V---,5J 1iv,5JJ4 I Ud) V,C 1C64) *+& 0)g): 93on$s, even (ith a teacher (ho d(ells giving importance to material things, an heir to material things, conjoined (ith material things, haggling such as this (ould be untenable: !-f (e have it so, then (e (ill do it; if (e don!t have it so, then (e (on!t do it)! /hat then, of a Perfect :ne (ho d(ells unentangled (ith material things* 3on$s, a faithful disciple, having scrutini>ed the teacher!s advice, proceeds in accordance (ith this: ! he 0'alted :ne is the teacher) - am the disciple) he 0'alted :ne $no(s) - do not $no()!9 .. 3) KD 1i,GHD4: 2itagiri Sutta) Numerous additional passages could be +uoted to support the t(o te'ts above; but perhaps it is not necessary to belabour the point: those (ho re+uire more evidence can find it themselves, by going to the Suttas) BEGINNINGS: THE PALI SUTTAS Samanera Bodhesako Beginnings

he Pali Suttas have their beginning in the 7eer Par$ at Sarnath, not far from Benares 1present.day Varanasi4, (here the Buddha first taught to others that (hich he had himself already reali>ed through proper attention and right effort) he five mon$s (ho heard that first discourse (ould have had to pay close attention in order for understanding to arise) hus, (hen they (ere thereby led to see for themselves that (hich the Buddha had already seen .. 9(hatever is of a nature to arise, all that is of a nature to cease9 .. they (ould not forget the (ords (hich had so stirred them) ,aving no( overcome .. at last? .. that aversion to seeing as it actually is, rather than .. mista$enly .. as something else, (hat had al(ays been there to be seen, they (ould naturally delight in those (ords (hich had led them to this release from the inner tension of that aversion and, delighting therein, <6= they (ould remember them (ell)<K= hey might for their o(n pleasure call to mind (hat they had heard; they might for their mutual pleasure repeat it to each other<H= .. as (e ourselves might often recall and recount something (hich has given us delight .. but they (ould not yet be doing so in order to instruct; for there (as as yet but one teacher: the Buddha) "ll that (as taught (as (hat he taught; and there (as therefore as yet no variance in the e'pression of that eaching) here came a time .. probably a fe( (ee$s later .. (hen as many as si'ty, having been instructed, had come to full reali>ation and no( lived the holy life 1brahmacariya4 fulfilled as mon$s in the Buddha!s :rder) -t (as at this time that the Buddha spo$e his oft.+uoted instructions: 93on$s, - am freed from all shac$les, both heavenly and human) 3on$s, you too are freed from both heavenly and human shac$les) /ander, mon$s, for the benefit, the happiness of the manyfol$, out of compassion for the (orld, for the (elfare, the benefit, the happiness of royalty and men) &et not t(o go by one (ay) each the eaching, mon$s, that in both (ord and spirit is (holesome in its beginning, (holesome its middle, (holesome in its conclusion) Proclaim a holy life that is utterly perfect and pure) here are beings (ith little dust in their eyes (ho, not hearing the eaching, (ill be lost) But some (ill understand)))9<J= hus the mon$s dispersed, to teach according to their individual abilities and proclivities)<5D= "t first they may have repeated, for the most part, (hat they remembered) Surely they (ould differ in (hat they recalled) Surely they (ould differ in (hat they chose to repeat) ,ere a discourse (ould be repeated only in summary; there it (ould be given in full; else(here it (ould be e'panded and e'pounded upon) "s the mon$s gained in communicative s$ills, as they learned to recogni>e (hich facets of the eaching best suited various auditors, they (ould .. at least some of them .. have supplemented or supplanted the remembered (ords

of the Buddha (ith their o(n descriptions of 9the (ay things are9, and many discourses by disciples have been preserved for us) he insight (ould be the same, but the descriptions (ould differ, depending on both the occasion and the individuals)<55= "nd thus as the eaching spread there (ould have been, unavoidably, a gro(ing diversity in (hat (as taught and remembered) -t could not have been long before there came to be mon$s in the :rder (ho, though earnest, had not yet seen the eaching for themselves) hese (ould not have ta$en the same delight in the discourses as those (hose insight had penetrated the eaching thoroughly) Nor (ould they have had the same faculties for remembering them, for $no(ing the essentials, and for avoiding mis.remembering them) "nd hence there arose the need not only for listening but for learning) #or unless the tal$s (ere memori>ed .. in those days there (as neither paper nor in$ .. those ne( mon$s might have, bet(een themselves, e'changed naught but misconceptions and, in solitude foundered in confusion) hus (e find throughout the Suttas do>ens of passages in (hich the need for learning, repeating and committing to memory is stressed and praise is given those (ith such learning, usually (ith the (arning that mere learning, (ithout application is inade+uate)<5@= here (ere some (ho e'celled at teaching, (ho (ere particularly inclined to do so, and (ho possessed those out(ard +ualities (hich attract follo(ings) hus there arose large companies of mon$s each of (hich became separated from the others both by geography and by lifestyle) Some (ere forest d(ellers, others lived near a to(n; some (ere sedentary, others roamed about; and so according to the preferences of each teacher, each company (ould have developed its o(n body of memori>ed discourses, (ith its o(n frame(or$ of summations and e'pansions, each group of teachings possessed of its o(n set phrases, conventions, and methods of e'position) %ertain aspects of this variance and diversity (ould have been, among the as.yet.unenlightened, a source for confusion and disagreements) -ndeed, some of these differences have been recorded) See, for e'ample, the Bahuvedaniya Sutta, 3) CJ 1i,BJ6.GDD4 I S) 888V-,5J 1iv,@@B.@H4, (herein the Buddha settles a doctrinal dispute by e'plaining ho( it is that the various teachings he has set forth about feelings are, though different, not contradictory) he eaching (as at this time established; it (as (ell.remembered; it had spread) But it (as as yet unco.ordinated, unstandardi>ed; it (as as yet not gathered together)

The ,enera+le Ananda /ithin the first year after the Buddha!s enlightenment, there entered the :rder that individual (ho, apart from the Buddha himself, (as best e+uipped to influence the development of the Suttas as an organi>ed body of teachings, and to (hom (e therefore o(e an immense debt) /ithout Venerable "nanda it is possible that (e (ould not have the Suttas today at all) Venerable "nanda, cousin of the Buddha, (ent forth from the lay life not long after the Buddha had visited his $insmen, the Sa$yans, at 2apilavatthu, (here both had gro(n up; and from the time of his going forth it (ould seem that Venerable "nanda spent most of his time near the Buddha) -ndeed, for the last t(enty.five years of the Buddha!s ministry Venerable "nanda served as the Buddha!s devoted personal attendant, follo(ing him 9li$e a shado(9 .. hag) 5DG5.5DGB) ,e did many services for the Buddha, and he also did one for us: he listened) "t that time many people called on the Buddha: mon$s and nuns, lay follo(ers, $ings and ministers, even adherents of other teachers) Some as$ed for guidance or e'planations, some made conversation or put to him prepared +uestions just to hear (hat the Buddha might say, and some even challenged and debated (ith him) o all, the Buddha taught about suffering and about the (ay to put an end to suffering) Some of these people became enlightened<5B= right then and there, (hile listening to the Buddha: 3) 5GD 1iii,@GK4, etc) :thers (ould bear in mind (hat had been said and, thin$ing it over and applying it, (ould achieve enlightenment at some later time: ") V---,BD 1iv,@@H.BC4, etc) Still others never succeeded to this e'tent but improved themselves and obtained a bright rebirth: S) 8&,5D 1iv,@6J.HD4, etc) "nd some, of course, (ent a(ay (ithout having benefited at all by their meeting: 3) 5H 1i,5DJ4, etc) o all these people the Buddha spo$e only about suffering and the path leading to the end of suffering, but he did so in many different (ays, e'plaining himself using various approaches) /e must all begin from (here (e are; but (e are not all in the same place, spiritually, (hen (e begin) 7ifferent people (ill respond to different forms of e'pression) -t is important to remember, (hen reading these Suttas, that they (ere not spo$en in a vacuum: there (as an actual person, or people, sitting before the Buddha, and (hat the Buddha said (as spo$en (ith the aim of resolving a particular conflict, usually internal) -f (e forget this point, (e leave ourselves open to the danger of misconceiving the eaching in mechanistic terms as an

impersonal e'planation rather than as good advice on ho( to live, and on ho( to develop a vie( of things that is free from attachment and unhappiness) So the Buddha e'plained about ignorance, conceit and suffering in many different (ays; and "nanda (as there) "nd he not only listened, he also remembered) So he did t(o services for us) "mong the mon$s the custom arose of teaching each other their favourite discourses through the techni+ues of se+uential and simultaneous recitation, practices still found today) Venerable "nanda too$ a particular interest in tal$s (orthy of preservation, and (ith his great capacity for recall<5G= he learned many discourses delivered by his fello( mon$s, as (ell as those given by the Buddha, thereby increasing his value as a repository of the eaching)<5C= Since, further, he (as (ell $no(n as a mon$ (ho had heard much, learned much, and (as approachable, (illing to help (henever he could, there can be no doubt that he (as often as$ed by others to teach them discourses or just to recite them so that they might be heard) So he taught others .. e)g) S) 88--,JD 1iii,5BB.G4; ") -8,G@ 1iv,GGJ4 .. and helped to spread the eaching among both his contemporaries and those (ho follo(ed after) his is a third service by (hich (e are indebted to Venerable "nanda) he +uestion had to arise: in (hat form should these discourses be taught* %learly they could not include every (ord that had been spo$en<56= .. at least not in the case of every single Sutta .. lest the learning become so cumbersome as to be self. defeating) "lthough mindfulness is central to the practice of the Buddha!s eaching 1S) 8&V-,CB 1v,55C44, mon$s (ere not all e+ually gifted in the ability to memori>e: the discourses had to be put into a format conducive to their being accurately remembered, (hile at the same time preserving their essence as teachings) he solution that (as chosen<5K= (as to remove superfluous matters, to condense (hat had been said, to crystalli>e those aspects of the eaching (hich are found repeatedly .. the four noble truths, the eightfold path, the method of right conduct, restraint of the faculties, mindfulness, the various levels of meditation, the five aggregates, dependent origination, and so on .. into the most concise descriptions possible, to couch the (hole of this into a set pattern conducive to memori>ation, and to introduce as much repetition and re.iteration as possible) " typical Sutta, then, (ill begin by telling (here the discourse too$ place, it (ill introduce the person or persons concerned and provide us (ith any other information necessary; then the theme (ill be stated concisely; each aspect of the theme (ill then be brought for(ard in its turn, repeated, developed (ith a copious use of synonyms,

e'panded, summari>ed and re.iterated) Similes may be introduced, in (hich case by means of parallel construction (ith the subject matter their relevance (ill be unmista$able) 0ach possible permutation (ill be dealt (ith in turn, the opening thematic statement (ill be recapitulated, and the Sutta (ill then conclude (ith remar$s usually of approval and pleasure) he purpose is clear: to ma$e absolutely certain that the matter at hand is stated so clearly that an intelligent person, open. minded, (illing to listen, not bent on his o(n vie(s, could not possibly misunderstand)<5H= hus the arising of stoc$ material and techni+ues, and also their spread, as they came into usage among the various companies of mon$s that flourished, too$ place during and not only after the Buddha!s ministry, although, as (e shall see, their influence (as (ith limitations: there (ere those companies that $ept to their o(n forms) Some find the Suttas, (ith all of their re.iteration, e'cruciatingly boring) 9 his,9 they suggest, 9could hardly be the message of a #ully 0nlightened :ne)9 hey suppose that because they themselves are not enthralled that therefore the message cannot be that of a Buddha) Not only do they fault the method, but the message as (ell; for (ere the message .. renunciation .. delightful to them, its repetition (ould hardly be objectionable) But (hen the idea of non.attachment is appreciated and approved of, then in both their message and their method the Suttas (ill be found to be both memorable and rememberable)<5J=

The #$ur Ni-a as 0ach company had its o(n core of favourite Suttas, (hich ne(comers (ould learn at least in part) Some of these discourses (ould be derived from tal$s by the company!s o(n teacher or stories of local monastic history; others (ould be dra(n from the stoc$ common to all groups) hus (e (ould e'pect fe( companies .. probably none .. not to have (ithin their ran$s those (ho could recite one version or another of such standard te'ts as deal in full or in brief (ith 9the gradual teaching,9 9the foundations of mindfulness,9 and so on) ,o(ever, (e (ould also e'pect that from the common pool each company (ould choose largely not only those discourses (hose subject matter appealed to them but also the type of discourse that appealed to them) hus some groups (ould learn brief and pithy sayings (hile others (ould prefer discourses (hich developed their subject matter in detail) Still others (ould gravitate to(ards te'ts in (hich subject matter (as intert(ined (ith character and event, resulting in a story.form) his latter sort of te't (ould have particularly appealed to mon$s living near villages or to(ns on

t(o grounds) #irst, such mon$s (ould have had the leisure to learn these generally longer Suttas, for life near the to(ns is easier than life in remote jungle thic$ets; and second, (hen the laity (ould assemble on the ne(. and full.moon observance days, they (ould find such Suttas more interesting to listen to than those (ith little characteri>ation and story) ,ence it is the case that the collection of discourses (hich are long, called the 7igha Ni$aya, does, in fact, address itself to matters of concern to the laity far more fre+uently than any of the other collections) -ndeed, nearly half the discourses in this collection are addressed to laypeople, and in most others layfol$ play a significant role) &ife in the forest is not as easy as life near a to(n) "side from time devoted to meditation, there are many time.consuming chores) #orest mon$s (ould have less time for the learning of long discourses and perhaps, less inclination: not only are forest mon$s often more given to meditation than are village mon$s, they are also less fre+uently visited by laypeople, and therefore have less need to accommodate lay interests) 3any of them, ho(ever, (ould (ish to $no( discourses (hich dealt instructively in detail (ith a subject) hus, one (ho is practising perception of emptiness (ould li$ely find it (orth(hile to learn at least one of the discourses (hich develops this theme)<@D= 3any forest mon$s (ould (ish to have at hand, for reference in their practice as (ell as for the joy of associating (ith the Eood eaching 1saddhamma4, discourses that consisted of something more than a pithy saying, but (hich yet (ere more concerned (ith instruction than (ith story and characteri>ation) hey (ould learn Suttas of a moderate length, and they (ould choose subject matter in accordance (ith the interests they (ere pursuing) ,ence there is a collection of discourses (hich are of middle length 13ajjhima Ni$aya4, rich in variety of subject matter, but of less immediate relevance to the concerns of the laity than the longer discourses, and in (hich the laity play a much smaller role, less than a +uarter of these tal$s are addressed to laypeople) Naturally many teachers taught by (ay of a particular subject, such as the practice of reflection in regard to the sense faculties, or the holding aggregates, or feelings, etc) "s today, then, too, the follo(ers of each teacher (ould of course ta$e particular interest in learning discourses that pertained to the subject that concerned them or to some other point of interest: nuns (ould learn discourses involving nuns; the mon$s living in the forest of 2osala (ould remember events and tal$s (hich too$ place there, and so on) ,ence there tended to coalesce, (ith no planning necessary, collections of discourses grouped according to subject matter, and today these e'ist as the Samyutta Ni$aya)

/e see, as (e in+uire into the Buddha!s eaching, that it is much given to enumeration: three $inds of feeling, four right efforts, five po(ers, si' senses, seven factors of enlightenment, the eightfold path, and so on) his may be regarded as a device to serve both mnemonic and pedagogical purposes) hus, the meditation levels $no(n as jhanas are almost al(ays enumerated as four and almost al(ays described in accordance (ith a set pattern) hat they need not be so enumerated and described is suggested by the Upa$$ilesa Sutta, 3) 5HH 1iii,56@4 1among others4, (herein the same range of concentrative attainments is described in si' stages) "gain, the usual description of those (ho have seen truth but not yet achieved full purification 1i)e) the sekha, trainee, or ariyasavaka, noble disciple4 is three.fold 1vi>, Stream.enterer, :nce.returner, Non.returner4; but at ") -8,5@ 1iv,BHD.54 (e are given a nine.fold division) hat these categories are in fact not invariably described according to their usual formulations is strong evidence that they need not be) 1"gain, higher than actuality stands possibility)4 Since the purpose of the Buddha!s eaching is neither to classify nor to analy>e but to lead one to see something about oneself, classification is used only for its mnemonic and pedagogical value, though herein its value is great) here are discourses (hich teach non.attachment to feeling and other aspects of e'perience (ithout ma$ing any enumerations: S) 8--,5@ 1ii,5B4; 888V-,G 1iv,@D6.K4; @5 1iv,@BD.54, etc) he stoc$ descriptions are commonly given because it (as found to be generally easier, to use them both as an aid to memory and in the service of one!s o(n practice) -t (ould be e'pected, then, that some mon$s (ould avail themselves of this numerical device, (hich is an -ndian literary style also found in non.Buddhist te'ts: Laina hananga is an e'ample, and so (ould learn discourses according to the number of items discussed) ,ence today there e'ists a collection of discourses arranged numerically, up to eleven: the "nguttara Ni$aya)<@5= /e can see, then, that even during the life of the Buddha these discourses (ere not distributed randomly: already they must have been organi>ed, in an embryonic form, along the lines in (hich (e no( have them) -ndeed, the te'ts themselves refer .. ") ---,@D 1i,55K4 etc) .. to dhammadhara,vinayadhara, matikadhara, or those (ho $eep 1I learn4 the eaching, those (ho $eep the 7iscipline, and those (ho $eep the Summaries, i)e) the Patimo$$ha) heir formal organi>ation (ould not have been a radical and innovative leap, but the logical ne't step in a process that had already developed to some e'tent) ,o(ever, the Suttas (ere probably not formally organi>ed into Ni$ayas during the Buddha!s lifetime) 7uring that time the %anon (as still decidedly open and gro(ing) /hen they became un(ieldy in volume, then no doubt some loose organi>ation (as evolved .. 9&et this company learn thesediscourses;

let that company learn those discourses9 .. but any formal structure (ould have been continuously interrupted, re+uiring recomposition in order to accommodate popular and important ne( discourses) hus the Suttas never refer to themselves in terms of the Ni$ayas that (e no( have)Rather, (e find fairly often a nine.fold division of the te'ts: discourses, mi'ed prose and verse, e'positions, verses, solemn utterances, sayings, birth stories, marvels, catechisms 1sutta, geyya,veyyakarana, gatha, udana, itivuttaka, jataka, abbhutadhamma, veda lla .. 3) @@ 1i,5BB4, etc) his is not to suggest that the te'ts (ere ever organi>ed along this nine.fold division he classification is probably ta$en from the broad tradition of monasticism e'istent at that time)<@@= his tradition no doubt included criteria according to (hich teachings could be judged, and the te'ts sometimes demonstrate 1often to non.Buddhist ascetics, e)g) the (anderer, later the Venerable Vacchagotta at 3) KB 1i,GHJ.JK44 that the eaching (as complete in all its parts as judged by these standards 1see also ") V--,CC 1iv,H@.HG44) But the use of this nine. fold classification sho(s that the te'ts do, in fact, describe themselves) herefore their failure to do so in terms of Ni$ayas demonstrates that such a division did not come into e'istence until after the %anon (as no longer fully open, i)e) after the Buddha!s decease) #$$tn$tes: .& 9)))(hile being taught the eaching for the ceasing of personality 1sakkayanirodha4 he (hose heart neither springs for(ard nor is made serene nor is composed, he is not freed)))9 .. 3) 6G 1i,GBC4 <Bac$ to te't= /& his discourse and that by (hich the five achieved full liberation have been preserved for us) he intervening discourses, by (hich they gre( in the eaching, though referred to, have not been preserved) <Bac$ to te't= 0& 9)))and those mon$s (ho are (orthy ones (ith can$ers destroyed, endo(ed (ith perfection, having done (hat should be done, laid do(n the burden, achieved the goal, fully destroyed the fetters of being, freed by right comprehension .. they, on hearing the eaching, d(ell pleasantly here and no()9 .. ") -8,G 1iv,B6@.B4 <Bac$ to te't= 1& 3ahavagga -,55 1i,@D.@54 .. S) -V,C 1i,5DC.64 <Bac$ to te't= %2& -t is (orth noting that the ability to teach does not follo( automatically upon perception of truth, nor are all enlightened ones e+ually s$illed in communication) See ") -,5G 1i,@B.C4) /orldly or social s$ills have no particular relevance to achievement of that (hich transcends society and the (orld e'cept insofar as a

talent for such s$ills may hamper one!s perception of the need to surpass them) <Bac$ to te't= %%& See S) 888V,@DG 1iv,J5.JC4, (herein four mon$s give four different ans(ers, all commendable by the (ise, to the +uestion, 9 o (hat e'tent is vision (ell. purified*9 See also the 3aha Eosinga Sutta, 3) B@ 1i,@5@.@J4) <Bac$ to te't= %'& 0)g) Venerable "nanda: 9,ere, friend Sariputta, a mon$ has mastered the eaching))); the eaching thus heard, thus mastered, he teaches to others in detail, he ma$es others recite in detail, he ma$es them repeat in detail) he eaching thus heard, thus mastered he thin$s and ponders upon in his heart and considers by mind) -n (hatever lodgings d(ell mon$s (ho are learned, going by the rule, $eepers of the eaching, of the 7iscipline, of the Summaries, he comes to those lodgings 1to stay4 for the rainy.season 1retreat4) "pproaching them from time to time he in+uires and +uestions 1of those mon$s4: !Sir, (hat is the purpose of this tal$*! hose venerable ones disclose to him the undisclosed ma$e clear the unclear, dispel doubt regarding multifarious doubtful things) -n this (ay, friend Sariputta, a mon$ may hear a eaching he has not heard; and eachings he has 1already4 heard (ill become unconfused; and those earlier eachings (hich had formerly touched his heart re.occur to him; and he recogni>es (hat (as unrecogni>ed)9 .. ") V-,C5 1iii,B65.@4) See also 3) B@ 1i,@5B4) <Bac$ to te't= %(& -n this essay the (ord 9enlightened9 is used of the sekha .. see belo( .. as (ell as of thearahat, the latter being described as not only enlightened but also liberated) <Bac$ to te't= %)& "t ") -,5G 1i,@G4 is recorded the Buddha!s declaration of Venerable "nanda as being foremost, among all mon$s, both in (ide $no(ledge and in retentive memory, as (ell as in good conduct, resoluteness, and personal service) <Bac$ to te't= %*& -n the heragatha 1v) 5D@G4 Venerable "nanda says that he $ne( H@,DDD of the Buddha!s discourses as (ell as @,DDD by the mon$s) his (or$s out, over a vigorous forty.five year ministry, to nearly five discourses a day) his is si>able, but many of them are but a fe( lines, so it is not impossible) ,o(ever, (e should bear in mind that the numerical precision so highly valued in /estern culture has been and still is of little importance in -ndian culture: these figures are best understood as 9a very great many9) -n -ndia a different sort of precision .. "nanda!s .. (as valued) 1See ") 8,JC 1v,5JB.C4)4 <Bac$ to te't=

%.& "nd, clearly, they do not) #or e'ample, in the %ula Sacca$a Sutta, 3) BC 1i,@@K.BK4 (e are given the account of a tal$ bet(een the Buddha and Sacca$a, (ho had previously boasted that in debate he (ould ma$e the Buddha sha$e, shiver, tremble and s(eat) /e e'pect that in the face of such superior (isdom Sacca$a (ill be reduced to silence and dismay; but in the te't it re+uires but four pages of print to accomplish this) Surely Sacca$a (as a (orthier opponent, (ith sufficient e'perience and s$ills at 9eel.(riggling9 1amaravikkhepa4 to last longer than that? /e must suppose that the actual tal$ (as of greater length, and that the te't gives us but the gist of (hat (as said) <Bac$ to te't= %/& "s to how it (as chosen (e are given no hint: the Suttas say nothing in this regard) :ur information is derived entirely from the results: the Suttas are in fact constructed in the (ay described) <Bac$ to te't= %0& 93on$s, these five things lead to the stability, to the non.confusion, to the non. disappearance of the Eood eaching) /hich five* ,ere, mon$s, the mon$s master a (ell.grasped discourse, (ell laid do(n by (ord and line) 3on$s, of (hat is (ell laid do(n, the purpose is (ell follo(ed) his, mon$s, is the first thing that leads to the stability, to the non.confusion, to the non.disappearance of the Eood eaching)))9 .. ") V,5C6 1iii,5KJ4) <Bac$ to te't= %1& his, ho(ever, is in no (ay an objection to condensations of printed translations .. intended forreaders rather than listeners .. for the sa$e of economy of space) <Bac$ to te't= '2& 9))) Because, "nanda, it is empty of self or of (hat pertains to self, therefore it is said, ! he (orld is empty)! )))9 .. S) 888V,HC 1iv,CG4 <Bac$ to te't= '%& -n addition to the four Ni$ayas described above, there is a fifth collection, the 2hudda$a Ni$aya) ,o(ever, it (ill be convenient to discuss its gro(th later, inasmuch as it is of later gro(th) #or no( (e (ill consider only the four great Ni$ayas) <Bac$ to te't= ''& "s are certain other %anonical technical terms: jhana, for instance, (hich (as certainly $no(n to the Lains .. see S) 8&-,H 1iv,@JH4 .. and to such outside teachers as "lara 2alama and Udda$a Ramaputta .. 3) @6 1i,56G.C4) %onvincing evidence could be cited for a number of other terms as (ell)

The #irst C$uncil

9%ome, friends: let us recite the eaching and the 7iscipline before (hat is not the eaching shines forth and the eaching is put aside, before (hat is not the 7iscipline shines forth and the 7iscipline is put aside, before those (ho spea$ (hat is not the eaching become strong and those (ho spea$ (hat is the eaching become (ea$, before those (ho spea$ (hat is not the 7iscipline become strong and those (ho spea$ (hat is the 7iscipline become (ea$)9<@B= hus, a fe( months after the Buddha!s decease a meeting no( $no(n as the #irst %ouncil (as held in the hills outside of Rajagaha 1modern Rajgir, in Bihar4 in order to put the Vinaya and the Suttas into a formal structure for the sa$e of those (ho (ould come later) Venerable Upali, (ho had gone forth at the same time as Venerable "nanda, (as designated responsible for the Vinaya, as (as Venerable "nanda for the Suttas) he account of their ste(ardships consists of but a fe( lines of reportage, probably edited long after the event .. most li$ely together (ith the account of the Second %ouncil, the report of (hich seems to be much more contemporaneous (ith its subject matter) he evidence is t(ofold) #irst, (e (ould e'pect the %ulavagga to have, if not fe(er, at least notmore 2handha$as than the 3ahavagga) -n the Suttas (e often encounter 3ahaM%ula pairs, and the 3aha is invariably the longer) "t any rate the enth 2handha$a of the %ulavagga is concerned (ith the nuns) -t (ould be inconsistent (ith attitudes displayed else(here in the te'ts for the nuns! disciplinary matters to be placed ahead of the mon$s! concerns, particularly at such an important convocation as the %ouncil) herefore, the account of the %ouncils must have been appended at a time (hen the Vinaya (as already considered closed to interpolations) -ndeed, the account of the %ouncils (as almost certainly the final addition to the Vinaya te'ts) Second, it is said in 2handha$a 8- that Venerable "nanda recited the five Nikayas) herefore the account could not have been edited until a time (hen the five Ni$ayas actually e'isted) Since the Suttas never refer to themselves as consisting of Ni$ayas at all, let alone as five, if (e (ere to assume the account to be contemporary, (e (ould be forced to suppose that this classification came into being +uite dramatically) -t is more reasonable to suppose that a body of material e'isted (hich, though not formally included in the #irst %ouncil compilation, adhered to it as supplementary matter; that that material must have included an account of the %ouncil itself; and that it, as (ell as certain other materials, eventually came to be included in the %anon before the %anon itself (as regarded as closed) he account (as included at a time (hen the five Ni$ayas already e'isted as formally organi>ed bodies of te'ts, but probably (as codified +uite soon

after, for the specification of the number five suggests an attempt to legitimi>e the last of them, the 2hudda$a Ni$aya) Be that as it may, it is not difficult, despite the brevity of the reportage, to imagine (hat must have ta$en place) he %ouncil (as no mere recitation of te'ts: that had been going on for forty.five years and did not re+uire a special assembly) he %ouncil!s aim must have been t(o.fold: 54 o decide (hat, out of the vast store of material at hand, should be given the protection of formal organi>ation; and @4 o set up a mechanism to preserve this material) :bviously it couldn!t all be saved) Not only (ere there the Buddha!s discourses, all H@,DDD of them,<@G= but also the discourses of many other mon$s, some of them learned, (ise, enlightened, liberated) Some of the discourses (ere duplicates .. the mon$s from Savatthi remembering the Buddha saying a particular Sutta (hen he (as there; the mon$s from 2usinagara remembering him saying +uite the same thing on a visit to them .. others varied in greater or lesser e'tent) Some variations (ere revealing, others perhaps less so) hese elders (anted this discourse included, those elders had other re+uests) -n addition to the formal discourses there (ere events of some significance: the famine in Veranja and its effects on the :rder, 7evadatta!s attempt at a schism, an attempt on Venerable Sariputta!s life 1Ud) -V,G 1BJ.G544, and so on) /hich of these (ere (orthy of preservation* /hich (ould be of less value to those (ho came later* ,o( much (as enough, and ho( much too much* hese decisions (ere, (ith regard to the Suttas, Venerable "nanda!s responsibility as, (ith regard to the Vinaya, they (ere Venerable Upali!s) he selection being made, it (as then necessary to assign to different teachers the responsibility of learning and passing on a certain portion of a collection; for even among the august members of the %ouncil .. there (ere CDD elders, (e are told, 9not one more, not one less,9 and all (ere liberated .. fe( (ould have been able to learn the Suttas in their entirety) -f one.hundred of them too$ responsibility for the Vinaya, there (ould have been one.hundred each for the long discourses, the middle length discourses, the grouped collection, and the enumerated collection) <@C= 0ven though most mon$s could ta$e responsibility for passing on to their follo(ing no more than a portion of a collection, yet every part of this organi>ed recension (ould have been the responsibility of a large number of schools) hus, if one or several schools died out, their tradition (ould not thereby be lost) 1" digression here on the +uestion of memory may be (orth(hile) &iterate people sometimes e'press doubt that large segments of te't could have been accurately

remembered during the five centuries before they (ere first (ritten do(n) But anthropologists have often remar$ed on the e'traordinary and proven ability of their non.literate informants to remember accurately) -t (ould seem that the comparatively poor memory of literate fol$ is due to their very literacy: they don!t needto cultivate the faculty of memory) hey forget 1if they ever $ne(4 that li$e all faculties, if they don!t use it they lose it) -n literate cultures that part of e'perience that is not readily recordable tends to become impoverished: literacy is not (ithout it!s dra(bac$s) 1"lthough Venerable "nanda (as pre.eminent in the ability to learn discourses apparently possessing (hat today is called a 9photographic memory9, the ability to remember segments of te'ts (hich, in print, ta$e up a volume or more, (as not an unusual ability) 0ven today, (hen (e have authoritative editions of all the te'ts printed in a variety of scripts, the ability is not unheard of) 1-n Burma government.regulated e'aminations are offered mon$s annually to test their recall of the te'ts, as (ell as their understanding of them) "t present 15JHB4 there are in Burma alone four mon$s (ho have demonstrated their ability to recite by memory not only the Vinaya and Sutta collections in their entirety, both of (hich are more voluminous today than in their original #irst %ouncil recension, but also the seven volumes of the "bhidhamma) Since 5JGJ (hen the e'aminations (ere first offered, 6K mon$s have passed the oral and (ritten e'aminations for the five volumes of the Vinaya and @6C have done so for the Suttas comprising si'teen volumes) "dditionally, (ell over BDD mon$s have passed oral and (ritten e'aminations proving their perfect recall and understanding of one entire Ni$aya 17igha: 5@@; 3ajjhima: HJ; Samyutta: C@; "nguttara: CC4) he number (ho can recite large portions of a Ni$aya .. a volume or more .. must be substantially higher) -n Sri &an$a, (here recitation is also greatly valued but (here, ho(ever, e'aminations are not offered, one can find many more such reciters)<@6=4 /hen (e remember that the cultivation of mindfulness and a(areness is a central discipline in the Buddha!s eaching, that the Suttas (ere arranged in as mnemonic a manner as possible, that mon$s (ere encouraged to revie( often the discourses in their minds and that they (ere e'pected to meet fre+uently for group rehearsals, both (ithin their o(n company and together (ith other companies, (e (ill not be surprised that at a time (hen memori>ation (as the only (ay to transmit the eaching, such an ability, assiduously fostered, (ould be (idespread and reliable) -t (ill be seen, then, that it (as not 1as is often asserted4 due to the (riting do(n of the te'ts that they achieved their definitive form) /ell before that time, (hen they

had come to be regarded as sacred, there already e'isted a method (hereby they could be transmitted from generation to generation (ithout error) Not everyone agreed (ith (hat (as being done) " (andering mon$, the leader of a large company, Venerable Purana, (hile travelling through the Southern ,ills south of Rajagaha, came to the cave in the canebra$e (here the %ouncil (as meeting) "t this time the Vinaya and Suttas had already been recited 1i)e) organi>ed, assigned and rehearsed4) 9#riend Purana,9 the elders said to him, 9the eaching and 7iscipline have been recited together by the elder mon$s) Please submit yourself to this recitation)9 9#riends,9 he replied, 9the eaching and 7iscipline are (ell.recited by the elders) But in the (ay - have heard them in the 0'alted :ne!s presence, in the (ay that have received them in his presence, thus (ill - bear it in mind)9 .. %ulavagga 8-,l,55 1ii,@HH.J4 hereby Venerable Purana rejected not only the organi>ation of the Suttas into collections but, apparently, the structuring of the Suttas individually into the form in (hich they had been cast for transmission) he %ouncil had no 9legal9 status by (hich it could compel other mon$s to submit to its decisions nor is the notion of compulsion consistent (ith the spirit of the Suttas and the Vinaya: its strength lay in the collective repute, the upright conduct, and the (isdom of its individual members) hey could urge, and perhaps generally receive, compliance; but they could not command it) Probably, then, Venerable Purana (as not the only teacher (ho chose to go his o(n (ay) :thers too, though ac$no(ledging that the %ouncil!s recension (as (ell.recited .. i)e) providing right.vie( guidance .. may have preferred to continue teaching according to their o(n methods) /e don!t $no( for sure for none of those other traditions have survived) he only record (e have today of the Buddha!s eaching is that dependent upon the collective repute, the upright conduct, and the (isdom of the individuals (ho comprised the #irst %ouncil)

Later Additi$ns 9But ho( do (e $no(,9 it may be as$ed, 9that (ith the closing of the #irst %ouncil the Sutta recension that they compiled remained intact, (ithout additions* #or if no additions (ere made later then, true enough, (e (ould have here the actual eaching of the Buddha) But (hat grounds are there for accepting this as so*9

" good and important +uestion) he ans(er being, that (e don't $no( that 9no additions (ere made later9: +uite the contrary, (e do $no( they (ere made) he %anon had been open and gro(ing for nearly a half century) #or it to be suddenly closed, and for there to be an immediate acceptance of that closure sufficiently (idespread for it to be effective, is contrary to reason) :nly (hen the compilation had come to be generally regarded as sacrosanct could the %anon be successfully closed; and such an attitude necessarily develops gradually) "nd the evidence of the Suttas themselves supports this vie() here are, for e'ample, discourses in (hich Venerable "nanda appears not as the Buddha!s shado( but +uite apart from the Buddha) -n these discourses he is regarded, e'cept by Venerable 3aha 2assapa, as a respected elder; he is calledmaha-acariya, 9great teacher9 in ") 8,J6 1v,5JH4 and in S) 8V-,55 1ii,@5H4 he is said to have been touring the Southern ,ills leading a great company of mon$s) -t is clear that at least some of these discourses too$ place after his attendancy on the Buddha had ended, (ith the decease of his master) -ndeed, t(o of them .. Subha Sutta, 7) 5D, and Eopa$a.3oggallana Sutta, 3) 5DH .. state specifically in their introductory material 17) i,@DG and 3) iii,K4 that they too$ place 9not long after9 the Buddha!s decease) "nd there are discourses involving mon$s other than Venerable "nanda in (hich the te't itself informs us that the conversation too$ place after the Buddha!s passing a(ay)<@K= Nor can (e reasonably suppose all these tal$s to have occurred during the fe( months bet(een the Buddha!s decease and the convening of the #irst %ouncil) Some of them may have, but 3adhura 1of 3) HG4, for instance, (as in /estern -ndia, not so far from present.day 7elhi but a great distance #rom Rajagaha, over very bad roads 1") V,@@D 1iii,@C644: even if the discourse itself had originated before the %ouncil met, it could hardly have become $no(n in Rajagaha in such a short time, let alone become popular enough for inclusion in the recension) But even if such is maintained, there still remains the Ba$$ula Sutta, 3) 5@G 1iii,5@G.@H4, in (hich Venerable Ba$$ula asserts, at least thirty.three times, that he has been a mon$ for eighty years) No(, all accounts agree that the Buddha!s decease too$ place forty.five years after his a(a$ening) herefore even if Venerable Ba$$ula had been ordained very soon after the establishment of the :rder,<@H= the discourse still had to have ta$en place at least thirty.five years after the closing of the #irst %ouncil) "nd in all li$elihood it too$ place even later than that although Venerable Ba$$ula could not have been spo$en of by the Buddha unless his ordination too$ place during the Buddha!s lifetime: i)e) the Ba$$ula Sutta postdates the #irst %ouncil, but by less than eighty years) /e can be +uite certain, then, that the #irst %ouncil did not produce the version of the te'ts that (e no( have) But (e can be e+ually certain that the

compilation they produced is in no (ay dramatically different from (hat (e no( have) %onsider: -f (e e'amine the seven Suttas just referred to, (e (ill notice that they have in common a distinctive feature) /hereas the usual (ay the discourses begin is: 9:ne time the 0'alted :ne (as d(elling at)))9<@J= these discourses ma$e no mention of (here the Buddha d(elt) Rather, they begin: 9:ne time Venerable "nanda 1or Venerable Udena, or (hoever4 (as d(elling at)))9 -n other (ords, by this method they inform us at the very start that they are in fact later additions and are not to be ta$en as having been part of the #irst %ouncil!s compilation)<BD= here is no attempt to disguise the fact) :n the contrary, there is a conscientiousness in its assertion) "nd (hen (e loo$ through the Ni$ayas (e find other discourses (hich follo( this same form: 9:ne time Ven) So.and.so (as d(elling at)))9 "lthough they do not al(ays other(ise declare themselves to be later additions .. for once should be enough .. yet often (e can find further telltale evidence that this is so) hus for e'ample in the 7igha Ni$aya aside from the already.mentioned Subha Sutta, there is only one other discourse out of the thirty.four in that collection (herein (e are told the d(elling not of the Buddha but of the main individual, Venerable 2umara 2assapa, in this case) his discourse .. the Payasi Sutta, 7) @B 1ii,B56.CH4 .. involves a long discussion bet(een Venerable 2assapa and the chieftain Payasi, mainly on the subject of rebirth) he chieftain presents a series of thought.out reasonings as evidence that there is no rebirth) Venerable 2assapa presents counter.arguments, primarily in the form of elaborate similes,<B5= sho(ing the fla(s in Payasi!s theses) -n the end although Venerable 2assapa does not actually offer any arguments in favour of rebirth, Payasi declares himself to be both convinced and pleased) No(, on numerous occasions the Buddha declared that for beings constrained by craving there is rebirth 1S) 88--,@C 1iii,@64 etc4) ,e said that he could remember his o(n past lives 13) G 1i,@@4 etc4, that he could see the passing on of beings according to their deeds 13) G 1i,@@.B4 etc4, and that by means of certain mental practices others could develop these abilities 1") 8,5D@ 1v,@554 etc4, and had done so: e)g) the Venerable 3aha 3oggallana and "nuruddha) But no(here do the Suttas record the Buddha arguing in favour of rebirth on logical grounds; nor (ould (e e'pect him to do so for rebirth is not a matter of logic) Fet despite Venerable 2assapa!s assertion that until then he had neither seen nor heard of anyone sharing Payasi!s vie(s, there must have been many sceptics to judge both from the vie(s ascribed by the te'ts to the various teachers of the day and from the

fre+uency (ith (hich the Suttas assert rebirth; and most mon$s .. even among those (ho had personally achieved complete self.purification .. (ould have had to accept rebirth on the basis of confidence in the Buddha rather than from direct $no(ledge 1see S) 8--,KD 1ii,5@@.B4, and compare ") V--,CG 1iv,KH.H@44) "fter the Buddha!s decease, then, there (as a strongly felt need for some sort of te'tual authority to lend support to these mon$s on the +uestion of rebirth, just as the 3adhura Sutta, mentioned earlier, seems to have been included to lend support to the Buddhist teaching of ethical e+uality bet(een castes) -t matters not at all that Venerable 2assapa!s similes are unli$ely to convince a modern sceptic: they (ere appropriate to their time; they filled an e'isting need) "nd that need (ould have been felt most strongly among the reciters and preservers of the long discourses) he Payasi Sutta, (hich is obviously the model for the much later 3ilindapanha, could have been made much shorter .. and hence included in any of the other Ni$ayas .. by eliminating e'traneous introductory and concluding material and some of the more elaborate similes; so it (as not only due to considerations of length that it came to be included in the 7igha Ni$aya)<B@= Rather, +uestions about rebirth are more apt to be raised by the laity (hose goal is to obtain a good rebirth than by mon$s (hose aim is to transcend rebirth entirely, and in fact the arguments of the Payasi Sutta, concerned as they are (ith reasoning and simile, are more li$ely to convince a layperson than a practising mon$ (ho .. +uestions of relevance aside .. might be better convinced by evidence concerned (ith direct reflection and perception) :f the four Ni$ayas the 7igha is, for reasons (e have already noted, the one most directed to the interests of laypeople, thus lending substantiation to the %ommentarial suggestion that Venerable "nanda (as primarily responsible for this collection) ,ence the mon$s (ho (ould most li$ely see$ te'tual support on the +uestion of rebirth (ould be thedigha-bhanakas, the 9reciters of the 7igha9) here (ould have developed among the individuals of the various companies (ho shared the responsibility for various portions of the long discourses a consensus that the Payasi Sutta, until then a part of the peripheral material $no(n by those reciters but not included in their te'ts, should be formally included in the Ni$aya) Since the 7igha is divided into three Vaggas, or sections, each about a volume in length, and since the Payasi Sutta, is no( the last discourse of the second Vagga, the responsibility apparently (as assigned to or ta$en up by those (ho recited the middle portion of the long discourses) ,o(ever, it (as not al(ays the case that later Suttas came to be placed at the end of a Vagga, as the evidence sho(s) he discourse ma$es no claim to being the ipsissima verba of the Buddha) -t presents itself as being, in its central portion, a conversation bet(een a certain

fairly obscure mon$ and a certain layman, apparently mentioned no(here else in the Suttas; there is no reason not to accept it on those terms) -t ac$no(ledges itself to be a later addition as the %ommentator 7hammapala points out at Vimana Vatthu %ommentary, p) @JK: indeed, every discourse identified by the traditional commentaries as post.#irst %ouncil begins, it seems, (ith the 9:ne time Venerable So.and.so9 formula) But it (as not a haphazard addition: the mechanism by (hich the Suttas (ere passed on necessitated, before the %anon (as closed, that additional material could be inserted only (hen there (as a common accord among those (ho (ere responsible for a portion of the te'ts) urning no( to the 3ajjhima Ni$aya (e learn more about the process of adding discourses) :ther than those already mentioned there are t(o discourses in the 3ajjhima that ma$e no mention of the Buddha!s d(elling place: the "numana Sutta, 3) 5C 1i,JC.5DD4 and the 3aratajjaniya Sutta, 3) CD 1i,BB@.H4) Both begin: 9:ne time Venerable 3aha 3oggallana d(elt in the Bhagga %ountry)))9 Since (e $no( from S) 8&V--,5G 1v,56B.C4 that both Sariputta and 3aha 3oggallana predeceased the Buddha, the discourses themselves could not have ta$en place after the time of the #irst %ouncil as (as evidently the case (ith the Payasi Sutta; rather they (ere simply not included in that compilation)<BB= But (e note that the t(o 3ajjhima Suttas have the same venue, and that the Bhagga %ountry (as an out.of.the.(ay place, at least as measured by the infre+uency of its mention in the Suttas)<BG= Since Venerable 3aha 3oggallana and Venerable Sariputta (ere the t(o chief disciples of the Buddha, the mon$s living among the Bhaggas (ould certainly have remembered the former!s visit to them and (ould have $ept in mind (hat he had said and done, as part of their local tradition) here must have been in residence there some companies of majjhima-bhanakas, preserving at least the first third of the 3ajjhima Ni$aya, (hich today contains 5C@ Suttas and, li$e the 7igha, is divided into three volume.length Vaggas) hey (ould be the ones to have (ished to include these t(o discourses .. all the more precious for having ta$en place there .. in their collection, to raise them from the lo(er status of local tradition and to afford them additional protection against being lost) /hen meeting (ith neighbouring majjhima-bhanakas, as they must have done from time to time, not only to recite together, they successfully convinced their fello(.mon$s to include these t(o discourses in their o(n recitations) hus, due in effect to local boosterism, the %anon gre() "nd (hen (e loo$ at the Samyutta Ni$aya (e find further evidence of this) #$$tn$tes:

'(& Venerable 3aha 2assapa, the elected head of the #irst %ouncil) %ulavagga 8l,5,5 1ii,@HG4 <Bac$ to te't= ')& /e noted earlier 1footnote 5C4 that Venerable "nanda $ne( HG,DDD discourses) he four Ni$ayas as (e no( have them comprise si'teen volumes; C,CDD pages in their abbreviated roman.script edition contain according to the %ommentarial rec$oning a total of 5K,CDC discourses although some are +uite short) hough the precise number of discourses is problematical, (e can see that in any case (hat (as included, voluminous as it is, is but a fraction of (hat (as available) <Bac$ to te't= '*& hese figures .. other than the 9CDD9 .. are entirely speculative) heir purpose is only to demonstrate that, (hatever the specific details, a mechanism for preserving the te'ts (as entirely feasible) ,o(ever, the %ommentarial assertion .. Sumangalavilasini -,5B .. that primary responsibility for these four collections (as assigned respectively to Venerable "nanda, the pupils of Venerable Sariputta, Venerable 3aha 2assapa and Venerable "nuruddha, lends support to our suggestion) <Bac$ to te't= '.& 7ata courtesy Religious "ffairs 7epartment, Rangoon) <Bac$ to te't= '/& 0)g) the 3adhura Sutta, 3) HG 1ii,HB.JD4, (ith Venerable 3aha 2accana and 2ing "vantiputta of 3adhura; the Ehotamu$ha Sutta, 3) JG 1ii,5CK.6B4, (ith Venerable Udena and the brahmana Ehotamu$ha) <Bac$ to te't= '0& his, ho(ever, is unli$ely) Venerable Ba$$ula seems to be mentioned, in the (hole of the four Ni$ayas, in only one other conte't: in ") -,5G 1i,@C4 he is declared by the Buddha to be foremost among all mon$s in respect of good health) <Bac$ to te't= '1& Because the Samyutta and "nguttara Ni$ayas contain numerous short discourses, therein this formula is often abbreviated or omitted entirely) his almost certainly (as done by the later scribes rather than the earlier reciters) -n these instances (e $no( that the Buddha is the spea$er by his use of the term bhikkhave, the vocative form for 9mon$s9; for in those days all mon$s addressed one another as avuso 1I 9reverend9 or 9sir94; only the Buddha used the term bhikkhave) <Bac$ to te't= (2& his is in distinction to those Suttas, presumably not later additions, in (hich although the Buddha plays no part (hatsoever in the narrative, yet his d(elling place at that time is nevertheless given according to the usual formula) 0'amples

(ill be found at 7) BG; 3) C, J, @H, 6J, K6, 5@K; S) V,5, V-,B, 6, J; ") V-,BG, etc) " comparison of S) &V,C@ 1v,GDC.64 and S) &V-,BD 1v,GB6.K4 points up the distinction) -n neither case does the Buddha appear 9on stage9; in both cases he is +uoted; the first discourse begins 9:ne time the Buddha (as d(elling at)))9; the second begins 9:ne time a number of senior mon$s (ere d(elling at)))9 <Bac$ to te't= (%& &i$e Venerable Ba$$ula, Venerable 2umara 2assapa is mentioned else(here in the four Ni$ayas only at ") -,5G 1i,@G4, (here he is declared foremost in respect of embellished speech) ,ad the Payasi Sutta not been appended to the %anon, (e (ould have had no e'ample of this) ,e is also mentioned once in the Vinaya) -n affirming the validity of his admission to the :rder, for (hich one must be at least t(enty years of age, the Buddha stated that age is rec$onable not from birth but from conception, declaring that it is in the (omb that 9the mind 1citta4 first arises, consciousness 1vinnana4 first becomes manifest)9 .. 3ahavagga -,KC 1i,J@4 <Bac$ to te't= ('& Nor is length an absolute criterion) here are at least fifteen Suttas in the other three Ni$ayas that are longer than the shortest of the 7igha Suttas) <Bac$ to te't= ((& here are a number of other discourses (hich also begin 9:ne time Ven) So. and.so)))9 but (hich similarly must have been delivered during the Buddha!s lifetime) #or e'ample there are about KC such Suttas involving either Ven) 3aha 3oggallana or Ven) Sariputta or both) here are also t(o Suttas 1S) 8&-,J 1iv,BDD. BD@4 and ") --,B6 1i,6C.K44 (herein it is specifically stated in the dialogue that the Buddha (as then living at Savatthi, in the latter instance, but in the former the location is not given) herefore (e cannot assert that all 9:ne time Ven) So.and. so)))9 discourses (ere delivered after the Buddha!s decease: only that they came to be included in the %anon at a later date) <Bac$ to te't= ()& " number of other 9:ne time Ven) So.and.so)))9 discourses are also set in remote locales: "lavi, "vanti, %eti, 3adhura, etc), generally /est of the centres (here the te'ts locate, Venerable "nanda: Vesali, Pataliputta, Rajagaha, 2osambi) "lthough during the Buddha!s day the /est of -ndia (as still 9pioneer country9 as regards the eaching, (e $no( 1as discussed in the "ppendi'4 that (ithin a century of the #irst %ouncil these (estern territories had risen to monastic prominence and, perhaps, cultural importance as (ell: a'ila (as already a centre of learning even in the Buddha!s day: 3ahavagga V---,5,6.K 1i,@6J.KD4)

-n the entire Vana Samyutta 1-8 1i,5JK.@DC44 (e find no mention of the Buddha) "nd all but one of these fourteen discourses ta$e place in 2osala) he mon$s living in the (oods 1vana4 of 2osala apparently managed to get their o(n local tradition, much involved (ith deities, included in the %anon) So apparently did the follo(ers of Venerable Sariputta, for although else(here in the Ni$ayas he is found fre+uently in discussion (ith the Buddha, in the Sariputta Samyutta 188V--1iii,@BC.GD44 none of the ten discourses ma$e mention of the eacher; nine of them ta$e place in Savatthi) Similarly the four consecutive Samyuttas 1888V---.8&-4 named after, respectively, the (anderers Lambu$hada$a and Samanda$a, each containing si'teen conversations (ith Venerable Sariputta, the first set entirely in 3agadha, the second among the Vajjians; Venerable 3aha 3oggallana, eleven discourses, all set in Savatthi, and the lay disciple %itta, ten discourses, all set at 3acchi$asanda, are apparently later additions to the Samyutta Ni$aya of discourses already in e'istence (hen the #irst %ouncil met, but not compiled by them) -t should be noted that the Suttas concerned (ith %itta clearly reveal attitudes of lay devotees rather than of mon$s) "nd there are further e'amples in both the Samyutta and "nguttara Ni$ayas; but (e need not investigate them, for (e can see by no( that the method (hereby any ne( material could be inserted into the collections had to involve a consensus as to its suitability and also to include in each case a 9(arning label9 .. 9Venerable So. and.so (as d(elling at)))9 .. that the discourse is not part of the original compilation) here are about @DD such discourses, filling roughly BCD pages of print, (hich is about si' per cent of the total) "nd by the same evidence (e can $no( that neither (as any material lost nor (ere any of the Suttas arbitrarily altered) #or e'actly the same mechanism that re+uired consensus in order to add to the %anon (ould have come into force had any attempt been made to alter a te't) "nd (e can (ell imagine the difficulty, the virtual impossibility from the very outset, of such a consensus being achieved in order to alter (hat had been laid do(n by those very mon$s (ho (ere venerated as the founders of the various lineages 1see S) 8-V,5C 1ii,5CC.K44) -n order for any Sutta or part of a Sutta to have been lost, (e should have to suppose either a collective amnesia among all the mon$s of all the companies (ho (ere reciters of that Sutta .. hundreds, or more probably thousands of ambulatory amnesiacs? .. or else the brea$ing up and disappearance of every single company responsible for a certain portion of the Suttas .. and this in a time (hen all the evidence indicates that the :rder (as thriving and gro(ing .. together (ith the refusal or inability of any single mon$ 1or e'.mon$4 from any of those lost

companies to come for(ard to teach the te'ts to the surviving groups) " most improbable combination of events? No, the evidence sho(s clearly that there (ere additions to the te'ts, but to suppose either substantial changes or losses is contrary to reason) -t must be emphasi>ed primarily for the benefit of scholarly readers that (e did not begin by assuming that Suttas (hich do not refer to the Buddha in their introductory material are therefore later additions to the %anon) Rather, (e first discovered a fe( Suttas that certainly describe events that had ta$en place after the Buddha!s decease) 0'amining them, (e noticed that they possessed one feature in common and in distinction to the great majority of discourses) /e then loo$ed at other te'ts (hich also displayed this feature and found therein further grounds to accept that those te'ts, too, (ere probably later additions to the %anon) /e described in detail the evidence found in several of these te'ts and indicated in brief other Suttas providing additional evidence; but (e do not propose to present the data to be found in a number of other te'ts, for to do so (ould re+uire a very long and technical and uninteresting digression) /e (ill note only that this evidence consists of a large number of small, and a fe( not.so.small, points, all tending in the same direction, (ith no cases of an opposite tendency)<BC= #or ho( long did this process of slo( accretion continue* /e can be +uite certain that by the time of the Second %ouncil (hich met a century after the Buddha!s decease, the process had already ended, the four Ni$ayas being regarded as closed, and that this vie( (as ratified and finali>ed by that %ouncil) he evidence: "ll additional Suttas involve 9first generation9 mon$s, i)e) contemporaries of the Buddha but (ho, in some cases, outlived the eacher)<B6= he only instance (hich can reasonably be considered an e'ception is that of Venerable Narada, (hose tal$ (ith 2ing 3unda .. "jatasattu!s great.grandson, according to later accounts .. is recorded at ") V,CD 1iii,CK.6@4) ,o(ever, even in this case (e have a discourse at S) 8--,6H 1ii,55C.H4 .. clearly earlier than the "nguttara Sutta, for there he is said to be already a (orthy one 1arahat4, i)e) fully liberated, (hereas here he is self. described as not yetarahat, still a sekha .. (here Venerable "nanda also has a part) So if Venerable Narada (as not contemporaneous (ith the Buddha, he (as at least not far from it) Venerable Narada!s discourse to 2ing 3unda is, as (e have it, identical to a discourse to the mon$s spo$en by the Buddha: ") V,GH 1iii,CG.C64) &ater sources tell us that it (as during the time of 2alaso$a, the third 3agadhese $ing after 3unda, that the Second %ouncil convened) he Vinaya!s description of this %ouncil is much more detailed than, and about t(ice the length of, its report on

the #irst %ouncil) he impetus for the meeting (as the e'posure and condemnation of certain rela'ations of monastic discipline (hich had arisen among a company of mon$s centred in Vesali, the famous 9ten points9, the most important of (hich concerned a rela'ation of the prohibition against 9accepting, using, or consenting to the deposit of money9) /e are told of the politic$ing that (ent on before the %ouncil met, and (e are introduced to the main players in that drama, the leading mon$s of the day) Not one of these eight mon$s nor any of the lesser mon$s mentioned is $no(n to the four Ni$ayas) -f the four Ni$ayas had been then regarded as open to additional material, surely (e (ould e'pect to find these mon$s represented)<BK= /hat happened is clear: ho(ever highly these mon$s might have been regarded individually, for of course some of them (ould have achieved full purification, those mon$s (ho (ere not contemporaries of the Buddha could never achieve the distinction of those (ho had $no(n him personally) &ater mon$s belonged, inevitably, to a particular lineage (hich 1li$e caste4 could not be transcended) :nly the founding elders, those (ho had established the lineages, could be regarded as beyond those lines) -f the doings and sayings of these second generation mon$s (ere admitted to the Ni$ayas, (here (ould it end* he decision that needed to be reached if the Ni$ayas (ere to survive at all (as that (ith the passing of the first generation the collections had to be closed) ,ad they been left open they (ould have become amorphous and protean .. not to be confused (ith 9rich and varied9? .. and (ould have lost their very purpose) herefore (hatever pressures may have developed to incorporate this or that 9second generation9 discourse needed to be opposed and obviously (ere)

The #ifth Ni-a a he material (hich (as admitted to the #our Ni$ayas during the first century after the Buddha (as but a fraction of (hat (as remembered) 3uch of this material, (hich included a great deal of verse,<BH= must have been in common circulation, the preserve of no single lineage or group of companies;for (ithin the four Ni$ayas and also (ithin the Vinaya (e find not only one Sutta referring to another<BJ= but also, here and there, Suttas referring to material (hich lies outside the first four Ni$ayas)<GD= here (as also ne( material being generated to fulfil ne( needs as (ith the Payasi Sutta on rebirth, or to describe ne( events as (ith Ven) Narada!s tal$ to 2ing 3unda) /hat (as to be done (ith all of this* o add substantially to the Ni$ayas (ould have established an unfortunate precedent leading to the

inevitable dissipation of their integrity; yet to leave the material disorgani>ed (ould be to abandon much that (as (orthy to an early destruction) he solution chosen (as the creation of the fifth collection, the 2hudda$a Ni$aya) huddaka means 9small9 and at first the 2hudda$a Ni$aya (as indeed small) oday, (ith fifteen separate sections, it is the most voluminous of the Ni$ayas, but originally it consisted of probably si' or seven separate short te'ts, each of (hich had been compiled and preserved, prior to inclusion in the Ni$aya, individually on its o(n merits) he heragatha and herigatha, for instance, consist of the verses of various mon$s and nuns, respectively) ,ere there can be no doubt that some of the verses are by second generation disciples 1e)g) Venerable Parapariya!s verses, J@D.JGH4, and that the te'ts gre( substantially after the #irst %ouncil) his is only to be e'pected: the t(o collections do not pretend other(ise) he 7hammapada is a collection of popular verses) Nuite a fe( are to be found else(here among the Suttas, but as many or more are uni+ue to this compilation) 3ost of the verses stand alone, unconnected to the others) /e have no direct evidence as to the date of its closure, but the arrangement and distribution of the verses suggest that it could (ell have gro(n during the first century) he Sutta Nipata is, li$e the 7hammapada, a collection of popular verse, but it differs in that its verses form longer poems, each of (hich is regarded as a discourse) -ndeed, some of them have prose attached, as a sort of introductory bunting) " fe( of the poems appear (ithin the four Ni$ayas; the remainder are the most popular of those longer poems that are not included therein) "s such, a number of its passages are +uoted (ithin the four Ni$ayas 1as noted above4, (hich has given rise to the mista$en vie( that the Sutta Nipata contains the 9oldest layer9 of te'ts) %ertainly some of the Sutta Nipata te'ts are contemporaneous (ith the first four Ni$ayas, but they do not pre.date them)<G5= he Udana is a collection of eighty solemn utterances spo$en by the Buddha on special occasions) he -tivutta$a contains 55@ short Suttas, each accompanied by verses, the relevance of (hich is not al(ays apparent) his fact together (ith some seeming te'tual corruptions suggest that it may have had an older and independent life before being incorporated into the 2hudda$a Ni$aya) -f this is so, it indicates (hat happened to those te'ts that did not receive the formal protection of organi>ation) 9 he Lata$a contains only the verses connected (ith the CGK tales of previous e'istences of the Buddha) he 1prose4 tales are in a commentary of the fifth

century ")7), (hich claims to be translated from Sinhalese 1to Pali4)))) Professor ) /) Rhys 7avids has stated that these tales are !old stories, fairy tales, and fables, the most important collection of ancient fol$lore e'tant,! (hich (e are not able to deny)9<G@= Since the Lata$a verses are often incomprehensible (ithout the prose commentary, it is difficult to see ho( they could predate the prose) he prose, ho(ever, (ould predate the fifth century commentary into (hich it (as translated and collected) he origin of these verses, then, remains indeterminate) -t is sometimes thought that since these three te'ts .. Udana, -tivutta$a, Lata$a .. are mentioned as part of the ninefold description of te'ts 1see above4 that they must be, li$e the Sutta Nipata, part of 9the oldest layer9 of te'ts that (e no( have; but it is more reasonable to suggest that they (ere so named because the ninefold description (as already in e'istence) he other eight te'ts that are today included (ithin the 2hudda$a Ni$aya are generally regarded as late additions, and need not be discussed) he formation of this collection probably arose during the century bet(een the t(o %ouncils rather than (ith the Second %ouncil itself: such developments need time to generate strength and achieve general acceptance) By the time the %ouncil assembled, the force of opinion (ould have already been in favour of including this ne( collection in the %anon: the %ouncil!s function herein (ould have been to ratify and reinforce this consensus and, no doubt, to decide upon its organi>ational details) hey (ould also have had a hand in deciding final organisational details for the other Ni$ayas and for the Vinaya) -t (as possibly at this time, for e'ample, that 7) 56 .. see Preface, paragraph si' .. (as e'panded to its present form, or at least a previous e'pansion (as at this time ratified, by including passages ta$en from the other parts of the Ni$ayas) "nd, too, those fe( te'ts, the 9si' percent9 (hich had been added to their collections by the various bhanakas, (ould have been cast no( into their final forms)<GB= -t needed to be done, for the mon$s of the Vesali company, along (ith their supporters, seem 1according to a non.%anonical te't, the 7ipavamsa, vv) B@ff)4 to have refused to accept the ruling of the %ouncil, brea$ing a(ay and forming their o(n council, (herein they re.arranged and, it seems, added to the te'ts to suit their o(n purposes) 7uring the ne't @CD years this company split up and resplintered into numerous factions, each having evolved its o(n set of doctrines and disciplinary codes)<GG= None of these te'ts have survived: again, as (ith Venerable Purana, (e learn the survival.value of organi>ation)<GC= he fact that the Suttas

and Vinaya<G6= have survived as coherent entities can no( be seen to be itself strong evidence that they have survived unchanged)

C$nclusi$ns /ith the closing of the Second %ouncil (e have no further %anonical information regarding the history of the Suttas) Eleanings from later te'ts inform us that a hird %ouncil (as held in the time of 2ing "so$a, at (hich meeting the rift (hich had opened up more than a century earlier, (ith the Second %ouncil, no( (idened and variant forms of doctrine began to emerge (hich eventually formed (hat is no( $no(n as 3ahayana) he four Ni$ayas (ere left unchanged (hile the 2hudda$a Ni$aya (as cast essentially into the form in (hich (e no( have it) 1" fe( of the very late additions to this collection .. notably the Buddhavamsa .. appear to have undergone slight further editing, perhaps at the #ourth %ouncil) :n this, see "di$aram!s lucid, though technical, !arly History of "uddhism in #eylon 1Eunasena, %olombo, 5JG64, p) BC)4) "lso, missions (ere sent to many countries and the eaching (as successfully transplanted in all directions) :f particular note, the :rder (as established in %eylon from (hence came many of the later reports and (hich became the center for study, preservation and practice of the Pali Suttas for many centuries) "bout GCD years after the Buddha a famine struc$ %eylon) #or t(elve years food (as so scarce that the :rder of mon$s (as almost decimated partly, (e are told, due to some of the laity turning to cannibalism) Some of the Suttas (ere in danger of being lost) 3on$s (ho (ere too (ea$ to stand rehearsed the te'ts (here they lay) /hen at last the famine ended, it (as reali>ed that the te'ts needed to be put into (riting for their greater protection)<GK= Not only the famine but .. according to "di$eram 1op$ cit$, p) KJ4 .. the danger of fre+uent invasions from South -ndia, the entry into the :rder of irresponsible and irreligious people 1on (hich point see 3ahavamsa BB,5D54, and the fic$le favour of $ings also played a part in this decision) "ccordingly, a #ourth %ouncil (as convened, (herein this (as accomplished) -n the centuries after this %ouncil the te'ts continued to be preserved as much by recital as by manuscript, for ma$ing even one hand(ritten copy of the five Ni$ayas, of the Vinaya, and of all the material that had evolved and survived alongside them, the "bhidhamma, the %ommentaries, the %hronicles, and so forth, (ould have been a labour of many years and then the manuscript had to be

preserved against the manifold dangers of destruction) But by this time the Suttas (ere firmly embedded in the minds of those (ho learned them as being sacred and unalterable by as much as a single syllable) he dangers (e have seen to be inherent in an open %anon (ere long since past) -t (as no longer possible for additional material to be added to the te'ts) here still remained the dangers of accidental alteration 1copyists! errors, etc: see previous footnote4 and of loss due to the disappearance of companies and sometimes the decline of the :rder) /e need not discuss these in any detail) /e $no( (hat variations e'ist in manuscripts that (ere separated from each other by thousands of miles and hundreds of years, and (e are confident that these differences are not significant) "lthough (e cannot assert definitely that no material (as lost, at most only a small amount could have disappeared (ithout our $no(ing of it through the various records that (ere made relating to the te'ts, some of (hich, such as the "so$an edicts (ere engraved in stone) /e can accept that the te'ts survived, at least for the most part, and (ith no more than insignificant changes, to the present, (eathering various (orldly vicissitudes (hich (e need not trace; for (e have no( e'plored the origin of the Suttas and discovered ho( it is that these Suttas (hich (e have today can be reliably regarded as being the actual eaching of Eotama Buddha) Ne't Section O Bac$ to %ontents #$$tn$tes: (*& Since this evidence .. 9:ne time Venerable so.and.so d(elt at)))9 .. once noted seems obvious, it may be (ondered (hy it has been unreported until no() hat the %ommentaries should not remar$ upon it is not remar$able, not only because they lac$ed in the #ifth %entury ")7) the scholarly apparatus available today .. (ord. and name.dictionaries, concordances, inde'es, etc) and of course printed editions of the te'ts, annotated and convenient to use .. but also because -ndia has been historically unhistorical.minded 1see footnote 5C4: a concern (ith dates has traditionally been regarded as secondary to the act of placing one!s faith in a teaching) ,istorical +uestions are a particularly /estern concern) "s to (hy, therefore, modern scholars have failed to note this evidence, it may be $indest to allo( each reader to form his o(n judgement) <Bac$ to te't= (.& " half do>en or so of these later discourses spea$ only of 9a certain 1unnamed4 mon$,9 or 9a group of mon$s)9 Naturally in these cases (e cannot $no( definitely

that the mon$s (ere contemporaries of the Buddha) ,o(ever, there is no reason to suppose other(ise: (e find other te'ts (herein unnamed mon$s converse (ith the Buddha) here are another half.do>en or so Suttas involving mon$s (ho are mentioned no(here else in the %anon and (hose generation therefore cannot be established e'cept by reference to post.%anonical (or$s) "gain, this is a feature found in some Suttas that are not later additions) "t any rate, (e (ould e'pect that (ere there any Suttas involving second generation mon$s, at least some of those mon$s (ould have been (ell.$no(n leaders of companies, not the obscure or unnamed) No discourses involving nuns, it seems, are later additions) <Bac$ to te't= (/& :ne of these mon$s, Venerable Sabba$ami, has some verses 1GCB.CH4 in the heragatha of the 2hudda$a Ni$aya 1see belo(4 .. appropriately enough, on the subject of sensuality 1kama4) ,e is specifically identified in the report of the Second %ouncil as being the oldest mon$ in the (orld, 5@D years of age, and as having been a pupil of Venerable "nanda) /esterners sometimes e'press surprise, or more than surprise, at the number of mon$s reported to have lived to e'treme old age) ,o(ever, it is recogni>ed that the +ualities that are co.adjuncts of mental calmness such as lac$ of bodily stress, etc) contribute to longevity; and since it is the business of mon$s to cultivate calmness, though not for the sa$e of long life, it is to be e'pected that mon$s (ould outlive the general populace) he Suttas tell us .. 7h) 5DJ, etc) .. that longevity is also lin$ed to respect for one!s elders) ,o(ever, since this (ould not seem to be statistically +uantifiable it is unli$ely that /estern medical science (ill ever be in a position either to confirm or disprove this thesis) <Bac$ to te't= (0& Surprise is sometimes e'pressed at the +uantity of verse in the five Ni$ayas) But verse not only has obvious mnemonic value (hereby the compilers (ould give it priority over prose passages, but less obviously but more importantly it has great inspirational value) -t is sometimes suggested that not only (as verse seldom spo$en spontaneously as the te'ts often report, but also that much of it 9must have been9 created in a later, more literate time) Such is the prejudice of a prosaic era; but a more poetic age .. 0li>abethan 0ngland, for e'ample .. (ould not have shared this misconception) <Bac$ to te't= (1& "lthough (e are unable to cite an e'ample of such a referring Sutta (hich does not seem to be a later addition, at least one such te't .. S) 8&V-,B 1iv,@H6.K4 .. (as evidently not a later creation, but (as spo$en during the Buddha!s lifetime) <Bac$ to te't=

)2& "s at, e)g), 3ahavagga V,5B,J 1i,5JC.64 I Ud) V,6 1CJ4, at S) 8--,B5 1ii,GK.CD4, at ") ---,B@ 1i,5BB.G4, etc) he above e'amples all refer to or +uote from passages found today in the Sutta Nipata of the 2hudda$a Ni$aya) <Bac$ to te't= )%& his notion of older and younger layers of te't assumes, contrary to the evidence, that the first four Ni$ayas gre( over a period of centuries by a process of heterogeneous accretion until they reached their present form) "s such, it is part of the syncretistic approach (hich (e have already rejected) %ertainly some discourses are older than others inasmuch as they did not all appear simultaneously) :ther than the fe( e'ceptions already discussed, it too$ about forty.five years for them to evolve; and it should be no great surprise that various individuals, including the Buddha, might, on occasion, refer to or even +uote from (hat had already been said) <Bac$ to te't= )'& Venerable "ggamahapandita ") P) Buddhadatta 3ahathera, on p) @6D of his collection of monographs, #orrections of %eiger's &ahavamsa !tc$ 1"mbalangoda, %eylon, 5JCK4) <Bac$ to te't= )(& hat the (elfth 2handha$a account of this %ouncil ma$es no mention (hatsoever of a recitation of the Suttas, nor any decisions as to the fifth Ni$aya, nor the placement of later additions (ithin the four Ni$ayas, does not mean that they (ere not done then) #irst, the report as given omits a number of other important details as (ell, such as the refusal of the Vesali company to accept the %ouncil!s decisions and to abandon their practices) Second, it (ould be e'pected by all mon$s as a matter of course that (henever a body of mon$s met, they (ould revie( their te'ts in order to prevent or discover variances) hird, the purpose of the account (as to condemn the Vesali mon$s) he full list of ten points is censured, item by item, three times in the space of fifteen pages and denounced as a (hole many times more) o have reported on other matters (ould have diluted the force of the anathemati>ation) #inally, in the Ba$$ula Sutta 1discussed above4 a phrase is inserted .. 9inasmuch as for eighty years Venerable Ba$$ula has)))9 .. after each statement of Venerable Ba$$ula!s achievements) his phrase 1according to the %ommentary: 3") iv,5JB4 (as inserted by the elders (ho made the recension of the eaching) /e are not told (hich elders, but from our o(n e'amination (e can see clearly that it (ould have had to have been the elders of this Second %ouncil) <Bac$ to te't= ))& Some scholars might +uestion the identification of the Vesali company (ith the progenitors of the splinter groups or suggest, more modestly, that only some of these sects evolved from the Vesali mon$s, the remainder brea$ing a(ay from the

%ouncils! lineage at later dates) hese are scholarly issues (hich it (ould be out of place to discuss here) Perhaps the fullest discussion, together (ith informative charts, is to be found in the Prefatory Notes to the "ungMRhys 7avids translation of the 2atha Vatthu 1'oints of #ontroversy, Pali e't Society, &ondon, 5J5C4) <Bac$ to te't= )*& hough these te'ts have not survived as collections, yet scattered fragments have been rediscovered in Sans$rit, and more coherent units have been preserved in %hinese and ibetan translations) <Bac$ to te't= ).& he evolution of the Vinaya is parallel to that of the Suttas) " description of its evolution (ould be more comple', partly due to the need to consider (hat is no(adays $no(n as the 9old commentary9; but it (ould follo( the same lines of reasoning used herein; and it (ould arrive at the same conclusions: li$e the four Ni$ayas, the Vinaya achieved essentially its final form during the first century follo(ing the Buddha) he +uestion of (hen the 9old commentary9 came to be embedded in the te't, and of ho( the Parivara became semi.attached to the Vinaya proper need not concern us) #or a short note on this subject, see the "ppendi') <Bac$ to te't= )/& "lthough (riting had been $no(n in -ndia for perhaps t(o centuries before the time of the Buddha, apparently the technology of paper and in$ (as as yet undeveloped) 3essages, letters and the li$e might have been scratched onto the smooth underside of bar$, then rubbed (ith blac$ oil to 9in$9 the (riting, but no (ay had then been found to preserve for long (hat (as thus mar$ed) No clay tablets have been found from this era, although t(o bric$ inscriptions of a Sans$rit Sutra, dating some centuries after the Buddha, have been found at Nalanda: !pigraphia (ndica 88-, pp) 5KK.JJ) /ell before the time of the famine in %eylon it had been discovered that (hen young ola leaves, scraped and boiled, (ere mar$ed (ith treated carbon blac$, the (riting produced could be legibly preserved for many years) :nly then did recording become (orth the effort involved) he results, ho(ever, are not entirely in favour of the (ritten record) he critical editions of the te'ts strongly suggest that almost all the variant readings that are noted therein are the result of copyists! errors) Very rarely do these variant readings ma$e a difference in meaning; usually it is a matter of a (ord being added or dropped, or differences as regards abridgement, spelling, and the li$e) Ch$$sing a Standard

-n spite of all this there are still those (ho (ill insist that the four Ni$ayas as (e have them contain material that, though in the guise of earlier te'ts, are, in fact, later additions)<GH= hough fe(, perhaps, (ill go so far as to charge the mon$s (ith unscrupulous mendacity,<GJ= some (ill nevertheless reject many te'ts as 9not original Buddhism)9 heir reason for doing so is, almost al(ays, a personal disagreement (ith the descriptions or instructions found therein) hey (ill often conceal this fact (ith phrases li$e 9historical doubts9, but in the end it comes do(n to their un(illingness to believe that a #ully "(a$ened :ne could possibly teach anything that they themselves did not agree (ith) /e do not entertain such notions, for (e have not forgotten that (e started out by ac$no(ledging our need for guidance, and (e do not presume to $no( as (ell as 1or even better than4 our guide) 1See Ud) KK 1JD.54)4 But even so it must be admitted that anyone, and particularly /esterners, coming fresh to this eaching (ill almost certainly discover discourses containing material that sounds, to their contemporary ears, improbable) his is a real problem for many ne(comers; for it is li$ely that they (ill encounter approaches and attitudes (hich are unfamiliar) Until one has mastered the unsurpassable art of ac+uiescence 1khanti4, (ithout (hich learning is impossible, there (ill naturally be resistance to (hat demands of us that (e surrender those notions and conceits (hich (e hold most dear) his is the difficult part of the eaching, and to pretend other(ise (ould be to do a disservice to both the eaching and the in+uirer) "nd among the first resistances to arise no(adays (ill be those involving differences in (orld vie(s) Since the eaching comes to us embedded (ithin a cultural conte't that is in some (ays alien to the vie(point (ith (hich (e are on comfortable and familiar terms, it is natural that (e congratulate ourselves for being so much more advanced) -t can be profoundly difficult to recogni>e that the truths offered by our o(n culture are neither eternal nor absolute, and need not be valued any more highly than other vie(points) "n analogy: Suppose it (as said that there e'ist in this very (orld invisible beings .. countless millions of them .. (hich have the po(er to affect our (elfare) Some of them are helpful, but others, unfortunately, cause only trouble and illness) ,o(ever, there are certain people (ho (ear special costumes and (ho possess special and po(erful means (hereby they can actually see these invisible beings) 3oreover, they have devised special po(ders and potions by means of (hich they can counteract the baneful influence of the harmful beings) rue or false* 3ost /esterners have derided this notion, sometimes vehemently, (ith snorts and sighs aplenty) But suppose no( it (ere added that these invisible beings are called 9germs9 and 9viruses9 and that they have been investigated by (hite.coated

laboratory scientists (ho possess electron microscopes, and (ho have discovered antibiotics and other drugs) 9:h, but that!s different?9 many (ill reply; and indeed it is) But (hat e'actly is the difference* &anguage, certainly; but beyond that there is also a difference in the conceptual imagery used to account for the e'perience of illness) he imagery and vocabulary that are familiar are accepted (hile (hat is strange is rejected) /e do not (ish to suggest by this analogy that the only difficulties in understanding the Buddha!s eaching are linguistic or cultural: there is, beyond them, the personal difficulty, the difficulty (hich started us on our +uest) /e need to assert, cherish, and develop the vie( that the real difficulty is our o(n failure to see, as they really are, that craving and conceit (hich are themselves the condition for our o(n failure to see, as they really are, that craving and conceit)))<CD= But before ever coming tothat difficulty a ne(comer may find himself faced (ith thorny doubts, and he may not see the source of the thorns) ,e may assert that it rains due to appropriate meteorological conditions, and scoff at the Suttas! suggestion that it rains because the rain gods are active 1") V,5JK 1iii,@GB44) "fter all, (ho has ever seen a rain god* But (ho has ever seen a meteorological condition* he difficulty may be illustrated by an e'ample from the author!s o(n e'perience) /hen - first began to in+uire seriously into the Buddha!s eaching, - found .. in addition to much that impressed me most favourably .. a discourse (hose topic (as 9the thirty.t(o mar$s of a great man9 and (hose point 1as - too$ it4 (as that these mar$s (ere physical and that the Buddha had such mar$s, ergohe (as a great man) %oming from a rationalistic tradition, - (as unable to accept this) -t approached deification or (orse, and seemed totally incompatible (ith the spirit of investigation that pervaded those Suttas that had most impressed me) Besides, some of these mar$s .. projecting heels, an$les mid(ay in the legs, legs li$e an antelope!s, no hollo( bet(een the shoulders, (hite hair gro(ing bet(een the eyes, head shaped li$e a turban, etc) .. seemed +uite simply frea$ish) - as$ed several of the other young /estern mon$s, (ho confessed that they, too, could not accept this discourse) 9,ere,9 - then decided, 9is an obvious case of a later addition: this Sutta had to be invented by those (ho had never seen the Buddha)9 his vie( (as confirmed (hen - noticed, in the Samannaphala Sutta of the 7igha that (hen 2ing "jatasattu visited the Buddha for the first and only recorded time, as he approached the pavilion (here the company of mon$s sat, he as$ed his physician (hich one of the mon$s (as the Buddha 1i,CD4, and he (as told that the

Buddha (as the one sitting against the middle pillar) 9,ad the Buddha really been endo(ed (ith those peculiar, alien, and odious mar$s,9 - reasoned, 9the $ing (ould not have had to as$ such a +uestion) But even if he did as$, then the obvious ans(er to be given (ould have been that the Buddha (as !that funny.loo$ing fello( in the middle!)9 "nd then - read the 7hatuvibhanga Sutta, 3) 5GD, (herein it is told ho( the Buddha, travelling alone, put up one night side by side (ith a mon$ (ho told him that he 1the mon$4 (as on his (ay to meet the Buddha for the first time) :nly after hearing a teaching did this mon$ reali>e, from the profundity of the discourse, that his companion had to be the Buddha himself) 9)urely,9 decided, 9if the Buddha had been endo(ed (ith those absurd mar$s, this mon$ (ould have $no(n at once (ho his companion (as)9 "nd so - set aside that discourse on the thirty.t(o mar$s, and all (as (ell, until ))) - discoveredanother Sutta on the same subject, and then another, and another, and finally - reali>ed 1(ith some dismay4 that the subject (as dealt (ith, sometimes more than once, in every Ni$aya e'cept the Samyutta) ,ad it appeared only once, or maybe t(ice, - could have set it aside as an oddity and forgotten about it; but here it (as popping up all over the place? 3y appreciation of the other discourses had been gro(ing as their methodology became gradually more familiar and comfortable; but no( my confidence in the authenticity of the collection as a (hole (as sha$en) /hat (as - to do* 9&eave it alone,9 - (as advised) 9Use the Suttas for (hat they!re for: right.vie( guidance) here!s no Sutta that teaches the e'istence of a permanent condition, or of a pleasurable condition, or of anything that can be ta$en as self) 7on!t reject (hat!s precious just because you thin$ you see a fe( (rin$les in it)9 "nd so for many years - did my best to ignore those 9thirty.t(o mar$s9 discourses and tried to ma$e use of (hat (as manifestly valuable) 7uring those years - came to a gro(ing understanding of the importance of putting trust in one!s teacher 1see note Cb4 and a gro(ing conviction that 9they (ho have faith in the Buddha have faith in the highest: they (ho have faith in the highest have the highest results)9 .. ") -V,BG 1ii,BG4 he Buddha $ne( that those (ho, trusting his advice, lived in accordance (ith it (ould do themselves the most good and therefore, (ith no conceit (hatsoever, out of compassion for others, he did and said that (hich (ould achieve this end) 0veryone can and does change his appearance to some e'tent, as the situation re+uires) #or e'ample, (hen called in by the boss for a tongue.lashing, one may +uite literally ma$e oneself smaller by hunching the shoulders, etc), perhaps

(ithout even being a(are of it; but (hen sho(ing off before friends one may 9(al$ tall9) "nyone (ho has practised meditation even to a modest e'tent is li$ely to come to an appreciation of the enormous po(ers that are available to one proficient in advanced levels of meditation) -t becomes an easy matter to accept that the Buddha, or for that matter anyone meditatively advanced, even one (ho has not achieved enlightenment .. 7evadatta, for e'ample, could alter his appearance to a far greater e'tent than most people, even to the e'tent of appearing (ith all thirty.t(o mar$s) hese mar$, each of those discourses tells us, belong to the lore of the brahmana caste) he Suttas, it seems, never assert the correctness of this lore; nor do they digress into a refutation of it) -n each case a brahmana came to the Buddha intent upon judging the Buddha!s (orth as a teacher by (hether he had these mar$s)<C5= 2no(ing that appearances don!t matter but that rightly.placed confidence is of great value, the Buddha, it (ould seem, let those brahmanas see (hat (ould convince them of the truth that he is the 9incomparable trainer of men to be tamed9 and thereby (on them over to acceptance of right conduct and, in some instances, to enlightenment: e)g) the brahmana Po$$harasadi of the "mbattha Sutta, 7) B) - am still not particularly impressed that the Buddha could display those thirty.t(o mar$s that the brahmanas believed to be the signs of a great man, for - suspect that even 7evadatta could have done so; but these Suttas (ere not addressed to me) hey (ere intended to inspire faith in the brahmanas, (ho believed in their lore as (e do in ours) 3ore impressive is the display of (isdom that uses, rather than disputes (ith, cultural limitations to lead one to (hat transcends such limitations) still have no special use in my o(n practice for those 9thirty.t(o mar$s9 Suttas, nor for others (hich, it seems, are also intended for those (ith a different sensibility .. e)g) 7) 5G on previous Buddhas and the birth of Bodhisattas; 3) 5@J on hell.realms and (orld.monarchs .. but they are no longer a basis for doubt and scepticism, or a barrier to ac+uiescence in (hat is beneficial)<C@= he lesson being, that it is not an act of (isdom to judge and reject discourses on the basis of personal preference or belief 1ref) the 2alama Sutta, ") ---,6C 1i,5HH.JB44, for if (e do so, (e then lose the possibility of transcending those preferences and beliefs) -s it possible, then, to set forth a reasonable standard (hereby, (hen (e find ourselves encountering one of those 9thorny barriers,9 (e can act reasonably* Perhaps the follo(ing (ill be relevant) ,aving already ac+uired an overvie( of the Suttas .. as one might inspect the general contours of a road map prior to setting out on a journey, (ithout e'cessive

concern for specific details .. (e (ill have noticed that certain passages are found repeatedly, (ith little variation, throughout the four Ni$ayas) -f (e have the Buddha!s eaching at all, then surely (e have it here: it (ould be the (ildest irresponsibility to assume that the gist of the eaching is found only outside these core te'ts) Not only must (e accept them as authentic, but also as fundamental, of the essence, for (hy else (ould they be so often repeated* hese te'ts can be trusted as being that right.vie( guidance (e have been see$ing) Should any of these oft.repeated discourses seem discrepant (ith one another or (ith our o(n vie(s, then this is evidence that there is a difficulty in our o(n understanding (hich needs to be uncovered and resolved or abandoned) /e should be in no rush to judge) hese eachings cannot be understood e'cept from their o(n point of vie(, and coming to understand that point of vie( is a gro(th that ta$es, usually, more time than (e thin$ it (ill) "nd (e should be careful to ta$e the Suttas +uite literally, as saying (hat they mean and meaning (hat they say) hey spea$ often of $no(ing both the letter and the spirit; no(here do they advise an interpretive approach) /e need to change ourselves, not the (orld, and the (orld includes the Suttas) o interpret is still to follo( our o(n notions, rather than right.vie( guidance) -ndeed, to interpret is to deny 19)))(hen he says black (hat he really means is)))9 4) /ith this bac$ground established, then those discourses (hich are found but once or t(ice can be considered) he bul$ of them (ill present no difficulty) hey (ill be seen to be in accordance (ith the root.te'ts, being variations or e'pansions on a theme, as too (ill those te'ts (hich (e have identified as later additions to the four Ni$ayas) But should any of them seem to be in contradiction (ith one!s o(n understanding, then there is an opportunity to e'amine that understanding, to discover (hat needs to be surrendered)<CB= ,o(ever, if one is not yet at a stage of development (here such ac+uiescence is possible, then that Sutta can be set aside, (hich is not to say rejected, until a time (hen understanding and calmness have been developed sufficiently so that a reconsideration of the te't (ill be useful) By follo(ing such a practice one can come to $no( that, indeed, this eaching is (ell. e'pounded, immediate, non.temporal, evident, leading, to be $no(n individually by the (ise) /e set out in search of a guide (hereby (e could find the (ay to resolve the root. problem of our personal e'istence) /e have discovered that the eaching of a #ully "(a$ened :ne is at hand, and that there is reason to trust, not reason to doubt, that eaching) /hat remains is to put that eaching to use, ma$e it a personal reality) Restraint, renunciation and purification are difficult, not easy) But

indulgence, attachment and defilements can never lead to happiness and peace) /hat needs to be done is clear) /e have reached an end of our in+uiry ready, at last, to begin) Ne't Section O Bac$ to %ontents #$$tn$tes: )0& 0arly and later Sans$rit Sutras of 3ahayana as (ell a ibetan scriptures and other late traditions are full of this) hose (ho (ish to defend these traditions have been $no(n to assume +uite gratuitously that since these other traditions are manifestly full of invented material that the Pali Suttas must be also) But if the preceding account is largely correct, then this vie( must be erroneous) -f such a vie( is nevertheless insisted upon, then its proponents (ould need to offer a description of the evolution of the Pali Suttas demonstrating a reasonable and human se+uence alternative to the one offered herein) Such an account (ould have to be in accord not only (ith reason but (ith the $no(n facts) 0ven if such an account (ere made, it could be at best an alternative interpretation, in no (ay devaluing (hat has been presented here; but to our $no(ledge such a description has never even been offered) <Bac$ to te't= )1& o such a distasteful charge there can 1and should4 be no reply 1see ") -V,G@ 1ii,G644, for it is a product of the same attitude (hich see$s to understand the (orld in terms of conspiracies) -f dishonesty is assumed then 9evidence9 (ill inevitably be 9discovered9 to confirm the assumption) he only (ay to resolve such a dilemma is to e'plore carefully the need to ma$e the assumption in the first place) <Bac$ to te't= *2& 9-gnorance, mon$, is the one thing (ith a mon$!s elimination of (hich ignorance is eliminated and gnosis arises)9 .. S) 888V,KJ 1iv,CD4 <Bac$ to te't= *%& -n the Brahmayu Sutta, 3) J5 1ii,5BB.G64, after the mar$s are displayed, then additionally the Buddha!s conduct is held up to close critical scrutiny over an e'tended period of time before he is finally ac$no(ledged to be a 9great man)9 <Bac$ to te't= *'& his account of these 9thirty.t(o mar$s9 Suttas (ill probably satisfy those (ho come to the eaching from a rationalistic culture; but there may (ell be other e'planations, suited to those (ith a different bac$ground, no less valid than (hat is

offered here) /hatever increases faith in right.vie( guidance is proper) 9 hey (ho have faith in the noble eightfold path have faith in the highest) hey (ho have faith in the highest have the highest results)9 .. ") -V,CG 1ii,BG4 ranslated in the WheelNo) H) <Bac$ to te't= *(& :n this point, see the 7ighana$ha Sutta, 3) KG 1i,GJK.CD54, and the %inta Sutta, S) &V,G5 1v,GG6.H4) A33endi4 "t the beginning of the century, (hen the Buddha!s eaching had only recently come to (idespread notice in the /est, many +uestions (ere yet unsettled) "lthough it (as already recogni>ed e'cept, perhaps, among those most hostile, that the Buddha (as rather more than a primitive sun.myth, yet many other mista$en ideas (ere being put for(ard to e'plain, or to e'plain a(ay, the Buddha and his eaching) Some of these notions sound today +uite as naive as the sun.myth theory: but others, despite the evidence, continue to be raised, hence the preceding essay) 7octrinal matters aside, the most fundamental of those concern the place of Pali as a language in -ndian history and thought, and the dates of composition and compilation of the various %anonical te'ts) Prof) ) /) Rhys 7avids .. un+uestionably the most influential of the early scholars concerned (ith Buddhism .. dealt (ith these +uestions at length in various articles and boo$s, the most comprehensive and easily available of (hich is "uddhist (ndia) Published in 5JDB, although it is touched both by a lingering Victorian ethnocentricism and, doctrinal matters aside, by some lesser judgements since demonstrated to be erroneous, it is nevertheless the earliest general statement of (hat is, in the main, the accepted vie( on these +uestions today) "lthough a scholarly e'amination of these +uestions (ill never yield an understanding of the eaching, yet mista$en notions may (ell be an obstacle to comprehension) Some, therefore, (ill find a certain amount of investigation into these points to be of value) /hile the +uestion of the place of Pali as a language and of the date of the Vinaya have not been part of our in+uiry, yet it may be pertinent to +uote briefly on these subjects) :n the first point, Rhys 7avids concludes that there e'isted at the time of the Buddha 9a language common among the cultured laity ))) (hich bore to the local dialect much the same relation as the 0nglish of &ondon, in Sha$espeare!s time, bore to the various dialects spo$en in Somersetshire, For$shire, and 0sse'9; that this 9conversational dialect9 (as in use 9not only throughout the 2osala

dominions, but east and (est from 7elhi to Patna, and north and south from Savatthi to "vanti9; and that on this dialect (as based 93iddle ,igh -ndian, Pali, the literary language)9<5= " scholarly debate has been in progress for the last fifty years 1(ith no end in sight4 challenging and defending this judgement) -t should be noted, then, that even a 9(orst.case scenario,9 namely, a conclusive and convincing demonstration that Pali (as not the language spo$en by the Buddha 1but see 7) 56 1ii,5DH44, (ould not re+uire us to change anything in this essay) #or if, as some contend, Pali is a (estern Pra$rit (hile the Buddha spo$e an 0astern dialect, all that (ould be demonstrated is that the final editorial (or$ on the te'ts (as done by mon$s (ho hailed from (estern -ndia) -n this regard (e should note that the account of the Second %ouncil in the Vinaya repeatedly describes the orthodo' mon$s as being from the (est, and the heretics as being from the east) "nd if, as others contend, Pali as (e no( have it postdates the Buddha by a century or more, then all that (ould be demonstrated thereby is that at the Second %ouncil 1and, for the 2hudda$a, the hird4 the decision (as made to 9moderni>e9 the language)<@= here (ould be in neither case any need to +uestion the authenticity of the eaching as (e have it) :n the second point (e may turn to Rhys 7avid!s History and *iterature of "uddhism 1the 9"merican &ectures94 of 5HJ6 (herein, early in &ecture V-, he remar$s: ))) the first disruption in the :rder too$ place ))) on matters connected (ith the regulation of the :rder itself) :ne hundred years after the death of the Buddha, according to the oldest account ))) there arose a certain party in the :rder (hich proclaimed and practised a loosening of the rules in ten particulars ))) o put and end to the disputes upon these points, a %ouncil of the leading members of the :rder (as held at Vesali and the heretical opinions (ere condemned) he long.continued struggle on the +uestion .. as important for the history of Buddhism as the "rian controversy for that of %hristianity .. agitated the (hole Buddhist (orld to its very center ))) No( the ten indulgences are each summed up in a single (ord: and these (ords are, each and all of them, conspicuous by their absence from the Boo$s on the la(s and regulations of the :rder included in the canon 1i)e) the Vinaya4, e'cept that they appear in an historical account added +uite evidently as an appendi' 1i)e) the (elfth 2handha$a, discussed in our essay4, to the collection of treatises, or

2handha$as ))) his fact is of the very greatest importance in determining the date at (hich those 2handha$as must have been composed) he ten points in dispute (ere all matters of ecclesiastical la() hey all related to observances of the Brotherhood) -s it probable that, in a set of rules and treatises (hich see$ to set forth, do(n to the minutest detail, and even (ith hair.splitting diffuseness, all that has any relation to the daily life of the Brethren and the regulation of the Buddhist :rder .. is it probable that, in such a collection, if, (hen it (as compiled, the struggle on these ten points had already burst into flame, there should be no reference at all, even in interpolations, to any one of these ten disputes* hat the difference of opinion on each of the ten points remains altogether unnoticed in that part of the rules and treatises (here, in the natural order of things, it (ould obviously be referred to .. that the rules are not in any (ay altered to cover, or to suggest, any decision on the points in dispute, .. and that they are mentioned only in an appendi' 1I the (elfth 2handha$a4, (here the %ouncil held to decide them is described, sho(s clearly that the rules and treatises, as (e have them, must have been put together before the time (hen the %ouncil of Vesali 1I the Second %ouncil4 (as held) &astly, on the +uestion (hich has concerned us at length .. the date of the Suttas .. (e offer relevant e'cerpts from %hapter 8 of "uddhist (ndia: ))) "s to the age of the Buddhist canonical boo$s, the best evidence is the contents of the boo$s themselves .. the sort of (ords they use, the style in (hich they are composed, the ideas they e'press) :bjection, it is true, has recently been raised against the use of such internal evidence) "nd the objection is valid if it be urged, not against the general principle of the use of such evidence, but against the (rong use of it) /e find, for instance, that Phallus.(orship is often mentioned, +uite as a matter of course, in the 3ahabharata, as if it had al(ays been common every(here throughout Northern -ndia) -n the Ni$ayas, though they mention all sorts of (hat the Buddhists regarded as foolish or superstitious forms of (orship, this particular $ind, Siva.(orship under the form of the &inga, is not even once referred to) he 3ahabharata mentions the "tharva Veda, and ta$es it as a matter of course, as if it (ere an idea generally current, that it (as a Veda the fourth Veda) he Ni$ayas constantly mention the three others, but never the "tharva) Both cases are interesting) But before dra(ing the conclusion that, therefore the Ni$ayas, as (e have them, are older than the e'isting te't of the 3ahabharata, (e should (ant a very much larger number of such cases, all tending the same (ay, and also the certainty that there (ere no cases of an opposite tendency that could not other(ise be e'plained)

:n the other hand, suppose a 3S) (ere discovered containing, in the same hand(riting, copies of Bacon!s !ssays and of ,ume!s !ssay, (ith nothing to sho( (hen, or by (hom, they (ere (ritten; and that (e $ne( nothing at all other(ise about the matter) Still (e should $no(, (ith absolute certainty, (hich (as relatively the older of the t(o; and should be able to determine, (ithin a +uite short period, the actual date of each of the t(o (or$s) he evidence (ould be irresistible because it (ould consist of a very large number of minute points of language, of style, and, above all, of ideas e'pressed, all tending in the same direction) his is the sort of internal evidence that (e have before us in the Pali boo$s) "ny one (ho habitually reads Pali (ould $no( at once that the Ni$ayas are older than the 7hamma Sangani; that both are older than the 2atha Vatthu; that all three are older than the 3ilinda) "nd the Pali scholars most competent to judge are +uite unanimous on the point, and on the general position of the Pali literature in the history of literature in -ndia) But this sort of evidence can appeal, of course, only to those familiar (ith the language and (ith the ideas) o those (ho are not, the follo(ing points may be suggestive: :n the monuments of the third century B)%) (e find the names of donors of different parts of the building inscribed on those parts 1pillars, rails, and bas. reliefs4) /hen the names are common ones, certain epithets are added, to distinguish the donors from other persons bearing the same name) Such epithets are either local 1as (e might say, Lohn of /inchester4 or they specify an occupation 1as (e might say, Lohn the carpenter, or Lohn the cler$4 or are other(ise distinctive) "mong these epithets have been found the follo(ing: 5) +hamma-kathika) .. 9Preacher of the system9 1the 7hamma4 .. the 9System9 being a technical term in the Buddhist schools to signify the philosophical and ethical doctrine as distinguished from the Vinaya, the Rules of the :rder) @) 'etakin) ..9:ne (ho had 1that is, $ne( by heart4 the Pita$a)9 he Pita$a<B= is the traditional statements of Buddhist doctrine as contained in the Sutta Pita$a 1I the five Ni$ayas4) he (ord means bas$et, and, as a technical term applied to a part of their literature, it is used e'clusively by the Buddhists) B) )uttantika) .. 9" man (ho $no(s a Suttanta 1I Sutta4 by heart)9

G) )uttantakini) .. 9" (oman (ho $no(s a Suttanta by heart)9 Suttanta is, again, a technical term used e'clusively of certain portions of the Buddhist canonical boo$s, more especially of the 7ialogues))))<G= C) 'anca-nekayika) .. 9:ne (ho $no(s the #ive Ni$ayas by heart)9 he five Ni$ayas, or 9%ollections,9 as a technical term used of literary (or$s, is applied to the canonical Buddhist te'ts, and to them only)))) he e'pressions here e'plained are used on Buddhist monuments and refer to Buddhist boo$s) hey are conclusive proof that some time before the date of the inscriptions 1that is, roughly spea$ing, before the time of "so$a4, there (as a Buddhist literature in North -ndia, (here the inscriptions are found) "nd further, that that literature then had divisions $no(n by the technical names of Pita$a, Ni$aya, and Suttanta, and that the number of Ni$ayas then in e'istence (as five) But this is not all) "so$a, in his Bhabra 0dict, addressed to the Buddhist :rder 1the Sangha4, recommends to the Brethren and Sisters of the :rder, and to the lay disciples of either se', fre+uently to hear 1that is to learn by heart4 and to meditate upon, certain selected passages) "nd of these he, most fortunately, gives the names) hey are as follo(s: ,riya-vasani 1no( found in the 7igha Ni$aya, in the portion called the Sangiti Suttanta4) ,nagata-bhayani 1no( found in the "nguttara Ni$aya, vol) iii, pp) 5DC.5DH4) &uni %atha 1no( found in the Sutta Nipata, verses @D6.@@D4) &oneyya )utta 1no( found in the -ti.vutta$a, p) 6K, and also in the "nguttara Ni$aya, vol) i, p) @K@4) -patissa 'asina) .. 9 he +uestions put by Upatissa9 1more commonly $no(n as Sariputta4) here are so many such +uestions in the boo$s that opinions differ as to (hich of them is the one most probably referred to) here is a (ord at the commencement of this list (hich may either be an adjective applied to the (hole list or the name of another passage) ,o(ever this may be, this 0dict of "so$a!s gives the actual titles of some of the shorter passages included, in his time, in those boo$s, the larger divisions of (hich are mentioned in the inscriptions just referred to)

No( the e'isting literature, divided into the same larger divisions, contains also the shorter passages) o suppose that it (as composed in %eylon is to suppose that, by an e'traordinary series of chances, the %eylon (riters happened to hit upon just the identical technical terms, t(o of them then almost fallen out of use, that had been used in these old inscriptions 1of (hich they $ne( nothing4 for the names they gave to the larger divisions of the literature they made) "nd (e must further suppose that, by another e'traordinary series of chances, they happened to include in those divisions a number of shorter passages, each of them corresponding e'actly to those mentioned by name, long before their time, in "so$a!s 0dict, of (hich also they $ne( nothing) o adopt such a theory as the most probable e'planation of the facts (ould be nothing less than absurd)))) /e must ta$e our Pali canonical boo$s then to be North -ndian, not Singhalese in origin: and the +uestion as to (hether they have suffered from their sometime sojourn under the palm groves of the mountain viharas in the south<C= must be decided by a critical study of them in their present condition) o(ards such a study there are some points that can already be made) he boo$s ma$e no mention of "so$a) ,ad they undergone any serious re.editing after the reign of the great Buddhist 0mperor 1of (hom the Buddhist (riters, (hether rightly or (rongly, (ere so proud4, is it probable that he (ould have been so completely ignored* he boo$s never mention any person, or any place, in %eylon; or even in South -ndia)<6= hey tell us a goodly number of anecdotes, usually as introductions to, or in illustration of, some ethical point) -t (ould have been so easy to bring in a passing reference to some %eylon (orthy .. in the same (ay as the brahmin Buddhaghosa does so often, in his "tthasalini, (hich was revised in %eylon)<K= -f the Pita$a boo$s had been tampered (ith, (ould not opportunity have been ta$en to yield to this very natural impulse* /e $no( a great deal no( of developed or corrupted doctrine current in %eylon, of ne( technical terms invented, of ne( meanings put into the older phrases) Not one single instance has yet been found of any such later idea, any such later form of language, any such later technical term in any one of the canonical boo$s)))) -t (ould seem, then, that any change that may have been made in these North -ndian boo$s after they had been brought into %eylon must have been insignificant) -t (ould be a great advantage if (e should be able to find even one or t(o instances of such changes) /e should then be able to say (hat sort and degree of

alteration the %eylon scholars felt justified in ma$ing) But it is clear that they regarded the canon as closed) /hile the boo$s (ere in North -ndia, on the other hand, and the canon (as not considered closed, there is evidence of a very different tone) :ne (hole boo$, the 2atha Vatthu,<H= (as added as late as the time of "so$a; and perhaps the Parivara, <J= a mere string of e'amination +uestions, is not much older) :ne story in the Peta Vatthu<5D= is about a $ing Pingala$a, said in the commentary to have reigned over Surat t(o hundred years after the Buddha!s time; and another refers to an event fifty.si' years after the Buddha!s death) he latter is certainly in its right place in this odd collection of legends) he former may 1as the commentator thin$s4 have been added at "so$a!s %ouncil) 0ven if it (ere, that (ould be proof that they thought no harm of then adding to the legendary matter in their te'ts)<55= "nd the (hole of the Vimana Vatthu<5D= 1really only the other half of one and the same (or$4, is certainly very late in tone as compared (ith the Ni$ayas) he same must be said of t(o other short collections of ballads) :ne is the Buddha Vamsa,<5D= containing a separate poem on each of t(enty.five Buddhas, supposed to have follo(ed one another in succession) he other is the %ariya Pita$a,<5D= containing thirty.four short Lata$a stories turned into verse) Both of these must also be late) #or in the Ni$ayas only seven Buddhas are $no(n; and Lata$as, in the technical sense, are not yet thought of) his particular set of Lata$as is also arranged on the basis of theparamitas, a doctrine that plays no part in the older boo$s) he en Perfections 1paramitas4 are +ualities a Buddha is supposed to be obliged to have ac+uired in the countless series of his previous rebirths as Bodhisatta) But this is a later notion, not found in the Ni$ayas) -t gradually gre( up as the Bodhisattva idea began to appeal more to the -ndian mind) "nd it is interesting to find already, in these latest of the canonical boo$s, the germs of (hat after(ards developed into the later 3ahayana doctrine, to (hich the decline of Buddhism, in the opinion of Professor Bhandar$ar, (as eventually so greatly due))))9 P$stscri3t his much having been said about the Pali Suttas, it remains to say a fe( (ords concerning accessibility)<'= he te'ts have been published in many scripts) " very ine'pensive edition is available in 7evanagari script .. only the script need be learned, not the language ..

from 3otilal Banarsidass, Bungalo( Road, La(ahar Nagar, 7elhi 55D DDK, -ndia) -n a roman.script edition the te'ts are available from the Pali e't Society, Broad(ay ,ouse, Ne(ton Road, ,enley.on. hames, REJ 50N, 0ngland) Both publishers offer free catalogs) he P) )S) also publishes a grammar, dictionary and other aids to learning this not very difficult language) &ess costly 1but less available4 grammars have been produced in Sri &an$a by Ven) ") P) Buddhadatta, Ven) Narada 3ahathera, and others) Ven) Buddhadatta has also compiled a concise dictionary) he P) )S) offers the only complete 0nglish translation of the five Ni$ayas 1of (hich the most reliable renderings are 2) R) Norman!s translation of hera. heri. gatha as !lders' .erses (/ ((, and -) B) ,orner!s 3ajjhima Ni$aya translation as &iddle *ength )ayings (/ ((/ (((4 and the Vinaya) "n ine'pensive edition of JD of the 3ajjhima Ni$aya Suttas, translated by Ven) Nanamoli hera, has been published by 3ahama$ut Rajavidyalaya Press, Bang$o$ 1available from /at Buddha.7hamma, /isemans #erry, NS/ @@CC, "ustralia4) Ven) Nanamoli!s *ife of the "uddha 1Buddhist Publication Society, 2andy, Sri &an$a4 is a (ell.selected and (ell.translated anthology) he Buddhist Publication Society also publishes reliable translations<5= of selected te'ts, available in theWheel series) #or a fuller listing of te'ts, translations, anthologies and linguistic aids, see Russell /ebb!s ,n ,nalysis of the 'ali #anon 1B)P)S), the Wheel No) @5K.@@D4)

ABOUT THE AUTHO5 Samanera Bodhesa$o 1Robert Smith4 (as an "merican Buddhist mon$) Born in 7etroit, 3ichigan, in 5JBJ, he studied at the University of -o(a, speciali>ing in &iterature and %reative /riting) ,e embraced Buddhism in 5J66 in -ndia, (here he (as ordained at the Bengal Buddhist "ssociation of %alcutta, and spent several years as a mon$ in Sri &an$a) "fter leaving the robe in 5JK5, in 5JHD he again too$ ordination, this time in hailand under the Venerable Somdet Nanasamvara of /at Bovornives) -n 5JH@ he returned to Sri &an$a, living mostly in the upcountry region of Bandara(ela) -n 5JHH, (hile on a return journey to the United States to join his father for the latter!s eightieth birthday celebration, Ven) Bodhesa$o died from a sudden intestinal hernia (hile in 2athmandu)

Bac$ to %ontents #$$tn$tes: %& %hapter -8 of "uddhist (ndia) <Bac$ to te't= '& -n this regard (e should note that at the time of the Second %ouncil, North -ndian settlements had evolved in social differentiation to the point of being on the verge of coalescing into the sub.continent!s first empire 1the 3auryan: %handragupta, Bindusara, "so$a, etc)4 of this inter.glacial period) hese centuries (ere by all accounts times of great social upheavals, and it may be e'pected that .. as (ith 0nglish today .. language (ould have been subject to considerable diffraction) <Bac$ to te't= (& Pita$a, li$e Ni$aya, is a later term, not found in this technical sense in the Suttas) <Bac$ to te't= )& By 97ialogues9 Rhys 7avids means the 7igha and 3ajjhima Ni$ayas) <Bac$ to te't= *& .iharas I temples, monasteries) By 9in the south9 Rhys 7avids means %eylon 1(here live the Singhalese people)4 <Bac$ to te't= .& he single e'ception, overloo$ed by Rhys 7avids, is in the Udana 12hudda$a Ni$aya4, (herein it is stated that Bahiya 7aruciriya travelled from his d(elling at Suppara$a to Savatthi to learn the Buddha!s eaching) Suppara$a has been identified (ith Sopara, a to(n just north of Bombay) ,o(ever, this instance strengthens,rather than (ea$ens, Rhys 7avids! argument, for it sho(s that the compilers of the Udana, though they $ne( something of South -ndia, yet had no interest or reason to ma$e more than this single passing reference to it) 1%ompare, on $no(ledge of distant parts, 3) JB 1ii,5GJ4)4 his could hardly have been the case had there been editorial treatment of the te'ts at a time (hen the eaching had already penetrated south(ard into 2alinga 1:rissa4 and beyond) <Bac$ to te't= /& Buddhaghosa (as the compiler of most of the traditional commentaries, including the "tthasalini 1compiled, not revised, in %eylon4: c) fifth %entury, ")7), from South -ndia) 1"lthough the %ommentaries (ere translated from Sinhalese into Pali and compiled at that time, they probably 9ceased to gro( by about the middle of the first century ")7)!! .. "di$aram, op$ cit$ p) G54 <Bac$ to te't=

0& -n the "bhidhamma collection, not Sutta) <Bac$ to te't= 1& No( attached to the Vinaya 1see footnote G6 of our essay4) <Bac$ to te't= %2& :f 2hudda$a Ni$aya) <Bac$ to te't= %%& /e thin$ it more li$ely that the entire Peta Vatthu, and the Vimana Vatthu as (ell, (ere added to the 2hudda$a Ni$aya in the Second or hird %entury B)0) <Bac$ to te't= 4& he information given here is rather outdated no() #or more up.to.date information, see "ccess to -nsight) 66Ed& <Bac$ to te't= %& :n the other hand, one must be(are of a fe( mass.mar$eted 9translations9 1particularly of the 7hammapada4 (hich grossly misrepresent the eaching, either by gratuitously mistranslating certain $ey terminology, or by acting so free and loose (ith the te't in general as not to deserve to be called a translation) <