ICCBT2008

Emerging Trends in Concrete Technology and Structural Concrete

K. U. Muthu, M. S. Ramaiah Institute of Technology, INDIA

ABSTRACT This paper reviews the emerging trends in concrete technology and structural behaviour of concrete elements. The on going research areas of self compacting concrete, light weight aggregate concrete, high volume fly ash concrete, high strength concrete, structural behaviour under flexure and shear, arching action in slabs, serviceability design and durability studies on concrete are briefly discussed.

Correspondence Author: Pro.Dr.K.U.Muthu, M S Ramaiah Institute of Technology, India, Tel:+919845363314, Fax:+918023603124,E-mail: kumuthu@rediffmail.com

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INTRODUCTION

An explosion in population growth has been witnessed in the recent times. This is particularly observed in the developing countries when compared with United States and European Countries. The infrastructure development resulted a boom in the construction technology. Hence innovative materials have been developed and new applications have emerged in. this paper describes the recent development, applications and the relevance to the design codes of practices. The developments in materials technology are described in Section I and the design of structural elements is described in Section II. Though the developments are exhaustive, it is reviewed briefly and important contributions are highlighted.

Section I 2 SELF COMPACTING CONCRETE

The development of Self Compacting Concrete is one of the major developments in concrete technology with special purposes. The problem of durability of concrete structures was of major interest during 1980s and the available skilled labour was less in Japan. This affected the construction industry which was reflected in the quality of work. This necessitated the production of self compacting concrete. The concept of SCC was developed by Okamura and his associates [1]. SCC does not require any inner or outer vibration for compaction. It flows like honey and posses a smooth level surface after placing. The composition of SCC includes cement, aggregates, water and the chemical admixtures viz.. high range water reducer and viscosity modifying agent. Several mix design procedures were developed for the production of SCC with medium and high strength. These methods mainly focused on particle packing as a whole or as a few constituents. As the cement and super plasticizers are the most expensive components, researchers focused on reducing the paste content. Then the granular skeleton was optimized by reducing the coarse aggregate size and adding round instead of crushed aggregate. Subsequently, the cement was replaced by fillers. The paste content has been increased by adding air-entrainer. A further optimization is possible in the production process and the design of concrete elements.

A Note on Mix Design Procedures of SCC 2.1 Empirical Method: Okamura initially proposed an empirical method, which requires the tests to be conducted on cement paste and mortar for their properties and compatibility for various ingredients. The method suggests that the gravel content in the concrete corresponds to 50% of its packed density and that in the mortar the sand content corresponds to 50% of its packed density. This independent consideration of gravel and sand results in SCC that has a relative high content of cement paste. JSCE [2] recommends minimum amount of cement for producing normal and high durability concrete as 270 kg/m3 and 290 kg/m3 respectively. A number of researchers used the above method as a starting point of their investigations and later adjustments on course and fine aggregates contents are then made to obtain the desired flow properties. It is to be mentioned here that the method requires repeatability of tests to be done even if the
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properties of the aggregates vary marginally. It has the following set backs viz. (i) a quality control is required for the paste and the mortar prior to mixing and (ii) the mix proportioning methods is quite involved. However due to the variability of the concrete materials and their mechanical properties, the above method is accepted.

2.2 Particle Packing Method This method was proposed by Su et al [3] and Su and Maio [4]. This method starts with packing of all aggregates (sand and gravel) together and later with the filling of the aggregates voids with paste. This method is found to be easy to carryout and result in lesser paste. The principle consideration of the methods is that to achieve workability is more difficulty to achieve than required strength. This method makes a distinction between the loose packing and packing after compaction. The assumption of densest packing is to be looked into as SCC is not vibrated.

2.3 European Method This method suggests that the mix composition shall satisfy all the performance criteria for the concrete for both the fresh and hardened state. The requirements are as follows. (i) water powder ratio by volume 0.8-1.10 (ii) total powder content 400-600 kg/m3 (iii) coarse aggregate content normally 28-35% volume of the mix (iv) typical water content does not exceed 200liters/m3 (v) the sand content balances the volume of the other constituents (vi) the fluctuations due to any variations of sand grading and the moisture content of the aggregates are assumed to be taken care of by viscosity modifying agents. They also suggested that once all the requirements are fulfilled the mix should be tested at full scale at the concrete plant or site. They also specify some guidelines with proportions of admixtures and other ingredients [5].

2.4 Reported Mix Proportioning Methods of SCC by investigations A stepwise optimized method for obtaining SCC was proposed by Gomes, Ravindra Gettu et al [6]. In their method the quantities like maximum size of the aggregate (12mm), water cement ratio (0.4), silica fume to cement content (0.1) are fixed and the super plasticizer dosage was obtained using Marsh cone. The optimum filler dosage was obtained through mini slump by Kantro [7]. Vengala and Ranganath [8] suggested a method similar to the mix proportioning of conventional concrete. A basic mix proportioning is done either ACI or BS Code and then incremental modifications are done to satisfy the specifications. The advantage of this method a particular strength of SCC can be obtained; however the trials are more. Browers and Radix [9] reported the design of mixes consisting of slag cement, gravel (46mm), three types of sand (0-1, 1-2 and 0.4mm) and slag a poly carboxylic either type super plasticizer. The designed mix were medium strength and low cost. Their study points out that carboxylic polymer type super plasticizer can be employed as a sole admixture and VMA is not needed to obtain the required properties.

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The response surface methods were used by Ghezal and Khayat [10] and proposed an optimum mix based on eight performance criteria. In their method, fixed volume of coarse aggregate and welan gum viscosity enhancing admixture were employed to ensure adequate stability. A factorial study by Gurjar [11] recommends 20% replacement of cement with fly ash. He suggested that no more than 6% silica be replaced by mass. The literature review indicates that though many methods are available for mix proportioning of medium strength SCC, methods are to be developed for the mix proportioning of high strength SCC. The authors investigation [12] show that M-75 grade SCC is possible by using 428kg/m3 of cement, 840 kg/m3 of sand, 769kg/m3 of coarse aggregate, 116kg/m3 of flyash,1.8% of super plasticizer, 0.2% of VMA and 179 litres of water per m3 of SCC. The study shows that high strength SCC could be possible without the use of micro fillers viz. silica fume, metakaolin and GGBS etc. Generally the fibres are added to improve the characteristics of the concrete in the hardened state. Steel fibres are used widely and the maximum fibre content is determined depending on the fibre type, mixture composition, mixing process and compaction techniques. The fibres need to be homogeneously distributed, and the clustering of fibres has to be counteracted. As the conventional reinforcement has been dispensed with the L-Box, U-Box and J-ring have become in appropriate and alternate methods are preferable. A study at LEMIT CIC, Argentina was made to find the suitability of fibre reinforced SCC that was capable of flowing through a long U shaped tube [13]. They suggested a pipe of 100mm diameter over a length of 4meters including 1metre of upward flow. The concrete with 20-40kg/m3 of fibres flowed through the pipe satisfactorily without blocking. SCC thin wall elements were cast and put in use in Barcelona, Spain. Toll gate with slender precast panels were constructed in France.

LIGHT WEIGHT AGGREGATE CONCRETE

In earlier years, the light weight aggregates were of natural origin, mostly volcanic, pumice, scoria, tuff etc. This is being widely used in Germany and Japan. The palm oil industry in Malaysia, Indonesia and Nigeria generates a large amount of waste which can be utilized in the production of building materials. Light weight aggregates are also produced by thermal treatment of either the natural raw materials like clay, slate, shale etc. Intensive research is being carried out on the development of high strength, low density, aggregates with low water absorption and better thermal properties [14]. The light weight aggregates concrete is being considered as a desirable material as it has reduced mass with adequate strength; improved thermal insulation. Another type of light weight concrete is foam concrete [15-18]. The applications of foamed concrete include structural elements, non structural partitions and thermal insulating materials. Hence depending on the above requirements, the foam concrete of different densities are produced. It varies from 3 to 18 kN/m3. And these products are widely used in trench reinstallments, bridge abutments, void filling and roof insulations. The authors investigation [19] show that a foamed concrete of strength 20MPa could be obtained by using a cement of 468kg/m3 Quarry dust 234 kg/m3, fly ash 468 kg/m3, water 327 litres/m3 and 14kg/m3 of foam. Investigation confirms that the foam concrete offers a good resistance to sulphate attack and also it gains the strength with age. While making foam concrete, it is to be noted that the foam
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is mainly added as a base material and the essential requirement is that it must be capable of remaining stable and not collapsing during pumping; placement and curing.

HIGH VOLUME FLY ASH CONCRETE

Supplementary cementing materials are used to replace large proportions of cement in construction. It is estimated that at present more than 800 million tonnes of fly ash is available world wide. The above data points out that there is a great potential for the use of fly ash. Fly ash has been used as a mineral admixture for the last six to seven decades due to its fineness, puzzolanic and self cementious nature. Fly ash has been used as a mineral admixture to reduce the heat of hydration if the specific applications do not require early strength as in case of concrete roads, dams and other marine structures. Investigations have been done to increase 50% replacement of cement by fly ash for the last two decades. CANMET has developed test data on properties of HVFA concrete a regular usage of 35% has been reported [20]. Originally HVFA concrete was first developed for mass concrete applications. This has been extended to structures, pavements and shotcreting, light weight concreting and roller compacted concrete. The use of HVFA concrete was reported in the construction of Patronus tower- Malaysia, Platanovrysii dam Greece, Embankments of Nizammudin Bridge Okhla flyover, Ropar highways project, Morinda by pass on Chandigaragh and Ludhiana national highway India. The HVFA concrete could achieve a significant improvement in mechanical properties at the latest stages due to pozzolanic reaction. Therefore the early strength can be enhanced by the addition of silica fume (SF), ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS), rice husk ash (RHA) and metakaolin (MK). The gain in strength is as follows. They are filler effect, which is immediate acceleration of PC hydration which occurs within first 7-14 days for all metakaolin, between 5% and 30%. The degree to which the strength is enhanced beyond 14 days, although strength gains relative to the control concrete are still present in 90days. It is possible by systematic adjustments of proportions to produce MK PFA concrete, in which the desirable characteristics of one is compensating to each other i.e. the early strength of enhancing metakaolin component compensates for poor early strength caused by PFA. The reported investigations include Asbridge [21], Bai [22], Poon [23], Bouzonbaa [24], Naik and Singh [25], Malhotra [26], and Jain and Maiti [27]. The author has conducted an experimental programme to study the mechanical properties of HVFA Metakaolin concrete. A replacement of 45% of cement was possible by using a combination of fly ash and metakaolin. The following mix proportions were used in the study. Cement/FA/MK of 55/45/0, 55/40/05, 55/35/10. The water binder ratio of 0.4 was kept constant. A dosage of 3.5% super plasticizer by weight of cement was used. It is found that the compressive strength of 40 MPa is possible by a replacement of 45% of fillers. This resulted in at the age of 90 days. The modulus of rupture was found to be about one tenth of compressive strength of concrete. The modulus of elasticity estimated was found to be between 20-50 kN/mm2. The designed mix has been used to make a comparative study on the behaviour of cement concrete pavement slabs. Concrete pavement slabs of thickness 150,200 and 250mm of size 1000X1000mm were cast and the temperature variations over the depth of the slab were studied and the results are presented. The study indicates that HVFA concrete with Metakaolin specimen exhibits good resistance to thermal gradients [28]. The measured temperature differential has been used to compare the curling stresses in the slabs using theoretical models proposed by (a) Bradbury and (b) Timoshenko model. The authors has
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proposed a finite element model using NISA package to compute the curling stresses [29]. The effects of MgSo4, Nacl and Hcl were studied on HVFA MK concrete and found durable [30].

HIGH STRENGTH CONCRETE

The heterogeneity related problems in the conventional concrete are eliminated in HSC. It is being recognized that concrete having greater than 55 MPa is termed as high strength concrete. High strength concretes can be modeled as a three phase composite material compared with the conventional concrete, the three phases being (i) hardened cement paste (ii) aggregate (iii) interfacial zone between the hardened cement paste and the aggregates. These three phases must be optimized, which means that each must be considered explicitly in the design process. For high strength concretes, all the components of the concrete mixtures are pushed to their critical limits in such a way that the strength of all three phases are made higher. HSC is obtained by improving the compactness of the concrete mix, which increases the strength of paste and interface between the paste and the coarse aggregate. The stress strain behaviour, ultimate strain, strain softening slope, cracking and modulus of elasticity of HSC beams has varied with source and time. ACI defines HSC as concrete made use of normal weight aggregates having compressive strength of 41 MPa or greater and shall not include concrete made using exotic materials or techniques. The word exotic was included in the definition so that committee would not be concerned with concretes such as polymer impregnated concrete, epoxy concrete or concrete with artificial, normal and heavy weight aggregates. In North American practices HSC is defined as having 28 days compressive strength of atleast 42 MPa. According to CEB-FIP, it is termed as having a minimum of 60 MPa strength. Bertero [31] considers high strength concrete with compressive strength greater than 41 MPa for normal weight concrete and 27 MPa for light weight concrete aggregates. According to Witmann [32] from micromechanics it is defined as (i) having direct nondiscriminatory fracture surfaces through matrix and aggregates (ii) having an invariant matrix description until 90% of the strength and (iii) having little ductility. In the recent past, concrete having compressive strength of 200 MPa were produced and termed as ultra high strength. RPC of cube compressive strength between 200-800 MPa, tensile strength of 25-150 MPa and density 25-30kN/m3 have been reported. Typical constructions of Sherbrooke Bridge Quebec in Canada and a foot bridge in Seoul are the typical constructions.

Section II 6 THE ULTIMATE FLEXURAL STRENGTH OF HSC BEAMS

The shape of the stress strain curve influences the parameters of equivalent rectangular stress block. It has been observed that the stress strain curve of HSC was steeper compared to that of normal strength concrete. Stress- strain diagram for HSC beams is more linear when compressive strength increases. A few codes of practices [33-34] incorporated the work of Li [35] and Ibrahim and Mac Gregor [36]. Different codal provisions were also examined for the ultimate flexural strength of HSC beams.. The ultimate moment capacity by various codes of practices do not vary much and it should be noted that all practically designed beams are under reinforced and their flexural strength is governed by the yield force in the steel. It
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should be mentioned here that the maximum tensile steel ratio increases linearly with grade of concrete [37].

max =

0 . 4 f c' fy

(1)

Where , are stress block parameters. fc, fy are cylinder compressive strength and yield stress of steel. Hence maximum steel ratio can be increased for HSC also some of the codes of practice recommend 4% of the gross area for conventional concrete. A few investigations were reported on the flexural behaviour of minimum flexural reinforcement [38-40].

ULTIMATE SHEAR STRENGTH OF BEAM

The literature pertaining to ultimate shear strength is quite exhaustive [41-44]. Many of the codes of practices depend on the Strut and Tie approach or Plasticity approach [45-47]. Rangan [48] suggested a variable angle truss model for the practical beams as they do contain only light shear reinforcement. In recent times, attempts have been made to predict the shear strength of the beams using ANN [49-50]. Bentz [51] gave an approach to predict the shear strength of beams satisfactorily. An investigation has been carried out [52] to study the shear strength of beams. Twelve high strength reinforced concrete beams were tested of grade M-60 and M-100. They ware provided with constant longitudinal reinforcement of 2.4 percent. The beams were of rectangular sections 125X250mm and the effective span of 1800mm so that the shear span provided is 900 and 400mm respectively. Eleven separate equations given by codes and researchers were used for the data base of 406 tests and it is found that ANN can provide an alternative method for the prediction of shear strength capacity of HSC beams, while Zhuttys [53] equation predicted share strength on an average of 1.09 with a co-efficient of variation of 48.6 which is relatively on the higher side. The study indicates that though a larger data base is available and few theoretical approaches were developed, there is still further scope for the development of a suitable analytical method.

METHODS OF SLAB ANALYSIS AND ARCHING ACTION

8.1 Elastic Analysis of Plates: The slab is used as a thin structural element to cover large areas. The slab is treated as a thin plate and the elastic theory of plates has been used. It essentially requires the solution of fourth order differential equation for a given loading and boundary conditions. The solutions of different shapes of slabs with the prescribed boundary conditions are available in Timoshenko and Kreiger [54], Jaeger [55], Szilard [56] and Ugural [57]. Vladimir Panc [58]. The theory is useful in predicting the elastic behaviour of slabs, but the factor of safety against collapse cannot be assessed. The analysis is quite involved if the slabs are irregular in shape which can be analyzed using yield line analysis.

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8.2 Yield Line Analysis The pioneer on the plastic theory of reinforced concrete slabs was Aage Ingersler in 1921 [59]. He found that during testing of the slabs, they failed with different pattern of fractured lines forming the segments of slabs. He proposed the method based on bending moments acting along the yield lines. Johansen in 1931 has proposed the yield line theory and is remembered as Johansens yield line theory [60]. The basis is as follows. An increase in the load causes concentration of strain in steel along the lines on moment. These lines are called yield lines and they spread into pattern which divides the slab into segments. The elastic deformations are neglected and all the curvatures in the slab are assumed to be concentrated at the yield lines. The energy equation has been used to determine the yield line load based on the assumed mechanism. It is based on upper bound theorem where in the mechanism and equilibrium conditions are satisfied. Though this theory is suitable for the ultimate load analysis of isotopic and orthotropic reinforcement, it is difficult to handle if non uniform or curtailed reinforcement is utilized. The reinforcement volume becomes uneconomical if the correct mechanism is not assumed properly. It does not indicate the load on edge beams and also the distribution of bending and twisting moments in the interior of the slab away from the yield lines is unknown. This theory is widely accepted as the ultimate loads of the tested slabs are higher than those predicted by yield line theory. The difference in load estimation is due to the arching action of slabs which is discussed in the subsequent sections.

8.3 Lower bound approach This approach provides a statistically admissible moment field without violating the yield conditions anywhere in the slab. This provides a safe solution because the collapse load may be greater than or equal to the calculated value. The lower bound solutions are available for simply supported, continuous, one short edge free, rectangular and circular slabs [60]. Hillerborg [61] developed the strip method based on the lower bound approach. The load was assumed to be carried by the bending moments in two perpendicular directions and the torsional moments were neglected in developing the method. This method is simple for slabs with free, simple and fixed boundary conditions as the slab can be divided into simple combinations of cantilever and simple beam strips. This is essentially a design method and economy is achieved by varying the reinforcement in different portion of the slab. Wood and Armer [62] investigation pointed out that the strip method provides an exact solution if the reinforcement provided matches with the strip moments with an unlimited number of simultaneous modes. Hillerborg [63] further proposed the advanced strip method which includes supports like interior, exterior corner columns and reentrant corners. Gurley [64] developed an inversion technique to Hillerborgs simple strip method. The moment fields were designed instead of strip loads at the critical locations so that the moments are in bimoment equilibrium with the applied loads. Subsequently Gurley [65] has presented design methods for slabs by considering them as torsion free grillages. 8.4 Arching action in slabs The available analytical methods depend on bending and twisting moments and the in plane forces are neglected. The presence of in plane forces increases the load carrying capacity. The in plane forces develop due to change in geometry. These effects are called as arching action
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and there exists compressive and tensile arching action. The compressive arching action is predominant in restrained slabs while the tensile membrane action occur at large deflections in case of simply supported slabs. Though arching action has been recognized since 1939, the major design codes ACI 318 [66] , BS 8110 [67] and Eurocode [68] ignore the effect of arching action in slabs, a few recent design standards recognized the membrane action and included in the specifications of the department of the Environmental Bridge designs [69] and the Highway Bridge Design code [70]. The theoretical treatment is given in Wood [71], Park and Gamble [72] and Cope and Clark [73]. Recent studies of Taylor et al [74] and Alan et al [69] were focused on the arching action of HSC slabs. Though many investigations have been reported on rectangular and skew slabs, the literature pertaining to strength and deformation of circular slabs are very few. Wood [71] analyzed the arching action in isotropic circular slabs. Desayi and Kulkarni [75] extended the above approach to orthotropic restrained circular slabs. Their method was based on deformation theory. Calladine [76], Janas [77], Morley [78] have applied flow theory for circular slabs with ring beams. Morley [79] tested circular slabs with ring beams. Al Hassani [80] used the deformation theory for the ascending part of the load deflection curve and flow theory for descending portion of the curve. Braestrup and Morley [81] proposed a modified rigid plastic theory for circular slabs with ring beams. Recently the author and his associates developed analytical methods including arching action in restrained slab strips [82] partially restrained slab strips [83] and circular slabs with edge restraints [84].

SERVICEABILITY DESIGN OF BEAMS AND SLABS

The deflection under loads are influenced by the following (i) elastic strains (ii) creep strains (iii) shrinkage strain (iv) temperature differentials (v) load characteristics (vi) form of structures. The estimation and control of deflections was found to be essential with the use of high strength concrete and high strength steel, efficient design procedures and lower partial safety factors. ACI 318 [66], IS 456 [85], BS 8110 [67], CAN3A-23.3 [86] specify two approaches to satisfy the serviceability limit state of deflections. The first method is the control of deflections where in the minimum thickness is specified and if the designers provide a thickness greater than above, it is presumed that the resulting total deflections would be within permissible deflections. The second method is the computation of deflections based on elastic theory. It is implied that the deflections can be computed to ensure that they do not exceed the specified maximum allowable values. The computation of deflections is done usually by the effective moment of inertia function suggested by Branson about four decades ego and is specified by ACI 318 as 3 M 3 M I eff = cr I g + 1 cr I r (2) M M where Mcr, M are the cracked and service load moment respectively, Ig, Ir are the gross and cracked moment of inertia of the section and leff is the effective moment of inertia of the section. It was pointed out by investigators that this equation does not consider the loading type which means that the effective moment of inertia is the same for all identical beams loaded to the same level of moment regardless of the type of applied loading. Al-zaid [87] opined that the type of loading should be considered. Amin Ghali [88] pointed out that the ACI 318 and Canadian standards are not able to predict the deflection satisfactorily for lightly reinforced concrete beams. Gilbert [89] study show that the deflection and cracking in
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reinforced concrete flexural members depend primarily on non-linear in elastic properties and hence it is difficult to predict with confidence. Nayak and Menon [90] suggested to use the cracking moment formula given by Euro code and the modified effective moment of inertia function of ACI 318 with a power 5. The author [91] has proposed an effective moment of inertia function for predicting short time deflection of simply supported circular slabs subjected to distributed loading as 2.5 q 2.5 q cr cr (3) I eff = q I g + 1 q Ir where qcr and q intensity of cracking load and service load per unit area. Alternatively the other form of equations were suggested in reference [87]. r L r L I eff = cr I r + 1 cr I g (4) L L where Lcr, L are the cracked length of the beam segment over which the working moment exceeds the cracking moment. It is to be noted that at the same moment level the cracked length varies with the type of loading; L is the span and the power is function of steel ratio and the ratio of cracked to span length. Other than the above function, there are models proposed using tension stiffening effect. In strength design calculations, the tensile strength is neglected assuming that the tensile forces are resisted entirely by the reinforcement. However concrete continues to carry the tension between the cracks through the transfer of bond forces from the reinforcing bars into the concrete. The concrete contribution between the cracks is called tension stiffening and this phenomenon has an effect on member stiffness, deflection and crack widths under service load conditions. Bischoff [92] proposed an effective moment of inertia function based on tensioning effect. Ghali [88] gave an effective moment of inertia function as Ig Ir (5) I eff = 2 M I r + 1 0.5 r (I g I r ) M A recent investigation by the author and his associates gave a simplified form of the above for HSC beams [93] as I eff = kbd 3 (6) where k = 1.93 + 0.02 (6a) The above equation gave a correlation co-efficient of 0.95. It has been developed on 600 design points using various grades of concrete, steel grade and tensile steel ratio. The above approach has been extended to rectangular, skew and circular slabs with simply supported and restrained boundary conditions. Based on ACI318-05, an equation is proposed on the control of deflection of the form
w l d bE c
0.33

k2 = w 3.91 1 + 2 s w

0.33

(7)

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where k 2 = 1.96 + 0.02 (8) For singly reinforced beams and in case of beams with compression reinforcement k 2 = 2.1 t + 0.009 (9) where t = + ' (10) The above equations have been developed based on steel ratios of 0.005 to 0.04, concrete grades of 50 to 100 MPa and two grades of steel 415 and 500 MPa.

10

DURABILITY OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES

It is generally defined that the durability is the resistance to chemical attack, abrasion, weathering action or any other process of deterioration. Hence the desirable concrete is one which maintains its quality and serviceability when it is subjected to hostile environment. The general problems associated with it is the loss of mass from the surface and also the volume changes which can be of three types (i) both paste and aggregate expand (ii) the paste expands, while the aggregate is inert or (iii) only the aggregates expands; the cracking can be caused due to volume expansions of reinforcing steel upon its corrosion [94]. The above problems can be tackled by selection of good materials, lower water cement ratio, air entrainment, cement content, low alkali cement and non reactive aggregates. [The factors affecting the durability are (i) role of water (ii) reduction in alkanity (iii) role of cover in concrete and (iv) manifestation of damage on the surface of concrete]. Another major durability problem is corrosion. The corrosion promoters are oxygen, water, stray electrical currents, uneven chemicals environment around reinforcement, the environment which lowers the pH (alkanity), and chlorides [95] on the other hand, the corrosion inhibitors are high quality concrete, high pH (alkanity). The effect includes the electro chemical process, anode and cathode reactions and it is aggregated by chlorides. The in-depth treatment is available in ref [96]. The durability problem at times occurs in simultaneous modes. The other problem is carbonation. This process has become effective when the reduction of cement hydration products like calcium hydroxide with atmospheric carbon-di-oxide CO2. This leads to the formation of calcium carbonate which causes an increase in hardness and permeability. It is to be noted that loss of Ca (OH) 2 causes the lowering of alkanity which initiates the corrosion of steel. Alexander et al [97] gave a durability index testing procedure manual form assessing the quality of concrete. The testing manual contains (i) oxygen permeability test (ii) water sorptivity test and (iii) chloride conductivity test. Damage in steel corrosion in concrete is summarized as (a) rust staining (b) delamination (c) cracking (d) spalling (e) loss of serviceability (f) ultimate failure of the structure. Maheswaran and Sanjayan [98] reported a semi closed form solution without the use of finite difference method on special computer software to predict the chloride concentrations.
11 CONCLUSIONS

The major developments in concrete technology and structural concrete were briefly reviewed. The study points out. 1) Self Compacting Concrete technology is widely accepted as a quality product and investigations show that Nan Sus method is simple to apply and can be used for producing high strength self compacting concrete. The investigation of SCC under

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2) 3) 4) 5)

6)

7) 8)

9)

fatigue loading is very few. The cost of SCC can be reduced my more innovative application in the near future. In the near future new concrete viz. Geopolymer concrete, Basalt fibre concrete, Bacterial concrete, Nano composites will find suitable applications in the construction industry. The investigations related to Light weight concrete applications in structural concrete are in progress and a rational method of mix design of Foam concrete is required. The application high volume Fly ash technology to the construction of rigid pavements is found to be suitable for sustainable developments. The above application would help to solve many environmental issues. New equivalent stress block parameters are available for HSC beams. This can be suitably incorporated in the codes of practices. The codes of practice allow higher steel ratios for maximum flexural reinforcement in case of HSC beams. Some of the codes of practice include strength of concrete in specifying minimum steel ratio for flexural members. Suggestions are also made to include the size affect in specifying the same. Numerous investigations were reported in the study of shear strength of concrete beams. A data base of about 400 tests indicates a wide scatter between the theoretical and computed ultimate shear strength of beams. Application of ANN provides a better tool in predicting the ultimate shear strength of beams. In the recent past, the Arching action on slabs has been revisited and methods are proposed including the same. The codes of practices are yet to recognize the same and incorporate the guidelines to include the arching action. The disparity between the computational approach of deflections and control of deflections has been overcome by some investigations by suitably modifying method of computational procedures. Recent investigations have given due consideration on the effect of sustained load on service loads too. The durability indicates were developed in South African practices. However, in near future one would expect durability methods complimenting the strength designs.

Acknowledgement

The author would like to thank the Management, Principal and higher authorities of MSRIT Bangalore for their constant encouragement and support during the study.

REFERENCES

Okamura H, Ouchi M, Self compacting concrete developed, present and the future, RILEM, Proceedings of the 1st International RILEM symposium on self compacting concrete, 1999, pp3-14. [2] Recommendations for self compacting concrete, Japan Society of Civil Engineers, JSCE Concrete Engineering Series, 1999, 31. [3] Su. N, Hsu, K.C and Chai, H.W, A simple mix design method for self compacting concrete, Cement and Concrete Research, 31,2002, pp1799-1807. [4] Su. N, Maio. B, A new method for mix design of medium strength concrete with low cement content, Cement and Concrete Composites, 2003, 25, pp215-222.

[1]

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[5] EFNARC Specifications and guidelines for self compacting concrete, European Federation of Producers and Applicators of Specialist Products for Structures, 2002. [6] Gomes PC, Gettu R, Agullo L and Bernard C, Experimental optimization of high strength self compacting, Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Self Compacting Concrete, Tokyo, 2001, pp337-386. [7] Kantro D.L., Influence of water reducing admixtures on properties of cement pastes-A miniature slump test, Cement Concrete and Aggregates, 1980, 2, pp95-102. [8] Jagadish Vengala and Ranganath, R.V. Mixture proportioning procedures for self compacting concrete, The Indian Concrete Journal, 2004. [9] Browers H.J.H and Radix HJ, Self compacting concrete theoretical and experimental study, Cement and Concrete Research, 2005. [10] Ghezul A and Khayat K.H, Optimizing self consolidating concrete with limestone filler by using statistical factorial design methods, ACI Materials Journal, 2002, pp264-272. [11] Gurjar AH., Mix design and testing of self consolidating concrete using Florida materials, Final report, the Florida Department of Civil Engineering Embry Riddle Aeronantical University, 2003, pp1-10. [12] Mohammed Soleymani Ashtiami, Sheila Karimi, Muthu K U and Narendra H, Production of High Strength Self Compacting Concrete, International Conference on Recent Developments in Structural Engineering (RDSE 2007), MIT, Manipal, 30 Aug 2007, pp227. [13] Soriano, M, Zerbino, R, Giaccia, G, Barragem, B, Ravindra Gettu, Development and Characterization of steel fibre reinforced self concrete, INCONTEST 2003, KCT, Coimbatore, 2003, pp316-322. [14] Satish Chandra and Leif Berntsson, Light Weight Aggregate Concrete, Standard Publishers Distributors, Delhi, 2004. [15] Rudnai, G, Light weight concrete, Akademino Kiado, Budapest, 1963, pp52-55. [16] Short A and Kimiburg W, Light weight concrete, Asia Publishing House, 1963. [17] Narayan N and Ramamurthy K, Structure and Properties of Aerated Concrete; A review, Cement and concrete composites, 22, 2003, pp321-329. [18] Hamidah MS, Ibrahim A, Alex Liew and Suffian Walini, R & D on foamed concrete applications in housing industry, Research paper, Universiti Teknologi Mara, Malaysia, Sep 2003, pp1-22. [19] Puttappa C.G, Rudresh, Muthu K.U and Raghavendra H.S; Production and Performance of Formed Concrete, The 5th International Symposium, Mecatronica, Micro technologies and New Materials, Talgoviste, Romania, Nov 2007. [20] Malhotra, VM, Bilodeau, High Volume Fly Ash System-The Concrete Solution for the Sustainable Development, Concrete Technology for Sustainable Development in the 21st Century, (Eds- Mehta), 2001. [21] Asbridge, AH, Page, CL and Page, MM, Effects of Metakaolin, Water Binder Ratio and Interfacial Transition Zones on the Micro-hardness of Cement Mortor, Cement and Concrete Research, Vol 32, 2002, pp1365-1369. [22] Bai, J, Sabir, BB Wild and Kinuthia, Strength Development in Concrete incorporating PFA and Metakaolin, Magazine of Concrete Research, Vol 52, No 3, 2000, pp153-162. [23] Poon, C.S, LaM L and Wong Y.L.(2000), A study on high strength concrete prepared with large volumes of low calcium fly ash, Cement and Concrete Research,-30, 2000, pp447-455.

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[24] Bouzoubaa N, Zhang, M.H. and Malhotra V.M., Mechanical properties and durability of concrete made with high volume fly ash blended cement using a coarse fly ash, Cement and Concrete Research Vol.31, 2001, pp1393-1402. [25] Naik, TR, Singh, SS, Krous, RN and Ramme, VM, Long Term Performance of HVFA Concrete Pavements Proceedings, CANMET-ACI International Seminar of HVFA Blended Cement and Concrete, Role in Growth of Sustainability, 2000, France, Millon, Italy. [26] Malhotra, VM, High Performance of HVFA Concrete A Solution to the Infrastructure needs of India, The Indian concrete Journal, Vol 76, Feb 2002, pp103-107 [27] Jain, NK and Maiti, SE, Durability Studies of HVFA Concrete, National Seminar on Performance Enhancement of Cement and Concrete, New Delhi 2003, pp253-262. . [28] Nagaraj K.P, Puttappa C.G, Muthu K.U and Veeraragavan A, Experimental Studies on Temperature Effects in HVFA Concrete Pavements, Armicon 2006, MSRIT, Bangalore. [29] Nagaraj K.P, Muthu K.U, Veeraragavan A and Sahana G, K, A Sensitivity Analysis of Curling Stresses in Concrete Pavements, TCMB 3rd International Symposium, May 2007, Istanbul, Turkey, pp 963-972. [30] Nagaraj K.P, Muthu K.U and Veeraragavan A, Strength and Durability Studies on Fly Ash Concrete with Metakaolin, Fly Ash India 2005, New Delhi. [31] Shah S.P and Ahmad S.H, High Performance Concrete: Properties and Applications, McGraw-Hill 1994, Inc pp1-3. [32] Folker H Witmann, Fracture Toughness and Fracture Energy of Concrete, Elsevier Publications 1986. [33] Standards association of New Zealand, Concrete design standard, NZS 3101:1995, Part 1 and Commentary on the design standard, NZS 3101:1995, Part 2, Wellington, New Zealand, 1995. [34] Canadian Standards Association, Design of concrete structures, CSA A23.3 1994, Rexdale, Ontario, 1994. [35] Li, B; Strength and ductility of reinforced concrete members and frames constructed using high strength concrete, Research report no 94-5, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand 1994. [36] Ibrahim H.H.H and Mac Gregor, J.G, Modifications of the ACI rectangular stress block for high strength concrete, ACI Structural Journal, Vol 94, 1997, pp40-48. [37] AS 3600, Australian Standards Concrete Structures, Standards Association of Australia North Sydney, Australia, 2001. [38] Muthu K.U, Puttappa C.G and Veeraragavan, A; A Minimum flexural reinforcement of high strength concrete beams, Proceedings of the International Conference on Recent Trends in Concrete Technology and Structures, INCONTEST 2003, KCT, Coimbatore, India, 542-551. [39] Freyermuth C L and Aalami BO, Unified minimum flexural reinforcement for reinforced and prestressed concrete structures, ACI Structural Journal, 1997, 94(4), 409-420. [40] Guney Ozcebe, Ugur Ersoy and Tugurl Tankut, Minimum flexural reinforcement for T beams made of high strength, 1999, Journal of Civil Engineering, 1999, 26, 525-534. [41] ASCE ACI Task Committee 426, 1973, The shear strength of reinforced concrete members, Journal of the Structural Division, Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers, 1999, pp 1091-1187. [42] Reagan, P.E; Research on shear: A benefit to humanity or waste of time, The Structural Engineer, 71, 1993, pp 337-347.
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