Indoor and Built Environment

http://ibe.sagepub.com Application of Computational Fluid Dynamics in Building Design: Aspects and Trends
Zhiqiang Zhai Indoor and Built Environment 2006; 15; 305 DOI: 10.1177/1420326X06067336 The online version of this article can be found at: http://ibe.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/15/4/305

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Review Paper
Indoor Built Environ 2006 15;4:305313 Accepted: November 20, 2005

Application of Computational Fluid Dynamics in Building Design: Aspects and Trends

Zhiqiang Zhai
Department of Civil, Environmental and Architectural Engineering, University of Colorado at Boulder

Key Words Building modelling Computational uid dynamics Building design Energy efciency Building systems Development trend

Introduction Building, as one of the largest industries, has signicant impacts on the environment and natural resources. In the United States, buildings account for one-third of the primary energy usage and two-thirds of all the electricity consumption [1]. The construction and operation of buildings generate tremendous pollution that directly and indirectly cause urban air quality problems and climate change. Poor design of buildings and systems not only wastes resources and energy and causes adverse impacts to the environment, but also creates uncomfortable and unhealthy indoor environments. Reports of symptoms and other health complaints due to poor indoor environments have been increasing in the last decade. It was estimated that potential annual savings and productivity gains could be $15 to $40 billion from reduced sick building syndrome symptoms, and $20 to $200 billion from direct improvements in worker performance that are unrelated to health [2]. In the past few years, CFD has been playing an increasingly important role in building design, following its continuing development for over a quarter of a century. The information provided by CFD can be used to analyse the impact of building exhausts to the environ-

Abstract
Computational uid dynamics (CFD), as the most sophisticated airow modelling method, can simultaneously predict airow, heat transfer and contaminant transportation in and around buildings. This paper introduces the roles of CFD in building design, demonstrating its typical application in designing a thermallyconformable, healthy and energy-efcient building. The paper discusses the primary challenges of using CFD in the building modelling and design practice. Furthermore, it analyses the developing trends in applying CFD to building design, by thoroughly reviewing the literatures in all the proceedings of the International Conference on Building Simulation, one of the most inuential symposiums in the building simulation eld.

2006 SAGE Publications Zhiqiang Zhai DOI: 10.1177/1420326X06067336 Department of Civil, Environmental and Architectural Engineering Accessible online at http://ibe.sagepub.com University of Colorado at Boulder, UCB 428, ECOT 441 Downloaded from http://ibe.sagepub.com by on February 1, 2008 Figures 1 to 8 appear in colour online Boulder, CO 80309-0428, USA 2006 International Society of the Built Environment. All rights reserved. Not for commercial use or unauthorized distribution. Tel. 303-492-4699, Fax 303-492-7317, E-mail John.Zhai@Colorado.edu

ment, to predict smoke and re risks in buildings, to quantify indoor environment quality, and to design natural ventilation systems, etc. This paper summarises the most important aspects in which CFD can assist in achieving a comfortable, healthy, and energy-efcient building design. The areas range from building site planning to individual room layout design, from active heating, ventilating and air-conditioning (HVAC) system design to passive ventilation study, and from regular indoor air quality assessment to critical re smoke and contaminant control. By using the work of the author as examples, this paper demonstrates the typical CFD application processes and discusses the primary application challenges encountered. It further analyses the potential trends in applying CFD for building design by reviewing all the CFD-related papers in the proceedings of the International Conference on Building Simulation for the years 19852003. This series of conferences is among the most important in the building industry with its focus on computer simulation of buildings.

In addition, CFD results can be used to calculate the distribution of percentage dissatised (PD) people due to draft [4], another major thermal comfort index, through the equation: PD (34 T)(U 0.05)0.62(3.14 0.37U Tu) [%] (3) where T is the local air temperature (C), U is the local air speed (ms1), and Tu is the turbulence intensity (%). If the turbulence kinetic energy k (m2s2) is simulated with a turbulence model, the turbulence intensity can be estimated as Tu 100(2k)0.5/U [%]. (4)

As for the indoor air quality, CFD can directly predict the concentration distributions of different contaminants in a space with appropriate boundary conditions. These concentration distributions can be further used to determine the ventilation effectiveness, : Ce Cs C Cs (5)

Assessment Index for Building Performance CFD, by numerically solving the governing equations for uid ow, provides spatial- and temporal-distributed information of airow, pressure, temperature, turbulence intensity, moisture and contaminant concentration. These details can be used to evaluate the levels of thermal comfort, indoor air quality (IAQ) and building system energy efciency, which are interesting to architects, building HVAC designers, building consultants and researchers. Air velocity, temperature and humidity ratio are the most important parameters for the determination of the predicted percentage dissatised (PPD) distribution in a building. PPD is a major index for building thermal comfort judgement. It can be calculated via [3]: PPD 100 95Exp(0.03353PMV4 0.2179PMV2) [%]. (1) The PMV (predicted mean vote) in the equation is determined by:

where Ce, Cs and C are the contaminant concentration (ppm) of exhaust air, supply air and room air, respectively. Thermal comfort and indoor air quality status of a building are inuenced dominantly by installation locations, operating conditions and control strategies of the HVAC systems used. CFD can examine the effectiveness and efciency of various HVAC systems by easily changing diffuser types and locations, supply air conditions and system control schedules. Furthermore, CFD can help develop passive heating/cooling/ventilation strategies (e.g. natural ventilation) by modelling and optimising building site-plans and indoor layouts. The following sections demonstrate some typical aspects in which CFD can contribute to building and system design, by using the projects investigated by the author and other collaborators in architecture and engineering.

Applications of CFD for Building Design PMV [0.303Exp(0.036M) 0.028]L (2) Application-1: Site Planning Site planning is the rst stage of building design. CFD can help optimise building sites by predicting the distributions of air velocity, temperature, moisture, turbulence intensity and contaminant concentration around build-

where M is the body metabolism (Wm2) and L is the thermal load on the body (Wm2). M and L are the functions of air velocity, temperature, humidity ratio and enclosure temperature.

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ings. Good site planning can effectively protect building groups from adverse impacts of surrounding pollution. It can also improve outdoor pedestrian comfort and increase energy efciency of buildings by allowing passive HVAC strategies, such as using natural ventilation for summer and using wind break for winter. Figure 1 presents such an example of using CFD for a site planning in Beijing, China. The initial plan introduces highly imbalanced airow through the four highrise buildings at the right hand of the gure, which may cause the pedestrian discomfort due to the large wind speed among some of the high-rise buildings. The nonuniform airow pattern also reduces the chance of using natural ventilation for the buildings that confront less wind. The new design revised the building shape and orientation to allow natural wind movement to smoothly cross each building so that there is a comfortable outdoor environment and the occupants have the opportunity to use a natural ventilation strategy. Chen et al. [5] indicated that natural ventilation can save about 40% of the total cooling energy required by buildings in Beijing.

Applying CFD for building site planning has become fairly convenient as most current commercial CFD programs can import AutoCAD les of building site models into the computational domain of a CFD simulation. The major remaining challenge is probably the long computing time due to the large number of mesh grids required to cover a building site with reasonable resolution. The computing cost may become more signicant when dynamic wind conditions need to be modelled. Multi-grid and locally-rened grid technologies may, to some extent, accelerate the simulation; however, substantial computing time is still needed even with a multiprocessor parallel computer. Application-2: Natural Ventilation Study Natural ventilation is one of the most fundamental ways to reduce energy usage in buildings. In principle, CFD can simultaneously model indoor and outdoor airows to achieve an optimal natural ventilation strategy. However, because of the scale difference between a typical room (1 m) and a site plan (100 m), a large number of numerical grids must be used to meet the resolution requirement. This imposes an undue expense to designers by challenging current computer memory and speed. Therefore, a practical approach is to decouple the outdoor and indoor airow simulation. Outdoor airow around buildings is rst predicted, which provides airow and pressure information at the openings of buildings. With these boundary conditions, indoor airow for each space can be simulated independently and natural ventilation rate can be determined. Designers can then change building indoor layouts and window sizes and locations to maximise natural ventilation rate. The decoupled simulation method is based on the assumption that indoor airow and building openings have little impact on outdoor airow and pressure distributions; indoor and outdoor ow elds can therefore be studied separately. The study [6] veried that room partitions and windows do not contribute to a major difference in outdoor ow patterns and pressure elds. This decoupled method logically well matches the general architectural design procedure: from site plan to unit design. The decoupled method rst studies the outdoor airow around solid building site models during the site plan stage when most details about building units are not determined yet; then it moves into building interior layout and opening design when the site plan is generally nalised. As a result, rening the microscopic unit design during the second stage of building design does not require the recalculation of the macroscopic site plan.

(a) Initial plan

(b) Final plan Fig. 1. CFD for site planning.

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Hence, the method greatly reduces the unnecessary computing time for dynamic design modications, which allows designers to more easily rene the site plan and apartment and window layouts separately. As examples, Figure 2 shows the simulation results of (a) buoyancy-driven natural ventilation in a high-rise building with atrium and chimney, and (b) wind-driven natural ventilation in a typical one-oor apartment. These results provide designers with a straightforward understanding of the performance of natural ventilation design, and thus allow them to rene the plans and reach an optimal solution. One of the major challenges of using CFD for natural ventilation study is the method to extract airow conditions at building openings from outdoor simulations

and specify them for indoor simulations. Because of the high sensitivity of CFD results to boundary conditions, small changes in airow conditions at openings may result in a signicant shift of indoor airow patterns. In addition, simplication methods for indoor heat sources (e.g. occupant, equipment, etc.) also challenge indoor environment modelling. Application-3: HVAC System Design CFD is a powerful tool to evaluate indoor air quality and thermal comfort provided by diverse HVAC systems, leading to an effective and efcient system design. It is superior to the conventional design approach that typically relies on the use of charts provided by diffuser manufacturers and jet formulae that were developed from laboratory data. The use of such empirical data can result in great uncertainties when they are applied to large spaces (such as atria, concert halls and sports facilities) or applications that are dissimilar from those upon which the laboratory data were developed. When an innovative HVAC system is used, there are inevitably no data or formulae available for the engineering design. Figure 3 illustrates the modelling of an ofce with new displacement ventilation systems. Displacement ventilation is an advanced indoor ventilation approach. Unlike the conventional mixing ventilation, displacement ventilation provides a cleaner indoor environment with less energy consumption. A typical displacement ventilation system supplies fresh air at or near oor level at a very low velocity and a temperature slightly below room temperature. Exhausts are located at or near the ceiling. The supply air spreads across the oor and rises as it is heated by sources such as people and equipment, removing indoor heat and contaminants directly from the occupied zone to the upper zone without mixing. Since only the occupied zone must be maintained at the room set-point temperature while the upper zone may be warmer, the supply air ow rate can be signicantly reduced due to the vertical temperature gradient, resulting in the reduced fan energy. The CFD results help to understand the physics of the displacement ventilation (such as the large re-circulation at the lower part of the room). They also quantify the vertical temperature stratication that is necessary for building energy calculation. Moreover, the supply air conditions can be optimised in CFD to reach the best comfort for occupants. CFD can also be directly used to guide design process and optimise ventilation system design. Figures 4 and 5 demonstrate such an example that uses CFD to design

(a) Buoyancy-driven natural ventilation

(b) Wind-driven natural ventilation Fig. 2. CFD for natural ventilation study.

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(a)
6 3.65 m 1 2.43 m 4 8 3 (1) 3 (2) 5 2 8

z x

4.16 m

inlet-1, outlet-2, person-3, table-4, window-5, uorescent lamps-6, cabinet-7, computer-8

(b)

ponents strongly challenges the experience and capability of ventilation system designers, even with the aid of CFD modelling tools. CFD simulation has been used to improve the initial HVAC system design, step by step, to an optimal design. Figures 4 and 5 compare the air temperature and lead concentration in the mid-section of the facility under the steady design conditions by using different HVAC systems. The study concluded that a combination of an underneath displacement ventilation system and a conventional overhead duct system as well as a partial air curtain system between the occupied zone and the racing zone is the most effective solution for this complex to obtain a comfortable and healthy indoor environment with less energy consumption [7]. CFD results are much more informative and accurate than those that could be obtained via empirical-formulae-based hand calculation for HVAC design. However, CFD for HVAC system design still presents various challenges, especially in the simplication of sophisticated building system components, such as diffusers [8], fans, evaporators and diverse heat and contaminant sources (e.g. moving cars, breathing occupants). Application-4: Pollution Dispersion and Control Wide use of CFD has demonstrated its capability in modelling the transportation of contaminants, with its

(c)

Fig. 3. Simulation of displacement ventilation in an ofce: (a) CFD model; (b) velocity and temperature distribution in the middle plane of the room; (c) velocity and temperature distribution in the plane across an occupant.

(a) Base case

HVAC systems for the worlds rst large-scale indoor auto-racing facility. The facility is primarily a single space building with a oor area of over 0.2 106 m2 and a ceiling height of 46 m. It is designed to accommodate up to 120,000 spectators 60,000 in the grandstands and 60,000 in the ineld, as well as a maximum of 45 racing cars running simultaneously on the track at an average speed of 217 kmh1 (135 mph). Such a large-scale and complicated building with a variety of indoor com-

(b) Optimal case Fig. 4. Air temperature distribution in the middle section of an indoor auto-racing complex (C).

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(a)
S2 S1

S3

EASE 1 S7 S6 S5 O2 S4

EASE 2

EASE 3

O1

Corridor C2 S10

Office 2

S8

S1

C3 from diffuser

C1 C1C3 represent three different types of airborne contaminants from three locations under a desk in office 1 (C1), in the corridor (C2) and from the supply air in office 1 (C3). O1 and O2 are two occupants nose locations (0.9 m above the floor) and S1S10 are ten different sensor locations to be tested in office 1. EASE13 stand for three emergency air supply and exhaust (EASE) outlets.

(a) Base case (b)

(c)

(b) Optimal case Fig. 5. Lead concentration distribution in the middle section of an indoor auto-racing complex (gLead per kgAir). Fig. 6. Simulation of indoor contaminant dispersion and control: (a) CFD model; (b) concentration contour of C1 at occupant head level at t 5min after contaminant release (without emergency response); (c) concentration contour of C1 at occupant head level at t 5min after contaminant release (with air pressurising for corridor and ofce 2 and vacuuming for ofce 1 starting from t 2min).

low costs, high efciency and exibility. It is particularly useful for predictive studies in extreme conditions, for instance, extreme-hot or toxic scenarios, and it can be easily employed to investigate the impact of a particular ow parameter, such as wind speed or air temperature, on the dispersion of a certain contaminant. Both indoor and outdoor contaminant dispersions can be simulated, while indoor scenarios are more complicated and hazardous because people spend over 90% of their time indoors and more factors can affect the dispersion of indoor contaminants. The geometry and structure of a building, as well as the HVAC system used in the building, have a dominant inuence on the dispersion of indoor contaminants. Partitions, furniture and passageways between indoor spaces can also distort the airow and the contaminant distributions. Importance of indoor contaminant study is also reected by the fact that the indoor pollution is controllable by using good sensor and response systems. CFD prediction can be used to locate the best sensor positions in a building, to indicate the safe paths for evacuating occupants, and to develop the effective emergency response strategies to isolate and clean the contaminated air. Figure 6 presents a realistic ofce complex as an example, in which CFD has been used to predict the dis-

persion of contaminants from different locations in the ofces. The study showed that the contaminant dispersion is very fast and strongly depends on the indoor airow pattern. It also indicated that early warning from the sensors is possible if they are placed properly. The investigation proposed and tested several response strategies by supplying or exhausting emergency air through three ceiling-mounted air devices. It found that the contaminant dispersion can be effectively controlled by simply pressurising or vacuuming the indoor spaces. Figure 7 illustrates another example of using CFD to design exhaust hoods for chemical and biological laboratories. The simulated results showed that, without particular design cares, hoods with standard/enhanced ventilation rate may still leak toxic materials from operating zone to occupied zone due to the local turbulent vortices at hood openings. Hence, central air system and hood air system should be designed as a comprehensive system. In general, the study of indoor contamination is not an easy task. Zhai [9] previously discussed the primary

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200 180 160 140 120 Total CFD

Papers

100 80

(a) Air velocity in the middle section of a lab

60 40 20 0 1985 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003

Fig. 8. Papers presented on IBPSA conferences.

(b) Iso-surfaces of C = 1.052 ppm Fig. 7. Ventilation efciency of hoods in chemical and biological laboratories.

challenges when applying CFD for protecting buildings from pollution. The main technical concern is the development of appropriate physical and mathematical models to describe various contaminants with different phases and properties and to describe the interactions of contaminants with different objects (e.g. solid/soft surfaces, occupants, etc.).

Trends in the Application of CFD for Building Design It took over ten years to introduce CFD to the building industry. In fact, the applications of CFD for building design and research did not bloom until 1997. This can be well sensed by reviewing the papers published in the proceedings of the biannual IBPSA (The International Building Performance Simulation Association) International Conference on Building Simulation, one of the premier events in the eld with its focus on the area of computer simulation in building. From 1985 to 2003, IBPSA organised nine conferences, in Seattle, USA

(1985), Vancouver, Canada (1989), Nice, France (1991), Adelaide, Australia (1993), Madison, USA (1995), Prague, Czech Republic (1997), Kyoto, Japan (1999), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (2001) and Eindhoven, the Netherlands (2003). Figure 8 summarises the total numbers of the technical papers and CFD-relevant papers presented in these conferences. It explicitly demonstrates the development of building computer simulation and the role of CFD in building design and study. Before 1997, CFD was new to most building designers and engineers and still at the stage of accumulating credentials by validating CFD with building experiments [1012] and discussing appropriate boundary conditions for building simulation [13]. With the rapid development of computer capacity and the establishment of a good reputation for CFD, CFD has gained more and more attention in the last few years. It has been broadly used for various building projects. Buildings and systems modelled through CFD have become more and more sophisticated, while less knowledge of uid mechanics and building science is required to conduct CFD simulations due to the smart graphic user interfaces of commercial CFD programs. This results in the necessity of developing guidelines and manuals to regulate the use of CFD for building design (e.g. [1416]). In recent years, CFD has been extensively and intensively applied to all the aspects and stages of building design. New areas and directions for using CFD for building study have been promoted, with the goal of providing a more accurate and rapid prediction of building performance. This paper tries to summarise these trends based on the most recent papers published from the IBPSA conferences.

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Trend-1: Integration of CFD with other Building Modelling Programs Building is such a sophisticated product that building components can rarely be designed and evaluated separately. For instance, building energy consumption is determined by many factors. Besides the traditional factors such as building size and materials and schedules, room air distribution and lighting design may result in signicant heating/cooling load change. The integration of energy simulation and CFD can eliminate many assumptions involved in separate applications [17]. Many efforts (e.g. [1822]) have been made to develop an integrated building design tool by coupling airow, energy, lighting, acoustics, materials, environment and life cycle analysis programs. Such an integrated design tool can improve the prediction accuracy of building performance, as well as providing possibilities of developing a general graphic user interface. In order to facilitate the data exchange between different simulation engines, a new le format Industry Foundation Classes (IFC) has been developed and used [2324]). Ultimately, an integrated and virtual simulation environment for building design is highly anticipated [25]. Trend-2: Simplication and Intelligence of CFD Tools Since the majority of CFD users in the building industry are building designers and engineers who have limited knowledge of uid ow they would undoubtedly welcome an intelligent CFD program. A good graphical user interface (GUI) can dramatically reduce the input effort and errors, which will attract more designers to apply CFD programs for their designs. Simple and intelligent interfaces [26] can minimise the need to understand the underlying ow physics and numerical methods but still obtain meaningful results, in which automatic generation and adjustment of CFD grids are the rst necessities. In addition, the development of the Internet enables remote collaborative partnerships and the imminent opportunities for e-simulation. The Web facilitates new forms of data sharing and distributed engineering through web hosted services, as well as new forms of teaching and training solutions, as presented by Lam [27]. Trend-3: Improvement of CFD Computing Cost Due to demanding numerical iteration and necessary spatial resolution requirement, most CFD simulations require considerable computing time ranging from hours

to days. It is unacceptable for most design tasks, which need rapid evaluation of alternative plans. Extensive studies have been conducted to develop approaches that can accelerate CFD computation, such as locally-rened grid, multi-grid and adaptive grid techniques [28]. In addition, the trade-off between speed and accuracy has been noticed since most building designers have less accuracy requirements than aerospace engineers, especially at the early stage of building design when most design details have not been determined and architectural plans may change rapidly. Hence, various simple airow models, such as coarse grid CFD [29] and zonal air-ow models [30], may be more suitable for these purposes. Reliable and simple turbulence models (e.g. constant viscosity model) for indoor and outdoor airows should be developed. Trend-4: Development of Critical Modelling Methods Although most building phenomena can be simulated by current CFD programs, advances in building continue to impose new challenges to CFD, for example, to model innovative diffusers [31], new window designs [32], and advanced heating/cooling systems [33]. The problem may become more complicated when involved with mass transfer, phase changes and multi-phase interactions, such as air condensation and combustion. Special methods and models need to be developed [3436]. Moreover, advanced CFD techniques such as Large Eddy Simulation (LES) may be needed to study critical problems in buildings which can not be solved with regular CFD approaches. Such examples are (1) natural ventilation studies that are heavily dependent on instantaneous airows [37], and (2) particle transport studies and their interactions with human bodies [38].

Summary This paper has introduced the applications of CFD for building design. CFD can provide important information to assist in the design of energy-efcient, user-comfortable and environmentally friendly buildings. The paper discusses the typical aspects that CFD can contribute to a successful building design, along with brief comments on the application challenges. By reviewing the papers presented on one premier building simulation conference in the past 20 years, the paper analyses the potential trends of using CFD for building design in the next few years.

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CFD in Building Design

Indoor Built Environ 2006;15:305313

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