Ohms Law, Power, and Energy

EEE 3 A. Nerves

OBJECTIVES
Understand the importance of Ohms law and how to apply it to a variety of situations. Be able to plot Ohms law and understand how to read a graphical plot of voltage versus current. Become aware of the differences between power and energy levels and how to solve for each. Understand the power and energy flow of a system, including how the flow affects the efficiency of operation. Become aware of the operation of a variety of fuses and circuit breakers and where each is employed.
2

OHMS LAW
The first equation to be described is without question one of the most important to be learned in this field. It is applicable to dc circuits, ac circuits, digital and microwave circuits, and, in fact, any type of applied signal. In addition, it can be applied over a period of time or for instantaneous responses. The equation can be derived directly from the following basic equation for all physical systems:
3

OHMS LAW
Every conversion of energy from one form to another can be related to this equation. In electric circuits, the effect we are trying to establish is the flow of charge, or current. The potential difference, or voltage, between two points is the cause (pressure), and the opposition is the resistance encountered.

OHMS LAW
In summary, therefore, the absence of an applied pressure such as voltage in an electric circuit will result in no reaction in the system and no current in the electric circuit. Current is a reaction to the applied voltage and not the factor that gets the system in motion. To continue with the analogy, the greater the pressure at the spigot, the greater is the rate of water flow through the hose, just as applying a higher voltage to the same circuit results in a higher current.

OHMS LAW
Georg Simon Ohm, a German physicist, identified several cause-and-effect relationships between circuit current, voltage, and resistance. Ohm stated that current is directly proportional to voltage and inversely proportional to resistance.
6

OHMS LAW Ohms law can be stated mathematically as

where I = the circuit current E = the applied voltage R = the circuit resistance
7

E I R

OHMS LAW
Two statements we can derive from Ohms law are: 1. The current through a fixed resistance: a. increases when the applied voltage increases. b. decreases when the applied voltage decreases. 2. The current generated by a fixed voltage: a. decreases when the resistance increases. b. increases when the resistance decreases.

OHMS LAW

OHMS LAW

FIG. 4.2 Basic circuit.

10

OHMS LAW

FIG. 4.3 Defining polarities. 11

OHMS LAW

FIG. 4.4 Example 4.3.

FIG. 4.5 Example 4.4.

12

The Relationship Between Current and Voltage

If voltage increases, current will increase if resistance remains constant. The greater the voltage, the higher the current for any fixed resistance.

13

The Relationship Between Current and Voltage

If resistance increases, current will decrease if voltage remains constant. If resistance decreases, current will increase if voltage remains constant.

14

Using Ohms Law to Calculate Current

Ohms law can be used to calculate current in this circuit as

E 10V I 5A R 2

15

Using Ohms Law to Calculate Current

The DC power supply has a maximum output of 200 V. Will the fuse blow? We solve for current as

E 200V I 6.06 A R 33

The fuse will blow.

16

Using Ohms Law to Calculate Voltage

Ohms law can be used to calculate voltage in this circuit as

E I R 150 mA 100 15V

17

Using Ohms Law to Calculate Voltage

Two 6 speakers draw 2.08 A each from a DC power supply. Solve for the source voltage. The source voltage is found as

E I R 2 . 08 A 6 12 . 5 V

18

Using Ohms Law to Calculate Resistance

Ohms law can be used to calculate voltage in this circuit as E 5V R 200 I 25 mA

19

Using Ohms Law to Calculate Resistance

Solve for the minimum allowable rheostat setting that will not cause the fuse to blow.
The minimum resistance is found as

R(min)

E 120 V 60 I 2A

20

Current & Voltage

Current is directly proportional to voltage.
If voltage triples:

E 360 V I 18 A R 20

Current triples if voltage triples. It is directly proportional to voltage.

21

Current & Resistance

Current is inversely proportional to resistance. If resistance triples E 240V I 4A R 60

Tripling the resistance caused current to drop to 1/3 of its original value.
22

Ohms Law Wheel

Cover the value of interest to see the correct equation.

23

Troubleshooting with Ohms Law

Troubleshooting is the process of locating circuit faults. If a circuit is not operating as it should, Ohms law can help find the problem. The first step is to determine the type of circuit failure.
24

Troubleshooting with Ohms Law: Current Too Low

Ohms law tells us that there are two reasons why current may be too low. The applied voltage is too low.
Current is directly proportional to voltage. If the applied voltage is too low then circuit current will be too low.

The circuit resistance is too high.

Current is inversely proportional to resistance. If circuit resistance is too high, circuit current will be too low.
25

Troubleshooting with Ohms Law: Current Too High

Ohms law tells us that there are two reasons why current may be too high. The applied voltage is too high.
Current is directly proportional to voltage. If the applied voltage is too high then circuit current will be too high.

The circuit resistance is too low.

Current is inversely proportional to resistance. If circuit resistance is too low, circuit current will be too high.
26

Summary of Ohms Law Relationships

This table summarizes the Ohms law relationships between voltage, current and resistance.

27

PLOTTING OHMS LAW

Graphs, characteristics, plots, and the like play an important role in every technical field as modes through which the broad picture of the behavior or response of a system can be conveniently displayed. It is therefore critical to develop the skills necessary both to read data and to plot them in such a manner that they can be interpreted easily.
28

PLOTTING OHMS LAW

FIG. 4.6 Plotting Ohms law.

29

PLOTTING OHMS LAW

FIG. 4.7 Demonstrating on an I-V plot that the lower the resistance, the steeper is the slope.

30

PLOTTING OHMS LAW

FIG. 4.8 Applying Eq. (4.7).

31

PLOTTING OHMS LAW

FIG. 4.9 Example 4.5.

32

PLOTTING OHMS LAW

This diode ideally acts as a lowresistance path to current in one direction and a high-resistance path to current in the reverse direction, much like a switch that passes current in only one direction.

33

PLOTTING OHMS LAW

FIG. 4.10 Semiconductor diode characteristics. 34

POWER
In general, the term power is applied to provide an indication of how much work (energy conversion) can be accomplished in a specified amount of time; that is, power is a rate of doing work.

35

POWER
Since energy is measured in joules (J) and time in seconds (s), power is measured in joules/second (J/s). The electrical unit of measurement for power is the watt (W), defined by:

36

POWER
In equation form, power is determined by:

37

POWER

FIG. 4.12 Defining the power to a resistive element.

FIG. 4.13 Example 4.6.

38

POWER
The power associated with any supply is not simply a function of the supply voltage. It is determined by the product of the supply voltage and its maximum current rating.

39

Calculating Power
The ampere is defined as
1 A = 1 coulomb per second

The volt is defined as

1 V = 1 joule per coulomb

If we multiply amperes times volts, the results is in joules per second, the unit of measure for power.

1Coulomb 1 Joule 1 joule / sec ond 1sec ond 1Coulomb

40

Watts Law
One form of Watts law can be stated as P I E.
For the circuit shown,

P I E 220 V 10 A 2.2 kW

41

Watts Law
Another form of Watts law is P = IE = IIR or P = I2R
For the circuit shown,

P I R (500 mA) 500 125W

42

Watts Law
The third form of Watts law is P = IE = (E/R)E or P = E2/R
For the circuit shown,

E 120V P 144W R 100

43

POWER

FIG. 4.14 The nonlinear I-V characteristics of a 75 W light bulb (Example 4.8).

44

Power & Heat

Energy can not be created or destroyed. It can only be converted into another form.
A toaster converts electrical energy into heat. A light bulb converts electrical energy into light. A motor converts electrical energy into mechanical energy (movement).

A device that converts energy from one form to another is called a transducer.

45

Power Conversion
Power, like energy, can be converted from one form to another.
A DC power supply converts AC power to DC power and then the DC load may convert the DC power into another form.

46

Resistor Power Ratings

Resistors dissipate power as heat.
The larger the resistor, the more heat it can dissipate. Standard resistor power ratings are 1 W, W, W, and 1/8 W.

47

Basic Circuit Calculations

There are six basic forms and Ohms Law and Watts Law:

E I R

E IR
E P R
2

E R I
P I R
48

P I E.

Finding the Right Equation

In some cases none of the six basic equations can be used to solve a circuit analysis problem.
When this is the case, you may have to rearrange one of the basic equations. For example, if voltage and power are known, and you wish to solve for resistance, find an equation with all the variables, and then rearrange it to solve for the unknown value.

E E P is transposed to R . R P

49

The Simplest Circuit

The simplest electrical circuit contains a source, a load, and the necessary conductors to connect them together.
The source supplies the power to the load. The load dissipates the power as heat, light, mechanical energy, or some other form.

50

Sources and Loads

A source can be as simple as a battery, or very complex.
A surround-sound receiver could be considered a source for the system speakers.

A load can also be simple or complex.

A laptop computer could be considered a load for its battery.

Whenever a load draws the maximum current from its source, this is considered 51 to be a full load.

Circuit Faults: The Open Circuit

An open circuit is a physical break in the conduction path.
Circuit resistance is close to infinite. Circuit current drops to zero.

52

The Open Circuit

The applied voltage is measured across the open component.

53

Circuit Faults: The Short Circuit

A short circuit is the opposite of an open. A short circuit is an unintentional lowresistance connection between two points.
This results in higher than normal current and usually results in a fuse opening or circuit breaker tripping.
54

ENERGY
For power, which is the rate of doing work, to produce an energy conversion of any form, it must be used over a period of time. The energy (W) lost or gained by any system is therefore determined by:

55

ENERGY

56

ENERGY
Note that the energy in kilowatthours is simply the energy in watthours divided by 1000. To develop some sense for the kilowatthour energy level, consider that 1 kWh is the energy dissipated by a 100 W bulb in 10 h. The kilowatthour meter is an instrument for measuring the energy supplied to the residential or commercial user of electricity.
57

ENERGY

FIG. 4.16 Kilowatthour meters: (a) analog; (b) digital. (Courtesy of ABB Electric Metering Systems.)

58

ENERGY

FIG. 4.17 Cost per kWh and average kWh per customer versus time. (Based on data from Edison Electric Institute.)

59

ENERGY

TABLE 4.1 Typical wattage ratings of some common household items.

60

Efficiency
The efficiency of a circuit is the ratio of input power to output power, usually expressed as a ratio. It is defined mathematically as

POUT 100% PIN

61

EFFICIENCY
A flowchart for the energy levels associated with any system that converts energy from one form to another is provided in Fig. 4.18. Note that the output energy level must always be less than the applied energy due to losses and storage within the system. The best one can hope for is that Wout and Win are relatively close in magnitude.
62

EFFICIENCY
Conservation of energy requires that
Energy input = energy output + energy lost or stored by the system

FIG. 4.18 Energy flow through a system.

63

EFFICIENCY

FIG. 4.19 Basic components of a generating system.

64

EFFICIENCY

FIG. 4.20 Cascaded system.

65

CIRCUIT BREAKERS, GFCIs, AND FUSES

The incoming power to any large industrial plant, heavy equipment, simple circuit in the home, or meters used in the laboratory must be limited to ensure that the current through the lines is not above the rated value. To limit the current level, fuses or circuit breakers are installed where the power enters the installation, such as in the panel in the basement of most homes at the point where the outside feeder lines enter the dwelling.
66

CIRCUIT BREAKERS, GFCIs, AND FUSES

FIG. 4.21 Fuses: (a) CC-TRON (010 A); (b) Semitron (0600 A); (c) subminiature surface-mount chip fuses.

67

CIRCUIT BREAKERS, GFCIs, AND FUSES In homes built in recent years, fuses have been replaced by circuit breakers. When the current exceeds rated conditions, an electromagnet in the device will have sufficient strength to draw the connecting metallic link in the breaker out of the circuit and open the current path.
68

CIRCUIT BREAKERS, GFCIs, AND FUSES

FIG. 4.22 Circuit breakers.

69

CIRCUIT BREAKERS, GFCIs, AND FUSES

The most recent National Electrical Code (NEC)/Philippine Electrical Code (PEC) requires that outlets in the bathroom and other sensitive areas be of the ground fault circuit interrupt (GFCI) variety; GFCIs are designed to trip more quickly than the standard circuit breaker.

FIG. 4.23 Ground fault circuit interrupter (GFCI): 125 V ac, 60 Hz, 15 A outlet. 70

Applications: Electric Lighting

Incandescent Lamp

71

Applications: Electric Lighting

Compact Fluorescent Lamp (CFL)

72 bulbs.com sciencetablets.blogspot.com

Applications: Electric Lighting

Light Emitting Diode (LED) Lamp

ecnmag.com

73

74 rootsbd.com

Applications: Electric Lighting

flexflireleds.com

75

Applications: Electric Lighting

spie.org

76

Applications: Electric Lighting

micro.rohm.com

77

APPLICATIONS
Microwave Oven

FIG. 4.26 Microwave oven. 78

APPLICATIONS
Household Wiring
The one specification that defines the overall system is the maximum current that can be drawn from the power lines since the voltage is fixed at 120 V or 240 V (sometimes 208 V). For most older homes with a heating system other than electric, a 100 A service is the norm. Today, with all the electronic systems becoming commonplace in the home, many people are opting for the 200 A service even if they do not have electric heat.

79

APPLICATIONS
Household Wiring

FIG. 4.27 200 A service conductors: (a) 4/0 aluminum and 2/0 copper; (b) three-wire 4/0 aluminum service.

80