GalileosLettertotheGrandDuchessChristina 1615

TotheMostSereneGrandDuchessMother: Someyearsago,asYourSereneHighnesswellknows,Idiscoveredintheheavensmanythings thathadnotbeenseenbeforeourownage.Thenoveltyofthesethings,aswellassome consequenceswhichfollowedfromthemincontradictiontothephysicalnotionscommonly heldamongacademicphilosophers,stirredupagainstmenosmallnumberofprofessorsasif Ihadplacedthesethingsintheskywithmyownhandsinordertoupsetnatureandoverturn thesciences.Theyseemedtoforgetthattheincreaseofknowntruthsstimulatesthe investigation,establishment,andgrowthofthearts;nottheirdiminutionordestruction. Showingagreaterfondnessfortheirownopinionsthanfortruththeysoughttodenyand disprovethenewthingswhich,iftheyhadcaredtolookforthemselves,theirownsenses wouldhavedemonstratedtothem.Tothisendtheyhurledvariouschargesandpublished numerouswritingsfilledwithvainarguments,andtheymadethegravemistakeofsprinkling thesewithpassagestakenfromplacesintheBiblewhichtheyhadfailedtounderstand properly,andwhichwereillsuitedtotheirpurposes. Thesemenwouldperhapsnothavefallenintosucherrorhadtheybutpaidattentiontoamost usefuldoctrineofSt.Augustines,relativetoourmakingpositivestatementsaboutthings whichareobscureandhardtounderstandbymeansofreasonalone.Speakingofacertain physicalconclusionabouttheheavenlybodies,hewrote: Nowkeepingalwaysourrespectformoderationingravepiety,weoughtnottobelieve anythinginadvisedlyonadubiouspoint,lestinfavortoourerrorweconceiveaprejudice againstsomethingthattruthhereaftermayrevealtobenotcontraryinanywaytothe sacredbooksofeithertheOldortheNewTestament. Well,thepassageoftimehasrevealedtoeveryonethetruthsthatIpreviouslysetforth;and, togetherwiththetruthofthefacts,therehascometolightthegreatdifferenceinattitude betweenthosewhosimplyanddispassionatelyrefusedtoadmitthediscoveriestobetrue,and thosewhocombinedwiththeirincredulitysomerecklesspassionoftheirown.Menwhowere wellgroundedinastronomicalandphysicalsciencewerepersuadedassoonastheyreceived myfirstmessage.Therewereotherswhodeniedthemorremainedindoubtonlybecauseof theirnovelandunexpectedcharacter,andbecausetheyhadnotyethadtheopportunitytosee forthemselves.Thesemenhavebydegreescometobesatisfied.Butsome,besidesallegiance totheiroriginalerror,possessIknownotwhatfancifulinterestinremaininghostilenotso muchtowardthethingsinquestionastowardtheirdiscoverer.Nolongerbeingabletodeny them,thesemennowtakerefugeinobstinatesilence,butbeingmorethaneverexasperated bythatwhichhaspacifiedandquietedothermen,theydiverttheirthoughtstootherfancies andseeknewwaystodamageme.

 Ishouldpaynomoreattentiontothemthantothosewhopreviouslycontradictedmeat whomIalwayslaugh,beingassuredoftheeventualoutcomewereitnotthatintheirnew calumniesandpersecutionsIperceivethattheydonotstopatprovingthemselvesmore learnedthanIam(aclaimwhichIscarcelycontest),butgosofarastocastagainstmethe imputationsofcrimeswhichmustbe,andare,moreabhorrenttomethandeathitself.Icannot remainsatisfiedmerelytoknowthattheinjusticeofthisisrecognizedbythosewhoare acquaintedwiththesemenandwithme,asperhapsitisnotknowntoothers. Persistingintheiroriginalresolvetodestroymeandeverythingminebyanymeanstheycan thinkof,thesemenareawareofmyviewsinastronomyandphilosophy.Theyknowthatasto thearrangementofthepartsoftheuniverse,Iholdthesuntobesituatedmotionlessinthe centeroftherevolutionofthecelestialorbswhiletheearthrevolvesaboutthesun.Theyknow alsothatIsupportthispositionnotonlybyrefutingtheargumentsofPtolemyandAristotle, butbyproducingmanycounterarguments;inparticular,somewhichrelatetophysicaleffects whosecausescanperhapsbeassignedinnootherway.Inadditionthereareastronomical argumentsderivedfrommanythingsinmynewcelestialdiscoveriesthatplainlyconfutethe Ptolemaicsystemwhileadmirablyagreeingwithandconfirmingthecontraryhypothesis. Possiblybecausetheyaredisturbedbytheknowntruthofotherpropositionsofminewhich differfromthosecommonlyheld,andthereforemistrustingtheirdefensesolongasthey confinethemselvestothefieldofphilosophy,thesemenhaveresolvedtofabricateashieldfor theirfallaciesoutofthemantleofpretendedreligionandtheauthorityoftheBible.Thesethey applywithlittlejudgementtotherefutationofargumentsthattheydonotunderstandand havenotevenlistenedto. Firsttheyhaveendeavoredtospreadtheopinionthatsuchpropositionsingeneralarecontrary totheBibleandareconsequentlydamnableandheretical.Theyknowthatitishumannature totakeupcauseswherebyamanmayoppresshisneighbor,nomatterhowunjustly,rather thanthosefromwhichamanmayreceivesomejustencouragement.Hencetheyhavehadno troubleinfindingmenwhowouldpreachthedamnabilityandheresyofthenewdoctrinefrom theirverypulpitswithunwontedconfidence,thusdoingimpiousandinconsiderateinjurynot onlytothatdoctrineanditsfollowersbuttoallmathematicsandmathematiciansingeneral. Next,becomingbolder,andhoping(thoughvainly)thatthisseedwhichfirsttookrootintheir hypocriticalmindswouldsendoutbranchesandascendtoheaven,theybeganscattering rumorsamongthepeoplethatbeforelongthisdoctrinewouldbecondemnedbythesupreme authority.Theyknow,too,thatofficialcondemnationwouldnotonlysuppressthetwo propositionswhichIhavementioned,butwouldrenderdamnableallotherastronomicaland physicalstatementsandobservationsthathaveanynecessaryrelationorconnectionwith these. Inordertofacilitatetheirdesigns,theyseeksofaraspossible(atleastamongthecommon people)tomakethisopinionseemnewandtobelongtomealone.Theypretendnottoknow thatitsauthor,orratheritsrestorerandconfirmer,wasNicholasCopernicus;andthathewas notonlyaCatholic,butapriestandacanon.Hewasinfactsoesteemedbythechurchthat

whentheLateranCouncilunderLeoXtookupthecorrectionofthechurchcalendar, CopernicuswascalledtoRomefromthemostremotepartsofGermanytoundertakeits reform.Atthattimethecalendarwasdefectivebecausethetruemeasuresoftheyearandthe lunarmonthwerenotexactlyknown.TheBishopofCulm,thensuperintendentofthismatter, assignedCopernicustoseekmorelightandgreatercertaintyconcerningthecelestialmotions bymeansofconstantstudyandlabor.WithHerculeantoilhesethisadmirablemindtothis task,andhemadesuchgreatprogressinthisscienceandbroughtourknowledgeofthe heavenlymotionstosuchprecisionthathebecamecelebratedasanastronomer.Sincethat timenotonlyhasthecalendarbeenregulatedbyhisteachings,buttablesofallthemotionsof theplanetshavebeencalculatedaswell. Havingreducedhissystemintosixbooks,hepublishedtheseattheinstanceoftheCardinalof CapuaandtheBishopofCulm.Andsincehehadassumedhislaboriousenterprisebyorderof thesupremepontiff,hededicatedthisbookOnthecelestialrevolutionstoPopePaulIII.When printed,thebookwasacceptedbytheholyChurch,andithasbeenreadandstudiedby everyonewithoutthefaintesthintofanyobjectioneverbeingconceivedagainstitsdoctrines. Yetnowthatmanifestexperiencesandnecessaryproofshaveshownthemtobewell grounded,personsexistwhowouldstriptheauthorofhisrewardwithoutsomuchaslooking athisbook,andaddtheshameofhavinghimpronouncedaheretic.Allthistheywoulddo merelytosatisfytheirpersonaldispleasureconceivedwithoutanycauseagainstanotherman, whohasnointerestinCopernicusbeyondapprovinghisteachings. Nowastothefalseaspersionswhichtheysounjustlyseektocastuponme,Ihavethoughtit necessarytojustifymyselfintheeyesofallmen,whosejudgmentinmattersofreligionandof reputationImustholdingreatesteem.Ishallthereforediscourseoftheparticularswhich thesemenproducetomakethisopiniondetestedandtohaveitcondemnednotmerelyas falsebutasheretical.Tothisendtheymakeashieldoftheirhypocriticalzealforreligion.They goaboutinvokingtheBible,whichtheywouldhaveministertotheirdeceitfulpurposes. ContrarytothesenseoftheBibleandtheintentionoftheholyFathers,ifIamnotmistaken, theywouldextendsuchauthoritiesuntilevenmpurelyphysicalmatterswherefaithisnot involvedtheywouldhaveusaltogetherabandonreasonandtheevidenceofoursensesin favorofsomebiblicalpassage,thoughunderthesurfacemeaningofitswordsthispassagemay containadifferentsense. IhopetoshowthatIproceedwithmuchgreaterpietythantheydo,whenIarguenotagainst condemningthisbook,butagainstcondemningitinthewaytheysuggestthatis,without understandingit,weighingit,orsomuchasreadingit.ForCopernicusneverdiscussesmatters ofreligionorfaith,nordoesheuseargumentthatdependinanywayupontheauthorityof sacredwritingswhichhemighthaveinterpretederroneously.Hestandsalwaysuponphysical conclusionspertainingtothecelestialmotions,anddealswiththembyastronomicaland geometricaldemonstrations,foundedprimarilyuponsenseexperiencesandveryexact observations.HedidnotignoretheBible,butheknewverywellthatifhisdoctrinewere proved,thenitcouldnotcontradicttheScriptureswhentheywererightlyunderstoodandthus attheendofhisletterofdedication.Addressingthepope,hesaid:

 Ifthereshouldchancetobeanyexegetesignorantofmathematicswhopretendtoskillin thatdiscipline,anddaretocondemnandcensurethishypothesisofmineuponthe authorityofsomescripturalpassagetwistedtotheirpurpose,Ivaluethemnot,butdisdain theirunconsideredjudgment.ForitisknownthatLactantiusapoormathematician thoughinotherrespectsaworthyauthorwritesverychildishlyabouttheshapeofthe earthwhenhescoffsatthosewhoaffirmittobeaglobe.Henceitshouldnotseemstrange totheingeniousifpeopleofthatsortshouldinturnderideme.Butmathematicsiswritten formathematicians,bywhom,ifIamnotdeceived,theselaborsofminewillberecognized ascontributingsomethingtotheirdomain,asalsotothatoftheChurchoverwhichYour Holinessnowreigns. SucharethepeoplewholabortopersuadeusthatanauthorlikeCopernicusmaybe condemnedwithoutbeingread,andwhoproducevariousauthoritiesfromtheBible,from theologians,andfromChurchCouncilstomakeusbelievethatthisisnotonlylawfulbut commendable.SinceIholdthesetobeofsupremeauthorityIconsideritranktemerityfor anyonetocontradictthemwhenemployedaccordingtotheusageoftheholyChurch.YetI donotbelieveitiswrongtospeakoutwhenthereisreasontosuspectthatothermenwish,for somepersonalmotive,toproduceandemploysuchauthoritiesforpurposesquitedifferent fromthesacredintentionoftheholyChurch. ThereforeIdeclare(andmysinceritywillmakeitselfmanifest)notonlythatImeantosubmit myselffreelyandrenounceanyerrorsintowhichImayfallinthisdiscoursethroughignorance ofmatterspertainingtoreligion,butthatIdonotdesireinthesematterstoengageindisputes withanyone,evenonpointsthataredisputable.Mygoalisthisalone;thatif,amongerrors thatmayaboundintheseconsiderationsofasubjectremotefrommyprofession,thereis anythingthatmaybeserviceabletotheholyChurchinmakingadecisionconcerningthe Copernicansystem,itmaybetakenandutilizedasseemsbesttothesuperiors.Andifnot,let mybookbetornandburnt,asIneitherintendnorpretendtogainfromitanyfruitthatisnot piousandCatholic.AndthoughmanyofthethingsIshallreprovehavebeenheardbymyown ears,Ishallfreelygranttothosewhohavespokenthemthattheyneversaidthem,ifthatis whattheywish,andIshallconfessmyselftohavebeenmistaken.HenceletwhateverIreplybe addressednottothem,buttowhoevermayhaveheldsuchopinions. Thereasonproducedforcondemningtheopinionthattheearthmovesandthesunstandsstill inmanyplacesintheBibleonemayreadthatthesunmovesandtheearthstandsstill.Since theBiblecannoterr;itfollowsasanecessaryconsequencethatanyonetakesaerroneousand hereticalpositionwhomaintainsthatthesunisinherentlymotionlessandtheearthmovable. Withregardtothisargument,Ithinkinthefirstplacethatitisverypioustosayandprudentto affirmthattheholyBiblecanneverspeakuntruthwheneveritstruemeaningisunderstood. ButIbelievenobodywilldenythatitisoftenveryabstruse,andmaysaythingswhicharequite differentfromwhatitsbarewordssignify.HenceinexpoundingtheBibleifonewerealwaysto confineoneselftotheunadornedgrammaticalmeaning,onemightfallintoerror.Notonly

contradictionsandpropositionsfarfromtruemightthusbemadetoappearintheBible,but evengraveheresiesandfollies.ThusitwouldbenecessarytoassigntoGodfeet,handsand eyes,aswellascorporealandhumanaffections,suchasanger,repentance,hatred,and sometimeseventheforgettingofthingspastandignoranceofthosetocome.These propositionsutteredbytheHolyGhostweresetdowninthatmannerbythesacredscribesin ordertoaccommodatethemtothecapacitiesofthecommonpeople,whoarerudeand unlearned.Forthesakeofthosewhodeservetobeseparatedfromtheherd,itisnecessary thatwiseexpositorsshouldproducethetruesensesofsuchpassages,togetherwiththespecial reasonsforwhichtheyweresetdowninthesewords.Thisdoctrineissowidespreadandso definitewithalltheologiansthatitwouldbesuperfluoustoadduceevidenceforit. HenceIthinkthatImayreasonablyconcludethatwhenevertheBiblehasoccasiontospeakof anyphysicalconclusion(especiallythosewhichareveryabstruseandhardtounderstand),the rulehasbeenobservedofavoidingconfusioninthemindsofthecommonpeoplewhichwould renderthemcontumacioustowardthehighermysteries.NowtheBible,merelytocondescend topopularcapacity,hasnothesitatedtoobscuresomeveryimportantpronouncements, attributingtoGodhimselfsomequalitiesextremelyremotefrom(andevencontraryto)His essence.Who,then,wouldpositivelydeclarethatthisprinciplehasbeensetaside,andthe Biblehasconfineditselfrigorouslytothebareandrestrictedsenseofitswords,whenspeaking butcasuallyoftheearth,ofwater,ofthesun,orofanyothercreatedthing?Especiallyinview ofthefactthatthesethingsinnowayconcerntheprimarypurposeofthesacredwritings, whichistheserviceofGodandthesalvationofsoulsmattersinfinitelybeyondthe comprehensionofthecommonpeople. Thisbeinggranted,Ithinkthatindiscussionsofphysicalproblemsweoughttobeginnotfrom theauthorityofscripturalpassagesbutfromsenseexperiencesandnecessarydemonstrations; fortheholyBibleandthephenomenaofnatureproceedalikefromthedivineWordtheformer asthedictateoftheHolyGhostandthelatterastheobservantexecutrixofGodscommands.It isnecessaryfortheBible,inordertobeaccommodatedtotheunderstandingofeveryman,to speakmanythingswhichappeartodifferfromtheabsolutetruthsofarasthebaremeaningof thewordsisconcerned.ButNature,ontheotherhand,isinexorableandimmutable;shenever transgressesthelawsimposeduponher,orcaresawhitwhetherherabstrusereasonsand methodsofoperationareunderstandabletomen.Forthatreasonitappearsthatnothing physicalwhichsenseexperiencesetsbeforeoureyes,orwhichnecessarydemonstrationsprove tous,oughttobecalledinquestion(muchlesscondemned)uponthetestimonyofbiblical passageswhichmayhavesomedifferentmeaningbeneaththeirwords.FortheBibleisnot chainedineveryexpressiontoconditionsasstrictasthosewhichgovernallphysicaleffects; norisGodanylessexcellentlyrevealedinNaturesactionsthaninthesacredstatementsofthe Bible.PerhapsthisiswhatTertullianmeantbythesewords: WeconcludethatGodisknownfirstthroughNature,andthenagain,moreparticularly,by doctrine,byNatureinHisworks,andbydoctrineinHisrevealedword.

FromthisIdonotmeantoinferthatweneednothaveanextraordinaryesteemforthe passagesofholyScripture.Onthecontrary,havingarrivedatanycertaintiesinphysics,we oughttoutilizetheseasthemostappropriateaidsinthetrueexpositionoftheBibleandinthe investigationofthosemeaningswhicharenecessarilycontainedtherein,forthesemustbe concordantwithdemonstratedtruths.IshouldjudgethattheauthorityoftheBiblewas designedtopersuademenofthosearticlesandpropositionswhich,surpassingallhuman reasoningcouldnotbemadecrediblebyscience,orbyanyothermeansthanthroughthevery mouthoftheHolySpirit. Yeteveninthosepropositionswhicharenotmattersoffaith,thisauthorityoughttobe preferredoverthatofallhumanwritingswhicharesupportedonlybybareassertionsor probablearguments,andnotsetforthinademonstrativeway.ThisIholdtobenecessaryand propertothesameextentthatdivinewisdomsurpassesallhumanjudgmentandconjecture. ButIdonotfeelobligedtobelievethatthesameGodwhohasendoweduswithsenses,reason andintellecthasintendedustoforegotheiruseandbysomeothermeanstogiveus knowledgewhichwecanattainbythem.Hewouldnotrequireustodenysenseandreasonin physicalmatterswhicharesetbeforeoureyesandmindsbydirectexperienceornecessary demonstrations.Thismustbeespeciallytrueinthosesciencesofwhichbutthefaintesttrace (andthatconsistingofconclusions)istobefoundintheBible.Ofastronomy;forinstance,so littleisfoundthatnoneoftheplanetsexceptVenusaresomuchasmentioned,andthisonly onceortwiceunderthenameofLucifer.Ifthesacredscribeshadhadanyintentionof teachingpeoplecertainarrangementsandmotionsoftheheavenlybodies,orhadtheywished ustoderivesuchknowledgefromtheBible,theninmyopiniontheywouldnothavespokenof thesematterssosparinglyincomparisonwiththeinfinitenumberofadmirableconclusions whicharedemonstratedinthatscience.Farfrompretendingtoteachustheconstitutionand motionsoftheheavensandotherstars,withtheirshapes,magnitudes,anddistances,the authorsoftheBibleintentionallyforboretospeakofthesethings,thoughallwerequitewell knowntothem.SuchistheopinionoftheholiestandmostlearnedFathers,andinSt. Augustinewefindthefollowingwords: Itislikewisecommonlyaskedwhatwemaybelieveabouttheformandshapeofthe heavensaccordingtotheScriptures,formanycontendmuchaboutthesematters.Butwith superiorprudenceourauthorshaveforbornetospeakofthis,asinnowayfurtheringthe studentwithrespecttoablessedlifeand,moreimportantstill,astakingupmuchofthat timewhichshouldbespentinholyexercises.Whatisittomewhetherheaven,likea spheresurroundstheearthonallsidesasamassbalancedinthecenteroftheuniverse,or whetherlikeadishitmerelycoversandovercaststheearth?BeliefinScriptureisurged ratherforthereasonwehaveoftenmentioned;thatis,inorderthatnoone,through ignoranceofdivinepassages,findinganythinginourBiblesorhearinganythingcitedfrom themofsuchanatureasmayseemtoopposemanifestconclusions,shouldbeinducedto suspecttheirtruthwhentheyteach,relate,anddelivermoreprofitablematters.Hencelet itbesaidbriefly,touchingtheformofheaven,thatourauthorsknewthetruthbuttheHoly Spiritdidnotdesirethatmenshouldlearnthingsthatareusefultonooneforsalvation.

 Thesamedisregardofthesesacredauthorstowardbeliefsaboutthephenomenaofthe celestialbodiesisrepeatedtousbySt.Augustineinhisnextchapter.Onthequestionwhether wearetobelievethattheheavenmovesorstandsstill,hewritesthus: Someofthebrethrenraiseaquestionconcerningthemotionofheaven,whetheritisfixed ormoved.Ifitismoved,theysay,howisitafirmament?Ifitstandsstill,howdothesestars whichareheldfixedinitgoroundfromeasttowest,themorenortherlyperforming shortercircuitsnearthepole,sothattheheaven(ifthereisanotherpoleunknowntous) mayseemtorevolveuponsomeaxis,or(ifthereisnootherpole)maybethoughttomove asadiscus?TothesemenIreplythatitwouldrequiremanysubtleandprofound reasoningstofindoutwhichofthesethingsisactuallyso;buttoundertakethisanddiscuss itisconsistentneitherwithmyleisurenorwiththedutyofthosewhomIdesiretoinstruct inessentialmattersmoredirectlyconducingtotheirsalvationandtothebenefitoftheholy Church. Fromthesethingsitfollowsasanecessaryconsequencethat,sincetheHolyGhostdidnot intendtoteachuswhetherheavenmovesorstandsstill,whetheritsshapeissphericalorlikea discusorextendedinaplane,norwhethertheearthislocatedatitscenterorofftooneside, thensomuchthelesswasitintendedtosettleforusanyotherconclusionofthesamekind. Andthemotionorrestoftheearthandthesunissocloselylinkedwiththethingsjustnamed, thatwithoutadeterminationoftheone,neithersidecanbetakenintheothermatters.Nowif theHolySpirithaspurposelyneglectedtoteachuspropositionsofthissortasirrelevanttothe highestgoal(thatis,tooursalvation),howcananyoneaffirmthatitisobligatorytotakesides onthem,thatonebeliefisrequiredbyfaith,whiletheothersideiserroneous?Cananopinion behereticalandyethavenoconcernwiththesalvationofsouls?CantheHolyGhostbe assertednottohaveintendedteachingussomethingthatdoesconcernoursalvation?Iwould sayheresomethingthatwasheardfromanecclesiasticofthemosteminentdegree:Thatthe intentionoftheHolyGhostistoteachushowonegoestoheaven,nothowheavengoes. Butletusagainconsiderthedegreetowhichnecessarydemonstrationsandsenseexperiences oughttoberespectedinphysicalconclusions,andtheauthoritytheyhaveenjoyedatthehands ofholyandlearnedtheologians.FromamongahundredattestationsIhaveselectedthe following: Wemustalsotakeheed,inhandlingthedoctrineofMoses,thatwealtogetheravoidsaying positivelyandconfidentlyanythingwhichcontradictsmanifestexperiencesandthe reasoningofphilosophyortheothersciences.Forsinceeverytruthisinagreementwithall othertruth,thetruthofHolyWritcannotbecontrarytothesolidreasonsandexperiences ofhumanknowledge. AndinSt.Augustineweread:

IfanyoneshallsettheauthorityofHolyWritagainstclearandmanifestreason,hewho doesthisknowsnotwhathehasundertaken;forheopposestothetruthnotthemeaning oftheBible,whichisbeyondhiscomprehension,butratherhisowninterpretation,not whatisintheBible,butwhathehasfoundinhimselfandimaginestobethere. Thisgranted,anditbeingtruethattwotruthscannotcontradictoneanother,itisthefunction ofexpositorstoseekoutthetruesensesofscripturaltexts.Thesewillunquestionablyaccord withthephysicalconclusionswhichmanifestsenseandnecessarydemonstrationshave previouslymadecertaintous.NowtheBible,ashasbeenremarked,admitsinmanyplaces expositionsthatareremotefromthesignificationofthewordsforreasonswehavealready given.Moreover,weareunabletoaffirmthatallinterpretersoftheBiblespeakbyDivine inspirationforifthatweresotherewouldexistnodifferencesamongthemaboutthesenseof agivenpassage.HenceIshouldthinkitwouldbethepartofprudencenottopermitanyoneto usurpscripturaltextsandforcetheminsomewaytomaintainanyphysicalconclusiontobe true,whenatsomefuturetimethesensesanddemonstrativeornecessaryreasonsmayshow thecontrary.Whoindeedwillsetboundstohumaningenuity?Whowillassertthateverything intheuniversecapableofbeingperceivedisalreadydiscoveredandknown?Letusrather confessquitetrulythatThosetruthswhichweknowareveryfewincomparisonwiththose whichwedonotknow. WehaveitfromtheverymouthoftheHolyGhostthatGoddelivereduptheworldto disputations,sothatmancannotfindouttheworkthatGodhathdonefromthebeginning eventotheend.Inmyopinionnoone,incontradictiontothatdictum,shouldclosetheroadto freephilosophizingaboutmundaneandphysicalthings,asifeverythinghadalreadybeen discoveredandrevealedwithcertainty.Norshoulditbeconsideredrashnottobesatisfied withthoseopinionswhichhavebecomecommon.Nooneshouldbescornedinphysical disputesfornotholdingtotheopinionswhichhappentopleaseotherpeoplebest,especially concerningproblemswhichhavebeendebatedamongthegreatestphilosophersforthousands ofyears.Oneoftheseisthestabilityofthesunmobilityoftheearth,adoctrinebelievedby Pythagorasandallhisfollowers,byHeracleidesofPontus(whowasoneofthem),byPhilolaus, theteacherofPlato,andbyPlatohimselfaccordingtoAristotle.PlutarchwritesinhisLifeof NumathatPlato,whenhehadgrownold,saiditwasabsurdtobelieveotherwise.Thesame doctrinewasheldbyAristarchusofSamos,asArchimedestellsus;bySeleucusthe mathematician,byNicetasthephilosopher(onthetestimonyofCicero),andbymanyothers. Finallythisopinionhasbeenamplifiedandconfirmedwithmanyobservationsand demonstrationsbyNicholasCopernicus.AndSeneca,amosteminentphilosopher,advisesusin hisbookoncometsthatweshouldmorediligentlyseektoascertainwhetheritisintheskyor intheearththatthediurnalrotationresides. Henceitwouldprobablybewiseandusefulcounselif,beyondarticleswhichconcernsalvation andtheestablishmentofourFaith,againstthestabilityofwhichthereisnodangerwhatever thatanyvalidandeffectivedoctrinecaneverarise,menwouldnotaggregatefurtherarticles unnecessarily.Anditwouldcertainlybepreposteroustointroducethemattherequestof persons,who,besidesnotbeingknowntospeakbyinspirationofdivinegrace,areclearlyseen

tolackthatunderstandingwhichisnecessaryinordertocomprehend,letalonediscuss,the demonstrationsbywhichsuchconclusionsaresupportedinthesubtlersciences.IfImayspeak myopinionfreely,Ishouldsayfurtherthatitwouldperhapsfitinbetterwiththedecorumand majestyofthesacredwritingstotakemeasuresforpreventingeveryshallowandvulgarwriter fromgivingtohiscompositions(oftengroundeduponfoolishfancies)anairofauthorityby insertinginthempassagesfromtheBible,interpreted(orratherdistorted)intosensesasfar fromtherightmeaningofScriptureasthoseauthorsareneartoabsurditywhothus ostentatiouslyadorntheirwritings.Ofsuchabusesmanyexamplesmightbeproduced,butfor thepresentIshallconfinemyselftotwowhicharegermanetotheseastronomicalmatters.The firstconcernsthosewritingswhichwerepublishedagainsttheexistenceoftheMedicean planetsrecentlydiscoveredbyme,inwhichmanypassagesofholyScripturewerecited.Now thateveryonehasseentheseplanets,Ishouldliketoknowwhatnewinterpretationsthose sameantagonistsemployinexpoundingtheScriptureandexcusingtheirownsimplicity.My otherexampleisthatofamanwhohaslatelypublished,indefianceofastronomersand philosophers,theopinionthatthemoondoesnotreceiveitslightfromthesunbutisbrilliant byitsownnature.Hesupportsthisfancy(orratherthinkshedoes)bysundrytextsofScripture whichhebelievescannotbeexplainedunlesshistheoryistrue;yetthatthemoonisinherently darkissurelyasplainasdaylight. Itisobviousthatsuchauthors,nothavingpenetratedthetruesensesofScripture,would imposeuponothersanobligationtosubscribetoconclusionsthatarerepugnanttomanifest reasonandsense,iftheyhadanyauthoritytodoso.Godforbidthatthissortofabuseshould gaincountenanceandauthority,fortheninashorttimeitwouldbenecessarytoproscribeall thecontemplativesciences.PeoplewhoareunabletounderstandperfectlyboththeBibleand thesciencefaroutnumberthosewhodounderstandthem.Theformer,glancingsuperficially throughtheBible,wouldarrogatetothemselvestheauthoritytodecreeuponeveryquestion ofphysicsonthestrengthofsomewordwhichtheyhavemisunderstood,andwhichwas employedbythesacredauthorsforsomedifferentpurpose.Andthesmallernumberof understandingmencouldnotdamupthefurioustorrentofsuchpeople,whowouldgainthe majorityoffollowerssimplybecauseitismuchmorepleasanttogainareputationforwisdom withouteffortorstudythantoconsumeoneselftirelesslyinthemostlaboriousdisciplines.Let usthereforerenderthankstoAlmightyGod,whoinHisbeneficenceprotectsusfromthis dangerbydeprivingsuchpersonsofallauthority,reposingthepowerofconsultation,decision, anddecreeonsuchimportantmattersinthehighwisdomandbenevolenceofmostprudent Fathers,andinthesupremeauthorityofthosewhocannotfailtoordermattersproperlyunder theguidanceoftheHolyGhost.Henceweneednotconcernourselveswiththeshallownessof thosemenwhomgraveandholyauthorsrightlyreproach,andofwhominparticularSt.Jerome said,inreferencetotheBible: Thisisventuredupon,lacerated,andtaughtbythegarrulousoldwoman,thedotingold man,andtheprattlingsophistbeforetheyhavelearnedit.Others,ledonbypride,weigh heavywordsandphilosophizeamongstwomenconcerningholyScripture.Othersoh shame!learnfromwomenwhattheyteachtomen,and(asifthatwerenotenough)glibly expoundtoothersthatwhichtheythemselvesdonotunderstand.Iforebeartospeakof

thoseofmyownprofessionwho,attainingaknowledgeoftheholyScripturesafter mundanelearning,tickletheearsofthepeoplewithaffectedandstudiedexpressions,and declarethateverythingtheysayistobetakenasthelawofGod.Notbotheringtolearn whattheprophetsandtheapostleshavemaintained,theywrestincongruoustestimonies intotheirownsensesasifdistortingpassagesandtwistingtheBibletotheirindividualand contradictorywhimswerethegenuinewayofteaching,andnotacorruptone. IdonotwishtoplaceinthenumberofsuchlaywriterssometheologianswhomIconsidermen ofprofoundlearninganddevoutbehavior,andwhoarethereforeheldbymeingreatesteem andvenerationYetIcannotdenythatIfeelsomediscomfortwhichIshouldliketohave removed,whenIhearthempretendtothepowerofconstrainingothersbyscripturalauthority tofollowinaphysicaldisputethatopinionwhichtheythinkbestagreeswiththeBible,and thenbelievethemselvesnotboundtoanswertheopposingreasonsandexperiences.In explanationandsupportofthisopiniontheysaythatsincetheologyisqueenofallthesciences, sheneednotbendinanywaytoaccommodateherselftotheteachingsoflessworthysciences whicharesubordinatetoher;theseothersmustratherbereferredtoherastheirsupreme empress,changingandalteringtheirconclusionsaccordingtoherstatutesanddecrees.They addfurtherthatifintheinferiorsciencesanyconclusionshouldbetakenascertaininvirtueof demonstrationsorexperiences,whileintheBibleanotherconclusionisfoundrepugnantto this,thentheprofessorsofthatscienceshouldthemselvesundertaketoundotheirproofsand discoverthefallaciesintheirownexperiences,withoutbotheringthetheologiansandexegetes. For,theysay,itdoesnotbecomethedignityoftheologytostooptotheinvestigationof fallaciesinthesubordinatesciences;itissufficientforhermerelytodeterminethetruthofa givenconclusionwithabsoluteauthority,secureinherinabilitytoerr. NowthephysicalconclusionsinwhichtheysayweoughttobesatisfiedbyScripture,without glossingorexpoundingitinsensesdifferentfromtheliteral,arethoseconcerningwhichthe BiblealwaysspeaksinthesamemannerandwhichtheholyFathersallreceiveandexpoundin thesameway.ButwithregardtothesejudgmentsIhavehadoccasiontoconsiderseveral things,andIshallsetthemforthinorderthatImaybecorrectedbythosewhounderstand morethanIdointhesemattersfortotheirdecisionsIsubmitatalltimes. FirstIquestionwhetherthereisnotsomeequivocationinfailingtospecifythevirtueswhich entitlesacredtheologytothetitleofqueen.Itmightdeservethatnamebyreasonof includingeverythingthatisincludedfromalltheothersciencesandestablishingeverythingby bettermethodsandwithprofounderlearning.Itisthus,forexample,thattherulesfor measuringfieldsandkeepingaccountsaremuchmoreexcellentlycontainedinarithmeticand inthegeometryofEuclidthaninthepracticesofsurveyorsandaccountants.Ortheologymight bequeenbecauseofbeingoccupiedwithasubjectwhichexcelsindignityallthesubjectswhich composetheothersciences,andbecauseherteachingsaredivulgedinmoresublimeways. Thatthetitleandauthorityofqueenbelongstotheologyinthefirstsense,Ithink,willnotbe affirmedbytheologianswhohaveanyskillintheothersciences.Noneofthese,Ithink,willsay thatgeometry,astronomy,music,andmedicinearemuchmoreexcellentlycontainedinthe

BiblethantheyareinthebooksofArchimedes,Ptolemy,Boethius,andGalen.Henceitseems likelythatregalpreeminenceisgiventotheologyinthesecondsense;thatis,byreasonofits subjectandthemiraculouscommunicationofdivinerevelationofconclusionswhichcouldnot beconceivedbymeninanyotherway,concerningchieflytheattainmentofeternal blessedness. Letusgrantthenthattheologyisconversantwiththeloftiestdivinecontemplation,and occupiestheregalthroneamongsciencesbydignityButacquiringthehighestauthorityinthis way,lfshedoesnotdescendtothelowerandhumblerspeculationsofthesubordinate sciencesandhasnoregardforthembecausetheyarenotconcernedwithblessedness,then herprofessorsshouldnotarrogatetothemselvestheauthoritytodecideoncontroversiesin professionswhichtheyhaveneitherstudiednorpracticed.Why,thiswouldbeasifanabsolute despot,beingneitheraphysiciannoranarchitectbutknowinghimselffreetocommand, shouldundertaketoadministermedicinesanderectbuildingsaccordingtohiswhimatgrave perilofhispoorpatientslives,andthespeedycollapseofhisedifices. Again,tocommandthattheveryprofessorsofastronomythemselvesseetotherefutationof theirownobservationsandproofsasmerefallaciesandsophismsistoenjoinsomethingthat liesbeyondanypossibilityofaccomplishment.Forthiswouldamounttocommandingthatthey mustnotseewhattheyseeandmustnotunderstandwhattheyknow,andthatinsearching theymustfindtheoppositeofwhattheyactuallyencounter.Beforethiscouldbedonethey wouldhavetobetaughthowtomakeonementalfacultycommandanother,andtheinferior powersthesuperior,sothattheimaginationandthewillmightbeforcedtobelievethe oppositeofwhattheintellectunderstands.Iamreferringatalltimestomerelyphysical propositions,andnottosupernaturalthingswhicharemattersoffaith. IentreatthosewiseandprudentFatherstoconsiderwithgreatcarethedifferencethatexists betweendoctrinessubjecttoproofandthosesubjecttoopinion.Consideringtheforceexerted bylogicaldeductions,theymayascertainthatitisnotinthepoweroftheprofessorsof demonstrativesciencestochangetheiropinionsatwillandapplythemselvesfirsttooneside andthentotheother.Thereisagreatdifferencebetweencommandingamathematicianora philosopherandinfluencingalawyeroramerchant,fordemonstratedconclusionsaboutthings innatureorintheheavenscannotbechangedwiththesamefacilityasopinionsaboutwhatis orisnotlawfulinacontract,bargain,orbillofexchange.Thisdifferencewaswellunderstood bythelearnedandholyFathers,asprovenbytheirhavingtakengreatpainsinrefuting philosophicalfallacies.Thismaybefoundexpresslyinsomeofthem;inparticular,wefindthe followingwordsofSt.Augustine: Itistobeheldasanunquestionabletruththatwhateverthesagesofthisworldhave demonstratedconcerningphysicalmattersisinnowaycontrarytoourBibles,hence whateverthesagesteachintheirbooksthatiscontrarytotheholyScripturesmaybe concludedwithoutanyhesitationtobequitefalse.Andaccordingtoourabilityletusmake thisevident,andletuskeepthefaithofourLord,inwhomarehiddenallthetreasuresof

wisdomsothatweneitherbecomeseducedbytheverbiageoffalsephilosophynor frightenedbythesuperstitionofcounterfeitreligion. FromtheabovewordsIconceivethatImaydeducethisdoctrine:thatinthebooksofthesages ofthisworldtherearecontainedsomephysicaltruthswhicharesoundlydemonstrated,and othersthataremerelystated;astotheformer,itistheofficeofwisedivinestoshowthatthey donotcontradicttheholyScriptures.Andastothepropositionswhicharestatedbutnot rigorouslydemonstrated,anythingcontrarytotheBibleinvolvedbythemmustbeheld undoubtedlyfalseandshouldbeprovedsobyeverypossiblemeans. Nowiftrulydemonstratedphysicalconclusionsneednotbesubordinatedtobiblicalpassages, butthelattermustratherbeshownnottointerferewiththeformer,thenbeforeaphysical propositioniscondemneditmustbeshowntobenotrigorouslydemonstratedandthisisto bedonenotbythosewhoholdthepropositiontobetrue,butbythosewhojudgeittobefalse. Thisseemsveryreasonableandnatural,forthosewhobelieveanargumenttobefalsemay muchmoreeasilyfindthefallaciesinitthanmenwhoconsiderittobetrueandconclusive. Indeed,inthelattercaseitwillhappenthatthemoretheadherentsofanopinionturnover theirpages,examinethearguments,repeattheobservations,andcomparetheexperiences, themoretheywillbeconfirmedinthatbelief.AndYourHighnessknowswhathappenedtothe latemathematicianoftheUniversityofPisawhoundertookinhisoldagetolookintothe Copernicandoctrineinthehopeofshakingitsfoundationsandrefutingit,sinceheconsidered itfalseonlybecausehehadneverstudiedit.Asitfellout,nosoonerhadheunderstoodits grounds,procedures,anddemonstrationsthanhefoundhimselfpersuaded,andfroman opponenthebecameaverystaunchdefenderofit.Imightalsonameothermathematicians who,movedbymylatestdiscoveries,haveconfesseditnecessarytoalterthepreviously acceptedsystemoftheworld,asthisissimplyunabletosubsistanylonger. Ifinordertobanishtheopinioninquestionfromtheworlditweresufficienttostopthemouth ofasinglemanasperhapsthosemenpersuadethemselveswho,measuringthemindsof othersbytheirown,thinkitimpossiblethatthisdoctrineshouldbeabletocontinuetofind adherentsthenthatwouldbeveryeasilydone.Butthingsstandotherwise.Tocarryoutsuch adecisionitwouldbenecessarynotonlytoprohibitthebookofCopernicusandthewritingsof otherauthorswhofollowthesameopinion,buttobanthewholescienceofastronomy. Furthermore,itwouldbenecessarytoforbidmentolookattheheavens,inorderthatthey mightnotseeMarsandVenussometimesquiteneartheearthandsometimesverydistant,the variationbeingsogreatthatVenusisfortytimesandMarssixtytimesaslargeatonetimeasat another.AnditwouldbenecessarytopreventVenusbeingseenroundatonetimeandforked atanother,withverythinhorns;aswellasmanyothersensoryobservationswhichcannever bereconciledwiththePtolemaicsysteminanyway,butareverystrongargumentsforthe Copernican.AndtobanCopernicusnowthathisdoctrineisdailyreinforcedbymanynew observationsandbythelearnedapplyingthemselvestothereadingofhisbook,afterthis opinionhasbeenallowedandtoleratedforthesemanyyearsduringwhichitwaslessfollowed andlessconfirmed,wouldseeminmyjudgmenttobeacontraventionoftruth,andanattempt tohideandsuppressherthemoreassherevealedherselfthemoreclearlyandplainly.Notto

abolishandcensurehiswholebook,butonlytocondemnaserroneousthisparticular proposition,would(ifIamnotmistaken)beastillgreaterdetrimenttothemindsofmen,since itwouldaffordthemoccasiontoseeapropositionprovedthatitwasheresytobelieve.Andto prohibitthewholesciencewouldbetocensureahundredpassagesofholyScripturewhich teachusthatthegloryandgreatnessofAlmightyGodaremarvelouslydiscernedinallhisworks anddivinelyreadintheopenbookofheaven.Forletnoonebelievethatreadingthelofty conceptswritteninthatbookleadstonothingfurtherthanthemereseeingofthesplendorof thesunandthestarsandtheirrisingandsetting,whichisasfarastheeyesofbrutesandofthe vulgarcanpenetrate.Withinitspagesarecouchedmysteriessoprofoundandconceptsso sublimethatthevigils,labors,andstudiesofhundredsuponhundredsofthemostacuteminds havestillnotpiercedthem,evenafterthecontinualinvestigationsforthousandsofyears.The eyesofanidiotperceivelittlebybeholdingtheexternalappearanceofahumanbody,as comparedwiththewonderfulcontrivanceswhichacarefulandpracticedanatomistor philosopherdiscoversinthatsamebodywhenheseeksouttheuseofallthosemuscles, tendons,nerves,andbones;orwhenexaminingthefunctionsoftheheartandtheother principalorgans,heseekstheseatofthevitalfaculties,notesandobservestheadmirable structureofthesenseorgans,and(withouteverceasinginhisamazementanddelight) contemplatesthereceptaclesoftheimagination,thememory,andtheunderstanding. Likewise,thatwhichpresentsitselftomeresightisasnothingincomparisonwiththehigh marvelsthattheingenuityoflearnedmendiscoversintheheavensbylongandaccurate observation.... YourHighnessmaythusseehowirregularlythosepersonsproceedwhoinphysicaldisputes arrangescripturalpassages(andoftenthoseillunderstoodbythem)inthefrontrankoftheir arguments.Ifthesemenreallybelievethemselvestohavethetruesenseofagivenpassage,it necessarilyfollowsthattheybelievetheyhaveinhandtheabsolutetruthoftheconclusion theyintendtodebate.Hencetheymustknowthattheyenjoyagreatadvantageovertheir opponents,whoselotitistodefendthefalseposition;andhewhomaintainsthetruthwill havemanysenseexperiencesandrigorousproofsonhisside,whereashisantagonistcannot makeuseofanythingbutillusoryappearances,quibbles,andfallacies.Nowifthesemenknow theyhavesuchadvantagesovertheenemyevenwhentheystaywithinproperboundsand producenoweaponsotherthanthosepropertophilosophy,whydothey,inthethickofthe battle,betakethemselvestoadreadfulweaponwhichcannotbeturnedaside,andseekto vanquishtheopponentbymerelyexhibitingit?IfImayspeakfrankly,Ibelievetheyhave themselvesbeenvanquished,and,feelingunabletostandupagainsttheassaultsofthe adversary,theyseekwaysofholdinghimoff.Tothatendtheywouldforbidhimtheuseof reason,divinegiftofProvidence,andwouldabusethejustauthorityofholyScripturewhich, inthegeneralopinionoftheologians,canneveropposemanifestexperiencesandnecessary demonstrationswhenrightlyunderstoodandapplied.IfIamcorrect,itwillstandtheminno steadtogorunningtotheBibletocoveruptheirinabilitytounderstand(letaloneresolve) theiropponentsarguments,fortheopinionwhichtheyfighthasneverbeencondemnedby theholyChurch.Iftheywishtoproceedinsincerity,theyshouldbysilenceconfessthemselves unabletodealwithsuchmatters.Letthemfreelyadmitthatalthoughtheymayarguethata positionisfalse,itisnotintheirpowertocensureapositionaserroneousorinthepowerof

anyoneexcepttheSupremePontiff,ortheChurchCouncils.Reflectinguponthis,andknowing thatapropositioncannotbebothtrueandheretical,letthememploythemselvesinthe businesswhichispropertothem;namely,demonstratingitsfalsity.Andwhenthatisrevealed, eithertherewillnolongerbeanynecessitytoprohibitit(sinceitwillhavenofollowers),orelse itmaysafelybeprohibitedwithouttheriskofanyscandal. Thereforeletthesemenbegintoapplythemselvestoanexaminationoftheargumentsof Copernicusandothers,leavingcondemnationofthedoctrineaserroneousandhereticaltothe properauthorities.AmongthecircumspectandmostwiseFathers,andintheabsolutewisdom ofonewhocannoterr,theymayneverhopetofindtherashdecisionsintowhichtheyallow themselvestobehurriedbysomeparticularpassionorpersonalinterest.Withregardtothis opinion,andotherswhicharenotdirectlymattersoffaith,certainlynoonedoubtsthatthe SupremePontiffhasalwaysanabsolutepowertoapproveorcondemn;butitisnotinthe power:ofanycreatedbeingtomakethingstrueorfalse,forthisbelongstotheirownnature andtothefact.Thereforeinmyjudgmentoneshouldfirstbeassuredofthenecessaryand immutabletruthofthefact,overwhichnomanhaspower.Thisiswisercounselthanto condemneithersideintheabsenceofsuchcertainty,thusdeprivingoneselfofcontinued authorityandabilitytochoosebydeterminingthingswhicharenowundeterminedandopen andstilllodgedinthewillofsupremeauthority.Andinbrief,ifitisimpossibleforaconclusion tobedeclaredhereticalwhileweremainindoubtastoitstruth,thenthesemenarewasting theirtimeclamoringforcondemnationofthemotionoftheearthandstabilityofthesun, whichtheyhavenotyetdemonstratedtobeimpossibleorfalse.