Growth Pole Theory - Perroux

LST. LCON., SAO PAULO, J. 33, N. 1, P.
, }ANLIBO-MABO 2003
Dcvclopmcnt Polc Thcory and
thc Brazilian Amazon
Maa|c|e Aga|a Sea Departamento de Lconomla - Unlversldade Pedera| do Parana
FS\M
A Amazen|a |as||e|a, |nc|a|menre a saa are e|enra|, sejea ama s|gn|j|canre ransje-
mae em decenc|a das e||r|cas de desenze|z|menre eg|ena| |m|emenradas a ar| de
ge|e m|||ra de !94. 0e jare, esras e||r|cas de desenze|z|menre, qae jeam ejandamen-
re |nj|aenc|adas e|a ree|a des |es de desenze|z|menre, geaam |macres sec|a|s e
am||enra|s adzeses. sre ar|ge mesra ceme a ree|a des |es de desenze|z|menre,
e|a|eada e|e ecenem|sra jancs |ane|s Peeax, me|dea ranre a jema|ae qaanre a
a||cae das e||r|cas eg|ena|s de desenze|z|menre. 0 agamenre cenra| qae esra ree|a
ze|e a se ama asr|j|car|za re|ca cenzen|enre aa es e|er|zes geee||r|ces esec|j|ces
(|nregae nac|ena| e ecaae da Amazen|a} e ecenem|ces de eg|me m|||ra.
PAA\FAS-C!A\
|es de desenze|z|menre, e||r|cas de desenze|z|menre eg|ena|, Peeax, Amazen|a
ABS1FAC1
7he az|||an Amazen, esec|a||j rhe asren eg|en, has andegene a dee ransjemar|en
dae re rhe |m|emenrar|en ej eg|ena| deze|emenr e||c|es |j esr-!94 m|||raj-|ac|ed
gezenmenrs. |n jacr, rhese deze|emenr e||c|es, wh|ch wee |nj|aenced |j deze|emenr
e|e rheej, haze had negar|ze sec|a| and enz|enmenra| censeqaences. 7h|s ar|c|e shews
hew deze|emenr e|e rheej, e|a|eared |j rhe |ench ecenem|sr, |ane|s Peeax,
shaed e||cj jema|ar|en and a||car|en. 7he cenra| agamenr |s rhar deze|emenr e|e
rheej shewed re |e a cenzen|enr rheeer|ca| asr|j|car|en je rhe sec|j|c geee||r|ca|
(nar|ena| |nregar|en and eccaar|en ej Amazen|a} and ecenem|c e|ecr|zes ej rhe m|||raj
eg|me.
KY WFS
deze|emenr e|es, eg|ena| deze|emenr e||c|es, Peeax, Amazen|a
] Classilicarion
020, R58
2 Dr|(mn/ P| T/r; cn4 // Brc:/|/cn Amc:n
L/. n., Sc Pcu|, 33(1), jcn-mcr 2003
INTBODUCTION
1lc Brazilian dcvclopmcnr policics wcrc lcavily inllucnccd Ly Pcrroux's
dcvclopmcnr polc rlcory, as irs prcscncc in mosr narional plans rcsrilics.
1lc main rcason lor irs widc acccprancc lics in rlc lacr rlar rlc rlcory`s
undcrlying idca suggcsrcd rlar cconomic growrl, inrcrrcgional cquiliLrium
and inrcgrarion ol Lackward rcgions could Lc aclicvcd rlrougl a srrarcgy
ol dcccnrraliscd dcvclopmcnr. 1lis idca slowcd ro Lc a convcnicnr
rlcorcrical jusrilicarion nor only lor rlc gcopolirical (narional inrcgrarion
and occuparion ol Amazonia) Lur also lor cconomic (accclcrarcd cconomic
growrl) oLjccrivcs ol rlc milirary rcgimc. !n rclarion ro Amazonia, rlis
rcgion, wirl irs grcar porcnrial ol narural rcsourccs and vasr arcas ol
unpopularcd land, was rcgardcd Ly rlc milirary govcrnmcnrs as a mcans ol
rapidly rackling rlosc oLjccrivcs. !n rlis rcgard, dcvclopmcnr polc srrarcgics
wcrc vigorously implcmcnrcd Ly rlc cdcral govcrnmcnr rlrougl rlc PN
!!
1
(175-7) and rlcy conrinucd wirl rlc advcnr ol rlc PGC
2
in rlc 180s.
1lis arriclc aims ro analysc rlc dcvclopmcnr polc srrarcgics implcmcnrcd
in rlc Amazon rcgion, Lur locusing on rlc assumprions Lclind rlis rlcory
wirl rcspccr ro rlc Lcnclicial sprcad cllccrs, wlicl wcrc supposcd ro Lc
gcncrarcd Ly sucl induccd polcs ro rlcir pcriplcral arcas. According ro
rlis gcncral oLjccrivc, rlc arriclc is dividcd inro livc sccrions organiscd as
lollow. An lisrorical Lackground ol Pcrroux's work is providcd in rlc lirsr
sccrion wirl rlc clcar purposc ol undcrsranding lis rlcory. !n rlc sccond
sccrion, rlc conccpr ol dcvclopmcnr polc is cxamincd in ordcr ro slow
somc inconsisrcncics and conrriLurions ol Pcrroux's rlcory. 1lc main
oLjccrivc ol rlc rlird sccrion is ro slow rlc inllucncc ol Pcrroux's
1 PN !! - 1lc Sccond Narional cvclopmcnr Plan (Scgundo Plano Nacional dc cscnvolvi-
mcnro).
2 PGC - 1lc Grcarcr Carajas Programmc. 1lc PGC was rlc largcsr and mosr amLirious ìnrcgrarcd`
dcvclopmcnr plan cvcr dcviscd and implcmcnrcd lor na arca ol rropical rainlorcsr. 1lis programmc
compriscd lour main projccrs. an iron-orc minc (rlc Carajas Projccr), wlicl was rlc PGCs
ccnrcrpiccc; rwo aluminium planrs; rlc ABFAS-A\NF1 complcx and A\MAF; and
rlc 1ucurui lydroclccrric sclcmc. !n addirion, rlc PGC involvcd invcsrmcnrs in inlrasrrucrurc
sucl as roads and rail rransporr and also in agriculrurc, carrlc-Lrccding, lislcrics, agroindusrry,
lorcsrarion, rclorcsrarion, lumLcring and urilisarion ol cncrgy sourccs. !n rlis rcspccr, scc !A
(187; 11).
Mcur// Au/cr Srrc 3
L/. n., Sc Pcu|, 33(1), jcn-mcr 2003
dcvclopmcnr rlcory in Brazil. 1lc implcmcnrarion ol dcvclopmcnr polcs
in rlc Brazilian Amazon is analyscd in rlc lourrl sccrion, wlicl prcparcs
rlc way lor making somc rcmarks on rlc supposcd posirivc cllccrs gcncrarcd
Ly dcvclopmcnr polcs in rlar rcgion in rlc suLscqucnr sccrion.
HISTOBICAL BACKGBOUND
ranois Pcrroux was an imporranr sourcc ol idcas and lis dcvclopmcnr
polc rlcory, wlosc inllucncc on arin Amcrican counrrics, principally
Brazil, was signilicanr, las a rcmarkaLlc placc, allicd ro orlcr rlcorics and
srrarcgics ol dcvclopmcnr, in cconomic dcvclopmcnr rlcory. !n ordcr Lcrrcr
ro undcrsrand Pcrroux's rlcory, ir is imporranr ro scr lis work in lisrorical
conrcxr.
1lc rcrm `polc` was lirsr inrroduccd Ly Pcrroux in lis 150 arriclc
`conomic spacc. rlcory and applicarions`, wlicl was a producr ol lis
lccrurc ar !arvard \nivcrsiry in 1+7. (PFF\X, 188L) !n rlis arriclc,
Pcrroux discusscd `cconomic spaccs`, wlicl wcrc carcgoriscd inro rlrcc
rypcs. as a plan; as a licld ol lorccs and as a lomogcncous aggrcgarc. 1lis
discussion scrvcd as a Lasis lor lis cxplaining rlar rlc lirm was rlc corc ol
rlc proLlcm and nor rlc rcgion irscll, and cvcn rlc usc ol rlc rcrm `polc`,
mcnrioncd as synonymous wirl `ccnrrc` (rlis rclcrcncc is imporranr Lccausc
ir marks rlc origin in rlc cconomic lircrarurc ol rlc conccprual conlusion
causcd Ly Pcrroux, wlo ncvcr madc a clcar disrincrion Lcrwccn growrl
polc and growrl ccnrrc), cmplasiscd rlis Lclicl, as Pcrroux srrcsscd.
À c j/|4 j jr, nm/ (c n// j ccntrcs (r p/cs
r j/) jrm o/// n/r/juc| jr mcnc/ cn4 / o///
n/r/(/c| jr cr c//rc/4. Lc/ n/r |/n c n/r j
c//rc//n cn4 r(u|/n, /c // (r(r j/|4, o/// / / /n
// j/|4 j //r n/r. An; |cnc| (c o/c/rr, /n ///
r(/, / c ||//n j n/r cn4 c (|c j (cc jr
jr.
L/. n., Sc Pcu|, 33(1), jcn-mcr 2003
1lc lirm, considcrcd as ccnrrc rclcascs ccnrrilugal and ccnrripcral lorccs. !r
arrracrs mcn and oLjccrs (pcrsonal and marcrial aggrcgarions around rlc
lirm) inro irs Lanal spacc, or ir rcmovcs rlcm (divcrring rourisr acrivirics,
land rcscrvcd lor lurrlcr cxpansion, crc.). !r arrracrs cconomic clcmcnrs,
supplics and dcmands, inro rlc spacc ol irs plan, or ir rcmovcs rlcm.
T/ru/ /// (r, // nm/ :n j /nj|un, o///r
r n/ // / |/n|4 / // /(rc(//c| n, / 4/rm/n4. T/
/(rc(//c| :n j /nj|un j M//|/n /n lrcn /
/nr/|4 /n c r/n, |u/ // nm/ :n j /nj|un, |/|
//c/ j c|| |cr j/rm, 4j/ cr/rc(/;.` (150, p. 5-
6)
1lis arriclc, Lascd on lis lccrurcs ar !arvard ar rlc cnd ol 1+0s, was
rclcvanr Lccausc Pcrroux providcd somc insiglrs inro lis vicws on rlc
dcvclopmcnr ol capiralisr cconomics and, ar rlc samc rimc, lc pavcd rlc
way lor rlc consrrucrion ol lis own rlcory. cspirc Pcrroux's lirsr mcnrion
ol polc, lc only discusscd rlc conccpr ol polc in lis 155 arriclc Lc N//n
4 PJ| 4 Cr/cn, wlicl can Lc considcrcd lis mosr imporranr and
inllucnrial work.
Somc imporranr lacrors conrriLurcd ro Pcrroux's conclusions aLour growrl
polcs in parricular, and also lis vicws on cconomic dcvclopmcnr in gcnc-
ral. 1lc lirsr lacror was rclarcd ro posr-war proLlcms ol cconomic
rcconsrrucrion and co-opcrarion in wcsrcrn uropc wlcrc rlc Marslall
Plan, wlosc main oLjccrivc was ro conrain rlc progrcss ol communism,
was implcmcnrcd and a largc amounr ol moncy was invcsrcd in disruprcd
cconomics sucl as rlosc ol rancc, !raly, crc. in ordcr ro racklc scrious
proLlcms. 1lc succcss ol rlis Plan gcncrarcd conlidcncc in rlc rolc ol
cconomic aid.
1lc sccond and morc imporranr lacror was rlc conrrovcrsy Lcrwccn rwo
disrincr docrrincs ol cconomic dcvclopmcnr. rlc rlcn prcvailing vicw ol
`Lalanccd growrl` and rlc insurgcnr ùnLalanccd growrl`. Pcrroux was
wcll-inlormcd aLour rlc currcnr cconomic dcvclopmcnr lircrarurc in rlc
larc 1+0s and 150s and in lis 161 Look L`Lnm/ 4u XX S/`|, lc
Mcur// Au/cr Srrc 5
L/. n., Sc Pcu|, 33(1), jcn-mcr 2003
madc rclcrcnccs ro rlc wrirings ol now cmincnr dcvclopmcnr cconomisrs,
sucl as !irsclman, Myrdal, Nurksc, Foscnsrcin-Fodan, 1inLcrgcn,
Fosrow, !arod, omar, crc. Pcrroux was inllucnccd Ly, and in rurn
inllucnccd, many ol rlcm and also lururc gcncrarions ol dcvclopmcnr
cconomisrs.
1lc rlird lacror was rlc grcar inllucncc ol Sclumpcrcr's wrirings on
Pcrroux's idcas. !n lacr, Sclumpcrcr's innovarion conccpr was csscnrial lor
Pcrroux's cxplanarion ol rlc growrl and dcvclopmcnr ol capiralisr
cconomics Lccausc Pcrroux Lclicvcd rlar cnrrcprcncurial innovarion was
primarily rcsponsiLlc lor rlc dcvclopmcnr proccss wlicl, rlcrclorc, would
cncompass a scqucncc ol polcs, considcrcd as dynamic ccnrrcs, ovcr rimc.
!r is imporranr ro srrcss lcrc rlar Pcrroux's growrl polc gaincd promincncc
in rlc conrcxr ol rlc conrrovcrsy Lcrwccn rlc Lalanccd growrl, and
unLalanccd growrl, rlcory.
Wlcn rlc conccpr ol `growrl polcs` was claLorarcd, Pcrroux, dcspirc lis
cmplasis on rlc inrcracrions among indusrrial Lranclcs, locuscd lis
arrcnrion principally on cconomic acrivirics and also on rlc gcograplical
locarion ol popularion rarlcr rlan sparial dcvclopmcnr proccsscs.
Boudcvillc, wlo was Pcrrouxs disciplc, was mainly rcsponsiLlc lor
rranslorming rlc cconomic plcnomcnon rlar was oLscrvcd in an aLsrracr
spacc inro a conccpr applicaLlc ro a gcograplical spacc. 1lus, rlc
rranslormarion ol Pcrrouxs conccpr inro an opcrarional rool lor rcgional
planning was an imporranr lacror lor irs widcsprcad usc in scvcral counrrics.
!n lacr, growrl polc srrarcgy was implcmcnrcd in dillcrcnr narions sucl as
rlc \nircd Srarcs, Spain, !raly, Brazil, \cnczucla, Kcnya, Nigcria, ]apan
crc., wlosc conrcxrs wcrc complcrcly disrincr.
DLJLLOPMLNT POLL THLOBT
cvclopmcnr polc rlcory las irs origins in Pcrroux's oLscrvarion ol rlc
norion rlar.
L/. n., Sc Pcu|, 33(1), jcn-mcr 2003
`ro// 4 n/ c((cr rr;o/r cn4 c|| c/ n, // c((cr
/n (/n/ r ro// (| o/// rcr/c|| /n/n///, // (rc4
c|n 4/rr /cnn| cn4 /c rcr;/n /rm/nc| jj/ jr
// o/| j // nm;.` (PFF\X, 155, p 308)
1lis undcrsranding ol rlc proccss ol cconomic dcvclopmcnr conrrasrcd
clcarly wirl rlc Lalanccd growrl approacl and lcd Pcrroux ro considcr
dcvclopmcnr irscll as lundamcnrally polariscd, Lccausc rlc propulsivc cllccrs
inrrinsic ro a dcvclopmcnr proccss rcndcd ro Lc gcncrarcd Ly a clusrcr ol
cconomic acrivirics and also rcndcd ro cngcndcr rlc growrl ol rlc cconomic
wlolc. Alrlougl Pcrroux was nor primarily conccrncd wirl rlc sparial
implicarions ol dcvclopmcnr in gcograplical rcrms, lis conccpr ol rlc
growrl polc, wlicl was claLorarcd in ordcr ro dcscriLc and cxplain rlc
proccss ol cconomic dcvclopmcnr in an aLsrracr cconomic spacc, arrracrcd
rlc arrcnrion ol rcgional planncrs, gcograplcrs, cconomisrs and many orlcr
prolcssionals involvcd wirl proLlcms ol rcgional dcvclopmcnr. As a
conscqucncc, rlc conccpr ol growrl polcs, rogcrlcr wirl similar conccprs
sucl as growrl ccnrrcs, growing poinrs, corc arcas, crc., wlicl wcrc
conccprual rools dcvclopcd ro solvc proLlcms ol rcgional incqualirics,
Lccamc a carclplrasc. 1lc widc acccprancc ol rlcsc conccprs, principally
ol rlc growrl polcs, is ccnrrcd on rlcir undcrlying idca, wlosc appcal was
vcry srrong, rlar ir was possiLlc ro aclicvc cconomic growrl, inrcrrcgional
cquiliLrium and inrcgrarion ol Lackward rcgions Ly mcans ol a srrarcgy ol
dcccnrraliscd dcvclopmcnr. !owcvcr, rlc usc ol rlcsc conccprs as slogans
in rlc polirical discussion ol rcgional proLlcms and, cspccially, rlc ncccssiry
ol applying Pcrroux's rlcory as a Lasis lor rcgional planning, conrriLurcd
ro rlc gcncraliscd conlusion ol rlc conccprs and also ro lis rlcory losing
mucl ol irs original conrcnr and mcaning.
!n rclarion ro Pcrroux's rlcory, Paclinck srrcsscd rlar.
`// ro// (| n(/ /c j/n |n m/un4r/4. I/ /c
|n nju4 o/// // n//n j |; /n4u/r;, |c/ /n4u/r;,
cn4 /n4u/r/c| nm||, jrm /// j||o // rrnu
n(//n cr4/n / o/// // ro// (| ou|4 | cn
/n4u/r/c| mnumn/ rc/4 / // |r; j ju/ur r/nc|
Mcur// Au/cr Srrc
L/. n., Sc Pcu|, 33(1), jcn-mcr 2003
/n4u/r/c|/c//n, c ucrcn/ j r/c/n nm/ ro//.
Or cc/n, / mc| /// cr|; r/ru n(/ mr (r/
m ou|4 /cr c c ro// (| cn; /m(r/cn/ /m(|cn/c//n
j j/rm, (rjrc||; /n4u/r/c|, o/// ou|4 xr/ c|u/cr;
jj/ n // rc(// crc o/r // / /n/r4u4.` (165,
p. 10-11)
Morc rcccnrly, !iggins srarcd rlar.
`c /n///c||; (rn/4 |; Prrux, // //r; oc / m(|x,
/ c|/rc/, cn4 / nn(rc//nc| / | u4 c c |c/ jr
(|cnn/n. In44 / c((|; // (ur //r; j Prrux ou|4
ru/r ||c| (|cnn/n, /j o /c| /n/ cun/ Prrux`
mr rn/ /n//n n (|cnn/n /rcnm//n |/n cn4
r(/r c o|| c nrc/r j ro//. Prrux` nm/
(c, /n o/// (rc4 jj/ cr j|/, / ||c|. H cru, jr
xcm(|, //c/ Lc//n Amr/c` /ru ro// (| //|| |/ /n
Lur( cn4, / m 4r, /n // Un//4 S/c/. Su/ c
n(/ / u| jr r/nc| (|cnn/n o/// / nj/n4 / c
/n| un/r;. A c nun, nm// o/ jun4
//m|r /nr|r4 /n (rc//c| r/nc| (|cnn/n /m(|;
4/cr44 // (ur //r; j Prrux. T/; nrr/4 // /n/ c
//c||; 4/jjrn/ //r; o/// /rc/4 ro// (| c ur|cn
n/r, cn4 (rc4 jj/ c |/n nrc/4 /n c (cr//u|cr
rc(// (c, ncm|; // r/n c4jcn/ / // ur|cn
n/r //|j. On /// /c((; 4/r/n / c(/4, // / (/||
/ /mc/n //c/ |; (u//n cn4 (u||/n no n/r(r/
(m/|; /n4u/r/c| n/r(r/) /n/ ur|cn n/r j r/cr44
r/n, // / (/|| / r4u r/nc| 4/(cr///, 4n/rc|/
ur|cn/c//n cn4 /n4u/r/c|/c//n, cn4 c|rc/ nc//nc|
4r|(mn/ c|| c/ n. I/ 4/4 n/ /c| |n jr /// (|ccn/
rr/n j // ro// (| 4/r/n / (rc4 / 4r|(/n
un/r/ cn4 / | c((|/4 //r c o||.` (188, p. ++)
L/. n., Sc Pcu|, 33(1), jcn-mcr 2003
Borl srarcmcnrs suggcsr rlar Pcrroux's rlcory was misundcrsrood.
Ncvcrrlclcss, an imporranr qucsrion rcmains. wly did dcvclopmcnr polc
rlcory gcncrarc so many Lcwildcring conccprs !n ordcr ro answcr rlis
csscnrial qucsrion, ccrrain inconsisrcncics in lis rlcory will Lc analyscd
and, rlcrcLy, clarilicd.
1lc Lasis lor sucl conlusion is ccnrrcd on Pcrroux limscll, wlo, dcspirc
Lcing an imporranr sourcc ol lruirlul idcas, was lar lrom clcar in lis
conccprualisarion. A good cxamplc is rlc rcrm polc, wlicl Pcrroux ncvcr
dclincd cxacrly and wlicl was inrcrprcrcd as a clusrcr in gcograplical spacc
or as a scr ol linkagcs in cconomic spacc wirlin a gcncral cquiliLrium sysrcm.
1lis kind ol imprcciscncss and amLiguiry in Pcrroux's wrirings conrriLurcd
cnormously ro rlc gcncraliscd misinrcrprcrarion and also ro rlc usc ol lis
conccprs in vaguc, unclcar and ovcrsimplilicd ways.
1lcsc conlusions do nor invalidarc Pcrroux's conccprs ar all. !is rlcory
rlar growrl ncirlcr appcars simulrancously, nor rcgularly rlrouglour an
cconomy and rlar ir rcnds ro Lc polariscd arc unqucsrionaLly imporranr.
1lcsc convicrions lcd Pcrroux ro dcvclop orlcr signilicanr argumcnrs, sucl
as. rlar growrl indusrrics (/n4u/r/ 4 |c r/cn), also rcrmcd propulsivc
indusrrics (/n4u/r/ m/r/), rcnd ro Lc clusrcrcd in gcograplical spacc
and morcovcr, rcnd ro gcncrarc sprcad cllccrs (jj/ 4'n/rc/nmn/) on
rlcir cnvironmcnrs; and rlar rlcsc propulsivc indusrrics rcnd ro grow lasrcr
rlan and, as a conscqucncc, dominarc, orlcr indusrrics rlar arc linkcd wirl
rlcm. 1lus, owing ro irs pcrccivcd rlcorcrical porcnrial, Pcrroux's idcas
Lccamc rlc locus ol inrcrcsr ol scvcral prolcssionals, wlo wcrc sccking a
rool lor solving proLlcms ol narional and rcgional dcvclopmcnr Lorl in
indusrrialiscd and undcrdcvclopcd counrrics. !owcvcr, dilliculrics arosc
wlcn rlcsc idcas, wlicl wcrc conccivcd in an cconomic spacc (aLsrracr
spacc), wcrc applicd ro gcograplical spacc (Lanal spacc). As a conscqucncc,
Pcrroux's rlcory was considcraLly Lroadcncd Ly orlcr imporranr
conrriLurions ro lis work and, as will Lc sccn, somc ol rlcsc conrriLurions
dillcrcd lrom rlc original idcas.
Bclorc cxamining somc ol rlcsc conrriLurions ro Pcrroux's rlcory, ir is
imporranr ro analysc ccrrain aspccrs ol lis own rlcory. 1lc lirsr aspccr is
Mcur// Au/cr Srrc 9
L/. n., Sc Pcu|, 33(1), jcn-mcr 2003
lis undcrsranding ol rlc dcvclopmcnr proccss, an undcrsranding wlicl is
csscnrial lor pcrcciving rlc dillcrcncc Lcrwccn growrl polcs and
dcvclopmcnr polcs. According ro Pcrroux, alrlougl growrl and
dcvclopmcnr can occur joinrly in rlc samc placc, rlcy arc lar lrom
synonymous. !n rlis rcgard, lc srrcsscd rlar.
`ro// mcn c u/c/n4 /nrc /n // 4/mn/n /n4x
jr cn nm/ n///; (jr xcm(|, r (r4u/). (...)
Dr|(mn/ / // um j // /cn /n /c| (c//rn cn4
mn/c|/// //ru/ o/// // (r4u//n 4r/ / u(|4
o/// // ((u|c//n // |c//r cu/r // c(c//; / u//|/
// (r4u//n 4r/ / c//r o/c/ / n/4r4 / | c
c//jc/r; ro// rc/, cn4 // (r4u//n 4r/ u((|/ c
(r4u/ //c/ rr // ((u|c//n /n/c4 j |/n c|/n /
//.` (168, p. 2+8; 188a, p. 70)
1lis dillcrcncc Lcrwccn growrl and dcvclopmcnr is lundamcnral lor
pinpoinring rlc disrincrion Lcrwccn rlc dcvclopmcnr polc and rlc growrl
polc. !n rlis rcgard, Pcrroux poinrcd our rlar.
`// ro// (| / c / //c/ /c // c(c//; / /n4u //
ro// j cn//r / (ro// |/n 4j/n4 c c |c//n
/nrc /n // 4/mn/nc| /n4/c/r), // 4r|(mn/ (|
/ c / //c/ /c // c(c//; / nn4r c 4/c|// j nm/
cn4 /c| /ru/ur o/ jj/ / / /nrc // m(|x//;
j // o/| cn4 / x(cn4 // mu|//4/mn/nc| r/urn.`
(168, p. 2+7-8; 188a, p. +)
!n ordcr ro undcrsrand Pcrroux's sclcmc, ir is lundamcnral ro rccognisc
rlar propulsivc indusrrics play a kcy rolc in rlc dcvclopmcnr proccss. 1lcsc
indusrrics arc liglly innovarivc and, according ro Pcrroux, innovarion or
rcclnological progrcss is rlc pillar ol cconomic dcvclopmcnr. 1lc
propulsivc indusrrics rcnd ro Lc clusrcrcd in parricular arcas, wlicl can Lc
ccnrrcs lor rlc cxrracrion ol raw marcrials, lor producrion and disrriLurion
ol powcr gcncrarion and lor rcclnological rcscarcl, or also agro-indusrrial
ccnrrcs. wing ro rlcir narurc, rlc propulsivc indusrrics rcnd ro gcncrarc
L/. n., Sc Pcu|, 33(1), jcn-mcr 2003
sprcad cllccrs, sucl as rlc incrcasc in incomc and cmploymcnr, ro rlcir
cnvironmcnr and somc ol rlcm can Lc inrcrnal ro rlc indusrry irscll. 1lcsc
Lcnclicial dillusion cllccrs arc srimularcd Ly gcograplical clusrcring ol rlcsc
propulsivc cnrcrpriscs and any conccnrrarion ol rlcm is ncccssarily
considcrcd a growrl polc or dcvclopmcnr polc.
1lc growrl or dcvclopmcnr polcs will ccrrainly producc sprcad cllccrs,
Lur Pcrroux ncvcr indicarcd wlcrc rlcsc cllccrs would Lc lclr and morcovcr,
rlcrc was no guaranrcc rlar rlcy would Lc lclr in rlc immcdiarc surrounding
rcgion. 1lc main rcason lor rlis lics in rlc lacr rlar Pcrroux's rlcory was
claLorarcd lor an cconomic spacc, wlicl was cxrrcmcly aLsrracr, and,
rlcrclorc, rlc crcarion ol growrl polcs and dcvclopmcnr polcs and rlcir
pcrlormancc wcrc proLlcms considcrcd on a rlcorcrical planc.
As was mcnrioncd aLovc, rranslcr ol rlc conccpr lrom aLsrracr spacc
(cconomic) inro gcograplical spacc was carricd our Ly Pcrroux's disciplcs,
principally Ly Boudcvillc, wlo rranslormcd ir inro usclul and imporranr
conccpr lor rcgional dcvclopmcnr rlcory. According ro Boudcvillc.
`c r/nc| ro// (| / c / j x(cn4/n /n4u/r/ |c/4
/n cn ur|cn crc cn4 /n4u/n jur//r 4r|(mn/ j
nm/ c//r//; //ru/u/ // :n j /nj|un.` (166,
p. 11)
Bcsidcs lis cmplasis rlar a scr ol dynamic indusrrics slould Lc
gcograplically clusrcrcd, lc also widcncd rlc dclinirion Lcyond rlis poinr
Ly arguing rlar rlcrc wcrc rlrcc rypcs ol spacc. lomogcncous; polariscd;
and planning, or programmc, spacc. A lomogcncous rcgion can Lc
claracrcriscd Ly irs rclarivc unilormiry; a polariscd rcgion is a lcrcrogcncous
spacc, wlicl compriscs a scr ol unirs, or cconomic polcs ((J| /nm/u),
wlicl lavc morc cxclangcs (goods and scrviccs) or linkagcs
(inrcrdcpcndcncics) wirl a dominanr polc rlan wirl orlcr polcs ol rlc
samc rypc. 1lc norion ol polarisarion involvcs rlc norion ol a licrarcly ol
polcs, wlicl arc classilicd according ro rlc acrivirics rlcy pcrlorm; and rlc
planning rcgion is `c n//nuu (c, c //n/c| cn4 rc(// /n/rumn/
/ c//c/n c c| |c|/4 /n // r/n //|j /n // m/ nm/ oc;.`
Mcur// Au/cr Srrc 11
L/. n., Sc Pcu|, 33(1), jcn-mcr 2003
(B\\!, 168, p. 35) !n lacr, Boudcvillc, wirl lis ncw conccprs,
madc Pcrrouxs rlcory morc opcrarional, cspccially in rlc conrcxr ol
undcrdcvclopcd counrrics.
Ncvcrrlclcss, ir is imporranr ro srrcss lcrc rlar somc Lasic idcas ol rlc
unLalanccd growrl rlcory, principally rlosc advocarcd Ly !irsclman, sucl
as rlc imporrancc ol induccd invcsrmcnr dccisions lor rlc promorion ol
dcvclopmcnr, and also rlc Lclicl rlar inlrasrrucrurc invcsrmcnrs could Lc
csscnrial lor rlc dcvclopmcnr ol Lackward rcgions - alrlougl rlc mosr
imporranr aim was rlc provision ol rcgularly inducing acrivirics in indusrry,
agriculrurc and scrviccs, - providcd signilicanr paramcrcrs lor dcvclopmcnr
polc policics implcmcnrcd rlrouglour rlc 160s. uring rlis dccadc, mosr
ol rlcsc policics wcrc dcsigncd ro promorc rlc dcvclopmcnr ol Lackward
rcgions Ly conccnrraring invcsrmcnr in ordcr ro oLrain scalc and
agglomcrarion cconomics. cspirc rlis lavouraLlc conrcxr, srrucrural
proLlcms pcrsisrcd and a good cxamplc, cspccially in dcvcloping counrrics,
is rlc consranr popularion growrl ol largc urLan arcas and rlc concomiranr
dcclinc ol somc pcriplcral rcgions. Alrlougl sucl largc urLan arcas
conrinucd ro grow Lccausc ncw cnrranrs Lcnclircd lrom rlc cconomics ol
agglomcrarion, rlc marginal social cosrs prcvailcd ovcr rlc marginal social
Lcnclirs. !n rlis rcgard, a plausiLlc alrcrnarivc lor ovcrcrowdcd urLan arcas
as lor rlc counrry irscll would Lc ccnrrcd in rlc inrcrmcdiarc (mcdium-
sizc) ccnrrcs (or dcvclopmcnr polcs), wlosc accclcrarcd cconomic and
popularion growrl could Lc induccd Ly govcrnmcnr policics in rclarion ro
inlrasrrucrurc, capiral suLsidics and orlcr rypcs ol inccnrivcs.
1lis dcvclopmcnr polc srrarcgy srrcsscd rlc advanragcs ol agglomcrarion
cconomics and ar rlc samc rimc rlcsc induccd, mcdium-sizc dcvclopmcnr
polcs wcrc conccivcd as rruly polcs ol arrracrion lor migranrs wlo would
orlcrwisc go ro largc congcsrcd urLan ccnrrcs, wlicl wcrc considcrcd
sponrancous dcvclopmcnr polcs. !n addirion, rlcsc induccd dcvclopmcnr
polcs , according ro rlc rlcory, would gcncrarc Lcnclicial sprcad cllccrs ro
rlcir immcdiarc pcriplcral rcgions, so rlar in rlc long-run an `cquiliLrium
growrl` rlrouglour a counrry would Lc cxpccrcd. An cxccllcnr cxamplc ol
rlis srrarcgy was rlc rcncl sparial dcvclopmcnr policy ol rlc 160s, wlicl
dcsignarcd ciglr mcrropoliran arcas wlosc conccnrrarcd invcsrmcnrs would
L/. n., Sc Pcu|, 33(1), jcn-mcr 2003
srimularc cconomic and popularion growrl and, rlcrclorc, would, ir was
lopcd, counrcrLalancc rlc growrl ol rlc Paris rcgion. (!ANSN, 167,
168; AFWN1, 175)
An imporranr conrriLurion ro rlc undcrsranding ol rlc incidcncc ol
cconomic growrl in sparial rcrms and rlc proLlcms ol rcgional allocarion
ol invcsrmcnrs was ricdmann`s corc-pcriplcry, or ccnrrc-pcriplcry, modcl,
wlicl, in ccrrain aspccrs, was rclarcd ro rlc norions ol growrl polcs
(dcvclopmcnr polcs) and also growrl ccnrrcs. According ro ricdmann and
Wcavcr (17), corc rcgions wcrc major ccnrrcs ol innovarivc clangc and
as a conscqucncc rlc placcs wlcrc dcvclopmcnr occurrcd, wlcrcas all orlcr
rcrrirory consisrcd ol pcriplcral rcgions. !owcvcr, rlc main poinr is rlar
innovarions gcncrarcd in rlcsc dominanr ccnrrcs sprcad ro rlcir pcriplcral
rcgions, wlosc dcvclopmcnr is complcrcly dcpcndcnr on rlc corc rcgions.
Alrlougl ir is Lcyond rlc scopc ol rlis claprcr ro analysc rlc rlcorcrical
wcakncss or validiry ol ricdmann's proposirions, ir is inrcrcsring ro norc,
as arwcnr (175, p. 5+8) lad poinrcd our, rlar rcncl rcgional planning
could Lc rlouglr ol in ricdmann`s rcrms Lccausc rlis was `c (|/; j
nurc/n (c//c| /n/rc//n |/on r cn4 (r/(/r;, c/ // /n/rc-r/-
nc| c| - // |r| j (|cr/4 r/n - o//| rr//n // /m|c|cn r/4n/
|/on Pcr/ (c c r) cn4 // r/ j lrcn (c c (r/(/r;) c/ // /n/r-
r/nc| c|.`
!r is ncccssary ro liglliglr rlc rcrminological conlusion gcncrarcd Ly rlc
usc ol `growrl polc` (dcvclopmcnr polc) and `growrl ccnrrc`. !n irs
origins, Lorl rcrms wcrc uscd synonymously, Lur rlc lack ol a prccisc
dclinirion Ly Pcrroux allicd ro rlc scarcling lor conccprual rools in ordcr
ro ovcrcomc rcgional incqualirics lcd many prolcssionals ro cmploy rlcsc
rcrms inrcrclangcaLly as wcll as dclinirivcly. !n rlis rcgard, a usclul
disrincrion was madc Ly Kuklinski.
`// (rm//n j ro// (| (|// / c (/nmnn n //
nc//nc| c|, /cn/n n/ n|; // /ru/ur j c /rn
r/n o/r // (| / |c/4 |u/ c| // /n/rr/nc|
(r(r//n /n // 4//r/|u//n j ((u|c//n cn4 nm/
c//r/// j c /rn un/r;. T/ (rm//n j ro// n/r
L/. n., Sc Pcu|, 33(1), jcn-mcr 2003
(|// / c (/nmnn n // r/nc| c|, /rcnjrm/n
// (c//rn j ur|cn cn4 rurc| //|mn/ /n/4 // 4/jjrn/
r/n.` (175, p. )
!owcvcr, rlis disrincrion was nor cnrircly acccpraLlc and rlc scmanric
conlusion pcrsisrcd in rlc rcgional dcvclopmcnr lircrarurc. !r will Lc rccallcd
rlar rlis sorr ol amLiguiry lound in Pcrroux's rlcory gcncrarcd cxrcnsivc
misundcrsrandings wlicl, in somc cascs, could lavc Lccn incidcnral Lur
also dcliLcrarc.
1lc dcvclopmcnr polc srrarcgics implcmcnrcd in rlc 160s arc closcly
rclarcd ro rlc modcl ol licrarclical dillusion ol innovarion wlicl prcvailcd
ar rlar rimc. According ro !anscn (181, p. 21), `/// ur|cn-r/n/4
jrcmor| j nm/ c//r/// /n (c /c /o mcjr |mn/ c ;/m j
/// crrcn4 /n c jun//nc| //rcr/;, cn4 rr(n4/n crc j ur|cn
/nj|un urrun4/n c/ j // /// /n // ;/m.` Wirlin rlis lramcwork,
dcvclopmcnr-inducing innovarions wcrc disscminarcd lrom liglcr ro lowcr
ccnrrcs in rlc urLan licrarcly and also lrom urLan ccnrrcs ro rlcir
immcdiarc pcriplcral rcgions. !n addirion, rlc magnirudc ol dcvclopmcnr,
in sparial rcrms, was dcrcrmincd Ly rlc sizc and luncrions ol rlc urLan
ccnrrc. 1lc licrarclical dillusion ol innovarion modcl srrcsscd rlc
imporrancc ol conrinuing innovarion in largc ccnrrcs as rlc crucial lacror
lor rlc dcvclopmcnr ol rlc wlolc urLan-cconomic sysrcm.
1lis gcncral Lackground slowcd rlc connccrion Lcrwccn rlc licrarclical
dillusion ol innovarion modcl and rlc induccd dcvclopmcnr polcs rlar
wcrc implcmcnrcd in ordcr ro `|/n| |c/n r/n mr ||; o/// //
nc//nc| ;/m j //rcr//c| j/|/r/n cn4 (rc4 jj/ jrm ur|cn n/r /
///r //n/r|cn4.` (!ANSN, 181, p. 22)
cspirc irs grcar acccprancc and implcmcnrarion in many counrrics, rlc
rcsulrs ol dcvclopmcnr polc policics wcrc liglly qucsrionaLlc. !owcvcr, ir
is dilliculr ro cvaluarc rlcm concrcrcly Lccausc ir is nor a simplc rask ro
lind a gcnuinc cxamplc ol a dcvclopmcnr polc policy rlar was cllccrivcly
implcmcnrcd in pracricc. ProLlcms arc manilold. nc ol rlcm is rlar in
many counrrics dcvclopmcnr polc srrarcgics wcrc claLorarcd Lur wcrc nor
L/. n., Sc Pcu|, 33(1), jcn-mcr 2003
implcmcnrcd lor various rcasons according ro rlcir conrcxr. 1lc scrious
proLlcm idcnrilicd is rclarcd ro rlc polirical dilliculry ol sclccring
gcograplical dcvclopmcnr polcs Lccausc many policics rlar lad Lcgun Ly
conccnrraring invcsrmcnrs in a lcw urLan ccnrrcs wcrc arrcnuarcd Ly
polirical prcssurcs ro includc morc ccnrrcs, rlus impcding rlc induccmcnr
ol cxrcnsivc agglomcrarion cconomics clscwlcrc. Ncvcrrlclcss, rlc
lorcmosr proLlcm is rlc implcmcnrarion ol dcvclopmcnr polc policics in
complcrcly dillcrcnr conrcxrs, sucl as dcvclopcd counrrics and dcvcloping
counrrics.
!n rlc conrcxr ol dcvclopcd counrrics, ir was vcrilicd, lor cxamplc, rlar
dcvclopmcnr-inducing linkagcs (rlrougl innovarions) wcrc nor only
rransmirrcd lrom largcr ro smallcr ccnrrcs Lur also in rlc rcvcrsc ordcr, as
wcll as Lcrwccn ccnrrcs ol similar sizc. Anorlcr imporranr poinr was rlar
indusrrial sourccs ol innovarion wcrc incrcasingly widcly dispcrscd, wlicl
mcanr rlar linkagcs Lcrwccn rlcsc indusrrics involvcd rclarivcly largc
disranccs. 1lis cvidcncc undcrmincd rlc idca rlar induccd dcvclopmcnr
polcs could gcncrarc dcvclopmcnr in rlcir own pcriplcral rcgions. 1lc
aLovc cvidcncc conrriLurcd ro rlc gcncraliscd pcssimism in rclarion ro rlc
promorion ol induccd dcvclopmcnr polcs in dcvclopcd counrrics.
cvcloping counrrics, in gcncral, lavc manilold proLlcms, wlicl vary lrom
ligl uncmploymcnr rarcs ro slarp rcgional incqualirics. Planncrs and policy
makcrs Lclicvcd rlar, in ordcr ro ovcrcomc social and cconomic disparirics
Lcrwccn rcgions and also Lcrwccn largcr urLan ccnrrcs and rlcir pcriplcral
arcas, ir would Lc ncccssary ro implcmcnr dcvclopmcnr polc srrarcgics. !n
rlc undcrsranding ol rlcsc prolcssionals, `/j // 4r|(4 un/r/ c((cr /
/cr cn r4r|; //rcr/; j n/rc| (|c //ru/ o/// 4r|(mn/-/n4u/n
/nnrc//n j/|/r cn4 (rc4, //n /// (c//c| /ru/ur mu/ c| | rc/4 /n
// 4r|(/n un/r/.` (!ANSN, 181, p. 32)
wing ro scarcc rcsourccs in rlcsc counrrics, dcvclopmcnr polc policics
locuscd on a lcw urLan ccnrrcs sclccrcd wlcrc invcsrmcnrs would Lc
allocarcd in ordcr ro oLrain scalc and agglomcrarion cconomics. 1lc
argumcnr was rlar rlc induccd polcs would gcncrarc Lcnclicial sprcad
L/. n., Sc Pcu|, 33(1), jcn-mcr 2003
cllccrs ro rlcir linrcrlands, wlicl would ncccssarily Lc undcrdcvclopcd
arcas.
cvclopmcnr polc policics rook a numLcr ol lorms, parricularly in
dcvcloping counrrics sucl as Brazil. Somc locuscd on inlrasrrucrurc, aiming
ar supplying a Lasic lcvcl ol powcr, warcr, rransporr and orlcr puLlic
lacilirics. rlcrs wcrc Lascd on inrcrmcdiarc or lcavy manulacruring
indusrrics (gcncrally puLlic cnrcrpriscs), rlcsc projccrs Lcing commonly
associarcd wirl indusrrial complcxcs organiscd around sucl sccrors as iron
and srccl, aluminium, pcrroclcmicals and lcavy cnginccring. 1lc common
lacror in all rlcsc projccrs was rlc imporrancc ol rlc dirccr usc ol largc-
scalc invcsrmcnr rcsourccs ro producc srrucrural clangcs rlrougl
accclcrarcd cconomic growrl.
Ncvcrrlclcss, rlcrc wcrc many criricisms rclarcd ro dcvclopmcnr polc poli-
cics. Somc ol rlcm srrcsscd rlc lacr rlar rlar sprcad cllccrs claimcd Ly rlc
rlcory wcrc smallcr rlan cxpccrcd and limircd in gcograplical cxrcnr, so
rlar pcriplcral rcgions wcrc Lcnclircd in a minimal scalc. rlcrs, sucl as
Coraggio argucd rlar dcvclopmcnr polc rlcory was.
`rc||; 4/n4 jr // 4r|(mn/ j // (| cn4 ///r
c/c/4 /c| ru( cn4 //c/ cn; |rr c//m(/ /
x/rc/ jrm // // /4|/c| |mn/, c / rmc/n
o/// c / j //n/c| r|c//n//(, / c n/r/|u//n / //
c4rcn j 4m/nc//n /4|;.` (172, p. 3, quorcd Ly
!!!FS1, 181, p. 161)
!iggins, in rurn, poinrcd our rlar.
`// /rc/; c((|/4 oc |4m // n //c/ Prrux
jcrur4. lcr jrm /rn//n/n cn4 nurc/n x///n
ro// (|, // /rc/; /c |n n j /r;/n / rc/
ro// [4r|(mn/] (| /n r/cr44, 4/c4rcn/c4
r/n, /(/n jr (rc4 jj/ jrm // /n (| / //
on rc(//c| r/n...In m; r/o, // / rr; /m(r/cn/ /
mc| // |cr //c/ // jc/|ur j // ro//-(| [4r|(mn/
L/. n., Sc Pcu|, 33(1), jcn-mcr 2003
(|] /rc/; oc n/ // jc/|ur j // Prrux` //r;,
|u/ jc/|ur j c 4//r/4 rr/n c((|/4 |; // 4//(|, mc/n|;
Bu4r/||.` (!!GG!NS, quorcd Ly PNSK, 188,
p. 105)
!n lacr, many dcvclopmcnr polc srrarcgics implcmcnrcd ovcr rlc world
lad jusr onc poinr in common wirl Pcrroux's rlcory. rlc namc. !owcvcr,
!iggins argumcnr rlar rlc lailurc cannor Lc arrriLurcd ro Pcrroux's rlcory
Lur is duc ro a vcrsion rlar lad Lccn misinrcrprcrcd and applicd Ly lis
lollowcrs - cspccially Ly Boudcvillc - is liglly qucsrionaLlc Lccausc Pcrroux
limscll rccognisc rlc signilicancc and also rlc validiry ol conrriLurions
madc Ly Boudcvillc and orlcr disciplcs ro lis rlcory. 1lis suggcsrs rlar
Pcrroux was complcrcly awarc ol rlis `disrorrcd vcrsion` and agrccd wirl
rlc ncw vicwpoinrs implicd Ly lis conccpr ol growrl (dcvclopmcnr) polcs.
Alrlougl dcvclopmcnr polc rlcory lad Lccn cririciscd in many ol irs
aspccrs, somc aurlors, dcspirc dilliculrics, Lclicvcd in irs porcnrial,
principally in rlc conrcxr ol arin Amcrica. !n rlis rcgard, Ficlardson and
Ficlardson (175, p.16) srrcsscd rlar.
`// (rc//c| |j//n / ro// [4r|(mn/] (|
/rc// u/ c // |//n j ro// n/r, //
/4n//j/c//n j (r(u|/r /n4u/r/, cn4 // // j
jj//r /n/rumn/ cr/ o/rrr ro// [4r|(mn/]
n/r /rc// cr c4(/4, cn4 cr /n n n (u|/cr /
Lc//n Amr/c. Mrrr, // x//n j // 4/jj/u|//
4 n/ (rr/4 cn crumn/ jr rj//n // ro//
[4r|(mn/] n/r c((rc/, |u/ mc; /n/c4 u/ //
n4 jr (rrrcn cn4 /m(rrmn/. T/ 4/n/cn/mn/
o/// ro// [4r|(mn/] n/r (|// /n mcn; un/r/
/ n/ r/4n //c/ // (r/n/(| j (|cr/c//n / orn. On
// n/rcr;, // rj|/ // rr-(//m/m cn4 /r/-run //m
/r/:n j r/nc| (|/;-mc|r, // jc/|ur j u/c/n4
(|///c| o/||, // u j 4j//n/ /nr/mn/ r//r/c, |c4
|c//nc| //, cn4 |c| j /mc/nc//n /n 4r//n
c((r(r/c/ (|/; /n/rumn/.`
Mcur// Au/cr Srrc 1
L/. n., Sc Pcu|, 33(1), jcn-mcr 2003
Alrcr morc rlan rlrcc dccadcs ol many cxpcrimcnrs wirl dcvclopmcnr polc
policics in arin Amcrica, cspccially Brazil, somc signilicanr lacrors
conrriLurcd ro Pcrroux's rlcory laving Lccn unsucccsslul, and rlus ir is
imporranr ro commcnr on rlcm lcrc. 1lc main proLlcm is ccnrrcd on rlc
sclccrion ol dcvclopmcnr polc locarions, wlicl was commonly Lascd on
crircria sucl as narional sccroral projccrions and urLan popularion growrl
projccrions insrcad ol Lcing Lascd on rlc dcvclopmcnr porcnrial or dcmand
ol rlc pcriplcral rcgions. As a rcsulr, dcvclopmcnr polcs gcncrarcd a limircd
impacr on rlcir immcdiarc linrcrland arcas and rlc rcasons lor rlis arc. rlc
linkagcs involvcd in rlc dcvclopmcnr proccss wcrc largcly wirl disranr
supplicrs and markcrs, and also rlc dcrivcd dcmand lor laLour and lor
agriculrural ourpurs lrcqucnrly cncouragcd an inrcnsc llow ol migrarion
and supplics lrom oursidc rlc rcgions wlcrc dcvclopmcnr polcs wcrc
locarcd. !n addirion ro rlc lorcgoing proLlcms, cmploymcnr was nor
gcncrarcd ro rlc dcgrcc cxpccrcd in vicw ol rlc considcraLlc rcsourccs
invcsrcd. Wlar Loomcd insrcad was inlormally organiscd work, and mosrly
on a suLsisrcncc Lasis, and a main rcason lor Lorl rlcsc dcvclopmcnrs is
associarcd wirl rlc liglly capiral-inrcnsivc narurc ol dcvclopmcnr polc
acrivirics.
Ncvcrrlclcss, rlc mosr imporranr criricism rlar was addrcsscd ro
dcvclopmcnr polc srrarcgics implcmcnrcd in dcvcloping counrrics was rlar
rlcsc srrarcgics wcrc unaLlc ro improvc rlc social and cconomic wcll-Lcing
ol popularions wlo livc in pcriplcral rcgions and wlo Lclong, ro a largc
cxrcnr, ro rlc poorcsr social srrarum ol socicry. !r is imporranr ro srrcss lcrc
rlar dcvclopmcnr polc policy is onc lorm ol rlc rop-down dcvclopmcnr
paradigm, wlicl is in lacr a dcvclopmcnr paradigm `lrom aLovc`. 1lis
paradigm placcd irs cmplasis on urLan, indusrrial and capiral-inrcnsivc,
rcclnology (innovarion), and also on rlc usc ol cxrcrnal and scalc
cconomics.
According ro !anscn (181), rlc prcvalcnr arrirudcs roward dcvclopmcnr
polc srrarcgics lavc passcd lrom a pcriod ol oprimism in rclarion ro rlc
gcncrarion ol sprcad cllccrs Ly rlc crcarion ol induccd polcs, ro onc ol
pcssimism wlcn rlcsc cxpccrarions wcrc nor rcaliscd, and suLscqucnrly ro
L/. n., Sc Pcu|, 33(1), jcn-mcr 2003
a Lroadcr undcrsranding rlar induccd dcvclopmcnr polcs would Lc jusr
onc aspccr ol morc comprclcnsivc dcvclopmcnr planning.
THL DIllUSION Ol THL DLJLLOPMLNT POLL THLOBT IN
BBAZIL
!n rcrrospccr, rlc inllucncc ol Pcrroux's dcvclopmcnr polc rlcory in Brazil
can Lc rraccd ro rlc cnd ol 150s wlcn lis disciplc Boudcvillc, wlo livcd
in Brazil lor rlrcc ycars, puLlislcd an imporranr srudy in 157 aLour rlc
Srarc ol Minas Gcrais. 1lis srudy, Cn/r/|u//n c |'//u4 4 PJ| 4 Cr/cn
Br//|/n - Un /n4u/r/ m/r/ - Lc S/4/rur/ 4u M/nc Grc/, locuscd
on rlc dcvclopmcnr ol rlc mcrallurgical indusrry in Minas Gcrais and also
on rlc possiLilirics ol rranslorming rlc ciry ol Bclo !orizonrc, wlicl is
rlc capiral ol rlc Srarc ol Minas Gcrais, inro a powcrlul dcvclopmcnr polc.
!n 16+, Boudcvillc puLlislcd anorlcr signilicanr srudy, Cr/cn P|cr//
4u B/ Grcn4 4 Su|, wlosc main locus was on rlc cconomic polarisarion
in rlc srarc ol Fio Grandc do Sul and lc liglliglrcd irs capiral, rlc ciry ol
Porro Alcgrc, as rlc main polc ol rlc Srarc and ar rlc samc rimc dclincd
orlcr smallcr polcs.
1lc prcscncc ol rlc rcncl gcograplcr, Miclcl Foclclorr, wlo rauglr in
somc Brazilian univcrsirics, supcrviscd acadcmic srudics, licldwork, crc.,
in Brazil conrriLurcd ro rlc consolidarion ol Pcrroux's idcas in rlis counrry.
Alrlougl Foclclorr lad uscd rlc rcrminology ol lis rcncl gcograplcr
collcaguc, Clardonncr, and nor rlar ol Pcrroux, Andradc (177) srrcsscd
rlar ir was nor signilicanr Lccausc rlc rwo rcrminologics wcrc similar.
1lcsc prcscnccs and srudics markcd rlc dccp inllucncc ol Pcrroux's idcas
on Brazilian cconomisrs, gcograplcrs and orlcr prolcssionals involvcd wirl
rcgional proLlcms. !n rlis rcgard, privarc cnrcrpriscs sucl as SAGMACS -
Lnm/c Humcn/m (conomics and !umanism) and PA - Lr//r/
4 Pu/c LnJm/c A(|/c4c (llicc lor Applicd conomic Fcscarclcs)
L/. n., Sc Pcu|, 33(1), jcn-mcr 2003
as wcll as govcrnmcnral agcncics, sucl as CNG,
3
BN!,
+
S\N
5
and
rlc Minisrry ol Planning adoprcd rlc dcvclopmcnr polc rlcory in rlcir
plans.
Andradc (177) poinrcd our rlar S\N Lcgan ro adopr dcvclopmcnr
polc rlcory dclinirivcly in 166, wlcn rlis agcncy dccidcd ro usc Pcrroux's
conccprs in irs !!! Masrcr Plan (P|cn D/r/r) lor conomic and Social
cvclopmcnr ol Norrlcasr lor rlc 166-68 pcriod. !n rlar samc ycar,
S\N promorcd rlc irsr Scminar on cvclopmcnr Polcs, wlicl was
an imporranr cvcnr Lccausc Ly congrcgaring scvcral prolcssionals wirl
dillcrcnr Lackgrounds in ordcr ro discuss Pcrroux's rlcory and Brazilian
rcgional proLlcms, ir scrvcd ro dillusc rlc rlcory irscll cvcn morc and also
ro consolidarc rlc prcsrigc ol Pcrroux's idcas in rlc narional rcrrirory.
cspirc rlc imporrancc ol Pcrroux's idcas in Brazil, rlis lacr docs nor mcans
rlar S\N, in irs Masrcrs Plan, lad undcrsrood and, morc imporranrly,
applicd lis dcvclopmcnr polc rlcory corrccrly. According ro Ficlardson
and Ficlardson (175, p.17+).
`c|//u/ Brc:/| /c /c4 c |n x(r/n o/// r/nc|
(|//, (cr//u|cr|; o/// // cm|///u SUDLNL
(rrcmm jr // Nr//c/, // (rrcmm /cr |n /
4/jju / | 4r/|4 c c ro// [4r|(mn/] (|
c((rc/.`
1lc Narional !ousing Bank (BN!) also illusrrarcs vcry wcll rlc inllucncc
ol Pcrroux's idcas in Brazil. 1lis Bank was crcarcd in 16+ and onc ol irs
oLjccrivcs, clcarly srarcd in irs rcporr lor rlc 16 pcriod, was rlc `rc//n
j 4r|(mn/ (| cn4 c nun/ /m(rrmn/ j |/r/n n4///n /n rurc|
3 CNG - Narional Council lor Gcograply (Conscllo Nacional dc Gcogralia).
+ BN! - Narional !ousing Bank (Banco Nacional dc !aLiraao).
5 S\N - Supcrinrcndcncy lor cvclopmcnr ol rlc Norrlcasr (Supcrinrcndcncia para o c-
scnvolvimcnro do Nordcsrc).
L/. n., Sc Pcu|, 33(1), jcn-mcr 2003
crc` (quorcd Ly BA!, 182, p. 51). !n addirion, lamous cconomisrs,
sucl as Cclso urrado and FoLcrro Campos, and orlcr prolcssionals wcrc
lamiliariscd wirl Pcrroux's conccpr. or insrancc, FoLcrro Campos (162,
p. 27) srrcsscd rlar `c n/rrr;, o/// n|; ur o/n nm/ 4r|(mn/
(rrcmm cr jrmu|c/4, / |/on // u((r/r j /n/rc/4
4r|(mn/ cn4 // o/ u((r/ // |//n j ro/n (/n/` (as sccn
aLovc, rlis rcrm, coincd Ly !irsclman, is synonymous wirl `growrl
polcs`). urrado in lis Look Tr/c P|///c 4 Dnr|r/mn/ LnJm/
discusscd rlc main idcas ol Myrdal (sprcad and Lackwasl cllccrs),
!irsclman (Lackward and lorward linkagcs), Foscnsrcin-Fodan (Big Pusl)
and also Pcrroux (growrl polcs). !n rclarion ro Pcrroux's rlcory, urrado
(167, p. 278) srrcsscd rlar `c // /cr//n (/n/ jr // jrmu|c//n j c
4r|(mn/ /rc/; jr un4r4r|(4 un/r/, // /4c j (| /o |cr|;
// /m(r/cn j // nn//n j [4r|(mn/] (rj/ cn4 /// / |r /
// 4/r/n j |c|cn4 4r|(mn/.`
Pcrroux's rlcory was also discusscd Ly orlcr prolcssional in scvcral arriclcs.
!n rlis rcgard, 1olosa and Fcincr (172, p. 75-76) srrcsscd rlar ùr
n(/uc|/c//n j (|cnn4 (| c (u||/ /n/rumn/ jr c//r/n nc//nc|
c| j r/nc| 4r|(mn/ /m(|/ c (|/; j ur|cn 4r|(mn/ -r4/nc/4
c/ nc//nc| |r| (|; c n/rc| (|cnn/n cn;) cn4 /m(|mn/4 c/ r/nc|
|r| (|; c r/nc| (|cnn/n cn;).` !n anorlcr arriclc, 1olosa (17+, p.
21+) cmplasiscd rlar `ro// (| mc; mr c c ru|/ j // (rjrmcn
j mcr|/ jr r mc; rr/ c cn /n/rumn/ j rrnmn/c| nm/ (|/;
/n r4r / c//r c / j nc//nc| c| j r/nc| 4r|(mn/.` 1lc
gcograplcr Milron Sanros (17+, p. 27+) poinrs our rlar `// c((|/c//n j
// ro// (| //r; /n un4r4r|(4 un/r/ rc/ // (r||m j |no/n
/j // (c cn | /n4/jjrn/|; 4j/n4 /n 4r|(4 un/r/ cn4 /n
un4r4r|(4 un/r/. T/ mcjr//; j // o/ 44/c/ / // cnc|;/ cn4
(|cnn/n j // (c |/cr c /j //r/ |c|rc/4 /n 4r|(4 un/r/ cn4
4/r/4 / ///r rc|/// u|4 | /rcn(|cn/4 / un4r4r|(4 un/r/.`
Ncvcrrlclcss, rlc mosr imporranr poinr is rlar Pcrroux's rlcory lad Lccn
acccprcd Ly mosr Brazilian prolcssionals involvcd wirl rcgional incqualiry
proLlcms, wlo would apply rlc conccprs ro narional plans, sucl as rlc
L/. n., Sc Pcu|, 33(1), jcn-mcr 2003
PN !,
6
PN !!, crc., as wcll as ro rcgional plans, sucl as rlosc claLorarcd
Ly S\AM,
7
cspccially PA !!. (S\AM, 176c) 1lc lacr rlar rlcrc
wcrc somc misundcrsrandings in rclarion ro Pcrroux's rlcory is no novclry,
Lccausc Pcrroux limscll, as was sccn aLovc, gcncrarcd rlis sorr ol conlusion
and Brazil was no cxccprion ro rlc rulc. Anorlcr suLsranrial poinr is rlar
rlcsc misundcrsrandings vcrilicd in S\N's plans do nor mcan rlar
rlcy lavc consranrly appcarcd in orlcr Brazilian plans.
!r is imporranr ro rccapirularc somc clicl poinrs in rclarion ro sparial aspccrs
ol rlc narional dcvclopmcnr plans in ordcr ro undcrsrand and also vcrily
rlc cxrcnr ol Pcrroux's idcas. Fcgional disparirics wcrc a consranr and
scrious prcoccuparion ol scvcral Brazilian govcrnmcnrs, wlicl lormularcd
a numLcr ol narional dcvclopmcnr plans in ordcr ro racklc rlcsc proLlcms.
!n lacr, rlcsc policics wcrc inrcnsilicd wlcn Brazil lad alrcady crcarcd onc
ol rlc mosr advanccd and divcrsilicd indusrrial srrucrurcs amongsr
dcvcloping counrrics, alrcr rlc consolidarion ol rlc imporr-suLsrirurion
proccss ar rlc Lcginning ol rlc 160s. !owcvcr, rlis indusrrial srrucrurc
was pracrically limircd ro rlc Sourlcasr rcgion, principally ro rlc rwo
Brazilian srarcs Fio dc ]anciro and Sao Paulo. 1lc milirary rcgimc
csraLlislcd in 16+ cmplasiscd rlcsc incqualirics Lcrwccn Brazilian rcgions
and also rlc uncqual rclarions cxisring Lcrwccn producrion srrucrurcs. acl
milirary govcrnmcnr racklcd rlcsc proLlcms in a dillcrcnr way, Lur cacl ol
rlcm lad somc common claracrcrisrics, wlicl can Lc cxcmplilicd Ly rlc
lacr rlar rlcir sparial dcvclopmcnr policics wcrc unilorm in ccrrain rcspccrs,
sucl as ccnrraliscd dccisions ar cdcral govcrnmcnr lcvcl, adoprion ol a
polariscd dcvclopmcnr modcl lrom rlc cxpansion ol cconomic acrivirics in
indusrrial arcas, crc.
uring rlc milirary rcgimc, sparial planning was considcrcd a corncrsronc
in rlc dcvclopmcnr proccss. 1lc policy insrrumcnrs adoprcd Ly rlcsc
govcrnmcnrs varicd lrom rlc isolarcd usc ol liscal inccnrivcs in ordcr ro
6 PN ! - 1lc irsr Narional cvclopmcnr Plan (Primciro Plano Nacional dc cscnvolvimcnro).
7 S\AM - Supcrinrcndcncy lor cvclopmcnr ol Amazonia(Supcrinrcndcncia para o cscnvol-
vimcnro da Amaznia).
L/. n., Sc Pcu|, 33(1), jcn-mcr 2003
arrracr privarc invcsrmcnrs lor arcas lagging Lclind ro morc inrcgrarcd
dcvclopmcnr programmcs ro cxploir narural rcsourccs in viral arcas ol
Amazonia.
Wirl rcspccr ro Pcrroux's rlcory, rlc narional dcvclopmcnr plans alrcr rlc
cccnial Plan, wlicl was lormularcd lor rlc 167-78 pcriod, adoprcd rlc
rcrminologics ol rlc rcncl cconomisr. !n rlis rcgard, rlc cccnial Plan,
alrlougl ir lad nor passcd rlc sragc ol Lcing only on papcr, csraLlislcd in
irs sccond claprcr rlc Lasis lor rlc lormularion ol a narional policy ol
urLan dcvclopmcnr rlrougl rlc claracrcrisarion and srudy ol `programmc
rcgions` (ir musr Lc mcnrioncd lcrc rlar rlis conccpr was crcarcd Ly
Boudcvillc in ordcr ro makc Pcrroux's rlcory morc opcrarional) and also
rlrougl rlc dclinirion ol dcvclopmcnr polcs. !n parallcl, somc srudics Lascd
on prolcssor Foclclorr's mcrlodology wcrc undcrrakcn wirl rlc purposc
ol csraLlisling a licrarcly ol rlc urLan ncr and rlcrc wcrc rlrcc lcvcls ol
dcvclopmcnr polcs. dcvclopmcnr polcs ol narional inrcrcsr, polcs ol inrcrcsr
ol micro-rcgional dcvclopmcnr and polcs ol cquiliLrium (B, 187);
rlc P
8
(168-70) rclcrrcd ro rlc crcarion ol rcgional polcs (!AA,
181); rlc PN ! (172-7+) mcnrioncd rlc crcarion ol dcvclopmcnr polcs.
`// nm/ u(c//n cn4 // 4r|(mn/ (r
o/|| | jj/4 //ru/ 1) u(c//n, |c/c||; |; mcn
j (...), 2) 4r|(mn/ (rrcmm, |c4 (/c||; u(n
j/c| /nn//r cn4 xm(//n c4m/n//r4 |; SUDAM
cn4 SUlBAMA, c|n // j||o/n |/n |//n j
4r|(mn/ cn4 /n/rc//n (| ((r/r//; crc cn4 |r4r
:n) / c//r r/nc| (r/r///, r/c // nn/rc//n j
/nr/mn/, (...).`(BFAZ!, 171, p. 2)
1lc Sccond Narional cvclopmcnr Plan - PN !! (175-7) suggcsrcd
rlc crcarion ol growrl (dcvclopmcnr) polcs, wlicl wcrc callcd agro-minc-
8 P - 1lc Srrarcgic cvclopmcnr Plan (Plano srrarcgico dc cscnvolvimcnro).
L/. n., Sc Pcu|, 33(1), jcn-mcr 2003
ral growrl (dcvclopmcnr) polcs (BFAZ!, 17+). !n addirion, rlc PA
!!
also mcnrioncd rlc csraLlislmcnr ol dcvclopmcnr polcs.

`// (c//c| /rc/; j // l4rc| rrnmn/ o/|| |
m(|/4 o/// c (/c| (rj/, o/// / |/n (|cnn4 |;
SUDAM cn4 oc /n|u44 /n // Sn4 Nc//nc|
Dr|(mn/ P|cn (PND II), nrn/n / // /c||//mn/
j 4r|(mn/ (| /n // r/n [Amc:n/c].` (S\AM,
176a, p. +6)
1lis cvidcncc clcarly slows rlc populariry ol Pcrroux's idcas among
Brazilian prolcssionals involvcd wirl rcgional incqualiry proLlcms.
!owcvcr, rlis acccprancc ol lis idcas docs nor mcan rlar rlcy wcrc srricrly
implcmcnrcd, Lccausc ir is lard ro lind any cxamplc ol a dcvclopmcnr polc
policy rlar was vigorously implcmcnrcd in pracricc and mosr ol rlcsc
Brazilian narional plans cannor Lc dcscriLcd as cxamplcs ol dcvclopmcnr
polc approacl. Ncvcrrlclcss, rlc PN !! can Lc considcrcd rlc onc
cxccprion Lccausc irs main policy insrrumcnr was rlc dcvclopmcnr polc
srrarcgy and morcovcr, rlc dirccrivcs csraLlislcd in rlis plan wcrc in lacr
implcmcnrcd Ly rlc Brazilian govcrnmcnr.
Bclorc discussing dcvclopmcnr srrarcgics adoprcd Ly rlc PN !! in rlc
ncxr sccrion, ir is imporranr ro srrcss rlar onc ol rlc principal oLjccrivcs
srarcd in rlis narional dcvclopmcnr plan was ro consolidarc Brazil as a
modcrn indusrrial cconomy and in ordcr ro aclicvc rlis oLjccrivc ir was
ncccssary ro incorporarc rlc vasr `cmpry spaccs` inro rlc markcr cconomy.
1lus, narional inrcgrarion was an csscnrial parr ol rlc gcopolirical oLjccrivcs
ol rlc cdcral govcrnmcnr lor modcrnising rlc counrry. Alrlougl rlcrc
wcrc scvcral criricisms ol modcrnisarion rlcorics, modcrnisarion rcmaincd
a prcvalcnr srrarcgy in a numLcr ol dcvclopmcnr plans, and in Brazil rlc
dcvclopmcnr modcl adoprcd Ly rlc Brazilian govcrnmcnr was inrrinsically
PA !! - 1lc Sccond cvclopmcnr Plan lor Amazonia (Scgundo Plano dc cscnvolvimcnro
da Amaznia).
L/. n., Sc Pcu|, 33(1), jcn-mcr 2003
associarcd wirl rlc prcccprs ol modcrnisarion rlcory and also wirl rlc
dcvclopmcnr polc rlcory, rlc larrcr Lcing uscd as a rcgional planning
srrarcgy.
Alrlougl rlc cconomic modcrnisarion rlcorics and dcvclopmcnr polc
rlcory lavc divcrgcncc ol pcrspccrivc and analysis, rlcrc arc somc parallcls
Lcrwccn rlcm. Modcrnisarion rlcorics undcrsrood dcvclopmcnr as an
cconomic proLlcm, Lcing cconomic growrl a suiraLlc mcasurc lor ir. !n
lacr, cconomic growrl was pracrically synonymous wirl dcvclopmcnr. !n
rlis rcgard, growrl mcanr rlc rcducrion in incqualirics (Lorl wirlin and
Lcrwccn counrrics), uncmploymcnr lcvcls, and povcrry. Sucl dcvclopmcnr
would occur Lccausc rlc csscnrial rcclnologics wcrc alrcady availaLlc.
Alrcr rlis gcncralisarion, ir is imporranr ro liglliglr somc Lasic poinrs ol
modcrnisarion rlcorics, wlicl wcrc imprcgnarcd wirl a prolound dualism
(rradirional-modcrn) and crlnoccnrriciry. irsr ol all, indusrrialisarion was
considcrcd rlc kcy clcmcnr lor aclicving cconomic dcvclopmcnr, wlicl
would rranslorm rlc sragnanr cconomy ol Lackward counrrics and rcgions
inro a modcrn and dynamic capiralisr cconomy rlar would providc, in rlc
long rcrm, an incrcasc in incomc lcvcls. !owcvcr, rlc main qucsrion was
rlc way in wlicl undcrdcvclopcd counrrics could Lcsr aclicvc rlc cconomic
prospcriry and social dcvclopmcnr ol advanccd indusrrial cconomics. !n
rlis rcgard, an csscnrial clcmcnr was rlc cnrrcprcncurial class, wlicl slould
Lc psyclologically and rcclnically prcparcd lor inrroducing ncw producrion
luncrions inro rlc cconomy, and ar rlc samc rimc rlcy lad a ligl propcnsiry
ro savc and invcsr our ol rlcir prolir incomc. !r is inrcrcsring ro norc rlar
rlis cmplasis on rlc kcy rolc playcd Ly cnrrcprcncurslip in cconomic
dcvclopmcnr was Lascd on Sclumpcrcr's idca. Allicd ro rlc rulc playcd Ly
rlc cnrrcprcncurial class was rlc capaciry ol dcvcloping counrrics ro aLsorL
modcrn rcclnologics. Anorlcr signilicanr poinr was rclarcd ro rlc laLour
lorcc. 1lcrc was an acccprancc ol rlc cxisrcncc ol uncmploymcnr and
undcrcmploymcnr, cspccially in rlc agriculrurc sccror, in dcvcloping
counrrics and as a conscqucncc, rlc moLilisarion ol rlis laLour lorcc inro
morc producrivc acrivirics was considcrcd an csscnrial parr ol cconomic
dcvclopmcnr.
L/. n., Sc Pcu|, 33(1), jcn-mcr 2003
1lc mosr inllucnrial modcrnisarion rlcorisr was Fosrow (160), wlosc
prcoccuparion wirl rlc proccss ol cconomic growrl lcd lim ro dcvclop a
mcclanism rlar carapulrcd a Lackward cconomy inro rakc-oll. 1lc
propulsivc mcclanism was supplicd Ly rlc lcading sccrors (could Lc onc
or morc), Lur all sccrors rcmain in a conrinual clangc as producrion
luncrions, modcrn rcclnologics Lccomc availaLlc, and ncw linkagcs rcacl
our inro rlc cconomy. 1lc lcading sccrors wcrc a kcy clcmcnr in Fosrow's
work Lccausc rlc viral cncrgics wcrc accumularcd rlcrc, alrlougl rlcy
dcrivcd lrom dillcrcnr sourccs, sucl as. ncw invcnrions or rlc aLsorprion
ol availaLlc rcclnology; rlc cmcrgcncc ol an cnrrcprcncurial class wlo
invcsrcd in and cxploircd rlc markcr possiLilirics; a producrivc agriculrurc;
crc. !r is inrcrcsring ro norc lcrc rlar rlcrc arc somc similarirics Lcrwccn
Fosrow's `lcading sccror` and Pcrroux's `propulsivc indusrry`, wlicl wcrc
conccprs uscd lor dcscriLing rlc dynamic ol indusrrialisarion.
!n rclarion ro rlc dcvclopmcnr polc rlcory, ir is imporranr ro norc rlar
Pcrroux was inllucnccd Ly Sclumpcrcr's idcas, cspccially lis innovarion
conccpr. !n lacr, Pcrroux Lclicvcd rlar cnrrcprcncurial innovarion was
primarily rcsponsiLlc lor rlc dcvclopmcnr proccss in wlicl rlc propulsivc
indusrrics playcd a kcy rolc Lccausc rlcy wcrc liglly innovarivc and
according ro lim, innovarion or rcclnological progrcss was rlc pillar ol
cconomic dcvclopmcnr. Sccond, indusrrialisarion was an imporranr aspccr
ol cconomic dcvclopmcnr. 1lird, rlc mosr imporranr oLjccrivc was ro
gcncrarc rlc sprcad cllccrs, sucl as rlc incrcasc in incomc and cmploymcnr
and ar rlc samc rimc producc srrucrural clangc rlrougl cconomic growrl.
Lviously, rlc implcmcnrarion ol dcvclopmcnr polcs was rlc csscnrial
vcliclc lor aclicving rlcsc oLjccrivcs.
Summarising, rlc Lasic idca rlar pcrmcarcd rlcsc rlcorics and rlc
dcvclopmcnr modcl irscll adoprcd Ly rlc Brazilian govcrnmcnr was rlar
rlc ncccssiry ol laving an accclcrarc cconomic growrl, principally in rcrms
ol GP, in ordcr ro lavour rlc poorcsr srrarum ol socicry, wlicl mcanr
rlar rlc social dcvclopmcnr was a conscqucncc ol cconomic growrl. !n
orlcr words, proLlcms sucl as povcrry and undcrcmploymcnr wcrc
rcgardcd as rcmporary oLsraclcs, wlicl would Lc ovcrcomc rlrougl rlc
Lcnclicial sprcad cllccrs gcncrarcd lrom dynamic ccnrrcs, gcncrally riclcr
L/. n., Sc Pcu|, 33(1), jcn-mcr 2003
arcas, ro rlc pcriplcry, gcncrally Lackward rcgions, lcading in rlc long run
ro a morc cgalirarian and principally prospcrous socicry.
THL AMAZON BLGION
As was sccn aLovc, lcw counrrics adoprcd Pcrroux's idcas ro rlc cxrcnr rlar
Brazil did and lis inllucncc can Lc arrcsrcd Ly various narional dcvclopmcnr
plans rlar adoprcd lis conccprs. Alrlougl mosr ol rlcsc plans implcmcnrcd
lis rlcory parrially or in dillcrcnr ways, rlc PN !! was rlc only Brazilian
plan wlosc sparial planning approacl was Lascd on Pcrroux's dcvclopmcnr
polc rlcory and was srricrly implcmcnrcd according ro rlc dirccrivcs
prcviously csraLlislcd. 1lus, rlis narional plan is an cxccllcnr cxamplc lor
analysing rlc Lcnclicial sprcad cllccrs gcncrarcd Ly dcvclopmcnr polcs ro
rlcir surrounding linrcrland arcas.
1lc main oLjccrivcs ol rlc PN !! wcrc cconomic. 1lus, in ordcr ro
mainrain rlc accclcrarcd growrl rarcs ol rlc `miraclc ycars` (168-73), ro
conrain inllarion and ro kccp rlc Lalancc ol paymcnrs in rclarivc cquiliLrium
indusrrial, agriculrural, urLan and gcopolirical srrarcgics wcrc dcsigncd.
1lc indusrrial srrarcgy was Lascd on a `ncw plasc` ol imporr-suLsrirurion,
wlosc cmplasis was on Lasic sccrors, cspccially in clcmical and
mcrallurgical indusrrics. Wirl rcspccr ro agriculrural srrarcgy, ir was lopcd
rlar Brazil would Lccomc a world supplicr ol lood, agriculrural raw
marcrials and indusrrialiscd agriculrural producrs principally Lccausc ol rlc
vasr `cmpry spaccs` ar irs disposal. 1lc cdcral govcrnmcnr cncouragcd
divcrsilicarion and rcgional spccialisarion ol agriculrurc wirl rlc purposc
ol raking advanragc ol rlc producrivc porcnrial ol cacl rcgion.
nc ol rlc mosr imporranr oLjccrivcs ol rlc cdcral govcrnmcnr was
narional inrcgrarion, wlicl was rclarcd ro gcopolirical and cconomic
prcoccuparions. !n lacr, rlc occuparion ol `cmpry spaccs`, cspccially in
Amazonia and rlc Ccnrrc-wcsr, lad implicarions ol sccuriry and sovcrcignry
lor rlc milirary rcgimc. Ar rlc samc rimc, rlc incorporarion ol rlcsc vasr
Mcur// Au/cr Srrc 2
L/. n., Sc Pcu|, 33(1), jcn-mcr 2003
spaccs inro rlc markcr cconomy was lundamcnral lor rlc PN !! cconomic
srrarcgy, in wlicl dcccnrralisarion ol cconomic acriviry was a kcy lacror.
1lc cdcral govcrnmcnr lopcd rlar rlcsc ncw arcas would conrriLurc
suLsranrially ro rlc growrl ol GP, cspccially rlrougl a numLcr ol projccrs
(agriculrural, mining, livcsrock, lorcsrry, crc.) ro Lc implcmcnrcd, and ar
rlc samc rimc, considcrcd rlc Lcsr way ol inrcgraring and occupying rlc
rcgions was Ly mcans ol rlc liglways sysrcm, wlicl was alrcady
consrrucrcd ro a largc cxrcnr (1rans-Amazon liglway, BF-230 and rlc
Cu/c|c-Scn/cr/m liglway, BF-165). 1lc lorcmosr poinr in rlc narional
inrcgrarion srrarcgy was rlc ìnrcgrarcd arcas` conccpr, wlicl madc
conccnrrarcd cllorrs ol rlc cdcral govcrnmcnr and rlc privarc sccror
possiLlc, and morcovcr allowcd cxrcrnal savings and scalc and
agglomcrarion cconomics ro Lc rakcn advanragc ol. 1lc oLjccrivc was ro
crcarc Llocks ol inrcgrarcd invcsrmcnrs in rlcsc arcas (wlicl was
dcvclopmcnr polcs) wlicl would, ir was lopcd, pcrmir rlc adoprion ol
clcar priorirics and rlc plysical conrrol ol rlc rcsulrs Ly sclccrcd arcas.
Scvcral programmcs wcrc Lascd on rlis conccpr, sucl as.
PAMAZN!A,
10
rlc Programmc lor !nrcgrarcd Arcas in rlc Norrlcasr,
rlc Spccial Programmc lor rlc cvclopmcnr ol rlc Panranal and rlc Spccial
Programmc lor rlc cvclopmcnr ol rlc Gcocconomic Fcgion ol Brasilia.
!r is imporranr ro srrcss lcrc rlar colonisarion and agriculrural cnrcrpriscs
wcrc imporranr clcmcnrs ol narional inrcgrarion srrarcgy.
1lc srrarcgy ol rlc cconomic occuparion ol Amazonia (and also rlc
Ccnrrcwcsr) was Lascd on Brazil (17+) and C (17+).
\rilisarion ol rlc narural axcs ol pcncrrarion lor Amazonia and rlc
Ccnrrc-wcsr and principally ol rlc imporranr inlluxcs ol pcoplc wlicl
occurrcd. rlc lirsr srarrcd in rlc srarc ol Parana and rlc srarc ol Sao
Paulo, passcd rlrougl rlc srarc ol Maro Grosso and conrinucd ro
10 PAMAZN!A - 1lc Programmc ol Agro-ivcsrock and Agro-Mincral Polcs lor Amazonia
(Programa dc Polos Agropccuarios c Agromincrais da Amaznia).
L/. n., Sc Pcu|, 33(1), jcn-mcr 2003
Fondnia; rlc sccond srarrcd in rlc samc arca, ran roward rlc Norrl
ol rlc srarc ol Goias and sourlcrn Para; and rlc rlird srarrcd in rlc
Norrlcasr, passcd rlrougl rlc srarc ol Piaui and rlc srarc ol Maranlao
and conrinucd ro rlc Ccnrral Plarcau or rlc Sourl ol Para;
Promorion Ly rlc govcrnmcnr ol rlc occuparion ol rlc mosr lcrrilc
land ol sclccrcd arcas (and rlcrclorc gcograplically scpararcd), and
ol rlc dcvclopmcnr ol compararivc advanragcs;
1lc oricnrarion ol cxporr acrivirics, associarcd wirl cxporr corridors,
aiming ar clcar compararivc advanragcs and dynamic sccrors ol rlc
inrcrnarional markcr (Lccl, mincral dcposirs, lumLcr, ccllulosc). x-
porr acrivirics wcrc cxpccrcd ro grow ar a rarc ol 25% annually.
According ro rlcsc guidclincs, rlc PN !! csraLlislcd rlc lollowing poinrs
in ordcr ro occupy Amazonia producrivcly. rlc crcarion ol rlc
PAMAZN!A, wlicl compriscd lilrccn dcvclopmcnr polcs and wlosc
invcsrmcnrs wcrc csrimarcd ar CrS + Lillion (cquivalcnr ro \SS
2.121.001.+72,6+8
11
in 2001); rlc scrring up ol rlc mincral-mcrallurgical
complcx ol asrcrn Amazonia, wlicl cmLraccd rlc inrcgrarcd Carajas -
!raqui sclcmc (iron-orc mining and srccl mills), rlc Lauxirc-aluminium
complcx (1romLcras - Bclcm) and a largc numLcr ol orlcr undcrrakings
associarcd wirl cxploiring rlc lydroclccrric porcnrial ol rlc Araguaia -
1ocanrins rcgion (Sao clix and 1ucurui); lumLcr cxploirarion in a planncd
way; and conclusion ol rlc indusrrial disrricr ol rlc rcc Zonc ol Manaus
and rlc csraLlislmcnr ol irs agriculrural disrricr.
!n connccrion wirl all rlcsc poinrs aLovc, rlcrc was a policy ol urLanisarion
(scc igurc 1) rlar scrvcd as a Lasis lor Lorl narional dcvclopmcnr and rlc
occuparion srrarcgy advocarcd Ly rlc PN !!. 1lc main poinrs ol rlc urLan
dcvclopmcnr srrarcgy wcrc. rlc implcmcnrarion ol ninc mcrropoliran
rcgions rlar wcrc alrcady crcarcd. Sao Paulo, Fio dc ]anciro, Bclo !ori-
zonrc, orralcza, Porro Alcgrc, Fccilc, Salvador, CuririLa and Bclcm; rlc
11 1lis numLcr was compurcd Ly mcans ol rlc inllarion calcularor ol rlc Burcau ol aLor Srarisrics.
L/. n., Sc Pcu|, 33(1), jcn-mcr 2003
idcnrilicarion ol rlc luncrions rlar wcrc ro Lc pcrlormcd Ly rlc narional
mcrropoliran ccnrrcs and also Ly rlc rcgional mcrropoliran ccnrrcs,
cspccially in arcas ol grcarcsr dcmograplic and cconomic conccnrrarion;
and dcccnrralisarion, rlrougl rlc dclinirion ol mcdium-sizcd ccnrrcs
(polcs), on narional and rcgional scalc. 1lc principal oLjccrivc was ro rakc
advanragc ol rlc cxisring agglomcrarions in cconomic, social and polirical
rcrms. Wirl rcspccr ro Amazonia, rlc scrring up ol urLan polcs was lunda-
mcnral lor rlc occuparion ol rlc rcgion.
lIGUBL 1 - NATIONAL UBBAN DLJLLOPMLNT POLICT

Sourcc. Brazil (17+).
1lc urLan dcvclopmcnr srrarcgy lor Amazonia and rlc Ccnrrc-wcsr was
Lascd on. rlc dcvclopmcnr ol rlc cirics ol Manaus and Sanrarcm and also
L/. n., Sc Pcu|, 33(1), jcn-mcr 2003
ol rlc mcrropoliran rcgion ol Bclcm. 1lc aim was ro complcmcnr rlcir
urLan inlrasrrucrurc and supporr rlcir producrivc sccondary and rcrriary
acrivirics; rlc implcmcnrarion ol rlc dcvclopmcnr guidclincs lor rlc gco-
cconomic rcgion ol Brasilia, cspccially rlc occuparion along rlc road axcs
wlicl lcd ro rlc Brazilian capiral (principally rlc Brasilia-Anapolis-Goinia
axis); rlc dcvclopmcnr ol rlc lollowing cirics. CuiaLa, Campo Grandc,
CorumLa, ourados, Macapa, Boa \isra and Fio Branco; and rlc
csraLlislmcnr ol sclccrcd urLan polcs along rlc main liglways (rlc 1rans-
Amazon, rlc CuiaLa- Sanrarcm, rlc Bclcm- Brasilia, crc.) and also in rlc
linrcrlands. 1lc oLjccrivc was ro occupy and ro promorc rlc agriculrural
and agro-indusrrial dcvclopmcnr ol rlc rcgion. !r is imporranr ro srrcss
lcrc rlar all rlcsc srrarcgics wcrc inrrinsically connccrcd wirl urLan
dcvclopmcnr srrarcgy Lascd on Pcrroux's rlcory and scrvcd as a Lasis lor
rlc narional dcvclopmcnr and occuparion srrarcgy advocarcd in rlc PN
!!. \rLan polcs idcnrilicd as ccnrrcs ol rcgional dcvclopmcnr would Lc
srrcngrlcncd Ly producrivc acrivirics and invcsrmcnrs in inlrasrrucrurc and
social appararus. !r was lopcd rlar rlcsc polcs would conrain migrarion
and supporr indusrrial acrivirics.
1lc sparial dcvclopmcnr srrarcgy ol rlc PN !! was lormaliscd in rlc
PAMAZN!A programmc (scc igurc 2), wlicl was scr up Ly ccrcc-
aw n 7+,607 on ScprcmLcr 25, 17+. 1lis programmc aimcd ro csraLlisl
lilrccn dcvclopmcnr polcs in sclccrcd arcas rlrouglour `cgal Amazonia`
according ro rlcir porcnrialirics, wlicl wcrc. mincral, lorcsrry, agro-
livcsrock and agro-indusrrial. !n rlis rcgard, inlrasrrucrurc, capiral suLsidi-
cs, raxarion and orlcr counrlcss similar inccnrivcs wcrc providcd Ly rlc
cdcral govcrnmcnr in ordcr ro accclcrarc cconomic growrl and also crcarc
rlc ncccssary condirions lor rlcsc polcs ro gcncrarc rlc lopcd-lor sprcad
cllccrs ro rlcir pcriplcral arcas. 1lc sclccrcd dcvclopmcnr polcs wcrc.
Xingu-Araguaia; Carajas; Araguaia-1ocanrins; 1romLcras; Alramira; Prc-
Amaznia Maranlcnsc; Fondnia; Acrc; ]urua-Solimcs; Foraima;
1apajos; Amapa; ]urucna; Aripuana; and Marajo.
Carajas, polc 2, was a prioriry arca undcr rlc PAMAZN!A programmc
Lccausc ol irs lugc iron-orc dcposirs (csrimarcd ar 18 Lillion rons)
principally in rlc vallcys Lcrwccn rlc Xingu and rlc 1ocanrins rivcrs and
L/. n., Sc Pcu|, 33(1), jcn-mcr 2003
rlc Carajas mounrain clain. !n ordcr ro cxploir rlcsc vasr dcposirs, mining
was programmcd ro srarr in 178}7 and rlc lcasiLiliry srudics
rccommcndcd rlar rlc orc slould Lc carricd Ly rail lrom rlc minc ro rlc
porr ol !raqui, wlicl was locarcd +0 kilomcrrcs away lrom rlc Carajas
minc and closc ro Sao uis, rlc capiral ol rlc Srarc ol Maranlao. 1lc Carajas
polc also lad rcscrvcs ol mangancsc, cassircrirc, diamond and rin and a
survcy was srarrcd ro dcrcrminc low Lcsr ro usc rlc narural rcsourccs ol
rlc rcgion. Morcovcr, ro rlc wcsr ol rlc iron-orc dcposirs rlcrc was land
wirl a ligl porcnrial lor agro-livcsrock and also lorcsrry rcsourccs, Lorl ol
wlicl wcrc ro Lc cxploircd Ly privarc cnrcrpriscs. !n lacr, agro-livcsrock,
and cspccially mincral undcrrakings, wcrc rlc main acrivirics ol rlis polc
and ir is inrcrcsring ro norc rlar six ycars Lclorc rlc PGC lad Lccn
csraLlislcd, rlc porcnrial and srrarcgic imporrancc ol iron-orc, mangancsc,
Lauxirc and orlcr mincral dcposirs in casrcrn Amazonia was complcrcly
undcrsrood and srarcd.
lIGUBL 2 - DLJLLOPMLNT POLLS SLLLCTLD BT POLAMAZONIA
I) Xingu-Araguaia; II) Carajas; III) Araguaia-1ocanrins; IV) 1romLcras; V) Alramira; VI) Prc-
Amaznia Maranlcnsc; VII) Fondnia; VIII) Acrc; IX) ]urua-Solimcs; X) Foraima; XI) 1apajos;
XII) Amapa; XIII) ]urucna; XIV) Aripuana; and XV) Marajo.
Sourcc. S\AM (176L).
L/. n., Sc Pcu|, 33(1), jcn-mcr 2003
According ro PAMAZN!A, rlc acrions ol rlc cdcral govcrnmcnr,
ol rlc Srarc govcrnmcnrs, and also ol privarc iniriarivc would Lc co-
ordinarcd in rlcsc lilrccn dcvclopmcnr polcs and rlc plans lor rlc
dcvclopmcnr ol cacl polc would Lc parr ol an inrcgrarcd dcvclopmcnr
plan. Lviously, rlc spccilic oLjccrivc ol massivc invcsrmcnrs in
inlrasrrucrurc allicd ro counrlcss rypcs ol liscal inccnrivcs providcd Ly rlc
Brazilian govcrnmcnr was ro arrracr privarc indusrrics and conscqucnrly ro
scr in morion a dynamic proccss ol cconomic growrl, Lur in addirion ro
rlis oLjccrivc rlcrc was a gcncral onc. ro occupy `rlc cmpry spaccs`.
(S\AM, 176a; 176L)
Wirl rlc coming ro powcr ol rlc igucircdo govcrnmcnr, rlc dcvclopmcnr
ol asrcrn Amazonia gaincd a ncw impcrus and as a conscqucncc rlc
PAMAZN!A programmc was mainraincd, rlc PGC was scr up and
inlinirc addirional inccnrivcs wcrc crcarcd in ordcr ro accclcrarc cconomic
growrl, solvc rlc lorcign dcLr proLlcm and also consolidarc gcopolirical
oLjccrivcs, sucl as rlc occuparion ol cmpry spaccs, wlicl lad Lccn
csraLlislcd Ly prcvious milirary govcrnmcnrs. !owcvcr, ir is imporranr ro
liglliglr lcrc rlar wirl rlc advcnr ol PGC in 180, scvcn dcvclopmcnr
polcs wcrc csraLlislcd along rlc Carajas railway corridor ar ParauapcLas,
MaraLa, Aailndia, Buriricupu, Sanra !ncs, Fosario and Sao uis. 1lc
logic was rlc samc as lor prcvious dcvclopmcnr polcs. rlc srimulus ro mi-
ncral, agro-livcsrock, lumLcring and inlrasrrucrural undcrrakings would
arrracr indusrrial and agriLusincss vcnrurcs, and would rlcrcLy accclcrarc
rlc dcvclopmcnr ol rlc rcgion.
Alrlougl massivc invcsrmcnrs ol rcgional inlrasrrucrurc lavc conrriLurcd
ro rcducing rlc isolarion Lcrwccn disranr rcgions ol rlc counrry and lavc
slown alrcrnarivcs lor invcsrmcnr and lor cxrracrion ol rlc cconomic
surplus, rlcy lavc also accclcrarcd sparial occuparion, wlicl las rcsulrcd
in prcdarory cxploirarion ol narural rcsourccs, and las aggravarcd social
disparirics, rcproducing and inrcnsilying siruarions ol povcrry wlicl occur
in orlcr Brazilian rcgions.
Brazilian dcvclopmcnr policics, Lascd on Pcrroux's dcvclopmcnr polc rlcory,
lavc Lccn rcsponsiLlc lor gcncraring ncgarivc social and cnvironmcnral
L/. n., Sc Pcu|, 33(1), jcn-mcr 2003
impacrs in urLan and rural arcas. !n rclarion ro impacrs on urLan
dcvclopmcnr, ir is clcar rlar rowns and cirics in Amazonia, principally irs
asrcrn parr, lavc Lcnclircd, ro somc cxrcnr, lrom indusrrial undcrrakings
implcmcnrcd in rlis rcgion. or insrancc, rlc Carajas railway las
rransporrcd a considcraLlc numLcr ol passcngcrs and las carricd largc
quanrirics ol producrs, varying lrom pig-iron ro lood. or insrancc, rlc
numLcr ol pcrsons rransporrcd Ly rlc Carajas railway incrcascd lrom
571,000 in 10 ro 836,000 in 15. (MAYF!NK, 16) Morcovcr, rlc
road and sanirarion inlrasrrucrurc was improvcd and sclools and lospirals
wcrc consrrucrcd in scvcral rowns and cirics, wlicl prcviously lackcd sucl
lacilirics. 1lc indirccr cmploymcnr and incomc cllccrs produccd Ly indus-
rrial acrivirics lavc parrly conrriLurcd ro rlc dcvclopmcnr ol local
cconomics.
!ndusrrial projccrs, sucl as rlc Carajas projccr,
12
associarcd wirl orlcr puLlic
inrcrvcnrions in asrcrn Amazonia lavc arrracrcd, dirccrly or indirccrly, a
suLsranrial llow ol migranrs, wlicl las aggravarcd rlc alrcady insullicicnr
inlrasrrucrurc and scrvicc-provision capaLilirics ol local urLan nuclci. Mu-
nicipal govcrnmcnrs lavc cndcavourcd ro racklc a numLcr ol proLlcms,
wirl vcry limircd assisrancc lrom rlc C\F, ol rlc rowns and cirics along
rlc Carajas corridor, improving somc lacilirics, Lur rlcsc arrcmprs lavc
Lccn rorally inadcquarc. !n lacr, rlc local aurlorirics lavc Lccn unaLlc ro
mccr rlc growing nccds, and somc polirical clangcs, sucl as
dismcmLcrmcnr ol disrricrs, lavc cxaccrLarcd rlis siruarion.
12 1lc Carajas !ron-rc Projccr was rlc ccnrrcpiccc ol rlc PGC programmc and compriscs rlc
minc, rlc railway, a dccp-warcr porr and also rlc rown sircs. 1lc iron-orc minc is locarcd ar rlc
Scrra dos Carajas and irs ciglrccn Lillion ronncs ol ligl-gradc iron-orc arc rlc largcsr rcscrvcs in
rlc world. !n addirion ro rlc iron-orc, rlc Scrra dos Carajas also conrains orlcr mincrals sucl as.
mangancsc (sixry livc million ronncs, wlicl is rlc sccond largcsr mangancsc rcscrvc in Brazil),
coppcr, nickcl, clromc, cassircrirc, rungsrcn and gold. 1lc porr ol Ponra da Madcira was Luilr in
rlc Sao Marcos Bay, wlicl is locarcd ninc kilomcrrcs sourlwcsr ol rlc island ol Sao uis. 1lc
Carajas railway is a singlc rrack, las a roral lcngrl ol 80 kilomcrrcs, and connccrs rlc minc sirc
in Carajas ro rlc Ponra da Madcira rcrminal in Sao uis. !r was dcsigncd wirl rlc purposc ol
rransporring rlc ligl gradc iron-orc cconomically. An imporranr componcnr ol rlc Carajas
Projccr is rlc company rown - C\F - Luilr lor approximarcly 6,000 inlaLiranrs and wlicl las
a rclarivcly advanccd inlrasrrucrurc. Srrongly conrrasring wirl rlc Carajas rown, wlicl was wcll
planncd and cquippcd wirl modcrn lacilirics, rlc ncarLy rown ol ParauapcLas was planncd ro
accommodarc a popularion ol up ro 10,000 Ly 188, including principally C\F conrracr
scrvicc workcrs.
L/. n., Sc Pcu|, 33(1), jcn-mcr 2003
All cirics and rowns along rlc Carajas corridor lavc proLlcms ol
inlrasrrucrural dclicicncy. Warcr supplics arc commonly unrrcarcd, scwagc
and rrasl collccrion and srorm drainagc sysrcms arc usually rcsrricrcd ro
liglcr incomc nciglLourloods, wlilc scwagc rrcarmcnr and adcquarc solid
wasrc disposal arc scarcc. 1lc inadcquacy ol urLan scrviccs and lacilirics
dirccrly allccrs rlc lcalrl and cducarion sccrors. 1lc impacrs on rlc lcalrl
sccror arc aggravarcd Ly widcsprcad urLan povcrry, wlicl is causcd Ly rlc
inrcnsc llood ol migranrs arrracrcd ro rlc rcgion in scarcl ol cconomic
opporrunirics. !n gcncral, rlc rowns and cirics in rlc Carajas rcgion prcscnr
ligl incidcnccs ol a numLcr ol discascs, wlicl vary lrom malaria ro scxually
rransmirrcd discascs, and also ligl indiccs ol inlanr and locral morraliry.
(C!, 11; WF BANK, 12) Wirl rcgard ro rlc cducarion
sccror, sclools arc lrcqucnrly lacking or grcarly ovcrcrowdcd in mosr ol
rlc rcgion and rlcsc proLlcms connccrcd wirl rlc nccd ro supplcmcnr
lamily incomcs conrriLurc ro making rlc siruarion morc proLlcmaric.
(!SP, 10)
Manilold impacrs lavc Lccn gcncrarcd in Amazonia, principally irs asrcrn
parr, Ly indusrrial projccrs (and rlc Carajas projccr is an cxccllcnr cxamplc)
and onc ol rlcm is rclarcd ro urLan displaccmcnr and involunrary
rcscrrlcmcnr. !n lacr, indusrrial acrivirics lavc allccrcd small communirics
Ly displacing rlcir popularions wirlour any rypc ol compcnsarion. 1lc
villagcs wcrc dcmolislcd and rlc only alrcrnarivc lor mosr ol displaccd
pcoplc was ro livc in squarrcr scrrlcmcnrs. 1lcrc arc scvcral cxamplcs ol
displaccmcnr causcd Ly rlcsc projccrs, sucl as rlc A\MAF planr, wlicl
displaccd 20,000 small larmcrs and lislcrmcn; rlc 1ucurui dam and
rcscrvoir, wlicl displaccd approximarcly 35,000 pcoplc and dcmolislcd
six small rowns; and C\F wlicl cxpropriarcd lamilics lrom small villagcs,
sucl as Sanro Anrnio, Boqucirao, !raqui, crc., ro `Morro Pclado` in ordcr
ro consrrucr irs rail and porr lacilirics. (!A, 11; WF BANK,
12).
Brazilian dcvclopmcnr policics, principally lor asrcrn Amazonia, adoprcd
a clcar |c//jun4/-Lascd modcl, wlicl lavourcd largc landowncrs wirl
gcncrous suLsidics ro rlc dcrrimcnr ol rlc vasr majoriry ol small larmcrs.
!n rlis rcgard, rlcsc policics lavc dirccrly allccrcd rlc rural sccror, wlicl
L/. n., Sc Pcu|, 33(1), jcn-mcr 2003
lavc undcrgonc many and inrcrconnccrcd impacrs, namcly land conllicrs,
land conccnrrarion, rural violcncc, and lood insccuriry. 1lc implcmcnrarion
ol Lorl rlc PGC and rlc Carajas projccr, Ly incrcasing land valucs in asrcrn
Amazonia, cxaccrLarcd land conccnrrarion and rural violcncc, and
morcovcr, srimularcd a considcraLlc llow ol migranrs inro rlc rcgion.
Amazonia dcvclopmcnr policics wcrc rcsponsiLlc lor cxcluding a largc
parr ol rlc pcasanr popularion lrom acccss ro land. !owcvcr, rlc
pcrsisrcncc ol rural violcncc in Brazil is inrrinsically rclarcd ro rlc policc
and rlc judiciary, wlosc local and srarc srrucrurcs arc slow and corrupr.
!n addirion, rlc cdcral govcrnmcnr, wlicl is also rcsponsiLlc lor
lormularing and implcmcnring rlcsc policics, could usc irs powcrs ro
cnsurc rlar rlc law is Lcrrcr cnlorccd insrcad ol Lcing ncgligcnr and cvcn
conniving wirl rlis siruarion. 1lc conlronrarion Lcrwccn rlc policc ol
rlc srarc ol Para and approximarcly 1500 landlcss workcrs ar ldorado
do Carajas in April 16 nor only illusrrarcs rlc wlolc proLlcm, Lur also
indicarcs rlar rural violcncc is lar lrom coming ro an cnd in Brazil. 1lcsc
landlcss occupicd rlc liglway PA-150 wirl rlc clcar purposc ol prorcsring
againsr rlc cdcral govcrnmcnr, wlicl lad posrponcd rlc rcscrrlcmcnr
ol rlcir lamilics, and rlc govcrnor ol rlc srarc ol Para`s immcdiarc rcacrion
was ro scnd in rlc milirary policc ro cxpcl rlcm rapidly. As a rcsulr,
nincrccn landlcss workcrs wcrc killcd wlilc lilry-onc wcrc scriously
woundcd. (BFGAM & CAMAF11!,16)
Fural violcncc also cmLraccs rlc indigcnous qucsrion insolar as !ndian
pcoplc lavc Lccn dirccrly allccrcd Ly dcvclopmcnr policics implcmcnrcd
Ly rlc cdcral govcrnmcnr. !n lacr, !ndian lands lavc Lccn corrccr Lccausc
ol rlcir valuaLlc narural rcsourccs and rlc prcssurc lrom mining companics
Lccamc morc inrcnsc wirl ccrcc N 88,85 ol 183 wlicl lcgirimiscd
mcclaniscd mincral cxrracrion on all !ndian lands, C\F Lcing onc ol
rlc companics rlar las madc many applicarions ro prospccr in rriLal
rcrrirorics. 1lcsc policics associarcd wirl rlc aurlorirics` slowncss in
assuring land dcmarcarion and assisrancc ro rlc indigcnous popularion lavc
Lccn rcsponsiLlc lor a numLcr ol violarions, sucl as invasions Ly
agriculrural, mining and lumLcring cnrcrpriscs, assassinarions, dcarl rlrcars
L/. n., Sc Pcu|, 33(1), jcn-mcr 2003
and ourLrcaks ol discasc, in rriLal rcrrirorics undcr PGC`s arca ol inllucncc.
13
!n rclarion ro advcrsc impacrs gcncrarcd Ly dcvclopmcnr projccrs on !ndian
rriLcs, scc AM!A (1+); FFAZ & A!FA (11); MAGA-
!AS (11).
!nrrinsically connccrcd ro rural violcncc is rlc proLlcm ol land conccnrrarion
and spccularion, proLlcms wlicl lavc Lccn scvcrcly aggravarcd Ly
dcvclopmcnr policics. Alrlougl polarisarion ol land owncrslip in rlc
rcgion lad alrcady rcaclcd an advanccd sragc Lclorc 180, rlc
implcmcnrarion ol rlc PGC, including rlc Carajas projccr, cxaccrLarcd rlis
proccss rlrougl gcncrous suLsidics providcd ro largc larmcrs and also
rlrougl rlc indirccr srimulus givcn Ly dcvclopmcnr polcs and land valucs.
1lcsc lacrors madc asrcrn Amazonia an arca cxrrcmcly arrracrivc lor purcly
spccularivc invcsrmcnr in land during a pcriod ol ligl inllarion. !n rlis
rcgard, rlc World Bank (12) poinrcd our rlar lollowing rlc crcarion rlc
municipaliry ol ParauapcLas (rlc rown ol ParauapcLas was onc ol rlc PGC's
scvcn dcvclopmcnr polcs) in larc 188, rural propcrry valucs in somc arcas
rosc Ly ncarly 3000%. Anorlcr imporranr impacr causcd Ly dcvclopmcnr
policics is on lood sccuriry, wlicl dirccrly allccrs rlc nurrirional lcvcls ol
rlc popularion in rlc rcgion. 1lc rcasons lor rlc impacr on lood sccuriry
lic in a numLcr ol lacrors, sucl as. grcar srimulus givcn Ly rlc cdcral
govcrnmcnr ro livcsrock, lumLcring and rlc producrion ol casl crops lor
cxporr insrcad ol lood sraplcs; rlc roral conrrol ovcr agriculrural lands ol
largcly unproducrivc propcrrics; rlc incrcasc in landlcss small larmcrs duc
ro rlc proccss ol cxpulsion lrom land allicd ro rlc impcdimcnr ro acccss ro
ncw lands; and rlc risc in rcmporary wagc laLour on largcr rural propcrrics.
ood insccuriry is a common plcnomcnon in asrcrn Amazonia, wlosc
urLan arcas, lrom rlc srarc capirals ro rowns along rlc Carajas corridor,
lavc proLlcms in mainraining supplics ol lood srulls, wlicl lavc ro Lc
imporrcd lrom rlc Ccnrrc-Sourl.
13 !n rclarion ro advcrsc impacrs gcncrarcd Ly dcvclopmcnr projccrs on !ndian rriLcs, scc AM!A
(1+); FFAZ & A!FA (11); MAGA!AS (11).
Mcur// Au/cr Srrc 3
L/. n., Sc Pcu|, 33(1), jcn-mcr 2003
Wirl rcgard ro cnvironmcnral impacrs, ir is imporranr ro Lcar in mind rlc
lacr rlar rlc lorcsr covcr ol Amazonia rcmaincd pracrically unrouclcd unril
rlc milirary coup. Amazonian dcvclopmcnr policics srimularcd a numLcr
ol undcrrakings, sucl as rlc consrrucrion ol liglways and sccondary roads;
carrlc-rancling; lumLcring; ollicial and `sponrancous` colonisarion; mining
rogcrlcr wirl associarcd inlrasrrucrural projccrs (rail and porr lacilirics and
lydroclccrric powcr); and pig iron smclrcrs. All rlcsc iniriarivcs arc
inrcrconnccrcd and lavc conrriLurcd ro worscning dclorcsrarion and
cnvironmcnral dcgradarion in asrcrn Amazonia. Alrcrarions in soil and
warcr qualiry arc associarcd wirl rapid dclorcsrarion. !n rclarion ro soils,
clcaring rlc lorcsr lor pasrurc on crops rcsulrs in crosion, lcacling, loss ol
lcrriliry, and an incrcasc in soil dcnsirics Ly mcans ol compacrion, principally
wlcn land is uscd lor grazing or lcavy maclincry is uriliscd in connccrion
wirl agriculrural acriviry. !n rclarion ro warcr qualiry, irs conraminarion is
rlc rcsulr ol a numLcr ol lacrors, sucl as. soil crosion, rlc usc ol lcrLicidcs
and lcrriliscrs, incrcasing urLanisarion, and mincral acrivirics. Mcrcury
pollurion as a rcsulr ol gold prospccring is a scrious proLlcm in rlc Carajas
rcgion.
cspirc rlc imporrancc ol Lorl rlc PAMAZN!A and rlc PGC
programmc, onc Lasic qucsrion rcmains. wly did rlc cdcral govcrnmcnr
adopr rlc dcvclopmcnr polc rlcory !n ordcr ro answcr rlis qucsrion, ir is
imporranr ro rccapirularc rlc clicl poinrs mcnrioncd Lclorcland. n rlc
onc land, Pcrroux's rlcory lad a vcry srrong appcal Lccausc irs undcrlying
idcas suggcsrcd rlar cconomic growrl, inrcrrcgional cquiliLrium and
inrcgrarion ol Lackward rcgions could Lc aclicvcd rlrougl a srrarcgy ol
dcccnrraliscd dcvclopmcnr. n rlc orlcr land, rlc milirary rcgimc was
acurcly awarc ol rlc slarp rcgional incqualirics in Brazil and rlis proLlcm
was inrroduccd in irs gcopolirical and cconomic oLjccrivcs.
Bcckcr and glcr srrcsscd rlar.
`// /4|; j 4r|(mn/ (| /o4 //|j / | // m/
c4uc/ m4| jr /rr//r/c| rcn/c//n (r(4 |; //
cu//r//cr/cn /c/, /n // /nr|r4 // rc//n j (r/r/|4
|c//n, jrm // (r(//r j c(//c|// cumu|c//n,
L/. n., Sc Pcu|, 33(1), jcn-mcr 2003
c(c|| j /n/r|/n|/n // nc//nc| cn4 /n/rnc//nc| /ru//
j j/ncn/c| cn4 mrcn//| j|o.` (12, p. 100)
\nqucsrionaLly, rlc main locus ol rlc cdcral govcrnmcnr was cconomic,
Lur ar rlc samc rimc rlc implcmcnrarion ol dcvclopmcnr polcs associarcd
wirl inlrasrrucrural undcrrakings, wlicl mcanr rlc complcrion ol rlc axcs
ol pcncrrarion (scc igurc 1 aLovc) and principally rlc consrrucrion ol a
ncrwork ol vicinal roads, wcrc csscnrial lor rlc srrarcgic occuparion and
also lor rlc inrcgrarion ol Amazonia. !n addirion ro rlc gcopolirical and
cconomic oLjccrivcs, rlc Brazilian govcrnmcnr lopcd rlar dcvclopmcnr
polcs would acr likc cllicicnr counrcr-magncrs ro rlc largc and congcsrcd
mcrropoliran arcas Ly arrracring popularions in scarcl ol cmploymcnr. 1lus,
rlc milirary govcrnmcnr saw rlc dcvclopmcnr polc rlcory as a convcnicnr
rlcorcrical rool wlicl scrvcd ro jusrily irs disrincr oLjccrivcs.
CONCLUDING BLMABKS
1lc conccpr ol dcvclopmcnr polc, wlicl was claLorarcd in ordcr ro dcscriLc
and cxplain rlc proccss ol cconomic dcvclopmcnr, was Lascd on rlc
lollowing argumcnr. rlc propulsivc cllccrs inrrinsic ro a dcvclopmcnr
proccss rcndcd ro Lc gcncrarcd Ly a clusrcr ol cconomic acrivirics and also
rcndcd ro cngcndcr rlc Lroadcr cconomic growrl. wing ro irs pcrccivcd
porcnrial, rlis conccpr arrracrcd rlc arrcnrion ol many prolcssionals involvcd
wirl proLlcms ol rcgional dcvclopmcnr. !owcvcr, Pcrroux's conccpr was
conccivcd in an cconomic spacc, wlicl was roo aLsrracr and non-
opcrarional ro Lc applicd as a Lasis lor planning. Boudcvillc, wlo was
Pcrroux's disciplc, was rlc main rcsponsiLlc lor rranslorming rlis conccpr
inro an opcrarional rool lor rcgional planning and rlis lacr was csscnrial
lor irs widcsprcad usc in scvcral counrrics.
According ro rlc rlcory, dcvclopmcnr polcs could Lc induccd and rlc logic
was rlar rlcsc induccd polcs would acr sucl as cllicicnr counrcr-magncrs
ro rlc largc and congcsrcd mcrropoliran arcas; would producc scalc and
agglomcrarion cconomics; and would gcncrarc Lcnclicial sprcad cllccrs ro
L/. n., Sc Pcu|, 33(1), jcn-mcr 2003
rlcir immcdiarc linrcrlands, so rlar in rlc long-rcrm an `cquiliLrium
growrl` rlrouglour a counrry would Lc cxpccrcd. !n addirion, rlc
accclcrarcd cconomic and popularion growrl would Lc cncouragcd Ly
govcrnmcnr policics in rclarion ro inlrasrrucrurc and scvcral rypcs ol in-
ccnrivcs.
1lcsc idcas advocarcd Ly dcvclopmcnr polc rlcory lirrcd in wcll wirl rlc
spccilic gcopolirical (narional inrcgrarion and occuparion ol Amazonia)
and cconomic oLjccrivcs ol rlc milirary rcgimc. !n rlis rcgard, rlc
PAMAZN!A programmc was csraLlislcd and massivc invcsrmcnrs
wcrc clanncllcd inro inlrasrrucrurc undcrrakings, capiral suLsidics, raxarion
and rlousands ol orlcr inccnrivcs wirl rlc clcar purposc ol producing
srrucrural clangcs rlrougl accclcrarcd cconomic growrl.
!n pusling lorward wirl a dcvclopmcnr srrarcgy rlar was associarcd wirl
rlc dcvclopmcnr polc rlcory and also wirl rlc Lasic prcccprs ol cconomic
modcrnisarion rlcory, rlc milirary govcrnmcnr oprcd lor a policy wlicl
would Lc rcsponsiLlc lor ncgarivc social and cnvironmcnral impacrs.
BILBLIOGBAPHT
AM!A, A. W. B. dc. Ccrcjc. a gucrra dos mapas. Bclcm. alangola,
1+.
ANFA, M.; CFFA, C. M. Mararam a poLrcza. condics dc
vida dc lamilias dc rraLalladorcs rurais cxpropriadas pcla Compa-
nlia \alc do Fio occ c asscnradas no `Morro Pclado`, cm Sao
uis, Maranlao. Pcrc Dnr|r/mn/, n. 20-21, 186}87.
ANFA, Manucl. C. dc. L(c,, (|cr/:c,c 4nr|r/mn/. Sao Paulo.
dirorial GrijalLo, 177.
BCKF, Bcrra. K.; GF, Claudio. A. G. Brc:/|. a ncw rcgional powcr
in rlc world cconomy. CamLridgc. CamLridgc \nivcrsiry Prcss,
12.
BA!, G. !aLiraao c urLanismo. o proLlcma c o lalso proLlcma.
In. MAF!CA1, . (cd.), A (r4u,c c(//c|//c 4c cc ( 4c /4c4)
n Brc/| /n4u/r/c|. Sao Paulo. Alla-mcga, 182.
L/. n., Sc Pcu|, 33(1), jcn-mcr 2003
B\\!, ]acqucs F. Cn/r/|u//n c |'/u4 4 (J| 4 r/cn
|r//|/n. unc indusrric morricc - la sidcrurgic du Minas Gcrais. Calicrs
dc l'!.S..A., Scric , n 10, 157.
_______. Pr||m j r/nc| nm/ (|cnn/n. dinLurgl. dinLurgl
\nivcrsiry Prcss, 166.
_______. L'(c / | (J| 4 r/cn. Paris. Prcsscs \nivcrsirarics dc
rancc, 168.
BFAZ!, FP\B!CA FA1!\A . I P|cn Nc/nc| 4 Dn-
r|r/mn/ (190-1). Fio dc ]anciro. !BG, 171.
_______. II P|cn Nc/nc| 4 Dnr|r/mn/ (195-9). Fio dc ]anciro.
!BG, 17+.
CAMPS, FoLcrro dc . P|cnjcmn/ 4 4nr|r/mn/ nJm/ 4
(c/ u|4nr|r/4. Fio dc ]anciro. undaao Gcrulio \argas, 162.
C - CNS! SN\\!MN1 CNM!C.
P|cmc:Jn/c Programa dc Polos Agropccuarios c Agromincrais da
Amaznia. Brasilia. C, 17+.
C!, Maria Cclia N. S/-nm/ /m(c/ j // Ccrcjc rc/|rc4 /n
Mcrcn/c, Brc:/|. 11. Pl.. 1lcsis, Syracusc \nivcrsiry.
CFAGG!, ]osc. . Polarizarion, dcvclopmcnr, and inrcgrarion. In.
K\K!NSK!, A. (cd.), B/nc| 4r|(mn/ (|cnn/n. inrcrnarional
pcrspccrivcs. 1lc Ncrlcrlands. Sijrloll-cydcn, 17+.
AFWN1, . . Growrl polcs and growrl ccnrcrs in rcgional planning.
a rcvicw. In. F!MANN, ].; ANS, W. (cds.), B/nc| (|/;.
rcadings in rlcory and applicarions. CamLridgc, Massacluscrrs. M!1
Prcss, 175.
FFAZ, !.; A!FA, M. . s povos indigcnas da amaznia oricnral
c o programa Grandc Carajas. avaliaao c pcrspccrivas. In.
!B11, ]. (org.), O r /c j/cn4. Pcrropolis, Fio dc ]a-
nciro. \ozcs, 11.
F!MANN, ].; WA\F, C. Trr//r; cn4 jun//n. rlc cvolurion ol
rcgional planning. ondon. dward Arnold, 17.
\F1A, C. Tr/c (|///c 4 4nr|r/mn/ nJm/. Sao Paulo.
Companlia dirora Nacional, 167.
G!S1!NCK, . Ccrcjc, u/nc jcr|c. Sao uis, 188.
!A, Anrlony . Dr|(/n cmc:n/c. dclorcsrarion and social conllicr
in Brazil's Carajas programmc. Manclcsrcr. Manclcsrcr \nivcrsiry
Prcss, 11.
!ANSN, N. M. cvclopmcnr polc rlcory in a rcgional conrcxr. K;||,
v. XX, 167.
L/. n., Sc Pcu|, 33(1), jcn-mcr 2003
_______. lrn/ r/nc| (|cnn/n. dinLurgl. dinLurgl \nivcrsiry Prcss,
168.
_______. cvclopmcnr lrom aLovc. rlc ccnrrc-down dcvclopmcnr
paradigm. In. S1!F, W. B.; 1AYF, . F. . (cds.), Dr|(mn/
jrm c|r r ||o? T/ 4/c|// j r/nc| (|cnn/n /n 4r|(/n
un/r/. ondon. ]oln Wilcy, 181.
!FMANSN, 1. cvclopmcnr polcs and dcvclopmcnr ccnrrcs in
narional and rcgional dcvclopmcnr. In. K\K!NSK!, A. (cd.),
Gro// (| cn4 ro// n/r /n r/nc| (|cnn/n. Paris and 1lc
!aguc. Mouron, 172.
!!GG!NS, B. ranois Pcrroux. In. !!GG!NS, B.; SA\!, . ]. (cds.),
B/nc| nm/ 4r|(mn/. cssays in lonour ol ranois Pcrroux.
ondon. \nwin !yman, 188.
!SP (!nsriruro dc cscnvolvimcnro conmico-Social do Para). Mu-
n//(/ (crcn. ParauapcLas. Bclcm. !SP, 10.
K\K!NSK!, A. Fcgional dcvclopmcnr, rcgional policics, and rcgional
planning. In. K\K!NSK!, A. (cd.), B/nc| 4/crc//n j
nc//nc| (|// cn4 (|cn. Paris and 1lc !aguc. Mouron, 175.
B, F. Aspccros do plancjamcnro rcrrirorial urLano no Brasil. In.
AF, B. M. (cd.), P|cnjcmn/ n Brc/|. Sao Paulo. dirora
Pcrspccriva, 187.
MAGA!AS, A. C. As nacs indigcnas c os projcros cconmicos do
csrado. a polirica dc ocupaao dc cspao na amaznia. In. !B11,
]. (org.), O r /c j/cn4. Pcrropolis, Fio dc ]anciro. \ozcs,
11.
MAF1!N, G.; 1FFS, !. Criana, proLlcmarica socio-amLicnral c
dcscnvolvimcnro na amaznia. ISPN, documcnro dc rraLallo n' +.
MAYF!NCK, G. Apiro na llorcsra. o maior rrcm do pais lcva gcnrc do
mar arravcs da sclva c civiliza uma rcrra carcnrc. Jjc, 1+ dc lcvcrciro,
16.
M!FA (Minisrcrio da Fclorma Agraria c do cscnvolvimcnro). Cnj|/-
/ 4 /rrc. Brasilia. M!FA}!NCFA, 187.
PA!NCK, ]. a rlcoric du dcvclopmcnr rcgional polarisc. Cc//r 4
|'ISLA, Scric , n. 15, Mars 165.
PFF\X, . conomic spacc. rlcory and applicarions. Qucr/r|; }urnc|
j Lnm/, 6+, 150.
_______. Norc sur la norion dc plc dc croissancc. Lnm/ A((|/u/.
]anuary-]unc 155.
L/. n., Sc Pcu|, 33(1), jcn-mcr 2003
_______. L'nm/ 4u XX /`|. Paris. Prcsscs \nivcrsiraircs dc rancc,
161.
_______. cs invcsrisscmcnrs mulrinarionaux cr l'analysc dcs polcs dc
dcvcloppcmcnr cr dcs polcs d'inrcgrarion. Bru T/r-Mn4, romc
!X, n. 3+, Avril-]uin 168.
_______. 1lc polc ol dcvclopmcnr`s ncw placc in a gcncral rlcory ol
cconomic acriviry. In. !!GG!NS, B.; SA\!, . ]. (cds.), B/-
nc| nm/ 4r|(mn/. cssays in lonour ol ranois Pcrroux.
ondon. \nwin !yman, 188a.
_______. Pcrcgrinarions ol an cconomisr and rlc cloicc ol lis rourc. In.
!!GG!NS, B.; SA\!, . ]. (cds.), B/nc| nm/ 4r|(mn/.
cssays in lonour ol ranois Pcrroux. ondon. \nwin !yman,
188L.
PNSK, K. F. Growrl polc rlcory and srrarcgy rcconsidcrcd.
dominarion, linkagcs, and disrriLurion. In. !!GG!NS, B.; SA\!,
. ]. (cds.), B/nc| nm/ 4r|(mn/. cssays in lonour ol
ranois Pcrroux. ondon. \nwin !yman, 188.
F!C!AFSN, !. W.; F!C!AFSN, M. 1lc rclcvancc ol growrl
ccnrcr srrarcgics ro arin Amcrica. Lnm/ Grc(/;. v. 51, n. 2,
April 165.
FS1W, W. W. T/ /c j nm/ ro//. a non-Communisr Mani-
lcsro. CamLridgc CamLridgc \nivcrsiry Prcss, 160.
SAN1S, M. Sous-dcvclopmcnr cr polcs dc croissancc cconomiquc cr
socialc. Bru T/r-Mn4, romc X\, n. 58, Avril-]uin 17+.
SPAN}PGC. P|cn 4/r/r 4c /rc4c 4 jrr 4 rr4r 4 Ccrcjc. Fc-
larorio sinrcsc, dczcmLro, 18.
S\AM. II P|cn Nc/nc| 4 Dnr|r/mn/ 4c Amc:Jn/c. dcrallamcnro
do !! Plano Nacional dc cscnvolvimcnro (175-7). Bclcm.
S\AM, 176a.
_______. POLAMAZONIA - Ccrcjc. Bclcm. S\AM, 176L.
_______. I P|cn 4 Dnr|r/mn/ 4c Amc:Jn/c, Nrc B(u||/c. 186-
8. Bclcm. S\AM, 176c.
1SA, !.; F!NF, 1. A. Programaao cconmica dc um sisrcma
dc polos plancjados. Br//c Brc/|/rc 4 Lnm/c, v. 28, n. 2, aLril}
junlo 167.
1SA, !. Polos dc crcscimcnro. rcoria c polirica cconmica. In.
!AA, P. F. (cd.), P|cnjcmn/ r/nc|. mcrodos c aplicaao
ao caso Lrasilciro. Fio dc ]anciro. !PA}!NPS, 172.
L/. n., Sc Pcu|, 33(1), jcn-mcr 2003
WF BANK. Jr|4 Bcn| c((rc/ / // nr/rnmn/ /n Brc:/|. a
rcvicw ol sclccrcd projccrs - 1lc Carajas !ron rc Projccr. Wasling-
ron . C.. 1lc World Bank, 12.
1lis arriclc is Lascd on rlc sccond claprcr ol my Pl.. rlcsis, wlicl was prcscnrcd ar rlc ondon
Sclool ol conomics and Polirical Scicncc in 18. 1lc aurlor wislcs ro rlank rlc Brazilian
agcncy CAPS lor rlc linancial supporr wlicl madc rlis rcscarcl possiLlc. \aluaLlc commcnrs
wcrc providcd Ly Anrlony !all, Colin cwis, Pcrcr lynn, Famon Garcia crnandcz, Marcclo
Curado and an anonymous rclcrcc. Nonc ol rlcm, lowcvcr, is rcsponsiLlc lor rlc conrcnrs ol rlc
arriclc.
(FcccLido cm . Acciro para puLlicaao cm ).

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also mcnrioncd rlc csraLlislmcnr ol dcvclopmcnr polcs.

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