The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Art Of Writing & Speaking The English Language, b Sher!

in "o# This eBook is for the use of an one an !here at no cost an# !ith al$ost no restrictions !hatsoe%er& 'ou $a cop it, gi%e it a!a or re(use it un#er the ter$s of the Project Gutenberg License inclu#e# !ith this eBook or online at !!!&gutenberg&org Title) The Art Of Writing & Speaking The English Language Wor#(Stu# Author) Sher!in "o# *elease +ate) +ece$ber ,, ,--. /EBook 012.123 Language) English 444 STA*T O5 T67S P*O8E"T G9TE:BE*G EBOO; T6E A*T O5 W*7T7:G 444 Pro#uce# b An#re! 6o#son Language < 9SA English& "haracters !ith = > aroun# the$ sho! those a##e# as there are so$e $istakes in the book & for other reasons & ?@ABCDE FGHI sho! the eJtras of 0(&ab#egilns& K7 change# $athe$atical & $eter Krh th$ic arrange$ent of s llables in %erseL but $a be the are correct an# the others are !rongL& 7 #i# not change Shak{e}spe{a}re, mortgagor & so$e !or#s in lists& Broa# a has 1 #ot before & 1 un#er instea# of , #ots un#er it & the character M shoul# ha%e its line o%er the letter & This arro! sign after a !or# sho!s that the neJt 1 shoul# start the neJt colu$n& NSpecial S'STEO E#itionP brought fro$ frontispiece& The ,n#& book of N"o$position & *hetoricP is also in this file& T6E A*T QR W*7T7:G & SPEA;7:G STU E:GL7S6 LA:G9AGE SHERWIN CODY Special S ' S T E O E#ition WORD-STUDY The Ol# Greek Press Chicago New{ }York Boston Revised Edition& Copyright,1 !", B S6E*W7: "O+'& Note& The thanks of the author are #ue to +r& E#!in 6& Le!is, of the Le!is 7nstitute, "hicago, an# to Prof& 8ohn 5& Genung, Ph& +&, of A$herst "ollege, for suggestions $a#e after rea#ing the proof of this series&

CONTENTS. THE ART OF WRITING AND SPEAKING THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. GENERAL INTRODUCTION 7 WORD-STUDY INTRODUCTIONTHE STUDY OF SPELLING CHAPTER I. LETTERS AND SOUNDS {VOWELS CONSONANTS EXERCISES THE DICTIONARY} CHAPTER II. WORD-BUILDING {PREFIXES} CHAPTER III. WORD-BUILDINGRu !" #$% A&& '(#)'*$" {EXCEPTIONS} CHAPTER IV. PRONUNCIATION CHAPTER V. A SPELLING DRILL APPENDIX The Art of Writing an# Speaking the English Language GENERAL INTRODUCTION 7f there is a subject of reall uni%ersal interest an# utilit , it is the art of !riting an# speaking oneVs o!n language effecti%el & 7t is the basis of culture, as !e all kno!W but it is infinitel $ore than that) it is the basis of business& :o sales$an can sell an thing unless he can eJplain the $erits of his goo#s in e##ective English Ka$ong our peopleL, or can !rite an a#%ertise$ent eXuall effecti%e, or present his i#eas, an# the facts, in a letter& 7n#ee#, the !a !e talk, an# !rite letters, largel #eter$ines our success in life& :o! it is !ell for us to face at once the counter(state$ent that the $ost ignorant an# unculti%ate# $en often succee# best in business, an# that $isspelle#, ungra$$atical a#%ertise$ents ha%e brought in $illions of #ollars& 7t is an ackno!le#ge# fact that our business circulars an# letters are far inferior in correctness to those of Great BritainW et the are $ore effecti%e in getting business& As far as spelling is concerne#, !e kno! that so$e of the $asters of literature ha%e been atrocious spellers an# $an suppose that !hen one can sin in such co$pan , sinning is, as !e $ight sa , a Nbeaut spotP, a #efect in !hich !e can e%en take pri#e& Let us eJa$ine the facts in the case $ore closel & 5irst of all, language is no $ore than a $e#iu$W it is like air to the creatures of the lan# or !ater to fishes& 7f it is perfectl clear an# pure, !e #o not notice it an $ore than !e notice pure air !hen the sun is shining in a clear sk , or the taste of pure cool !ater !hen !e #rink a glass on a hot #a & 9nless the sun is shining, there is no brightnessW unless the !ater is cool, there is no refresh$ent& The source of all our jo in the lan#scape, of the luJuriance of fertile nature, is the sun an# not the air& :ature !oul# be $ore pro#igal in OeJico than in Greenlan#, e%en if the air in OeJico !ere as full of soot an# s$oke as the air of Pittsburg=h>, or loa#e# !ith the aci# fro$ a che$ical factor & So it is !ith language& Language is $erel a $e#iu$ for thoughts, e$otions, the intelligence of a finel !rought brain, an# a goo#

$in# !ill $ake far $ore out of a ba# $e#iu$ than a poor $in# !ill $ake out of the best& A great %iolinist !ill #ra! such $usic fro$ the cheapest %iolin that the !orl# is astonishe#& 6o!e%er is that an reason !h the great %iolinist shoul# choose to pla on a poor %iolinW or shoul# one sa nothing of the s$oke nuisance in "hicago because $ore light an# heat penetrate its $urk at$osphere than are to be foun# in cities onl a fe! $iles farther northY The truth is, !e $ust regar# the ba# spelling nuisance, the ba# gra$$ar nuisance, the inZrtistic an# ra$bling language nuisance, precisel as !e !oul# the s$oke nuisance, the se!er(gas nuisance, the stock( ar#sV s$ell nuisance& So$e #aint people prefer pure air an# correct languageW but !e no! recogni[e that purit is so$ething $ore than an esthetic fa#, that it is essential to our health an# !ell(being, an# therefore it beco$es a $atter of uni%ersal public interest, in language as !ell as in air& There is a general belief that !hile ba# air $a be a positi%e e%il influence, incorrect use of language is at $ost no $ore than a negati%e e%il) that !hile it $a be a goo# thing to be correct, no special har$ is in%ol%e# in being incorrect& Let us look into this point& While language as the $e#iu$ of thought $a be co$pare# to air as the $e#iu$ of the sunVs influence, in other respects it is like the skin of the bo# W a scur% skin sho!s ba# bloo# !ithin, an# a scur% language sho!s inaccurate thought an# a confuse# $in#& An# as a #isease once fiJe# on the skin reacts an# poisons the bloo# in turn as it has first been poisone# b the bloo#, so careless use of language if in#ulge# reacts on the $in# to $ake it per$anentl an# increasingl careless, illogical, an# inaccurate in its thinking& The or#inar person !ill probabl not belie%e this, because he concei%es of goo# use of language as an acco$plish$ent to be learne# fro$ books, a pri$ s ste$ of genteel $anners to be put on !hen occasion #e$an#s, a sort of superficial e#ucation in the correct thing, or, as the bo s !oul# sa , Nthe proper caper&P 7n this, ho!e%er, he is $istaken& Language !hich eJpresses the thought !ith strict logical accurac is correct language, an# language !hich is sufficientl rich in its resources to eJpress thought full , in all its lights an# bearings, is effecti%e language& 7f the !riter or speaker has a sufficient stock of !or#s an# for$s at his #isposal, he has onl to use the$ in a strictl logical !a an# !ith sufficient fulness to be both correct an# effecti%e& 7f his $in# can al!a s be truste# to !ork accuratel , he nee# not kno! a !or# of gra$$ar eJcept !hat he has i$bibe# unconsciousl in getting his stock of !or#s an# eJpressions& 5or$al gra$$ar is purel for critical purposes& 7t is no $ore than a stan#ar# $easuring stick b !hich to tr the !ork that has been #one an# fin# out if it is i$perfect at an point& Of course constant correction of inaccuracies schools the $in# an# puts it on its guar# so that it !ill be $ore careful the neJt ti$e it atte$pts eJpressionW but !e cannot a%oi# the conclusion that if the $in# lacks $aterial, lacks kno!le#ge of the essential ele$ents of the language, it shoul# go to the original source fro$ !hich it got its first suppl , na$el to rea#ing an# hearing that !hich is ackno!le#ge# to be correct an# sufficient\as the chil# learns fro$ its $other& All the scholastic an# anal tic gra$$ar in the !orl# !ill not enrich the $in# in language to an appreciable eJtent& An# no! !e $a consi#er another objector, !ho sa s, N7 ha%e stu#ie# gra$$ar for ears an# it has #one $e no goo#&P 7n %ie! of !hat has just been sai#, !e $a easil conce#e that such is %er likel to ha%e been the case& A $easuring stick is of little %alue unless ou ha%e so$ething to $easure& Language cannot be acXuire#, onl teste#, b anal sis, an# gra$$ar is an anal tic, not a constructi%e science& We ha%e co$pare# ba# use of language to a scur% con#ition of the skin& To cure the skin !e $ust #octor the bloo#W an# to i$pro%e the language !e shoul# begin b teaching the $in# to think& But that, ou !ill sa , is a large un#ertaking& 'es, but after all it is the $ost #irect an# effecti%e !a & All e#ucation shoul# be in the nature of teaching the $in# to think, an# the teaching of language consists in teaching thinking in connection !ith !or# for$s an# eJpression through language& The unfortunate thing is that teachers of language ha%e faile# to go to the root of the trouble, an# enor$ous effort has counte# for nothing, an# besi#es has le# to #iscourage$ent& The A$erican people are note# for being hast in all the #o& Their $anufactures are Xuickl $a#e

an# cheap& The ha%e not hitherto ha# ti$e to secure that perfection in $inute #etails !hich constitutes NXualit &P The slo!(going Europeans still eJcel in nearl all fine an# high(gra#e for$s of $anufacture\fine potter , fine carpets an# rugs, fine cloth, fine bron[e an# other art !ares& 7n our language, too, !e are hast , an# therefore i$perfect& 5ine logical accurac reXuires $ore ti$e than !e ha%e ha# to gi%e to it, an# !e rea# the ne!spapers, !hich are %er poor $o#els of language, instea# of books, !hich shoul# be far better& Our stan#ar# of business letters is %er lo!& 7t is rare to fin# a letter of an length !ithout one or $ore errors of language, to sa nothing of freXuent errors in spelling $a#e b ignorant stenographers an# not correcte# b the business $en !ho sign the letters& But a change is co$ing o%er us& We ha%e su##enl taken to rea#ing books, an# !hile the are not al!a s the best books, the are better than ne!spapers& An# no! a oung business $an feels that it is #istinctl to his a#%antage if he can #ictate a thoroughl goo# letter to his superior or to a !ell infor$e# custo$er& Goo# letters raise the tone of a business house, poor letters gi%e the i#ea that it is a cheapjack concern& 7n social life, !ell !ritten letters, like goo# con%ersational po!ers, bring frien#s an# intro#uce the !riter into higher circles& A co$$an# of language is the in#eJ of culture, an# the une#ucate# $an or !o$an !ho has beco$e !ealth or has gaine# an special success is eager to put on this !e##ing gar$ent of refine$ent& 7f he continues to regar# a goo# co$$an# of language as a !e##ing gar$ent, he !ill probabl fail in his effortW but a fe! !ill #isco%er the !a to self(e#ucation an# acti%el follo! it to its conclusion a##ing to their first success this ne! achie%e$ent& But !e $a e%en go farther& The right kin# of language(teaching !ill also gi%e us po!er, a kin# of eloXuence, a skill in the use of !or#s, !hich !ill enable us to fra$e a#%ertise$ents !hich !ill #ra! business, letters !hich !ill !in custo$ers, an# to speak in that elegant an# forceful !a so effecti%e in selling goo#s& When all a#%ertise$ents are couche# in %er i$perfect language, an# all business letters are carelessl !ritten, of course no one has an a#%antage o%er another, an# a goo# kno!le#ge an# co$$an# of language !oul# not be $uch of a reco$$en#ation to a business $an !ho !ants a goo# assistant& But !hen a fe! ha%e co$e in an# b their superior co$$an# of language gaine# a #istinct a#%antage o%er ri%als, then the po!er inherent in language co$es into uni%ersal #e$an#]]the business stan#ar# is raise#& There are $an signs no! that the business stan#ar# in the use of language is being #istinctl raise#& Alrea# a stenographer !ho #oes not $ake errors co$$an#s a salar fro$ ,^ per cent& to ^- per cent& higher than the a%erage, an# is al!a s in #e$an#& A#%ertise$ent !riters $ust ha%e not onl business instinct but language instinct, an# kno!le#ge of correct, as !ell as forceful, eJpression=&> Grante#, then, that !e are all eager to better our kno!le#ge of the English language, ho! shall !e go about itY There are literall thousan#s of publishe# books #e%ote# to the stu# an# teaching of our language& 7n such a floo# it !oul# see$ that !e shoul# ha%e no #ifficult in obtaining goo# gui#es for our stu# & But !hat #o !e fin#Y We fin# spelling(books fille# !ith lists of !or#s to be $e$ori[e#W !e fin# gra$$ars fille# !ith na$es an# #efinitions of all the #ifferent for$s !hich the language assu$esW !e fin# rhetorics fille# !ith the na$es of e%er #e%ice e%er e$plo e# to gi%e effecti%eness to languageW !e fin# books on literature fille# !ith the na$es, #ates of birth an# #eath, an# lists of !orks, of e%er !riter an one e%er hear# of) an# !hen !e ha%e learne# all these na$es !e are no better off than !hen !e starte#& 7t is true that in $an of these books !e $a fin# prefaces !hich sa , NAll other books err in clinging too closel to $ere s ste$, to na$esW but !e !ill break a!a an# gi%e ou the real thing&P But the #onVt #o itW the canVt affor# to be too ra#ical, an# so the $erel $o#if in a fe! #etails the sa$e ol# s ste$, the s ste$ of na$es& 'et it is a great point gaine# !hen the necessit for a change is reali[e#& 6o!, then, shall !e go about our $aster of the English languageY

Oo#ern science has pro%i#e# us a uni%ersal $etho# b !hich !e $a stu# an# $aster an subject& As applie# to an art, this $etho# has pro%e# highl successful in the case of $usic& 7t has not been applie# to language because there !as a !ell fiJe# $etho# of language stu# in eJistence long before $o#ern science !as e%en #rea$e# of, an# that ancient $etho# has hel# on !ith !on#erful tenacit & The great fault !ith it is that it !as in%ente# to appl to languages entirel #ifferent fro$ our o!n& Latin gra$$ar an# Greek gra$$ar !ere $echanical s ste$s of en#ings b !hich the relationships of !or#s !ere in#icate#& Of course the relationship of !or#s !as at botto$ logical, but the $echanical for$ !as the chief thing to be learne#& Our language #epen#s !holl Kor %er nearl soL on arrange$ent of !or#s, an# the ke is the logical relationship& A $an !ho kno!s all the for$s of the Latin or Greek language can !rite it !ith substantial accurac W but the $an !ho !oul# $aster the English language $ust go #eeper, he $ust $aster the logic of sentence structure or !or# relations& We $ust begin our stu# at just the opposite en# fro$ the Latin or GreekW but our teachers of language ha%e balke# at a co$plete re%ersal of $etho#, the po!er of custo$ an# ti$e has been too strong, an# in the $atter of gra$$ar !e are still the sla%es of the ancient !orl#& As for spelling, the irregularities of our language see$ to ha%e #ri%en us to one sole $etho#, $e$ori[ing) an# to $e$ori[e e%er !or# in a language is an appalling task& Our rhetoric !e ha%e inherite# fro$ the $i##le ages, fro$ scholiasts, refiners, an# theological logicians, a race of $en !ho got their li%ing b in%enting #istinctions an# splitting hairs& The fact is, prose has ha# a %er lo! place in the literature of the !orl# until !ithin a centur W all that !as !orth sa ing !as sai# in poetr , !hich the rhetoricians !ere force# to lea%e se%erel alone, or in orator , fro$ !hich all their rules !ere #eri%e#W an# since !ritten prose language beca$e a uni%ersal possession through the printing press an# the ne!spaper !e ha%e been too bus to in%ent a ne! rhetoric& :o!, language is just as $uch a natural gro!th as trees or rocks or hu$an bo#ies, an# it can ha%e no $ore irregularities, e%en in the $atter of spelling, than these ha%e& Science !oul# laugh at the notion of $e$ori[ing e%er in#i%i#ual for$ of rock& 7t seeks the fun#a$ental la!s, it classifies an# groups, an# e%en if the nu$ber of classes or groups is large, still the ha%e a li$it an# can be $astere#& 6ere !e ha%e a solution of the spelling proble$& 7n gra$$ar !e fin# se%en fun#a$ental logical relationships, an# !hen !e ha%e $astere# these an# their chief $o#ifications an# co$binations, !e ha%e the essence of gra$$ar as trul as if !e kne! the na$e for e%er possible co$bination !hich our se%en fun#a$ental relationships $ight ha%e& Since rhetoric is the art of appealing to the e$otions an# intelligence of our hearers, !e nee# to kno!, not the na$es of all the #ifferent artifices !hich $a be e$plo e#, but the nature an# la!s of e$otion an# intelligence as the $a be reache# through languageW for if !e kno! !hat !e are hitting at, a little practice !ill enable us to hit accuratel W !hereas if !e kne! the na$e of e%er kin# of blo!, an# et !ere ignorant of the thing !e !ere hitting at, na$el the intelligence an# e$otion of our fello! $an, !e !oul# be fore%er striking into the air,\striking cle%erl perhaps, but ineffecti%el & 6a%ing got our bearings, !e fin# before us a purel practical proble$, that of lea#ing the stu#ent through the $a[e of a ne! science an# teaching hi$ the skill of an ol# art, eJe$plifie# in a long line of $asters& B !a of preface !e $a sa that the $aster of the English language Kor an languageL is al$ost the task of a lifeti$e& A fe! eas lessons !ill ha%e no effect& We $ust for$ a habit of language stu# that !ill gro! upon us as !e gro! ol#er, an# little b little, but ne%er b leaps, shall !e $ount up to the full eJpression of all that is in us& WORD-STUDY INTRODUCTION THE STUDY OF SPELLING. The $aster of English spelling is a serious un#er(taking& 7n the first place, !e $ust actuall

$e$ori[e fro$ one to three thousan# !or#s !hich are spelle# in $ore or less irregular !a s& The best that can be #one !ith these !or#s is to classif the$ as $uch as possible an# suggest $etho#s of association !hich !ill ai# the $e$or & But after all, the #ru#ger of $e$ori[ing $ust be gone through !ith& Again, those !or#s calle# ho$on $s, !hich are pronounce# alike but spelle# #ifferentl , can be stu#ie# onl in connection !ith their $eaning, since the $eaning an# gra$$atical use in the sentence is our onl ke to their for$& So !e ha%e to go consi#erabl be on# the $ere $echanical association of letters& Besi#es the t!o or three thousan# co$$on irregular !or#s, the #ictionar contains so$ething o%er t!o hun#re# thousan# other !or#s& Of course no one of us can possibl ha%e occasion to use all of those !or#sW but at the sa$e ti$e, e%er one of us $a sooner or later ha%e occasion to use an one of the$& As !e cannot tell before han# !hat ones !e shall nee#, !e shoul# be prepare# to !rite an or all of the$ upon occasion& Of course !e $a refer to the #ictionar W but this is not al!a s, or in#ee# %er often, possible& 7t !oul# ob%iousl be of i$$ense a#%antage to us if !e coul# fin# a ke to the spelling of these nu$erous but infreXuentl use# !or#s& The first #ut of the instructor in spelling shoul# be to pro%i#e such a ke & We !oul# suppose, off( han#, that the three hun#re# thousan# school(teachers in the 9nite# States !oul# #o this i$$e#iatel an# !ithout suggestion]]certainl that the !riters of school(books !oul#& But $an things ha%e stoo# in the !a & 7t is onl !ithin a fe! ears, co$parati%el speaking, that our language has beco$e at all fiJe# in its spelling& :oah Webster #i# a great #eal to establish principles, an# bring the spelling of as $an !or#s as possible to confor$ !ith these principles an# !ith such analogies as see$e# fairl !ell establishe#& But other #ictionar ($akers ha%e set up their i#eas against his, an# !e ha%e a conflict of authorities& 7f for an reason one fin#s hi$self spelling a !or# #ifferentl fro$ the !orl# about hi$, he begins to sa , NWell, that is the spelling gi%en in Worcester, or the "entur , or the Stan#ar#, or the ne! OJfor#&P So the !or# Nauthorit P loo$s big on the hori[onW an# !e think so $uch about authorit , an# about #ifferent authorities, that !e forget to look for principles, as Or& Webster !oul# ha%e us #o& Another reason for neglecting rules an# principles is that the lists of eJceptions are often so for$i#able that !e get #iscourage# an# eJclai$, N7f nine tenths of the !or#s 7 use e%er #a are eJceptions to the rules, !hat is the use of the rules an !a _P Well, the !or#s !hich constitute that other tenth !ill aggregate in actual nu$bers far $ore than the co$$on !or#s !hich for$ the chief part of e%er #a speech, an# as the are selecte# at ran#o$ fro$ a %astl larger nu$ber, the onl possible !a to $aster the$ is b acXuiring principles, consciousl or unconsciousl , !hich !ill ser%e as a ke to the$& So$e people ha%e the facult of unconsciousl for$ulating principles fro$ their e%er #a obser%ations, but it is a slo! process, an# $an ne%er acXuire it unless it is taught the$& The spelling proble$ is not to learn ho! to spell nine tenths of our !or#s correctl & :earl all of us can an# #o acco$plish that& The goo# speller $ust spell nine hun#re# an# ninet (nine one thousan#ths of his !or# correctl , !hich is Xuite another $atter& So$e of us go e%en one figure higher& Our first task is clearl to co$$it the co$$on irregular !or#s to $e$or & 6o! $a !e #o that $ost easil Y 7t is a huge task at best, but e%er poun# of life energ !hich !e can sa%e in #oing it is so $uch gaine# for higher efforts& We shoul# stri%e to econo$i[e effort in this just as the $anufacturer tries to econo$i[e in the cost of $aking his goo#s& 7n this particular $atter, it see$s to the present !riter that $akers of $o#ern spelling(books ha%e co$$itte# a great blun#er in $iJing in#iscri$inatel regular !or#s !ith irregular, an# co$$on !or#s !ith unco$$on& "learl !e shoul# $e$ori[e first the !or#s !e use $ost often, an# then take up those !hich !e use less freXuentl & But the superinten#ent of the E%anston schools has reporte# that out of one hun#re# first(rea#er !or#s !hich he ga%e to his gra$$ar classes as a

spelling test, so$e !ere $isspelle# b all but siJteen per cent=&> of the pupils& An# et these sa$e pupils !ere stu# ing busil a!a oncategories, concatenation, an# amphi$io%s& The spelling(book $akers feel that the $ust put har# !or#s into their spellers& Their books are little $ore than lists of !or#s, an# an one can $ake lists of co$$on, eas !or#s& A spelling(book fille# !ith co$$on eas !or#s !oul# not see$ to be !orth the price pai# for it& Pupils an# teachers $ust get their $one Vs !orth, e%en if the ne%er learn to spell& Of course the teachers are eJpecte# to furnish #rills the$sel%es on the co$$on, eas !or#sW but unfortunatel the take their cue fro$ the spelling( book, each #a $erel assigning to the class the neJt page& The ha%enVt ti$e to select, an# no one coul# consistentl eJpect the$ to #o other!ise than as the #o #o& To $eet this #ifficult , the author of this book has prepare# a %ersion of the stor of *obinson "rusoe !hich contains a large proportion of the co$$on !or#s !hich offer #ifficult in spelling& 9nluckil it is not eas to pro#uce classic English !hen one is !riting un#er the necessit of using a %ocabular pre%iousl selecte#& 6o!e%er, if !e concentrate our attention on the !or#(for$s, !e are not likel to be $uch injure# b the ungraceful sentence(for$s& This stor is not long, but it shoul# be #ictate# to e%er school class, beginning in the fourth gra#e, until every pupil can spell every !or# correctl & A high percentage is not enough, as in the case of so$e other stu#ies& An pupil !ho $isses a single !or# in an eJercise shoul# be $arke# [ero& But e%en if one can spell correctl e%er !or# in this stor , he $a still not be a goo# speller, for there are thousan#s of other !or#s to be spelle#, $an of !hich are not an# ne%er !ill be foun# in an spelling(book& The chief object of a course of stu# in spelling is to acXuire t!o habits, the habit of obser%ing articulate soun#s, an# the habit of obser%ing !or#(for$s in rea#ing& 1& Train the Ear& 9ntil the habit of obser%ing articulate soun#s carefull has been acXuire#, the niceties of pronunciation are be on# the stu#entVs reach, an# eXuall the niceties of spelling are be on# his reach, too& 7n or#inar speaking, $an %o!els an# e%en so$e consonants are slurre# an# obscure#& 7f the ear is not traine# to eJactness, this habit of slurring intro#uces $an inaccuracies& E%en in careful speaking, $an obscure soun#s are so nearl alike that onl a finel traine# ear can #etect an #ifference& Who of us notices an #ifference bet!een er in pardoner an# or in honorY "areful speakers #o not pass o%er the latter s llable Xuite so hastil as o%er the for$er, but onl the $ost finel traine# ear !ill #etect an #ifference e%en in the pronunciation of the $ost finel traine# %oice& 7n the lo!er gra#es in the schools the ear $a be traine# b gi%ing separate utterance to each soun# in a gi%en !or#, as f(r(e(n(#, #riend, allo!ing each letter onl its true %alue in the !or#& Still it $a also be obtaine# b reXuiring careful an# #istinct pronunciation in rea#ing, not, ho!e%er, to the eJtent of eJaggerating the %alue of obscure s llables, or painfull accentuating s llables naturall obscure& A#ults Kbut sel#o$ chil#renL $a train the ear b rea#ing poetr alou#, al!a s guar#ing against the sing(song st le, but tr ing to har$oni[e nicel the sense an# the rh th$& A traine# ear is absolutel necessar to rea#ing poetr !ell, an# the constant rea#ing alou# of poetr cannot but affor# an a#$irable eJercise& 5or chil#ren, the use of #iacritical $arks has little or no %alue, until the necessit arises for consulting the #ictionar for pronunciation& The are but a $echanical s ste$, an# the s ste$ !e co$$onl use is so #e%oi# of per$anence in its character that e%er #ictionar has a #ifferent s ste$& The one $ost co$$on in the schools is that intro#uce# b WebsterW but if !e !oul# consult the Stan#ar# or the "entur or the OJfor#, !e $ust learn our s ste$ all o%er again& To the chil#, an s ste$ is a clog an# a hin#rance, an# Xuite useless in teaching hi$ phonetic %alues, !herein the %oice of the teacher is the true $e#iu$& 5or ol#er stu#ents, ho!e%er, especiall stu#ents at ho$e, !here no teacher is a%ailable, phonetic !riting b $eans of #iacritical $arks has great %alue&4 7t is the onl practicable !a of representing the soun#s of the %oice on paper& When the stu#ent !rites phoneticall he is oblige# to obser%e

closel his o!n %oice an# the %oices of others in or#inar speech, an# so his ear is traine#& 7t also takes the place of the %oice for #ictation in spelling tests b $ail or through the $e#iu$ of books& 4There shoul# be no $ore $arks than there are soun#s& When t!o %o!els ha%e the sa$e soun# one shoul# be !ritten as a substitute for the other, as !e ha%e #one in this book& ,& Train the E e& :o #oubt the $ost effecti%e !a of learning spelling is to train the e e carefull to obser%e the for$s of the !or#s !e rea# in ne!spapers an# in books& 7f this habit is for$e#, an# the habit of general rea#ing acco$panies it, it is sufficient to $ake a nearl perfect speller& The great Xuestion is, ho! to acXuire it& Of course in or#er to rea# !e are oblige# to obser%e the for$s of !or#s in a general !a , an# if this !ere all that is nee#e#, !e shoul# all be goo# spellers if !e !ere able to rea# fluentl & But it is not all& The obser%ation of the general for$ of a !or# is not the obser%ation that teaches spelling& We $ust ha%e the habit of obser%ing e%er letter in e%er !or#, an# this !e are not likel to ha%e unless !e gi%e special attention to acXuiring it& The N%isuali[ationP $etho# of teaching spelling no! in use in the schools is along the line of training the e e to obser%e e%er letter in a !or#& 7t is goo# so far as it goesW but it #oes not go %er far& The reason is that there is a li$it to the po!ers of the $e$or , especiall in the obser%ation of arbitrar co$binations of letters& What habits of %isuali[ation !oul# enable the or#inar person to glance at such a co$bination as the follo!ing an# !rite it ten $inutes after!ar# !ith no ai# but the single glance) hwg%#ht$i&wskop'mne( 7t !oul# reXuire so$e $inutesV stu# to $e$ori[e such a co$bination, because there is nothing to ai# us but the sheer succession of for$s& The $e$or !orks b association& We buil# up a %ast structure of kno!le#ge, an# each ne! fact or for$ $ust be as securel attache# to this as the ne! !ing of a buil#ingW an# the $ore points at !hich attach$ent can be for$e# the $ore easil is the a##ition $a#e& The Oaster of 7rregular Wor#s& 6ere, then, !e ha%e the real reason for a long stu# of principles, analogies, an# classifications& The help us to re$e$ber& 7f 7 co$e to the !or# co'onnade in rea#ing, 7 obser%e at once that the #ouble n is an irregularit & 7t catches $ e e i$$e#iatel & NAh_P 7 reflect al$ost in the fraction of a secon# as 7 rea# in continuous flo!, Nhere is another of those eJceptions&P Buil#ing on !hat 7 alrea# kno! perfectl !ell, 7 $aster this !or# !ith the %er slightest effort& 7f !e can buil# up a s ste$ !hich !ill ser%e the $e$or b !a of association, so that the slight effort that can be gi%en in or#inar rea#ing !ill ser%e to fiJ a !or# $ore or less full , !e can soon acXuire a $ar%ellous po!er in the accurate spelling of !or#s& Again) 7n a spelling(book before $e 7 see lists of !or#s en#ing in ise, i&e, an# yse, all $iJe# together !ith no #istinction& The arrange$ent suggests $e$ori[ing e%er !or# in the language en#ing !ith either of these ter$inations, an# until !e ha%e $e$ori[e# an particular !or# !e ha%e no $eans of kno!ing !hat the ter$ination is& 7f, ho!e%er, !e are taught that i&e is the co$$on en#ing, that ise is the en#ing of onl thirt (one !or#s, an# yse of onl three or four, !e re#uce our task enor$ousl an# ai# the $e$or in acXuiring the fe! eJceptions& When !e co$e to #ranchise in rea#ing !e reflect rapi#l , NAnother of those %erbs in ise_P or to para'yse, NOne of those %er fe! %erbs in yse_P We gi%e no thought !hate%er to all the %erbs en#ing in i&e, an# so sa%e so $uch energ for other acXuire$ents& 7f !e can sa , NThis is a %iolation of such an# such a rule,P or NThis is a strange irregularit ,P or NThis belongs to the class of !or#s !hich substitutes ea for the long soun# of e, or for the short soun# of e&P We ha%e an association of the unkno!n !ith the kno!n that is the $ost po!erful possible ai# to the $e$or & The s ste$ $a fail in an# of itself, but it $ore than ser%es its purpose thus in#irectl in ai#ing the $e$or & We ha%e not spoken of the association of !or# for$s !ith soun#s, the grouping of the letters of

!or#s into s llables, an# the ai# that a careful pronunciation gi%es the $e$or b !a of associationW for !hile this is the $ost po!erful ai# of all, it #oes not nee# eJplanation& The Oaster of *egular Wor#s& We ha%e spoken of the $aster of irregular !or#s, an# in the last paragraph but one !e ha%e referre# to the ai# !hich general principles gi%e the $e$or b !a of association in acXuiring the eJceptions to the rules& We !ill no! consi#er the great class of !or#s for$e# accor#ing to fiJe# principles& Of course these la!s an# rules are little $ore than a string of analogies !hich !e obser%e in our stu# of the language& The language !as not an# ne%er !ill be built to fit these rules& The usage of the people is the onl authorit & E%en clear logic goes #o!n before usage& Languages gro! like $ushroo$s, or lilies, or bears, or hu$an bo#ies& Like these the ha%e occult an# profoun# la!s !hich !e can ne%er hope to penetrate,\!hich are kno!n onl to the creator of all things eJistent& But as in botan an# [o`log an# ph siolog !e $a obser%e an# classif our obser%ations, so !e $a obser%e a language, classif our obser%ations, an# create an e$pirical science of !or#( for$ation& Possibl in ti$e it !ill beco$e a science so$ething $ore than e$pirical& The la!s !e are able at this ti$e to state !ith $uch #efiniteness are fe! K#oubling consonants, #ropping silent eVs, changing Vs to iVs, accenting the penulti$ate an# antepenulti$ate s llables, lengthening an# shortening %o!elsL& 7n a##ition !e $a classif eJceptions, for the sole purpose of ai#ing the $e$or & 7gnorance of these principles an# classifications, an# kno!le#ge of the causes an# sources of the irregularities, shoul# be pronounce# cri$inal in a teacherW an# failure to teach the$, $ore than cri$inal in a spelling(book& 7t is true that $ost spelling(books #o gi%e the$ in one for$ or another, but in%ariabl !ithout #ue e$phasis or special #rill, a lack !hich ren#ers the$ !orthless& Pupils an# stu#ents shoul# be #rille# upon the$ till the are as fa$iliar as the $ultiplication table& We kno! ho! $ost persons stu$ble o%er the pronunciation of na$es in the Bible an# in classic authors& The are eXuall nonplusse# !hen calle# upon to !rite !or#s !ith !hich the are no $ore fa$iliar& The cannot e%en pronounce si$ple English na$es like Cody, !hich the call N"o## ,P in analog !ith $ody, because the #o not kno! that in a !or# of t!o s llables a single %o!el follo!e# b a single consonant is regularl long !hen accente#& At the sa$e ti$e the !ill spell the !or# in all kin#s of Xueer !a s, !hich are in analog onl !ith eJceptions, not !ith regular for$ations& 9nless a person kno!s !hat the regular principles are, he cannot kno! ho! a !or# shoul# regularl be spelle#& A strange !or# is spelle# Xuite regularl nine ti$es out of ten, an# if one #oes not kno! eJactl ho! to spell a !or#, it is $uch $ore to his cre#it to spell it in a regular !a than in an irregular !a & The truth is, the onl possible ke !e can ha%e to those thousan#s of strange !or#s an# proper na$es !hich !e $eet onl once or t!ice in a lifeti$e, is the s ste$ of principles for$ulate# b philologists, if for no other reason, !e shoul# $aster it that !e $a co$e as near as possible to spelling proper na$es correctl & CHAPTER I. LETTERS AND SOUNDS. We $ust begin our stu# of the English language !ith the ele$entar soun#s an# the letters !hich represent the$& :a$e the first letter of the alphabet]]a& The $outh is open an# the soun# $a be prolonge# in#efinitel & 7t is a full, clear soun#, an unobstructe# %ibration of the %ocal chor#s& :o! na$e the secon# letter of the alphabet]]$& 'ou sa $ee or $%h& 'ou cannot prolong the

soun#& 7n or#er to gi%e the real soun# of $ ou ha%e to associate it !ith so$e other soun#, as that of e or %& 7n other !or#s, $ is in the nature of an obstruction of soun#, or a $o#ification of soun#, rather than a si$ple ele$entar soun# in itself& There is in#ee# a slight soun# in the throat, but it is a close# soun# an# cannot be prolonge#& 7n the case of p, !hich is si$ilar to $, there is no soun# fro$ the throat& So !e see that there are t!o classes of soun#s Krepresente# b t!o classes of lettersL, those !hich are full an# open tones fro$ the %ocal chor#s, pronounce# !ith the $outh open, an# capable of being prolonge# in#efinitel W an# those !hich are in the nature of $o#ifications of these open soun#s, pronounce# !ith or !ithout the help of the %oice, an# incapable of being prolonge#& The first class of soun#s is calle# %o!el soun#s, the secon#, consonant soun#s& Of the t!ent (siJ letters of the alphabet, a, e, i, o, an# % Kso$eti$es y an# wL represent %o!el soun#s an# are calle# %o!elsW an# the re$ain#er represent consonant soun#s, an# are calle# consonants& A s llable is an ele$entar soun#, or a co$bination of ele$entar soun#s, !hich can be gi%en eas an# #istinct utterance at one effort& An %o!el $a for$ a s llable b itself, but as !e ha%e seen that a consonant $ust be unite# !ith a %o!el for its perfect utterance, it follo!s that e%er s llable $ust contain a %o!el soun#, e%en if it also contains consonant soun#s& With that %o!el soun# one or $ore consonants $a be unite#W but the !a s in !hich consonants $a co$bine !ith a %o!el to for$ a s llable are li$ite#& 7n general !e $a place an consonant before an# an consonant after the %o!el in the sa$e s llable) but y for instance, can be gi%en a consonant soun# onl at the beginning of a s llable, as in yetW at the en# of a s llable y beco$es a %o!el soun#, as in they or on'y& 7n the s llable twe'#ths !e fin# se%en consonant soun#sW but if these sa$e letters !ere arrange# in al$ost an other !a the coul# not be pronounce# as one s llable\as for instance wte'th#s& A !or# consists of one or $ore s llables to !hich so$e #efinite $eaning is attache#& The #ifficulties of spelling an# pronunciation arise largel fro$ the fact that in English t!ent (siJ letters $ust #o #ut for so$e fort (t!o soun#s, an# e%en then se%eral of the letters are unnecessar , as for instance c, !hich has either the soun# of sor of kW ), !hich has the soun# either of ks, gs, or &W *, !hich in the co$bination *% has the soun# of kw& All the %o!els represent fro$ t!o to se%en soun#s each, an# so$e of the consonants interchange !ith each other& The Soun#s of the ao!els&\K1L Each of the %o!els has !hat is calle# a long soun# an# a short soun#& 7t is i$portant that these t!o sets of soun#s be fiJe# clearl in the $in#, as se%eral necessar rules of spelling #epen# upon the$& 7n stu# ing the follo!ing table, note that the long soun# is $arke# b a straight line o%er the letter, an# the short soun# b a cur%e& +ong Short bte ct gb%e $cn nb$e bcg thdse pet $d ten Kco$Lpldte bre# kfte sgt rfce $gll lf$e rgp nhte nit rh#e ri# shle Ti$ cjre bkt cjte rkn KaLbjse crkst scMthe KlikeLll 7f !e obser%e the foregoing list of !or#s !e shall see that each of the !or#s containing a long %o!el follo!e# b a single consonant soun# en#s in silent e& After the short %o!els there is no silent e& 7n each case in !hich !e ha%e the silent e there is a single long %o!el follo!e# b a single consonant, or t!o consonants co$bining to for$ a single soun#, as th in scythe& Such !or#s as ro'', to'', etc&, en#ing in #ouble ' ha%e no silent e though the %o!el is longW an# such !or#s as great, meet, pai', etc&, in !hich t!o %o!els co$bine !ith the soun# of one, take no silent e at the en#& We shall consi#er these eJceptions $ore full laterW but a sing'e 'ong %o!el follo!e# b a sing'e consonant a'ways takes silent e at the en#& As carefull state# in this !a , the rule has no

eJceptions& The re%erse, ho!e%er, is not al!a s true, for a fe! !or#s containing a short %o!el follo!e# b a single consonant #o take silent eW but there are %er fe! of the$& The principal are have, give, =K7L> 'ive, 'ove, shove, dove, a$ove, also none, some, come, an# so$e !or#s in three or $ore s llables, such as domici'e& ,& Besi#e the long an# short soun#s of the %o!els there are se%eral other %o!el soun#s& A has t!o other #istinct soun#s) mnopqrstuovwxy aw, as in a'', ta'k, etc& z 7talian, like ah, as in #ar, #ather, etc& +ouble o has t!o soun#s #ifferent fro$ long or short o alone) long hh as in room, soon, mood, etc& short ii, as in good, took, wood, etc& O! has a soun# of its o!n, as in how, crowd, a''ow, etc&W an# o% so$eti$es has the sa$e soun#, as in 'o%d, ro%t, $o%gh, etc& K-w an# o% are also so$eti$es soun#e# like long o, as in own, crow, po%r, etc&, an# so$eti$es ha%e still other soun#s, aso% in $o%ghtL& Oi an# o ha%e a #istinct soun# of their o!n, as in oi', toi', oyster, void, $oy, emp'oy, etc& -w an# oi are calle# proper #iphthongs, as the t!o %o!els co$bine to pro#uce a soun# #ifferent fro$ either, !hile such co$binations as ei, ea, ai, etc&, are calle# i$proper #iphthongs Kor #igraphsL, because the ha%e the soun# of one or other of the si$ple %o!els& {& 7n the prece#ing paragraphs !e ha%e gi%en all the #istinct %o!el soun#s of the language, though $an of the$ are slightl $o#ifie# in certain co$binations& But in $an cases one %o!el !ill be gi%en the soun# of another %o!el, an# t!o or $ore %o!els !ill co$bine !ith a %ariet of soun#s& These irregularities occur chiefl in a fe! hun#re# co$$on !or#s, an# cause the $ain #ifficulties of spelling the English language& The follo!ing are the lea#ing substitutes) e! !ith the soun# of % long, as in #ew, chew, etc& Kperhaps this $a be consi#ere# a proper #iphthongLW e K., /L !ith the soun# of a long, as in #.te, a$$/, an# all foreign !or#s !ritten !ith an accent, especiall 5rench !or#sW i !ith the soun# of e long, as in machine, an# nearl all 5rench an# other foreign !or#sW o has the soun# of #ouble o long in tom$, wom$, prove, move, etc&, an# of #ouble o short in wo'#, women, etc&W o also has the soun# of % short in a$ove, 'ove, some, done, etc&W u has the soun# of #ouble o long after r, as in r%de, r%'eW it also has the soun# of #ouble o short in p%t, p%'', $%'', s%re, etc&W ea has the soun# of a long, as in greatW of e long, as in heatW of e short, as in headW of a 7talian KahL, as in heart, hearth, etc&W ei has the soun# of e long, as in receiveW of a long, as in #reight, weightW so$eti$es of i long, as in either an# neither,pronounce# !ith either the soun# of e long or i long, the latter being the English usageW ie has the soun# of i long, as in 'ie, an# of e long, as in $e'ie#, an# of i short, as in sieveW ai has the soun# of a long, as in 'aid, $ai', train, etc&, an# of a short, as in p'aid, a has the soun# of a long, as in p'ay, $etray, say, etc&W

oa has the soun# of o long, as in moan, #oam, coarse, etc& There are also $an peculiar an# occasional substitutions of soun#s as in any an# many Ka as eL, women Ko as gL, $%sy Ku as gL, said Kai as eL, peop'e Keo as dL, $%i'd Ku as gL, ga%ge Kau as bL, what Ka as iL, etc& When an of these co$binations are to be pronounce# as separate %o!els, in t!o s llables, t!o #ots shoul# be place# o%er the secon#, as in na0ve& |& The chief $o#ifications of the ele$entar soun#s are the follo!ing) before r each of the %o!els e, i, o, %, an# y has al$ost the sa$e soun# K$arke# like the Spanish }L as in her, $irth, honor, $%rr, an# myrt'e, o before r so$eti$es has the soun# of aw, as in or, #or, etc&W in unaccente# s llables, each of the long %o!els has a slightl shortene# soun#, as in f~a~talit , n~e~gotiate, int~o~nation, ref~u~tation, in#icate# b a #ot abo%e the sign for the long soun#W Kin a fe! !or#s, such as #~i~gress, the soun# is not shortene#, ho!e%erLW long a KL is slightl $o#ifie# in such !or#s as care, #are, $are, etc&, !hile e has the sa$e soun# in !or#s like there, their,an# whereoyovstoyrvyowy a the short soun# in such !or#s as care, etc&, an# pronounce there an# where !ith the short soun# of a, !hile their is pronounce# !ith the short soun# of e) this is not the best usage, ho!e%erLW in pass, c'ass, command, 'a%gh, etc&, !e ha%e a soun# of a bet!een 7talian a an# short a Kin#icate# b a single #ot o%er theaL, though $ost A$ericans pronounce it as short, an# $ost English gi%e the 7talian soun#) the correct pronunciation is bet!een these t!o& The Soun#s of the "onsonants& We ha%e alrea# seen that there are t!o classes of consonant soun#s, those !hich ha%e a %oice soun#, as $, calle# sonant, an# those !hich are $ere breath soun#s, like p, calle# s%rds or aspirates& The chief #ifference bet!een $ an# p is that one has the %oice soun# an# the other has not& Oost of the other consonants also stan# in pairs& We $a sa that the sonant consonant an# its correspon#ing sur# are the har# an# soft for$s of the sa$e soun#& The follo!ing table contains also si$ple consonant soun#s represente# b t!o letters) Sonant S%rd bp #t %f g Khar#L k j ch [s th Kin thineL th Kin thinL [h Kor [ as in a&%reL sh ! l $ n rh 7f !e go #o!n this list fro$ the top to the botto$, !e see that $ is the $ost close# soun#, !hile h is the $ost slight an# open, an# the others are gra#e# in bet!een Kthough not precisel as arrange# abo%eL& These #istinctions are i$portant, because in $aking co$binations of consonants in the sa$e s llable or in successi%e s llables !e cannot pass abruptl fro$ a close# soun# to an open soun#, or the re%erse, nor fro$ a sur# soun# to a sonant, or the re%erse& +, m, n, an# r are calle#

liXui#s, an# easil co$bine !ith other consonantsW an# so #o the sibilants Ks, &, etc&L& 7n the gro!th of the language, $an changes ha%e been $a#e in letters to secure har$on of soun# Kas changing $ to p in s%$1port22s%pport, an# s, to # in di##er\fro$dis an# #eroL& So$e co$binations are not possible of pronunciation, others are not natural or eas W an# hence the alterations& The stu#ent of the language $ust kno! ho! !or#s are builtW an# then !hen he co$es to a strange !or# he can reconstruct it for hi$self& While the short, co$$on !or#s $a be irregular, the long, strange !or#s are al$ost al!a s for$e# Xuite regularl & Oost of the sonants ha%e but one soun#, an# none of the$ has $ore than three soun#s& The $ost i$portant %ariations are as follo!s) " an# G ha%e each a soft soun# an# a har# soun#& The soft soun# of c is the sa$e as s, an# the har# soun# the sa$e as k& The soft soun# of g is the sa$e as 3, an# the har# soun# is the true soun# of g as hear# in gone, $%g, str%gg'e& 7$portant *ule& C an# 4 are soft before e, i, an# y, an# har# before all the other %o!els, before all the other consonants, an# at the en# of !or#s& The chief eJceptions to this rule are a fe! co$$on !or#s in !hich g is har# before e or i& The inclu#e\give, get, gi'', gim'et, gir', gi$$erish, ge'ding, gerrymander, gewgaw, geyser, giddy, gi$$on, gi#t, gig, gigg'e, gi'd, gimp, gingham, gird, girt, girth, eager, an# $egin& G is soft before a consonant in 3%dgment{,} 'odgment, acknow'edgment, etc& Also in a fe! !or#s fro$ foreign languages c is soft before other %o!els, though in such cases it shoul# al!a s be !ritten !ith a ce#illa KL& : !hen $arke# } in !or#s fro$ the Spanish language is pronounce# n1y Kca}on like canyonL& :g has a peculiar nasal soun# of its o!n, as hear# in the s llable ing& : alone also has the soun# of ng so$eti$es before g an# k, as in ang'e, ank'e, sing'e, etc& Kpronounce# ang1g'e, ang1k'e, sing1g'eL& Ph has the soun# of #, as in prophet& Th has t!o soun#s, a har# soun# as in the, than, $athe, scythe, etc&, an# a soft soun# as in thin, kith, $ath, Smith, etc& "ontrast $reathe an# $reath, 'ath an# 'atheW an# $ath an# $aths, 'ath an# 'aths, etc& S has t!o soun#s, one its o!n soun#, as in sin, kiss, #ist Kthe sa$e as c in 'ace, rice, etc&L, an# the soun# of &, as in riseKcontrast !ith riceL, is, $aths, men5s, etc& has t!o co$$on soun#s, one that of ks as in $o), si), etc&, an# the other the soun# of gs, as in e)act, e)aggerate Kb the !a , the first g in this !or# is silentL& At the beginning of a !or# ) has the soun# of & as in 6er)es& "h has three soun#s, as hear# first in chi'd, secon# in machine, an# thir# in character& The first is peculiar to itself, the secon# is that of sh, an# the thir# that of k& The soun# of sh is %ariousl represente#) b sh{,} as in share, shi#t, shirt, etc& b ti, as in condition, mention, sanction, etc& b si, as in tension, s%spension, e)tension, etc& b ci, as in s%spicion& KAlso, cr%ci#i)ion&L The kin#re# soun# of &h is represente# b & as in a&%re, an# s as in p'eas%re, an# b so$e co$binations& ' is al!a s a consonant at the beginning of a !or# !hen follo!e# b a %o!el, as in yet, year, ye'', etc&W but if follo!e# b a consonant it is a %o!el, as in Ypsi'anti& At the en# of a !or# it is =al>!a s a %o!el, as in all !or#s en#ing in the s llable'y&

EJercises& 7t is %er i$portant that the stu#ent shoul# $aster the soun#s of the language an# the s $bols for the$, or the #iacritical $arks, for se%eral reasons) 5irst, because it is i$possible to fin# out the true pronunciation of a !or# fro$ the #ictionar unless one clearl un#erstan#s the $eaning of the principal $arksW Secon#, because one of the essentials in accurate pronunciation an# goo# spelling is the habit of anal [ing the soun#s !hich co$pose !or#s, an# training the ear to #etect slight %ariationsW Thir#, because a thorough kno!le#ge of the soun#s an# their natural s $bols is the first step to!ar# a stu# of the principles go%erning !or# for$ation, or spelling an# pronunciation& 5or purposes of instruction through correspon#ence or b $eans of a teJtbook, the #iacritical $arks representing #istinct soun#s of the language affor# a substitute for the %oice in #ictation an# si$ilar eJercises, an# hence such !ork reXuires a $aster of !hat $ight at first sight see$ a purel $echanical an# useless s ste$& One of the best eJercises for the $aster of this s ste$ is to open the unabri#ge# #ictionar at an point an# cop out lists of !or#s, !riting the !or#s as the or#inaril appear in one colu$n, an# in an a#joining colu$n the phonetic for$ of the !or#& When the list is co$plete, co%er one colu$n an# repro#uce the other fro$ an application of the principles that ha%e been learne#& After a fe! #a s, repro#uce the phonetic for$s fro$ the !or#s as or#inaril !ritten, an# again the or#inar !or# fro$ the phonetic for$& A%oi# $e$ori[ing as $uch as possible, but !ork solel b the application of principles& :e%er !rite #o!n a phonetic for$ !ithout full un#erstan#ing its $eaning in e%er #etail& A ke to the %arious $arks !ill be foun# at the botto$ of e%er page of the #ictionar , an# the stu#ent shoul# refer to this freXuentl & 7n the front part of the #ictionar there !ill also be foun# an eJplanation of all possible soun#s that an letter $a ha%eW an# e%er soun# that an letter $a ha%e $a be in#icate# b a peculiar $ark, so that since se%eral letters $a represent the sa$e soun# there are a %ariet of s $bols for the sa$e soun#& 5or the purposes of this book it has see$e# best to offer onl one s $bol for each soun#, an# that s $bol the one $ost freXuentl use#& 5or that reason the follo!ing eJa$ple !ill not correspon# precisel !ith the for$s gi%en in the #ictionar , but a stu# of the #ifferences !ill affor# a %aluable eJercise& 7llustration&4 47n this eJercise, %o!els before r $arke# in !ebster !ith the #ouble cur%e use# o%er the Spanish n, are left un$arke#& +ouble o !ith the short soun# is also left un$arke#& The first place that 7 can !ell re$e$ber !as a large, The first plbs thct 7 kan !el rd$e$ber !o[ b lzrj, pleasant $ea#o! !ith a pon# of clear !ater in it& So$e plesnt $e#h !ith b pin# i% kldr !iter in it& Sk$ sha# trees leane# o%er it, an# rushes an# !ater(lilies shb#g trd[ ldn# h%er it, cn# rkshd[ cn# !iter( lgli[ gre! at the #eep en#& O%er the he#ge on one si#e !e looke# grj ct thd #dp en#& %er thd hej in !kn sf# !d lookt into a plo!e# fiel#, an# on the other !e looke# o%er a inthh b plo!# fdl#=,> cn# in thd ither !d lookt i%er b gate at our $asterVs house, !hich stoo# b the roa#si#e& gbt ct o!r $csterV[ ho!s, h!ich stoo# bf thd rh#sf#& At the top of the $ea#o! !as a gro%e of fir(trees, an# at At thd top i% the $d#h !i[ b grh% i% fir(trd[, cn# ct the botto$ a running brook o%erhung b a steep bank& thd bit$ a rkning brook h%erhkng bf a stdp bcnk&

Whilst 7 !as oung 7 li%e# upon $ $otherVs $ilk, as 7 coul# 6!ilst 7 !i[ kng 7 li%# kpin $f $ktherV[ $ilk, c[ 7 koo# not eat grass& 7n the #a ti$e 7 ran b her si#e, an# at night nit dt grcs& 7n thd #btf$ 7 rcn bf her sf#, cn# ct nft 7 la #o!n close b her& When it !as hot !e use# to stan# 7 lb #o!n klhs bf her& 6!en it !i[ hit !d j[# thh stcn# b the pon# in the sha#e of the trees, an# !hen it !as col# bf thd pin# in thd shb# i% thd trd[, cn# h!dn it !i[ khl# !e ha# a nice, !ar$ she# near the gro%e& !d hc# b nfs, !a!r$ she# ndr thd grh%& :ote& 7n WebsterVs #ictionar letters !hich are un$arke# ha%e an obscure soun# often not unlike uh, or are silent, an# letters printe# in italics are nearl eli#e#, so %er slight is the soun# the ha%e if it can be sai# to eJist at all& 7n the illustration abo%e, all %er obscure soun#s ha%e been replace# b the apostrophe, !hile no #istinction has been $a#e bet!een short %o!els in accente# an# unaccente# s llables& Stu#ies fro$ the +ictionar & The follo!ing are taken fro$ WebsterVs +ictionar ) Ab(#i$(i(noks) The a in a$ is onl a little shorter than a in at, an# the i is short being unaccente#, !hile the o is silent, the s llable ha%ing the soun# nks as in#icate# b the $ark o%er the %& Lessen, KlesnL, lesson, KlessnL, lesser, lessor) Each of these !or#s has t!o #istinct s llables, though there is no recogni[able %o!el soun# in the last s llables of the first t!o& This eli#ing of the %o!el is sho!n b printing the e an# the oof the final s llables in italics& 7n the last t!o !or#s the %o!els of the final s llables are not $arke#, but ha%e nearl the soun# the !oul# ha%e if $arke# in the usual !a for e an# o before r& As the s llables are not accente# the %o!el soun# is slightl obscure#& Or in 'essor has the soun# of the !or# or Knearl L, not the soun# of or in honor, !hich !ill be foun# re(spelle# KinurL& 7t !ill be note# that the #ouble s is #i%i#e# in t!o of the !or#s an# not in the other t!o& 7n 'esser an# 'essenall possible stress is place# on the first s llables, since the ter$inations ha%e the least possible %alue in speakingW but in'esson an# 'essor !e put a little $ore stress on the final s llables, #ue to the greater #ignit of the letter o, an# this #ra!s o%er a part of the s soun#& 6on(e ch$b Khkn kh$L) The hea% h phen in#icates that this is a co$poun# !or# an# the h phen $ust al!a s be !ritten& The h phens printe# lightl in the #ictionar $erel ser%e to separate the s llables an# sho! ho! a !or# $a be #i%i#e# at the en# of a line& The stu#ent !ill also note that the o in 1com$ has its full long %alue instea# of being slighte#& This slight a##e# stress on the o is the !a !e ha%e in speaking of in#icating that 1com$ !as once a !or# b itself, !ith an accent of its o!n& EJercise& Select other !or#s fro$ the #ictionar , an# anal se as !e ha%e #one abo%e, gi%ing so$e eJplanation for e%er peculiarit foun# in the printing an# $arks& "ontinue this until there is no #oubt or hesitation in regar# to the $eaning of an $ark that $a be foun#& CHAPTER II. WORD-BUILDING. English speaking peoples ha%e been incline# to eJaggerate the irregularities of the English !or#( for$ation& The fact is, onl a s$all nu$ber of co$$on !or#s an# roots are irregular in for$ation, !hile full nine tenths of all the !or#s in the language are for$e# accor#ing to regular principles, or are regularl #eri%e# fro$ the s$all nu$ber of irregular !or#s& We use the irregular !or#s so

$uch $ore freXuentl that the #o in#ee# constitute the greater part of our speech, but it is %er necessar that !e shoul# $aster the regular principles of !or#(buil#ing, since the gi%e us a ke to the less freXuentl use#, but far $ore nu$erous, class !hich fills the #ictionar , teaching us both the spelling of !or#s of !hich !e kno! the soun#, an# the pronunciation of !or#s !hich !e $eet for the first ti$e in rea#ing& Accent& 7n English, accent is an essential part of e%er !or#& 7t is so$ething of an art to learn to thro! it on to an s llable !e choose, for unless !e are able to #o this !e cannot get the true pronunciation of a !or# fro$ the #ictionar an# !e are helpless !hen !e are calle# on to pronounce a !or# !e ha%e ne%er hear#& Perhaps the best !a to learn the art of thro!ing accent is b co$paring !or#s in !hich !e are in the habit of shifting the accent to one s llable or another accor#ing to the $eaning, as for instance the follo!ing) 1& Accent& a& What ac7cent has this !or#Y b& With !hat accent7%ation #o ou accent7 this !or#Y ,& "oncert& a& +i# ou go to the con7cert last nightY b& B concert7ed action !e can #o an thing& {& "ontrast& =a>C& What a con7trast bet!een the rich $an an# the poor $an_ b& Contrast7 goo# !ith ba#, black !ith !hite, greatness !ith littleness& |& Per$it& a& 7 ha%e a buil#ing~(per$it~& b& O $other !ill not permit7 $e to go& ^& Present& a& 6e recei%e# a beautiful "hrist$as pres7ent& b& She !as present7ed at court& & PrefiJ& a& Sub is a co$$on pre7#i)& b& 8re#i)7 sub to port an# ou get support& .& "o$poun#& a& 6e can compo%nd7 $e#icine like a #ruggist& b& :itrogl cerine is a #angerous com7po%nd& As a further illustration, rea# the follo!ing stan[a of poetr , especiall accenting the s llables as $arke#) Tell $e not in $ournful nu$bers, NLife is but an e$pt #rea$_P 5or the soul is #ea# that slu$bers, An# things are not !hat the see$& This is calle# scanning, an# all %erse $a be scanne# in the sa$e !a & 7t is an eJcellent #rill in learning the art of thro!ing the stress of the %oice on an s llable that $a be #esire#&

T!o La!s of Wor#(5or$ation& We are no! prepare# to consi#er the t!o great la!s go%erning !or#(for$ation& These are) 1& La!) All %o!els in co$bination !ith consonants are naturall short unless the long soun# is gi%en b co$bination !ith other %o!els, b accent, or b position in the s llable !ith reference to consonants& ,& La!) Wor#s #eri%e# fro$ other !or#s b the a##ition of prefiJes or suffiJes al!a s retain the original for$ as far as possible& 1& We are likel to suppose that the natural or original soun# of a %o!el is the long soun#, because that is the soun# !e gi%e it !hen na$ing it in the alphabet& 7f !e !ill eJa$ine a nu$ber of !or#s, ho!e%er, !e shall soon see that in co$bination !ith consonants all %o!els ha%e a ten#enc to a short or obscure pronunciation& The soun#s of the consonants are naturall obscure, an# the #ra! the %o!els to a si$ilar obscurit & Since such is the case, !hen a %o!el is gi%en its long soun# there is al!a s a special reason for it& 7n the si$ple !or#s not, pin, her, rip, rid, c%t, met, !e ha%e the short soun#s of the %o!elsW but if !e #esire the long soun#s !e $ust a## a silent e,!hich is not pronounce# as e, but has its soun# %alue in the greater stress put upon the %o!el !ith !hich it is connecte#& B a##ing silent e to the abo%e !or#s !e ha%e note, pine, here, ripe, ride, mete& 7n each of these cases the e follo!s the consonant, though reall co$bining !ith the %o!el before the consonantW but if !e place the a##itional e just after the first ein met !e ha%e meet, !hich is a !or# e%en $ore co$$on than mete9 E is the onl %o!el that $a be place# after the consonant an# still co$bine !ith the %o!el before it =!hile being silent>W but nearl all the other %o!els $a be place# besi#e the %o!el that !oul# other!ise be short in or#er to $ake it long, an# so$eti$es this a##e# %o!el is place# before as !ell as after the %o!el to be lengthene#& Thus !e ha%e $oat, $ait, $eat, #ie'd, chie#, etc& There are a %er , %er fe! irregular !or#s in !hich the %o!el soun# has been kept short in spite of the a##e# %o!el, as for instance, head, sieve, etc& 7t appears that !ith certain consonants the long soun# is especiall #ifficult, an# so in the case of %er co$$on !or#s the !ear of co$$on speech has shortene# the %o!els in spite of original efforts to strengthen the$& This is peculiarl true of the consonant v, an# the co$bination th, an# less so of s an# && So in =K7L >'ive, have, give, 'ove, shove, move, etc&, the %o!el soun# is $ore or less obscure# e%en in spite of the silent e, though in the less co$$on !or#s a'ive, $ehave, etc&, the long soun# strengthene# b accent has not been lost& So as a rule t!o silent %o!els are no! use# to $ake the %o!el before the vlong, as in 'eave, $e'ieve, receive, $eeves, weave, etc& 7n the single !or# sieve the %o!el re$ains short in spite of t!o silent %o!els a##e# to strengthen it& T!o %o!els are also so$eti$es reXuire# to strengthen a long %o!el before th, as in $reathe,though !hen the %o!el itself is a strong one, as a in $athe, the secon# %o!el is not reXuire#, an# o in $oth is so easil increase# in soun# that the t!o consonants alone are sufficient& 7t !ill be seen, therefore, that $uch #epen#s on the Xualit of the %o!el& : an# o are the strongest %o!els, i the !eakest K!hich accounts for sie%eL& After s an# & !e $ust also ha%e a silent e in a##ition to the silent %o!el !ith !hich the soun#e# %o!el is co$bine#, as !e $a see in cheese, increase, #ree&e, etc& The a##e# %o!el in co$bination !ith the long %o!el is not al!a s nee#e#, ho!e%er, as !e $a see in contrasting raise an# rise& :ot onl %o!els but consonants $a ser%e to lengthen %o!el soun#s, as !e see in right, night, $right, an# in sco'd, ro'',etc& Onl o is capable of being lengthene# b t!o si$ple consonants such as !e ha%e in sco'd an# ro''& 7n ca'm an# $a'', for instance, the a has one of its eJtra %alues rather than its long soun#& The gh is of course a po!erful co$bination& Once it !as pronounce#W but it beca$e so #ifficult that !e ha%e learne# to gi%e its %alue b #!elling a little on the %o!el soun#& Another po!erful $eans of lengthening a %o!el is accent& When a %o!el recei%es the full force of the accent b co$ing at the en# of an accente# s llable it is al$ost in%ariabl $a#e long& We see this in $onos llables such as he, no, etc& 7t is often necessar to strengthen b an a##itional silent %o!el, ho!e%er, as in tie, s%e, view, etc&, an# a has a peculiarit in that !hen it co$es at the en# of

a s llable alone it has the soun# of ah, or a 7talian, rather than that of a long, an# !e ha%e pa, ma, etc&, an# for the long soun# y is a##e#, as in say, day, ray9 ; has a great #isinclination to appear at the en# of a !or#, an# so i=s>H usuall change# to y !hen such a position is necessar , or it takes silent e as in#icate# abo%eW !hile this ser%ice on the part of y is reciprocate# b iVs taking the place of y insi#e a !or#, as $a be illustrate# b city an# cities& When a %o!el gets the #%'' #orce of the accent in a !or# of t!o or $ore s llables it is boun# to be long, as for instance the first a in ma7di a& E%en the stress necessar to keep the %o!el fro$ running into the neJt s llable !ill $ake it long, though the soun# is so$e!hat obscure#, so$e other s llable recei%ing the chief accent, as the first a in ma gi7cian& 7n this last !or# isee$s to ha%e the full force of the accent, et it is not longW an# !e note the sa$e in such !or#s as condi7tion, etc& The fact is, ho!e%er, that i being a !eak %o!el easil runs into the consonant soun# of the neJt s llable, an# if !e note the soun#s as !e pronounce condition !e shall see that the sh soun# represente# b ti blen#s !ith the i an# takes the force of the accent& We cannot separate the ti or ci fro$ the follo!ing portion of the s llable, since if so separate# the coul# not ha%e their sh%alueW but in pronunciation this separation is $a#e in part an# the sh soun# ser%es both for the s llable that prece#es an# the s llable that follo!s& 7n a !or# like di men7sion !e fin# the i of the first s llable long e%en !ithout the accent, since the accent on men attaches the m so closel to it that it cannot in an !a relie%e the i& So !e see that in an accente# s llable the consonant before a short %o!el, as !ell as the consonant follo!ing it, recei%es part of the stress& This is especiall noticeable in the !or# ma gi7cian as co$pare# !ith mag7ic& 7n $agic the s llable ic is in itself so co$plete that the g is kept !ith the a an# takes the force of the accent, lea%ing the a short& 7n magician the g is #ra!n a!a fro$ the a to help out the short i follo!e# b an sh soun#, an# the a is lengthene# e%en to altering the for$ of the si$ple !or#& 7n the !or# ma7gi an,again, !e fin# a long, the g being nee#e# to help out the i& Since accent $akes a %o!el long if no consonant inter%enes at the en# of a s llable, an# as a single consonant follo!ing such a %o!el in a !or# of t!o s llables Kthough not in !or#s of three or $oreL is likel to be #ra!n into the s llable follo!ing, a single consonant follo!ing a single short %o!el $ust be #ouble#& 7f t!o or $ore consonants follo! the %o!el, as inmasking, standing, wi'ting, the %o!el e%en in an accente# s llable re$ains short& But in pining !ith one n follo!ing the i in the accente# s llable, !e kno! that the %o!el $ust be long, for if it !ere short the !or# !oul# be !ritten pinning& 9ni%ersal *ule) <onosy''a$'es in !hich, a single %o!el is follo!e# b a single consonant KeJcept v an# h ne%er #ouble#Ldo%$'e the #ina' consonant !hen a single s llable beginning !ith a %o!el is a##e#, an# a'' words so en#ing #ouble the final consonant on the a##ition of a s llable beginning !ith a %o!el i# the sy''a$'e containing the sing'e vowe' follo!e# b a single consonant is to $e accented& Thus !e ha%e can22canning, r%n22r%nning, #%n22#%nny, #'at22#'attishW an# also sin22 sinned Kfor the ed is counte# a s llable though not pronounce# as such no!a#a sLW pre#erred, but pre#erence, since the accent is thro!n back fro$ the s llable containing the single %o!el follo!e# b a single consonant in the !or# pre#erence, though not inpre#erredW an# of course the %o!el is not #ouble# in m%rm%red, wondered, covered, etc& 7f, ho!e%er, the accente# s llable is follo!e# b t!o or $ore s llables, the ten#enc of accent is to shorten the %o!el& Thus !e ha%e grammat7ica', etc&, in !hich the short %o!el in the accente# s llable is follo!e# b a single consonant not #ouble#& The !or# na7tion K!ith a long aL beco$es na7tiona' Kshort aL !hen the a##ition of a s llable thro!s the accent on to the antepenult& The %o!el % is ne%er shortene# in this !a , ho!e%er, an# !e ha%e '%7$ricate, not '%$7ricate& We also fin# such !or#s as no7tiona' Klong oL& While accente# s llables !hich are follo!e# b t!o or $ore s llables sel#o$ if e%er #ouble the single consonant, in pronunciation !e often fin# the %o!el long if the t!o s llables follo!ing contain short an# !eak %o!els& Thus !e ha%e pe7riod Klong eL, ma 7niac Klong aL, an# o7rient7a' Klong oL&

7n !or#s of t!o s llables an# other !or#s in !hich the accent co$es on the neJt to the last s llable, a short %o!el in an accente# s llable shoul# logicall al!a s be follo!e# b $ore than one consonant or a #ouble consonant& We fin# the #ouble consonant in such !or#s as s%mmer, pretty, mamma', etc& 9nfortunatel , our secon# la!, !hich reXuires all #eri%e# !or#s to preser%e the for$ of the original root, interferes !ith this principle %er seriousl in a large nu$ber of English !or#s& The roots are often #eri%e# fro$ languages in !hich this principle #i# not appl , or else these roots originall ha# %er #ifferent soun# %alues fro$ those the ha%e !ith us& So !e ha%e $ody, !ith one d, though !e ha%e shoddy an# toddyregularl for$e# !ith t!o dVs, an# !e ha%e #inish, e)hi$it, etc&W in co'7onnade the n is #ouble# in a s llable that is not accente#& The chief eJception to the general principle is the entire class of !or#s en#ing in ic, such as co'ic, cynic, civic, antithetic, peripatetic, etc& 7f the root is long, ho!e%er, it !ill re$ain long after the a##ition of the ter$ination ic, as m%sic Kfro$m%seL, $asic Kfro$ $aseL, etc& But in the case of !or#s !hich !e for$ oursel%es, !e !ill fin# practicall no eJceptions to the rule that a short %o!el in a s llable ne)t to the last m%st be follo!e# b a do%$'e consonant !hen accente#, !hile a short %o!el in a s llable $e#orethe neJt to the last is not follo!e# b a #ouble consonant !hen the s llable is accente#& ,& Our secon# la! tells us that the original for$ of a !or# or of its root $ust be preser%e# as far as possible& Oost of the !or#s referre# to abo%e in !hich single consonants are #ouble# or not #ouble# in %iolation of the general rule are #eri%e# fro$ the Latin, usuall through the 5rench, an# if !e !ere fa$iliar !ith those languages !e shoul# ha%e a ke to their correct spelling& But e%en !ithout such thorough kno!le#ge, !e $a learn a fe! of the $etho#s of #eri%ation in those languages, especiall the Latin, as !ell as the si$pler $etho#s in use in the English& "ertain changes in the #eri%e# !or#s are al!a s $a#e, as, for instance, the #ropping of the silent e !hen a s llable beginning !ith a %o!el is a##e#& *ule& Silent e at the en# of a !or# is #roppe# !hene%er a s llable beginning !ith a %o!el is a##e#& This rule is not Xuite uni%ersal, though nearl so& The silent e is al!a s retaine# !hen the %o!el at the beginning of the a##e# s llable !oul# $ake a soft c or g har#, as in servicea$'e, changea$'e, etc& 7n changing, chancing, etc&, the i of the a##e# s llable is sufficient to $ake the c or g retain its soft soun#& 7n such !or#s as cringe an# singe the silent e is retaine# e%en before i in or#er to a%oi# confusing the !or#s so for$e# !ith other !or#s in !hich the ng has a nasal soun#W thus !e ha%e singeing to a%oi# confusion !ith singing, though !e ha%e singed in !hich the e is #roppe# before ed because the #ropping of it causes no confusion& 5or$erl the silent e !as retaine# in movea$'eW but no! !e !rite mova$'e, accor#ing to the rule& Of course !hen the a##e# s llable begins !ith a consonant, the silent e is not #roppe#, since #ropping it !oul# ha%e the effect of shortening the prece#ing %o!el b $aking it stan# before t!o consonants& A fe! $onos llables en#ing in t!o %o!els, one of !hich is silent e, are eJceptions) d%'y, tr%'yW also who''y& Also final y is change# to i !hen a s llable is a##e#, unless that a##e# s llable begins !ith i an# t!o iVs !oul# thus co$e together& ; is a %o!el ne%er #ouble#& Th=u>Fs !e ha%e citi#ied, but citi#ying& We ha%e alrea# seen that final consonants $a be #ouble# un#er certain circu$stances !hen a s llable is a##e#& These are nearl all the changes in spelling that are possible !hen !or#s are for$e# b a##ing s llablesW but changes in pronunciation an# %o!el %alues are often affecte#, as !e ha%e seen in nation Ka longL an# nationa' Ka shortL& PrefiJes& But !or#s $a be for$e# b prefiJing s llables, or b co$bining t!o or $ore !or#s into one& Oan of these for$ations !ere effecte# in the Latin before the !or#s !ere intro#uce# into

EnglishW but !e can stu# the principles go%erning the$ an# gain a ke to the spelling of $an English !or#s& 7n English !e unite a preposition !ith a %erb b placing it after the %erb an# treating it as an a#%erb& Thus !e ha%e Nbreaking in,P Nrunning o%er,P etc& 7n Latin the preposition in such cases !as prefiJe# to the !or#W an# there !ere particles use# as prefiJes !hich !ere ne%er use# as prepositions& We shoul# beco$e fa$iliar !ith the principal Latin prefiJes an# al!a s take the$ into account in the spelling of English !or#s& The principal Latin prefiJes are) ab KabsL]]fro$ a#]]to ante]]before bi KbisL]]t!ice circu$ KcircuL]]aroun# con]] !ith contra KcounterL]]against #e]]#o!n, fro$ #is]]apart, not eJ]]out of, a!a fro$ eJtra]]be on# in]]in, into, onW a'so not Kanother !or#L inter]]bet!een non]]not ob]] in front of, in the !a of per]]through post]]after pre]]before pro]]for, forth re]] back or again retro]]back!ar# se]]asi#e se$i]]half sub]]un#er super]]abo%e, o%er trans]]o%er, be on# ultra]]be on# %ice]]instea# of& Of these prefiJes, those en#ing in a single consonant are likel to change that consonant for euphon to the consonant beginning the !or# to !hich the prefiJ is attache#& Thus ad #rops the d in ascend, beco$es ac in accord, a# in a##i'iate, anin anne), ap in appropriate, at in attend, con beco$es com in commotion, also in comp%nction an# compress, cor incorrespond, co' in co''ect, co in co1e*%a'W dis beco$es di# in di##erW e) beco$es e in e3ect, ec in eccentric, e# in e##ectW inbeco$es i' in i''%minate, im in import, ir in irreconci'a$'e, o$ beco$es op in oppress, oc in occasion, o# in o##endW an# s%$beco$es s%c in s%cceed, s%p in s%pport, s%# in s%##i), s%g in s%ggest, s%s in s%stain& The final consonant is change# to a consonant that can be easil pronounce# before the consonant !ith !hich the follo!ing s llable begins& 5ollo!ing the rule that the root $ust be change# as little as possible, it is al!a s the prefiJ, not the root, !hich is co$pelle# to iel# to the #e$an#s of euphon & A little reflection upon the #eri%ation of !or#s !ill thus often gi%e us a ke to the spelling& 5or instance, suppose !e are in #oubt !hether irredeema$'e has t!o rVs or onl one) !e no! that redeem is a root, an# therefore the ir $ust be a prefiJ, an# the t!o rVs are accounte# for,\in#ee# are necessar in or#er to pre%ent our losing sight of the #eri%ation an# $eaning of the !or#& 7n the sa$e !a , !e can ne%er be in #oubt as to the t!o mVs in commotion, commencement, etc& We ha%e alrea# note# the ten#enc of y to beco$e i in the $i##le of a !or#& The eJceptional cases are chiefl #eri%ati%es fro$ the Greek, an# a stu# of the Greek prefiJes !ill often gi%e us a hint in regar# to the spelling of !or#s containing y& These prefiJes, gi%en here in full for con%enience, are) a KanL]]!ithout, not a$phi]]both, aroun# ana]]up, back, through anti]]against, opposite apo KapL]]fro$ cata]]#o!n #ia]]through en Ke$L]]in epi KepL]]upon h per]]o%er, eJcessi%e h po]]un#er $eta K$etL]]be on#, change s n Ks , s l, s $L]]!ith, together 7n Greek !or#s also !e !ill fin# ph !ith the soun# of #& We kno! that symmetrica', hypophosphite, metaphysics, emphasis, etc&, are Greek because of the ke !e fin# in the prefiJ, an# !e are thus prepare# for the yVs an# phVs& = #oes not eJist in the Greek alphabet KeJcept as phL an# so !e shall ne%er fin# it in !or#s #eri%e# fro$ the Greek& The English prefiJes are not so often useful in #eter$ining peculiar spelling, but for co$pleteness !e gi%e the$ here) a]]at, in, on Kahea#L be]]to $ake, b Kbenu$bL en Ke$L]]in, on, to $ake Kencircle, e$po!erL for]]not, fro$ KforbearL fore]]before Kfore!arnL $is]]!rong, !rongl K$isstateL out]]be on# KoutbreakL o%er]]abo%e Ko%errulingL to]]the, this Kto(nightL un]] not, opposite act Kunable, un#ecei%eL un#er]]beneath Kun#er$ineL !ith]]against, fro$ K!ithstan#L

CHAPTER III. WORD-BUILDINGRULES AND APPLICATIONS. There are a fe! rules an# applications of the principles of !or#(for$ation !hich $a be foun# full treate# in the chapter on NOrthograph P at the beginning of the #ictionar , but !hich !e present here %er briefl , together !ith a su$$ar of principles alrea# #iscusse#& *ule 1& =, ', an# s at the en# of a $onos llable after a single %o!el are co$$onl #ouble#& The eJceptions are the cases in !hich s for$s the plural or possessi%e case of a noun, or thir# person singular of the %erb, an# the follo!ing !or#s) c'e#, i#, o#, pa', so', as, gas, has, was, yes, gris, his, is, th%s, %s9 + is not #ouble# at the en# of !or#s of $ore than one s llable, aspara''e', wi''#%', etc& *ule ,& :o other consonants thus situate# are #ouble#& EJceptions) e$$, add, odd, egg, inn, $%nn, err, $%rr, p%rr, $%tt, #i&&, #%&&, $%&&, an# a fe! %er unco$$on !or#s, for !hich see the chapter in the #ictionar abo%e referre# to& *ule {& A consonant stan#ing at the en# of a !or# i$$e#iatel after a #iphthong or #ouble %o!el is ne%er #ouble#& The !or# g%ess is onl an apparent eJception, since % #oes not for$ a co$bination !ith e but $erel $akes the g har#& *ule |& Oonos llables en#ing in the soun# of ic represente# b c usuall take k after the c, as in $ack, knock, etc& EJceptions) ta'c, &inc, roc, arc, an# a fe! %er unco$$on !or#s& Wor#s of $ore than one s llable en#ing in ic or iac #o not take k after the c KeJcept derrickL, as for eJa$ple e'egiac, c%$ic, m%sic, etc& 7f the c is prece#e# b an other %o!el than i oria, k is a##e# to the c, as in $arrack, hammock, wed'ock& EJceptions) a'manac, havoc, an# a %er fe! unco$$on !or#s& *ule ^& To preser%e the har# soun# of c !hen a s llable is a##e# !hich begins !ith e, i, or y, k is place# after final c, as intra##icking, &incky, co'icky& *ule & 6 an# h are ne%er #ouble#, v an# 3 sel#o$& 4 !ith the soft soun# cannot be #ouble#, because then the first g !oul# be $a#e har#& EJa$ple) mag7ic9 > al!a s appears !ith % follo!ing it, an# here % has the %alue of the consonant w an# in no !a co$bines or is counte# !ith the %o!el !hich $a follo! it& 5or instance s*%atting is !ritten as if s*%at containe# but one %o!el& *ule .& 7n si$ple #eri%ati%es a single final consonant follo!ing a single %o!el in a s llable that recei%es an accent is #ouble# !hen another s llable beginning !ith a %o!el is a##e#& *ule & When accent co$es on a s llable stan#ing neJt to the last, it has a ten#enc to lengthen the %o!elW but on s llables farther fro$ the en#, the ten#enc is to shorten the %o!el !ithout #oubling the consonant& 5or eJa$ple, na7tion Ka longL, butna7tiona' Ka shortLW gram7mar, but grammat7ica'& *ule 2& Silent e at the en# of a !or# is usuall #roppe# !hen a s llable beginning !ith a %o!el is a##e#& The chief eJceptions are !or#s in !hich the silent e is retaine# to preser%e the soft soun# of c or g& *ule 1-& Plurals are regularl for$e# b a##ing sW but if the !or# en# in a sibilant soun# Ksh, &h, &, s, 3, ch, )L, the plural is for$e# b a##ing es, !hich is pronounce# as a separate s llable& 7f the !or# en#=s> in a sibilant soun# follo!e# b silent e,that e unites !ith the s to for$ a separate s llable& EJa$ples) seas, cans, $o)es, ch%rches, $r%shes, changes, services& *ule 11& 5inal y is regularl change# to i !hen a s llable is a##e#& 7n plurals it is change# to ies, eJcept !hen prece#e# b a %o!el, !hen a si$ple s is a##e# !ithout change of the y& EJa$ples) c'%msy, c'%msi'yW city, citiesW chimney, chimneys& We ha%e co''o*%ies because % after * has the %alue of the consonant w& There are a fe! eJceptions to the abo%e rule& When t!oiVs !oul# co$e together, the y is not change#, as in carrying& *ule 1,& Wor#s en#ing, in a #ouble consonant co$$onl retain the #ouble consonant in #eri%ati%es&

The chief eJception isa'', !hich #rops one ', as in a'mighty, a'ready, a'tho%gh, etc& Accor#ing to English usage other !or#s en#ing in #ouble '#rop one ' in #eri%ati%es, an# !e ha%e ski'#%' Kfor ski''#%'L, wi'#%' Kfor wi''#%'L, etc&, but Webster #oes not appro%e this custo$& =%' is an affiJ, not the !or# #%'' in a co$poun#& EXCEPTIONS AND IRREGULARITIES. 1& Though in the case of si$ple !or#s en#ing in a #ouble consonant the #eri%ati%es usuall retain the #ouble consonant,ponti#ic an# ponti#ica' Kfro$ ponti##L are eJceptions, an# !hen three letters of the sa$e kin# !oul# co$e together, one is usuall #roppe#, as in agreed Kagree plus edL, i''y Ki'' plus 'yL, $e''ess, etc& We $a !rite $e''1'ess, etc&, ho!e%er, in the case of !or#s in !hich three 'Vs co$e together, separating the s llables b a h phen& ,& To pre%ent t!o iVs co$ing together, !e change i to y in dying, tying, vying, etc&, fro$ die, tie, an# vie& {& +eri%ati%es fro$ ad3ectives en#ing in y #o not change y to i, an# !e ha%e shy'y, shyness, s'y'y, etc&, though drier an#driest fro$ dry are use#& The y is not change# before ship, as in secretaryship, 'adyship, etc&, nor in $a$yhood an# 'adykin& |& We ha%e alrea# seen that y is not change# in #eri%ati%es !hen it is prece#e# b another %o!el, as in the case of 3oy#%',etc&W but !e fin# eJceptions to this principle in dai'y, 'aid, paid, said, saith, s'ain, an# staidW an# $an !rite gai'y an#gaiety, though Webster prefers gay'y an# gayety& ^& :ouns of one s llable en#ing in o usuall take a silent e also, as toe, doe, shoe, etc, but other parts of speech #o not take the e, as do, to, so, no, an# the like, an# nouns of $ore than one s llable, as potato, tomato, etc&, o$it the e& Oonos llables en#ing in oe usuall retain the silent e in #eri%ati%es, an# !e ha%e shoeing, toeing, etc& The co$$oner English nouns en#ing in o also ha%e the peculiarit of for$ing the plural b a##ing es instea# of s, an# !e ha%e potatoes, tomatoes, heroes, echoes, cargoes, em$argoes, mottoesW but nouns a trifle $ore foreign for$ their plurals regularl , as so'os, &eros, pianos,etc& When a %o!el prece#es the o, the plural is al!a s for$e# regularl & The thir# person singular of the %erb woo is wooes,of do does, of go goes, etc&, in analog !ith the plurals of the nouns en#ing in o& & The follo!ing are eJceptions to the rule that silent e is retaine# in #eri%ati%es !hen the a##e# s llable begins !ith a consonant) 3%dgment, acknow'edgment, 'odgment, who''y, a$ridgment, wisdom, etc& .& So$e nouns en#ing in # or #e change those ter$inations to ve in the plural, as $ee#22$eeves, 'ea#22'eaves, kni#e22knives, 'oa#22'oaves, 'i#e22'ives, wi#e22wives, thie#22thieves, wo'# 22wo'ves, se'#22se'ves, she'#22she'ves, ca'#22ca'ves, ha'#22ha'ves, e'#22e'ves, shea#22 sheaves& We ha%e chie#22chie#s an# handkerchie#22handkerchie#s, ho!e%er, an# the sa$e is true of all nouns en#ing in # or #e eJcept those gi%en abo%e& & A fe! nouns for$ their plurals b changing a single %o!el, as man22men, woman22women, goose22geese, #oot22#eet, tooth22teeth, etc& "o$poun#s follo! the rule of the si$ple for$, but the plural of ta'isman is ta'ismans, of4erman is 4ermans, of m%sse'man is m%sse'mans, because these are not co$poun#s of men& 2& A fe! plurals are for$e# b a##ing en, as $rother22$rethren, chi'd22chi'dren, o)22o)en& 1-& Brother, pea, die, an# penny ha%e each t!o plurals, !hich #iffer in $eaning& Brothers refers to $ale chil#ren of the sa$e parents, $rethren to $e$bers of a religious bo# or the likeW peas is use# !hen a #efinite nu$ber is $entione#, pease!hen bulk is referre# toW dies are instru$ents use# for sta$ping, etc&, dice cubical blocks use# in ga$es of chanceW penniesrefer to a gi%en nu$ber of coins, pence to an a$ount reckone# b the coins& :c*%aintance is so$eti$es use# in the plural forac*%aintances !ith no #ifference of $eaning&

11& A fe! !or#s are the sa$e in the plural as in the singular, as sheep, deer, tro%t, etc& 1,& So$e !or#s #eri%e# fro$ foreign languages retain the plurals of those languages& 5or eJa$ple) #atu$]]#ata criterion]]criteria genus]]genera lar%a]]lar% crisis]]crises $atriJ]] $atrices focus]]foci $onsieur]]$essieurs 1{& A fe! allo! either a regular plural or the plural retaine# fro$ the foreign language) for$ula ]]for$ul or for$ulas beau]]beauJ or beaus in#eJ]]in#ices or in#eJes stratu$]]strata or stratu$s ban#it]]ban#itti or ban#its cherub]]cherubi$ or cherubs seraph]]seraphi$ or seraphs 1|& 7n %er loose co$poun#s in !hich a noun is follo!e# b an a#jecti%e or the like, the noun co$$onl takes the plural en#ing, as in co%rts1martia', sons1in1'aw, co%sins1german& When the a#jecti%e is $ore closel joine#, the plural en#ing $ust be place# at the en# of the entire !or#& Thus !e ha%e c%p#%'s, hand#%'s, etc& +ifferent Spellings for the sa$e Soun#& Perhaps the greatest #ifficult in spelling English !or#s arises fro$ the fact that !or#s an# s llables pronounce# alike are often spelle# #ifferentl , an# there is no rule to gui#e us in #istinguishing& 7n or#er to fiJ their spelling, in $in# !e shoul# kno! !hat classes of !or#s are #oubtful, an# !hen !e co$e to the$ constantl refer to the #ictionar & To tr to $aster these eJcept in the connections in !hich !e !ish to use the$ the !riter belie%es to be !orse than foll & B stu# ing such !or#s in pairs, confusion is %er likel to be fiJe# fore%er in the $in#& Oost spelling( books co$$it this error, an# so are responsible for a consi#erable a$ount of ba# spelling, !hich their $etho# has actuall intro#uce# an# instille# into the chil#Vs $in#& Persons !ho rea# $uch are not likel to $ake these errors, since the re$e$ber !or#s b the for$ as it appeals to the e e, not b the soun# in !hich there is no #istinction& The stu# of such !or#s shoul# therefore be con#ucte# chiefl !hile !riting or rea#ing, not orall & While !e $ust $e$ori[e, one at a ti$e as !e co$e to the$ in rea#ing or !riting, the !or#s or s llables in !hich the sa$e soun# is represente# b #ifferent spellings, still !e shoul# kno! clearl !hat classes of !or#s to be on the lookout for& We !ill no! consi#er so$e of the classes of !or#s in !hich a single s llable $a be spelle# in %arious !a s& ao!el Substitutions in Si$ple Wor#s& ea for e short or e obscure before r& alrea# brea# breakfast breast brea#th #eath earth #ea# #eaf #rea# earl earn earnest earth feather hea# health hea%en hea% hear# lea# learn leather $ea#o! $easure pearl pleasant rea# search sergeant sprea# stea# threa# threaten trea# !ealth !eather ee for d long& agree beef bree# cheek cheese creek creep cheer #eer #ee# #eep fee# feel feet fleece green heel hee# in#ee# keep keel keen kneel $eek nee# nee#le peel peep Xueer screen see# seen sheet sheep sleep slee%e snee[e sXuee[e street speech steeple steet s!eep sleet teeth !eep !ee# !eek ea for d long& appear bea# beach bean beast beat beneath breathe cease cheap cheat clean clear congeal crea$ crease creature #ear #eal #rea$ #efeat each ear eager eas east ea%es feast fear feat grease heap hear heat increase knea# lea# leaf leak lean least lea%e $eat $eal $ean neat near peas KpeaseL peal peace peach please preach reach rea# reap rear reason repeat screa$ sea$ seat season seal speak stea$ streak strea$ tea tea$ tear tease teach %eal !ea%e !eak !heat !reath K!reatheL ear east ai for b long& afrai# ai# brai# brain co$plain #ail #air #ais #rain #aint eJplain fail fain gain gait gaiter grain

hail jail lai# $ai# $ail $ai$ nail pai# pail paint plain prairie praise Xuail rail rain raise raisin re$ain sail saint snail sprain stain straight strain tail train %ain !aist !ait !ai%e ai for i or e obscure& bargain captain certain curtain $ountain oa for h long& boar# boat cloak coaJ coal coast coarse float foa$ goat gloa$ groan hoarse loa# loan loaf oak oar oats roast roa# roa$ shoal soap soar throat toa# toast ie for d long& belie%e chief fierce grief niece priest piece thief ei for d long& neither receipt recei%e 7n sieve, ie has the soun# of i short& 7n eight, skein, neigh$or, rein, reign, s'eigh, vein, vei', weigh, an# weight, ei has the soun# of a long& 7n height, s'eight, an# a fe! other !or#s ei has the soun# of i long& 7n great, $reak, an# steak ea has the soun# of a longW in heart an# hearth it has the soun# of a 7talian, an# in tear an# $ear it has the soun# of a as in care& Silent "onsonants etc& although ans!er bouXuet bri#ge calf cal$ catch castle caught chalk cli$b #itch #u$b e#ge folks co$b #aughter #ebt #epot forehea# gna! hatchet he#ge hiccough hitch honest honor hustle islan# itch ju#ge ju#g$ent knack knea# kneel kne! knife knit knuckle knock knot kno! kno!le#ge la$b latch laugh li$b listen $atch $ight $uscle naught night notch nu$b often pal$ pitcher pitch ple#ge ri#ge right rough scene scratch shoul# sigh sketch snatch soften stitch s!itch s!or# talk though through thought thu$b tough t!itch thigh !alk !atch !hole !itch !oul# !rite !ritten !rapper !ring !rong !rung !rote !restle acht 9nusual Spellings& The follo!ing !or#s ha%e irregularities peculiar to the$sel%es& ache an air apron a$ong again aunt against biscuit buil# bus business bureau because carriage coffee collar color countr couple cousin co%er #oes #ose #one #ouble #ia$on# e%er especiall 5ebruar flourish flo!n fourteen fort fruit gauge glue glue gui#e goes han#kerchief hone heifer i$patient iron juice liar lion liXuor $arriage $a or $an $elon $inute $one necessar ninet ninth nothing nuisance obe ocean once onion onl other o!e o!ner patient people pigeon pra er pra prepare rogue sche$e scholar scre! shoe shoul#er sol#ier sto$ach sugar succee# prece#e procee# proce#ure suspicion the tongue touch trouble !agon !ere !here !holl " !ith the soun# of s& 7n the follo!ing !or#s the soun# of s is represente# b c follo!e# b a %o!el that $akes this letter soft) cit face ice juice lace necessar nuisance once pencil police polic pace race rice space trace t!ice trice thrice nice price slice lice spice circus citron circu$stance centre cent cellar certain circle concert concern cell #unce #eci#e +ece$ber #ance #isgrace eJercise eJcellent eJcept force fleece fierce furnace fence grocer grace icicle instance innocent in#ecent #ecent intro#uce juice justice lettuce $e#icine $erc niece ounce officer patience peace piece place principal principle parcel pro#uce preju#ice trace %oice receipt recite cite sauce saucer sentence scarcel since silence ser%ice cre%ice no%ice

Wor#s en#ing in cal an# cle& Wor#s in ca' are nearl all #eri%e# fro$ other !or#s en#ing in ic, as c'assica', c%$ica', c'erica', etc& Wor#s en#ing in c'eare Kas far as English is concerne#L original !or#s, as c%tic'e, mirac'e, manac'e, etc& When in #oubt, ask the Xuestion if, on #ropping the a' or 'e, a co$plete !or# en#ing in ic !oul# be left& 7f such a !or# is left, the en#ing is a', if not, it is probabl 'e& Er an# re& Webster spells theater, center, meter, etc&, !ith the ter$ination er, but $ost English !riters prefer re9 <eter is $ore use# to #enote a #e%ice for $easuring Kas a Ngas $eterPL, meter as the 5rench unit of length Kin the NOetric s ste$PL& 7n !or#s likeacre e%en Webster retains re because er !oul# $ake the c Kor gL soft& Wor#s en#ing in er, ar, or& 5irst, let it be sai# that in $ost !or#s these three s llables Ker, ar, orL, are pronounce# %er nearl if not eJactl alike KeJcept a fe! legal ter$s in or, like mort7gageorL, an# !e shoul# not tr to gi%e an essentiall #ifferent soun# to ar or or4 fro$ that !e gi%e to er& The en#ing er is the regular one, an# those !or#s en#ing in ar or or are %er fe! in nu$ber& The constitute the eJceptions& 4While $aking no especial #ifference in the %ocali[ation of these s llables, careful speakers #!ell on the$ a trifle longer than the #o on er& "o$$on !or#s en#ing in ar !ith the soun# of er) liar collar beggar burglar solar ce#ar jugular scholar calen#ar secular #ollar gra$$ar tabular poplar pillar sugar jocular globular $ortar lunar %ulgar popular insular Te$plar ocular $uscular nectar si$ilar tubular altar Kfor !orshipL singular 7n so$e !or#s !e ha%e the sa$e s llable !ith the sa$e soun# in the neJt to the last s llable, as in so'itary, pre'iminary, ordinary, temporary etc& The s llable ard !ith the soun# of erd is also foun#, as in standard, wi&ard, m%stard, ma''ard,etc& "o$$on !or#s en#ing in or !ith the soun# of er) honor %alor $a or sculptor prior ar#or cla$or labor tutor !arrior ra[or fla%or au#itor juror fa%or tu$or e#itor %igor actor author con#uctor sa%ior %isitor ele%ator parlor ancestor captor cre#itor %ictor error proprietor arbor chancellor #ebtor #octor instructor successor rigor senator suitor traitor #onor in%entor o#or conXueror senior tenor tre$or bachelor junior oppressor possessor liXuor sur%e or %apor go%ernor languor professor spectator co$petitor can#or harbor $eteor orator ru$or splen#or elector eJecutor factor generator i$postor inno%ator in%estor legislator narrator na%igator nu$erator operator originator perpetrator personator pre#ecessor protector prosecutor projector reflector regulator sailor senator separator solicitor super%isor sur%i%or tor$entor testator transgressor translator #i%isor #irector #ictator #eno$inator creator counsellor councillor a#$inistrator aggressor agitator arbitrator assessor benefactor collector co$positor conspirator constructor contributor tailor The o an# a in such !or#s as the abo%e are retaine# in the English spelling because the !ere foun# in the Latin roots fro$ !hich the !or#s !ere #eri%e#& So$e, though not all, of the abo%e !or#s in or are usuall spelle# in Englan# !ith our, assp'endo%r, savio%r, etc&, an# $an books printe# in this countr for circulation in Englan# retain this spelling& See =the en# of the a>p=pen#iJ>A& Wor#s en#ing in able an# ible& Another class of !or#s in !hich !e are often confuse# is those !hich en# in a$'e or i$'e& The great $ajorit en# in a$'e, but a fe! #eri%e# fro$ Latin !or#s in i$i'is retain the i& A brief list of co$$on !or#s en#ing in i$'e is subjoine#) co$patible co$pressible con%ertible forcible enforcible gullible horrible sensible terrible possible %isible perceptible susceptible au#ible cre#ible co$bustible eligible intelligible irascible

ineJhaustible re%ersible plausible per$issible accessible #igestible responsible a#$issible fallible fleJible incorrigible irresistible ostensible tangible conte$ptible #i%isible #iscernible corruptible e#ible legible in#elible in#igestible Of course !hen a soft g prece#es the #oubtful letter, as in 'egi$'e, !e are al!a s certain that !e shoul# !rite i, not a& All !or#s for$e# fro$ plain English !or#s a## a$'e& Those fa$iliar !ith Latin !ill ha%e little #ifficult in recogni[ing the i as an essential part of the root& Wor#s en#ing in ent an# ant, an# ence an# ance& Another class of !or#s concerning !hich !e $ust also feel #oubt is that ter$inating in ence an# ance, or ant an# ent& All these !or#s are fro$ the Latin, an# the #ifference in ter$ination is usuall #ue to !hether the co$e fro$ %erbs of the first conjugation or of other conjugations& As there is no $eans of #istinguishing, !e $ust continuall refer to the #ictionar till !e ha%e learne# each one& We present a brief list) ent confi#ent belligerent in#epen#ent transcen#ent co$petent insistent consistent con%alescent correspon#ent corpulent #epen#ent #espon#ent eJpe#ient i$pertinent incle$ent insol%ent inter$ittent pre%alent superinten#ent recipient proficient efficient e$inent eJcellent frau#ulent latent opulent con%enient corpulent #escen#ent #ifferent ant abun#ant accountant arrogant assailant assistant atten#ant clair%o ant co$batant recreant consonant con%ersant #efen#ant #escen#ent #iscor#ant elegant eJorbitant i$portant incessant irrele%ant luJuriant $alignant petulant pleasant poignant reluctant stagnant triu$phant %agrant !arrant atten#ant repentant A fe! of these !or#s $a ha%e either ter$ination accor#ing to the $eaning, as con#ident Ka#j&L an# con#idant KnounL& 9suall the noun en#s in ant, the a#jecti%e in ent& So$e !or#s en#ing in ant are use# both as noun an# as a#jecti%e, asattendant& The abstract nouns in ence or ance correspon# to the a#jecti%es& But there are se%eral of !hich the a#jecti%e for$ #oes not appear in the abo%e list) ence abstinence eJistence innocence #iffi#ence #iligence essence in#igence negligence obe#ience occurrence re%erence %ehe$ence resi#ence %iolence re$iniscence intelligence presence pro$inence pru#ence reference re%erence transference turbulence conseXuence in#olence patience beneficence preference ance anno ance cogni[ance %engeance co$pliance con%e ance ignorance grie%ance fragrance pittance alliance #efiance acXuaintance #eli%erance appearance accor#ance countenance sustenance re$ittance conni%ance resistance nuisance utterance %ariance %igilance $aintenance forbearance te$perance repentance ao!els e an# i before ous& The %o!els e an# i so$eti$es ha%e the %alue of the consonant y, as e in righteo%s& There is also no clear #istinction in soun# bet!een eo%s an# ions& The follo!ing lists are co$pose# chiefl of !or#s in !hich the e or the i has its usual %alue&4 7n !hich !or#s #oes e or i ha%e the consonant %alue of y( eons aXueous gaseous hi#eous courteous instantaneous $iscellaneous si$ultaneous spontaneous righteous gorgeous nauseous outrageous ious& copious #ubious i$pious #elirious i$per%ious a$phibious cere$onious #eleterious supercilious punctilious religious sacrilegious :otice that all the accente# %o!els eJcept i in antepenulti$ate s llables are long before this ter$ination& Wor#s en#ing in i[e, ise, an# se& 7n English !e ha%e a fe! %erbs en#ing in ise, though i&e is the regular en#ing of $ost %erbs of this class, at least accor#ing to the A$erican usage& 7n Englan# ise is often substitute# for i&e& The follo!ing !or#s #eri%e# through the 5rench $ust al!a s be !ritten !ith the ter$ination ise) a#%ertise catechise co$pro$ise #e%ise #i%ertise eJercise $isprise super%ise a#%ise chastise criticise #isfranchise e$prise eJorcise pre$ise sur$ise affranchise circu$cise #e$ise #isguise enfranchise

franchise reprise surprise apprise co$prise #espise #isenfranchise enterprise $anu$ise A fe! !or#s en# in yse K [eL) ana'yse, para'yse& The are all !or#s fro$ the Greek& Wor#s en#ing in cious, sion, tion, etc& The co$$on ter$ination is tio%s, but there are a fe! !or#s en#ing in cio%s, a$ong the$ the follo!ing) a%aricious pernicious tenacious capricious suspicious precocious ju#icious %icious sagacious $alicious conscious The en#ings tion an# sion are both co$$onW sion usuall being the ter$ination of !or#s originall en#ing in d, de, ge, mit, rt, se, an# so, as e)tend22e)tension& Cion an# cian are foun# onl in a fe! !or#s, such as s%spicion, physician& Also, !hile tia' is $ost co$$on b far, !e ha%ecia', as in specia', o##icia', etc& Special !or#s !ith c soun#e# like s& We ha%e alrea# gi%en a list of si$ple !or#s in !hich c is use# for s, but the follo!ing $a be single# out because the are troubleso$e) acXuiesce paucit reticence %acillate coinci#ence publicit license tenacit crescent preju#ice scener con#escen# effer%esce proboscis scintillate oscillate rescin# transcen# Wor#s !ith obscure ao!els& The follo!ing !or#s are troubleso$e because so$e %o!el, usuall in the neJt to the last s llable unaccente#, is so obscure# that the pronunciation #oes not gi%e us a ke to it) a al$anac apath a%arice cataract cita#el #ilator $ala# orna$ent palatable propagate salar separate eJtra%agant e celebrate #esecrate supple$ent liXuef petroleu$ raref skeleton telescope trage# ga et lineal renega#e secretar #eprecate eJecrate i$ple$ent $aleable pro$ena#e recreate stupef tene$ent %egetate aca#e$ re$e# re%enue serena#e i eJpiate pri%ilege rarit stupi#it %erif epitaph retinue nutri$ent %estige $e#icine i$pe#i$ent pro#ig serenit terrif e#ifice orifice sacrilege speci$en Wor#s en#ing in c an# s & Cy is the co$$on ter$ination, but so$e !or#s are troubleso$e because the ter$inate in sy9 8rophecy is the noun, prophesythe %erb, #istinguishe# in pronunciation b the fact that the final y in the %erb is long, in the noun it is short& The follo!ing are a fe! !or#s in sy !hich #eser%e notice) contro%ers e$bass h pocris fantas ecstas heres courtes ~~~~~~~~ The abo%e lists are for reference an# for re%ie!& :o one, in school or out, shoul# atte$pt to $e$ori[e these !or#s offhan#& The onl rational !a to learn the$ is b reference to the #ictionar !hen one has occasion to !rite the$, an# to obser%e the$ in rea#ing& These t!o habits, the use of the #ictionar an# obser%ing the for$ation of !or#s in rea#ing, !ill pro%e $ore effecti%e in the $aster of !or#s of this character than three ti$es the !ork applie# in an other !a & The usual result of the effort to $e$ori[e in lists is confusion so instille# that it can ne%er be era#icate#& B !a of re%ie! it is often !ell to look o%er such lists as those abo%e, an# co$$on !or#s !hich one is likel to use an# !hich one feels one ought to ha%e $astere#, $a be checke# !ith a pencil, an# the attention concentrate# upon the$ for a fe! $inutes& 7t !ill be !ell also to co$pare such !or#s as st%pe#y an# st%pidity, rarity an# rare#y& 6o$on $s& The infatuation of $o#ern spelling(book $akers has intro#uce# the present generation to a serious #ifficult in spelling !hich !as not accounte# great in ol#en ti$es& The pupil no! has force# upon

hi$ a large nu$ber of groups of !or#s pronounce# alike but spelle# #ifferentl & The peculiar trouble !ith these !or#s is #ue to the confusion bet!een the t!o for$s, an# to increase this the !riters of spelling(books ha%e insiste# on placing the t!o for$s si#e b si#e in black t pe or italic so that the pupil $a fore%er see those t!o for$s #ancing together before his e es !hene%er he has occasion to use one of the$& The atte$pt is $a#e to #istinguish the$ b #efinitions or use in sentencesW but as the $in# is not go%erne# b logical #istinctions so $uch as b association, the pupil is taught to associate each !or# !ith the !or# !hich $a cause hi$ trouble, not especiall !ith the $eaning to !hich the !or# ought to be so !e##e# that there can be no #oubt or separation& These !or#s shoul# no #oubt recei%e careful attentionW but the association of one !ith the other shoul# ne%er be suggeste# to the pupil) it is ti$e enough to #istinguish the t!o !hen the pupil has actuall confuse# the$& The effort shoul# al!a s be $a#e to fiJ in the pupilVs $in# fro$ the beginning an association of each !or# !ith that !hich !ill be a safe ke at all ti$es& Thus hear $a be associate# Kshoul# al!a s be associate#L !ith ear, their KtheyrL !ith they, here an# there !ith each other an# !ith where, etc& 7t !ill also be foun# that in $ost cases one !or# is $ore fa$iliar than the other, as for instances $eenan# $in& We learn $een an# ne%er !oul# think of confusing it !ith $in !ere !e not actuall taught to #o so& 7n such cases it is best to see that the co$$on !or# is Xuite fa$iliarW then the less co$$on !or# $a be intro#uce#, an# nine chances out of ten the pupil !ill not #rea$ of confusion& 7n a fe! cases in !hich both !or#s are not %er often use#, an# are eXuall co$$on or unco$$on, as for instance mant'e an# mante', #istinction $a pro%e useful as a $etho# of teaching, but generall it !ill be foun# best to #rill upon one of the !or#s, fin#ing so$e helpful association for it, until it is thoroughl $astere#W then the pupil !ill kno! that the other !or# is spelle# in the other !a , an# think no $ore about it& The follo!ing Xuotations contain !or#s !hich nee# special #rill& This is best secure# b !riting ten or t!ent sentences containing each !or#, an effort being $a#e to use the !or# in as $an #ifferent !a s an# connections as possible& Thus !e $a $ake sentences containing there, as follo!s) There, !here his kin# an# gentle face looks #o!n upon $e, 7 use# to stan# an# ga[e upon the $arble for$ of Lincoln& 6ere an# there !e foun# a goo# picture& There !as an a!ful cro!#& 7 stoppe# there a fe! $o$ents& Etc&, etc& uotations& 6ea%enVs gate is shut to hi$ !ho co$es alone& ]]?hittier& Oan a ta'e of for$er #a Shall !ing the laughing hours a!a & ]]Byron& 5air han#s the broken grain shall sift, An# knead its $eal of gol#& ]]?hittier& The are sla%es !ho fear to speak 5or the fallen an# the weak9 22+owe''& 7f an $an hath ears to hear, let hi$ hear& An# he saith unto the$, Take hee# !hat e hear9 22Bi$'e& 6ark_ 7 hear $usic on the [eph rVs !ing& ]]She''ey& Row, brothers, row, the strea$ runs fast, The rapi#s are near, an# the #a lightVs past_ ]]<oore&

Each boat$an ben#ing to his oar, With $easure# s!eep the bur#en bore& ]]Scott& The %isions of $ outh are past, @oo bright, too beautiful to last& ]]Bryant& KWe sel#o$ err in the use of to an# twoW but in ho! $an #ifferent !a s $a too properl be use#YL With kin# !or#s an# kin#er looks he $ade $e go $ !a & ]]?hittier& KThe a in $ade is short&L Then, as to greet the sunbea$Vs birth, *ises the choral hymn of earth& ]]<rs9 Aemans& "o$e thou !ith $e to the %ine ar#s nigh, An# !eVll pluck the grapes of the richest dye9 22<rs9 Aemans& 7f an one atte$pts to ha%' #o!n the A$erican flag, shoot hi$ on the spot& ]]Bohn :9 Ci)& 7n all the tra#e of !ar, no #eat 7s nobler than a bra%e retreat& ]]Sam%e' B%t'er& 6is for$ !as bent, an# his gait !as slo!, 6is long thin hair !as !hite as sno!& ]]4eorge :rno'd& Green pastures she %ie!s in the $i#st of the #ale, +o!n !hich she so often has trippe# !ith her pai'9 22?ordsworth& Like AesopVs foJ !hen he ha# lost his tai', !oul# ha%e all his fello!(foJes cut off theirs& ]] Ro$ert B%rton& 6e that is th frien# in#ee#, 6e !ill help thee in th need9 22Shakspere& 5lo!er Oa , !ho fro$ her green lap thro!s The ello! co!slip, an# the pa'e pri$rose& ]]<i'ton& What, keep a week a!a Y Se%en #a s an# se%en nightsY Eight score an# eight hoursY ]]Shakspere& Spring an# Autu$n here +ancV# han# in han#& ]]<i'ton& "hasing the !il# deer, an# follo!ing the roe, O heartVs in the 6ighlan#s !here%er 7 go& ]]B%rns& ThV allotte# hour of #ail sport is o5er, An# Learning beckons fro$ her te$pleVs #oorY ]]Byron& @o kno!, to estee$, to lo%e, an# then to part, Oakes up lifeVs tale to $an a feeling heart& ]] Co'eridge& Ba# $en eJcuse their faults, goo# $en !ill lea%e the$& ]]Ben Bonson& 6e !as a $an, take him for all in all, 7 shall not look upon his like again& ]]Shakspere& There !ill little learning die then, that #a thou art hange#& ]]Shakspere& Be $err all, be $err all, With holl #ress the festi%e ha''9 22?9 R9 Spencer& When outh an# pleasure $eet, To chase the glo!ing hours !ith fl ing #eet9 22Byron&

uotations containing !or#s in the follo!ing list $a be foun# in NWheelerVs Gra#e# Stu#ies in Great Authors) A "o$plete Speller,P fro$ !hich the prece#ing Xuotations !ere taken& 9se these !or#s in sentences, an# if ou are not sure of the$, look the$ up in the #ictionar , gi%ing especial attention to Xuotations containing the$& ale #ear ro#e ore ble! a!l th $e ne! ate lief cell #e! sell !on praise high pra s hie be inn ail roa# ro!e# b great aught foul $ean sea$ $oan knot rap bee !rap not loan tol# cite hair see# night knit $a#e peace in !aist brea# cli$b rice $ale none plane pore fete poll s!eet throe borne root been loa# feign forte %ein kill ri$e sho!n !rung he! o#e ere !rote isle throne %ane sei[e sore slight free[e kna%e fane reek *o$e r e st le flea faint peak thro! bourn route soar sleight frie[e na%e reck our stair capitol alter pearl $ight kiln rh $e shone rung hue pier strait !reck sear 6ugh l re !horl surge purl altar cannon ascent principle blue tier so all t!o ti$e kne! ate leaf one #ue se! tear bu lone hare night cli$e sight tolle# site knights $ai# ce#e beech !aste bre# piece su$ plu$ eVer cent son !eight tier rein !eigh heart !oo# pa!s hear# sent sun so$e air tares rain !a !ait thre! fir hart pause !oul# pear fair $ane lea# $eat rest scent bough reign scene sail bier pra right toe e! sale pre rite rough to! steal #one bare their creek !ares urn plait arc bur peal #oe gro!n flue kno! sea lie $ete l nJ bo! stare belle rea# grate ark ought sla thro!n %ain bin lo#e fain fort fo!l $ien !rite $o!n sole #rafts fore bass beat see$ steel #un sere !reak roa$ !r flee feint piXue $ite seer i#le pistol flo!er hol serf borough capital can%as in#ict $artial kernel carat bri#le lesson council collar le% accept affect #eference e$igrant prophes sculptor plainti%e populous ingenious linea$ent #esert eJtent pillo! stile $antle !eather barren current $iner cellar $ettle pen#ent a#%ice illusion assa felicit genius profit statute poplar prece#e lightning patience #e%ise #isease insight #issent #ecease eJtant #essert ingenuous lini$ent stature sculpture fissure facilit essa allusion a#%ise pen#ant $etal seller $inor co$ple$ent through fur fare $ain pare beech $eet !rest le# bo! seen earn plate !ear rote peel ou berr fle! kno! #ough groan links see l e bell soul #raught four base beet heel but steaks coarse choir cor# chaste boar butt stake !ai%e choose sta e# cast $a[e !een hour birth hor#e aisle core bear there creak bore ball !a%e che!s stai# caste $ai[e heel ba!l course Xuire chor# chase# ti#e s!or# $ail nun plain pour fate !ean hoar# berth #escent incite pillar #e%ice patients lightening procee# plaintiff prophet i$$igrant fisher #ifference presents effect eJcept le%ee choler counsel lessen bri#al carrot colonel $arshal in#ite assent sleigh currant baron !ether $antel principal burro! canon surf !holl serge !hirl liar i# l flour pistil i#ol rise ru#e tea$ corps peer straight tee$ ree# beau co$pli$ent The prece#ing list contains se%eral pairs of !or#s often confuse# !ith each other though the are not pronounce# eJactl alike& Of course !hen confusion actuall eJists in a personVs $in#, a #rill on #istinctions is %aluable& But in %er $an cases no confusion eJists, an# in such cases it is !orse than unfortunate to intro#uce it to the $in#& 7n an case it is b far the better !a to #rill upon each !or# separatel , using it in sentences in as $an #ifferent !a s as possibleW an# the $ore fa$iliar of t!o !or#s pronounce# alike or nearl alike shoul# be taken up first& When that is fiJe#, passing attention $a be gi%en to the less fa$iliarW but it is a great error to gi%e as $uch attention to the !or# that !ill be little use# as to the !or# !hich !ill be use# often& 7n the case of a fe! !or#s such as princip'e an# principa', co%nse' an# co%nci', confusion is ine%itable, an# the $etho# of #istinction an# contrast $ust be use#W but e%en in cases like this, the $etho# of stu# ing each !or# eJhausti%el b itself !ill un#oubte#l iel# goo# results& +i%ision of Wor#s into S llables& 7n !riting it is often necessar to break !or#s at the en#s of lines& This can properl be #one onl bet!een s llables, an# this is the usage in the 9nite# States for the $ost part, though in Great Britain !or#s are usuall #i%i#e# so as to sho! their et $ological #eri%ation&

The follo!ing rules !ill sho! the general usage in this countr ) 1& All co$$on English prefiJes an# suffiJes are kept un#i%i#e#, e%en if the pronunciation !oul# see$ to reXuire #i%ision& Thus, tion, an# si$ilar en#ings, $'e, cions, etc&, are ne%er #i%i#e#& The ter$ination ed $a be carrie# o%er to the neJt line e%en !hen it is not pronounce#, as in scorn1 ed, but this is objectionable an# shoul# be a%oi#e# !hen possible& When a Latin or other foreign prefiJ appears in English as an essential part of the root of the !or#, an# the pronunciation reXuires a #ifferent #i%ision fro$ that !hich !oul# separate the original parts, the !or# is #i%i#e# as pronounce#, as pre#7ace Kbecause !e pronounce the e shortL, prog71ress, etc& KThe English #i%i#e thus) pre1#ace, pro1gress&L ,& Other!ise, !or#s are #i%i#e# as pronounce#, an# the eJact #i%ision $a be foun# in the #ictionar & When a %o!el is follo!e# b a single consonant an# is short, the consonant stan#s !ith the s llable !hich prece#es it, especiall if accente#& EJa$ples) gram1mat71ic1a', math1e1mat71ics& KThe people of Great Britain !rite these !or#s gram1ma1ti1ca', ma1the1ma1tiDc{s}EF, etc&L {& "o$binations of consonants for$ing #igraphs are ne%er #i%i#e#& EJa$ples) ng, th, ph& |& +ouble consonants are #i%i#e#& EJa$ples) R%n1ning, drop1ped Kif absolutel necessar to #i%i#e this !or#L, s%m1mer& ^& T!o or $ore consonants, unless the are so unite# as to for$ #igraphs or fiJe# groups, are usuall #i%i#e# accor#ing to pronunciation& EJa$ples) pen1sive, sin1g'e Khere the n has the ng nasal soun#, an# the g is connecte# !ith the 'L, doc1tor, con1ster1nation, e)1am1p'e, s%$1stan1tive& & A %o!el soun#e# long shoul# as a rule close the s llable, eJcept at the en# of a !or#& EJa$ples) na71tion K!e $ust also !rite na71tion1a', because tion cannot be #i%i#e#L, di1men71sion, deter7min1ate, con1no1ta71tion& Oiscellaneous eJa$ples) e)1ha%st71ive, pre1par7a1tive, sen1si1$i'71i1ty, 3oc71%1'ar1y, po'1y1phon71ic, op1po71nent& CHAPTER IV. PRONUNCIATION. This chapter is #esigne# to ser%e t!o practical objects) 5irst, to ai# in the correction an# i$pro%e$ent of the pronunciation of e%er #a EnglishW secon#, to gi%e hints that !ill gui#e a rea#er to a rea# an# substantiall correct pronunciation of strange !or#s an# na$es that $a occasionall be $et !ith& Accent& Let us first consi#er accent& We ha%e alrea# trie# to in#icate !hat it is& We !ill no! atte$pt to fin# out !hat principles go%ern it& Accent is %er closel associate# !ith rh th$& 7t has alrea# been state# that a rea#ing of poetr !ill culti%ate an ear for accent& 7f e%er s llable or articulation of language recei%e# eJactl the sa$e stress, or occupie# eJactl the sa$e ti$e in pronunciation, speech !oul# ha%e an intolerable $onoton , an# it !oul# be i$possible to gi%e it !hat is calle# NeJpression&P EJpression is so i$portant a part of language that the arts of the orator, the actor, an# the preacher #epen# #irectl upon it& 7t #oubles the %alue of !or#s& The foun#ation of eJpression is rh th$, or regular succession of stress an# eas gli#ing o%er s llables& 7n Latin it !as a $atter of NXuantit ,P or long an# short %o!els& 7n English it is a $iJture of NXuantit P Kor length an# shortness of %o!elsL an# special stress gi%en b the speaker to bring out the $eaning as !ell as to please the ear& 6ence English has a range an# po!er that Latin coul# ne%er ha%e ha#&

7n poetr , accent, Xuantit , an# rh th$ are eJaggerate# accor#ing to an artificial planW but the sa$e principles go%ern all speech in a greater or less #egree, an# e%en the pronunciation of e%er !or# of t!o s llables or $ore& The fun#a$ental ele$ent is Nti$eP as !e kno! it in $usic& 7n $usic e%er bar has just so $uch ti$e allotte# to it, but that ti$e $a be %ariousl #i%i#e# up bet!een #ifferent notes& Thus, suppose the bar is base# on the ti$e reXuire# for one full note& We $a ha%e in place of one full note t!o half notes or four Xuarter notes, or a half note lengthene# b half an# follo!e# b t!o eight notes, or t!o Xuarter notes follo!e# b a half note, an# so on& The total ti$e re$ains the sa$e, but it $a be %ariousl #i%i#e#, though not !ithout reference to the !a in !hich other bars in the sa$e piece of $usic are #i%i#e#& We !ill #rop $usic an# continue our illustration b reference to English poetr & 7n trochaic $etre !e ha%e an accente# s llable follo!e# b an unaccente#, an# in #act lic !e ha%e an accente# s llable follo!e# b t!o unaccente# s llables, as for instance in the follo!ing) Trochaic]] N7n his cha$ber, !eak an# # ing, Was the :or$an baron l ing&P +act lic]] NThis is the forest pri$e%al& The $ur$uring pines an# the he$locks Stan# like +rui#s of el#&P Or in the ia$bic !e ha%e an unaccente# s llable follo!e# b an accente#, as in]] N7t !as the schooVner 6esperus That saile# the !intr sea&P But if t!o s llables are so short that the can be uttere# in the sa$e ti$e as one, t!o s llables !ill satisf the $etre just as !ell as one& Thus !e ha%e the follo!ing, in the sa$e general $etEr=e> as the foregoing Xuotation) N7 stoo# on the bri#ge at $i#Vnight, As the clocks !ere striking the hour&P 7t is all a $atter of ti$e& 7f !e !ere to place a s llable that reXuire# a long ti$e for utterance in a place !here onl a short ti$e coul# be gi%en to it, !e shoul# seriousl break the rh th$ic flo!W an# all the pauses in#icate# b punctuation $arks are taken into account, in the sa$e !a that rests are counte# in $usic& The natural pause at the en# of a line of poetr often occupies the ti$e of an entire s llable, an# !e ha%e a rational eJplanation of !hat has been calle# !ithout eJplanation NcatalecticP an# NacatalecticP lines& The sa$e principles go%ern the accenting of single !or#s in a %er large #egree, an# $ust be taken into account in rea#ing prose alou#& The general ten#enc of the English language is to thro! the accent to!ar# the beginning of a !or#, just as in 5rench the ten#enc is to thro! it to!ar# the en#& Wor#s of t!o an# three s llables are regularl accente# on the first s llableW but if the secon# s llable is stronger than the first, it !ill get the accent& Thus !e ha%e s%m7mer, ar7g%e, pres7ent, etc&W but agree7, reso've7, retain7, etc&4 We ha%e in#icate# abo%e a natural reason !h it cannot fail in the cases $entione#& The %oice !oul# be incapable of accenting easil the uni$portant prefiJ in such a !or# as ac1c%se7, for instance& So$eti$es the strength of both s llables in !or#s of t!o s llables is eXual, an# then the accent $a be place# on either at !ill, as in the case of re7tai', an# retaiG, pro7ceed an# proceed7, etc& There are about siJt of these !or#s capable of being #ifferentl accente# accor#ing to $eaning& The %erb usuall takes the accent on the last s llable& 7n !or#s in !hich it see$s #esirable on account of the $eaning to accent the first s llable !hen the secon# s llable is naturall stronger, that secon#

s llable is #eliberatel shortene# in the pronunciation, as in mo%n7tain, c%r7tain, etc&, in !hich the last s llable has the %alue of tin& 47n the chapter at the beginning of WebsterVs #ictionar #e%ote# to accent it is state# that these !or#s are accente# on the last s llable because b #eri%ation the root rather than the prefiJ recei%es the accent& This Ngreat principle of #eri%ationP often fails, it is a#$itte#& We ha%e in#icate# abo%e a natural reason !h it cannot fail in the cases $entione#& The %oice !oul# be incapable of accenting easil the uni$portant prefiJ in such a !or# as ac1c%se7, for instance& 7n !or#s of three s llables, the accent is usuall on the first s llable, especiall if the secon# s llable is !eak an# the last s llable no !eaker if not in#ee# stronger& Thus !e ha%e pe71ri1od, per71 son1ate, ;t71a'y, etc& 7f for an reason the secon# s llable beco$es stronger than either the first or the last, then the secon# s llable $ust recei%e the accent an# the s llable before it is usuall strengthene#& Thus !e ha%e i1ta'71ic, an# there is a natural ten#enc to $ake the i long, though in ;ta'y it is short& This is because ta' is stronger than ic, though not stronger than y& The s llable ic is %er !eak, but the obscure er, or, %r is still !eaker, an# so !e ha%e rhet71or1ic& 7n his1tor71ic the first s llable is too !eak to take an accent, an# !e strengthen its secon# s llable, gi%ing o the aw soun#& 7t !ill be seen that in !or#s of t!o or $ore s llables there $a be a secon#, an# e%en a thir# accent, the %oice #!elling on e%er other s llable& 7n pe71ri1od the #!elling on od is scarcel perceptible, but in pe71ri1od71ic it beco$es the chief accent, an# it recei%es this special force because ic is so !eak& 7n ter71ri1to1ry the secon#ar accent on to is slight because ri is nearl eXual an# it is eas to sprea# the stress o%er both s llables eXuall & The principles abo%e illustrate# ha%e a #eci#e# li$itation in the fact that the %alue of %o!els in English is $ore or less %ariable, an# the great Nprinciple of #eri%ation,P as Webster calls it, eJercises a still potent influence, though one beco$ing e%er ear less bin#ing& The follo!ing !or#s taken bo#il fro$ the Greek or Latin are accente# on the penult rather than the antepenult Kas analog !oul# lea# us to accent the$L because in the original language the penulti$ate %o!el !as long) ab#o$en, hori[on, #ecoru$, #iplo$a, $useu$, sonorous, acu$en, bitu$enW an# si$ilarl such !or#s as farrago, etc& We $a ne%er be sure just ho! to accent a large class of na$es taken fro$ the Latin an# Greek !ithout kno!ing the length of the %o!el in the original,]] such !or#s, for eJa$ple, as <ede7a, 8osi7don K$ore properl !ritten 8osei7donL, Came7nia, ;phigeni7a, Casto7'%s, Cas7tores, etc& 7n a general !a !e $a assu$e that the chief accent lies on either the penult or antepenult, the secon# s llable fro$ the en#, or the thir#, an# !e !ill naturall place it upon the one that appears to us $ost likel to be strong, !hile a slight secon#ar accent goes on e%er secon# s llable before or after& 7f the neJt to the last s llable is follo!e# b a #ouble consonant, !e are sure it $ust be accente#, an# if the co$bination of consonants is such that !e cannot easil accent the prece#ing s llable !e nee# entertain no reasonable #oubt& B constant obser%ation !e !ill soon learn the usual %alue of %o!els an# s llables as !e pronounce the$ in or#inar speaking, an# !ill follo! the analog & 7f !e ha%e #ifficult in #eter$ining the chief accent, !e !ill naturall look to see !here secon#ar accents $a co$e, an# thus get the ke to the accent& 7t !ill be seen that rules are of little %alue, in this as in other #epart$ents of the stu# of language& The $ain thing is to for$ the ha$it o# o$serving !or#s as !e rea# an# pronounce the$, an# thus #e%elop a habit an# a sense that !ill gui#e us& The i$portant thing to start !ith is that !e shoul# kno! the general principle on !hich accent is base#& Special *ules for Accent& Wor#s ha%ing the follo!ing ter$inations are usuall accente# on the antepenult, or thir# s llable fro$ the en#) cracy, #ero%s, #'%ent, #'o%s, hona', gony, grapher, graphy, 'oger, 'ogist, 'ogy, 'o*%y, machy, mathy, meter, metry, nomy, nomy, paro%s, pathy, phony, scopy, strophe, tomy, trophy,

vomo%s, voro%s& Wor#s of $ore than t!o s llables en#ing in cate, date, gate, #y, t%de, an# ty prece#e# b a %o!el usuall accent the antepenult, as dep7recate, etc& All !or#s en#ing in a s llable beginning !ith an sh or &h soun#, or y consonant soun#, eJcept those !or#s en#ing in chsoun#e# like sh as cap%1chin7, accent the penult or neJt to the last s llable, as dona7tion, condi7tion, etc& Wor#s en#ing in ic usuall accent the penult, scienti#7ic, histor7ic, etc& The chief eJceptions are :r 7a$ic, arith7metic, ar7senic, cath7o'ic, cho'7eric, her7etic, '%7natic, p'eth7oric, po'7itic, rhet7oric, t%r 7meric9 C'imacteric is accente# b so$e speakers on one s llable an# b so$e on the otherW so are sp'enetic an# schismatic& Oost !or#s en#ing in ea' accent the antepenult, but ide7a' an# hymene7a' are eJceptions& Wor#s in ean an# e%m are #i%i#e#, so$e one !a an# so$e the other& Wor#s of t!o s llable en#ing in ose usuall accent the last s llable, as ver$ose7, but !or#s of three or $ore s llables !ith this en#ing accent the antepenult, !ith a secon#ar accent on the last s llable, as com71a1tose& When it is #esire# to #istinguish !or#s #iffering but b a s llable, the s llable in !hich the #ifference lies is gi%en a special accent, as in $i7en7nia' an# tri7en7nia', em7inent an# im7minent, op 7pose7 an# s%p7pose7, etc& Soun#s of ao!els in +ifferent Positions& Let us no! consi#er the %alue of %o!els& We note first that position at the en# of a !or# naturall $akes e%er %o!el long eJcept yW Ke& g&, +evi, Beh%, potatoLW but ahas the 7talian soun# at the en# of a !or#, or the soun# usuall gi%en to ah& A %o!el follo!e# b t!o or $ore consonants is al$ost in%ariabl short& 7f a %o!el is follo!e# b one consonant in an accente# s llable it !ill probabl recei%e the accent an# be long& 7f the !or# has t!o s llables, as in Hinah, but if the !or# has three s llables the consonant !ill probabl recei%e the accent an# the %o!el !ill be short, as in BIn7ada$& 7n !or#s of three or $ore s llables the %o!els are naturall short unless $a#e long b position or the likeW but the %o!el in the s llable before the one !hich recei%es the accent, if it is the first s llable of the !or# an# follo!e# b but one consonant, is likel to be long, because the consonant !hich !oul# other!ise en# the s llable is #ra!n o%er to the accente# s llable, as in df1men71sion& This rule is still $ore in force if no consonant inter%enes, as i in df1am71e1ter& 7f the %o!el is follo!e# b t!o consonants !hich naturall unite, as in df1gress, it is also long& 7f other s llables prece#e, the %o!el before the accente# s llable re$ains short, since it usuall follo!s a s llable slightl accente#& 7f in such a position a stan#s !ithout consonants, it is usuall gi%en the 7talian soun#, as in ~8~o~(a(#a(nus~& When t!o aVs co$e together in #ifferent s llables, the first a !ill usuall ha%e the 7talian soun# unless it is accente#, as in Ba1ck71o1$ah& 7n pronouncing !or#s fro$ foreign languages, it is !ell to re$e$ber that in nearl all languages besi#es the English, i, !hen accente#, has the soun# of the English long e, e !hen accente# has the soun# of English long a, an# a has the 7talian soun#& The English long soun#s are sel#o$ or ne%er represente# in foreign !or#s b the correspon#ing letters& The soun# of English long i is represente# b a co$bination of letters, usuall , such as ei& We $a also re$e$ber that in Teutonic languages g is usuall har# e%en before e, i, an# y, but in *o$ance languages, or languages #eri%e# fro$ the Latin, these %o!els $ake the g an# c soft& @h in 5rench an# other languages is pronounce# like single tW an# c in 7talian is soun#e# like ch, as in Cenci Kchen71chiL&

"ulture# Pronunciation& A nice pronunciation of e%er #a English is not to be learne# fro$ a book& 7t is a $atter, first of care, secon# of association !ith culti%ate# people& The pronunciation of e%en the best(e#ucate# people is likel to #egenerate if the li%e in constant association !ith careless speakers, an# it is #oubtful if a person !ho has not co$e in contact !ith refine# speakers can hope to beco$e a correct speaker hi$self& As a rule, ho!e%er, persons $ingling freel in the !orl# can speak !ith perfect correctness if the !ill $ake the necessar effort& "orrect speaking reXuires that e%en the best of us be constantl on our guar#& A fe! classes of co$$on errors $a be note#, in a##ition to the principles pre%iousl lai# #o!n in regar# to %o!el an# consonant %alues& 5irst, !e shoul# be careful to gi%e !or#s their correct accent, especiall the s$all nu$ber of !or#s not accente# strictl in accor#ance !ith the analogies of the language, such as ;1chance an# -1 mane, !hich $a ne%er be accente# on the first s llable, though $an careless speakers #o accent the$& We !ill also re$e$ber a$do7men an# the other !or#s in the list pre%iousl gi%en& Secon#, !e shoul# be!are of a habit onl too pre%alent in the 9nite# States of gi%ing s llables not properl accente# so$e share of the regular accent& +ickens ri#icules this habit un$ercifull in NOartin "huckle&P Wor#s so $ispronounce# are ter71ri1to71ry, e)71act71'y, isn7t1$est, $ig1c'e, etc& 7n the latter !or# this secon#ar accent is $a#e to lengthen the y, an# so causes a #ouble error& The habit interferes $ateriall !ith the $usical character of eas speech an# #estro s the #esirable $usical rh th$ !hich prose as !ell as poetr shoul# ha%e& Thir#, the %o!el a in such s llables as those foun# in command, chant, chance, gra#t, sta##, pass, c'asp, etc&, shoul# not ha%e the flat soun# hear# in as, gas, etc&, nor shoul# it ha%e the broa# 7talian soun# hear# in #ather, but rather a soun# bet!een& A$ericans shoul# a%oi# $aking their aVs too flat in !or#s en#ing in ##, #t, ss, st, sk, an# sp prece#e# b a, an# in so$e !or#s in !hich a is follo!e# b nce an# nt, an# e%en nd, an# English$en shoul# a%oi# $aking the$ too broa#& 5ourth, a%oi# gi%ing % the soun# of oo on all occasions& After r an# in a fe! other positions !e cannot easil gi%e it an other soun#, but !e nee# not sa soot71a1$'e, soo1per1noo1mer1a1ry, nor noos, stoo, etc& 5ifth, the long o soun# in !or#s like $oth, $oat, coat, etc&, shoul# be gi%en its full %alue, !ith out being obscure#& :e! Englan# people often $ispronounce these !or#s b shortening the o& Like!ise the #o not gi%e the a in care, $ear, #air, etc&, an# the e in where, there, an# their, the correct soun#, a $o#ification of the long a& These !or#s are often pronounce# !ith the short or flat soun# of a or e KcJr, thKr, etc&L& SiJth, the obscure# soun# of a in wander, what, etc&, shoul# be bet!een broa# a as in a'' an# 7talian a as in #ar& 7t is about eXui%alent to o in not& Se%enth, a, e, i, o KeJcept in accente# s llablesL, an# % are nearl alike in soun# !hen follo!e# b r, an# no special effort shoul# be $a#e to #istinguish a, o, or a, though the s llables containing the$ ha%e in fact the slightest possible $ore %olu$e than those containing e or i follo!e# b r& "areless speakers, or careful speakers !ho are not infor$e#, are liable to tr to $ake $ore of a #istinction than reall eJists& 7n a##ition to these hints, the stu#ent !ill of course $ake rigorous application of principles before state#& 4 an# c !ill be soft before e, i, an# y, har# before other %o!els an# all consonantsW %o!els recei%ing the accent on the secon# s llable fro$ the en# KeJcept iL !ill be pronounce# long Kan# !e shall not hear a%1dJ71cio%s for a%dL71cio%sLW an# all %o!els but a in the thir# s llable or farther fro$ the en# !ill re$ain short if follo!e# b a consonant, though !e shoul# be on the lookout for such eJceptions as a$1stM71mio%s, etc& KAs the % is kept long !e !ill sa trk1c%1'ency /troo3, not trkc71%1 'ency, an# sj1pern%1merary, not skp71ern%merary, etc&L&

These hints shoul# be supple$ente# b reference to a goo# #ictionar or list of !or#s co$$onl $ispronounce#& CHAPTER V. A SPELLING DRILL. The $etho# of using the follo!ing stor of *obinson "rusoe, speciall arrange# as a spelling #rill, shoul# inclu#e these steps) 1& "op the stor paragraph b paragraph, !ith great accurac , noting e%er punctuation $ark, paragraph in#entations, nu$bers, an# hea#ings& Wor#s that shoul# appear in italics shoul# be un#erline# once, in s$all capitals t!ice, in capitals three ti$es& After the cop has been co$plete#, co$pare it !or# b !or# !ith the original, an# if errors are foun#, cop the entire stor again fro$ beginning to en#, an# continue to cop it till the cop is perfect in e%er !a & ,& When the stor has been accuratel copie# !ith the original before the e es, let so$e one #ictate it, an# cop fro$ the #ictation, after!ar# co$paring !ith the original, an# continuing this process till perfection is attaine#& {& After the abilit to cop accuratel fro$ #ictation has been secure#, !rite out the stor phoneticall & La asi#e the phonetic %ersion for a !eek an# then !rite the stor out fro$ this %ersion !ith the or#inar spelling, subseXuentl co$paring !ith the original until the final %ersion prepare# fro$ the phonetic %ersion is accurate in e%er point& The Xuestions $a be in#efinitel eJten#e#& After this stor has been full $astere#, a si$ple book like NBlack Beaut P !ill furnish a##itional $aterial for #rill& Oental obser%ations, such as those in#icate# in the notes an# Xuestions, shoul# beco$e habitual& T6E STO*' O5 *OB7:SO: "*9SOE& K5or +ictation&L I. KOnce !riters of no%els !ere calle# liars b so$e people, because the $a#e up out of their hea#s the stories the tol#& 7n our #a !e kno! that there is $ore truth in $an a no%el than in $ost histories& The stor of *obinson "rusoe !as in#ee# foun#e# upon the eJperience of a real $an, na$e# AleJan#er Selkirk, !ho li%e# se%en ears upon a #eserte# islan#& Besi#es that, it tells $ore trul than has been tol# in an other !riting !hat a sensible $an !oul# #o if left to care for hi$self, as "rusoe !as&L 1& A secon# stor$ ca$e upon us Ksa s "rusoe in telling his o!n stor L, !hich carrie# us straight a!a !est!ar#& Earl in the $orning, !hile the !in# !as still blo!ing %er har#, one of the $en crie# out, NLan#_P We ha# no sooner run out of the cabin than the ship struck upon a san#bar, an# the sea broke o%er her in such a $anner that !e !ere #ri%en to shelter fro$ the foa$ an# spra & uestions an# :otes& What is peculiar about writers, 'iars, know, is'and, straight, #oam, spray( KAns!er& 7n 'iars !e ha%ear, not er& 7n the others, !hat silent lettersYL Oake sentences containing right, there, ho%r, no, strait, see, correctl use#& Point out three !or#s in !hich y has been change# to i !hen other letters !ere a##e# to the !or#& 7n#icate t!o !or#s in !hich ea has #ifferent soun#s& 5in# the !or#s in !hich silent e !as #roppe# !hen a s llable !as a##e#& What is peculiar about sensi$'e( ca$in( driven( tr%'y( Cr%soe( To re$e$ber the spelling of their, !hether it is ei or ie, note that it refers to !hat they possess, theyr things\the y change# to i !hen r is a##e#&

II. ,& We !ere in a #rea#ful con#ition, an# the stor$ ha%ing cease# a little, !e thought of nothing but sa%ing our li%es& 7n this #istress the $ate of our %essel lai# ho a boat !e ha# on boar#, an# !ith the help of the other $en got her flung o%er the shipVs si#e& Getting all into her, !e let her go an# co$$itte# oursel%es, ele%en in nu$ber, to Go#Vs $erc an# the !il# sea& KWhile such a !in# ble!, ou $a be sure the little kne! !here the !a%es !ere #ri%ing the$, or if the $ight not be beaten to pieces on the rocks& :o #oubt the !a%es $ounte# to such a height an# the spra cause# such a $ist that the coul# see onl the blue sk abo%e the$&L {& After !e ha# #ri%en about a league an# a half, a raging !a%e, $ountain high, took us !ith such fur that it o%erset the boat, an#, separating us, ga%e us har#l ti$e to cr , NOh, Go#_P uestions an# :otes& What !or#s in the abo%e paragraphs contain the #igraph eaY What soun# #oes it represent in each !or#Y What other #igraphs are foun# in !or#s in the abo%e paragraphsY What silent lettersY What principle or rule applies to condition( having( distress( getting( committed( e'even( What is peculiar about tho%ght( 'ives( 'aid( mercy( $'ew( pieces( mo%ntain( 'eag%e( ha'#( co%'d( "o$pare ei in height an# i alone in high& Think of nothing as no thing9 To re$e$ber the ie in piece, re$e$ber that pie an# piece are spelle# in the sa$e !a & Separate has an a in the secon# s llable]] like part, since separate $eans to Npart in t!o&P 'ou easil the !or# PA*T in SEPA*ATE, Obser%e that #%' indread#%' has but one '& III. |& That !a%e carrie# $e a %ast !a on to!ar# shore, an# ha%ing spent itself !ent back, lea%ing $e upon the lan# al$ost #r , but half #ea# !ith the !ater 7 ha# taken into $ lungs an# sto$ach& Seeing $ self nearer the $ainlan# than 7 ha# eJpecte#, !ith !hat breath 7 ha# left 7 got upon $ feet an# en#ea%ore# !ith all $ strength to $ake to!ar# lan# as fast as 7 coul#& ^& 7 !as !holl burie# b the neJt !a%e that ca$e upon $e, but again 7 !as carrie# a great !a to!ar# shore& 7 !as rea# to burst !ith hol#ing $ breath, !hen to $ relief 7 foun# $ hea# an# han#s shoot abo%e the surface of the !ater& 7 !as co%ere# again !ith !ater, an# #ashe# against a rock& The blo!, taking $ breast an# si#e, beat the breath Xuite out of $ bo# & 7 hel# fast b the piece of rock, ho!e%er, an# then, although %er !eak, 7 fetche# another run, so that 7 succee#e# in getting to the $ainlan#, !here 7 sat $e #o!n, Xuite out of reach of the !ater& uestions an# :otes& 7n !hat !or#s in the prece#ing paragraphs has silent a been #roppe# on a##ing a s llableY 7n !hat !or#s #o ou fin# the #igraph ea, an# !hat soun# #oes it ha%e in eachY 6o! $an #ifferent soun#s of ea #o ou fin#Y What is the #ifference bet!een $reath an# $reatheNa'' the #ifferencesY 6o! $an lVs in a'most( 7n !hat other co$poun#s #oes a'' #rop one 'Y Wh #o !e not ha%e t!o rVs in coveredY KAns!er& The s llable containing eris not accente#& Onl accente# s llables #ouble a final single consonant on a##ing a s llable&L What rule applies in the for$ation of carried( having( endeavored( $%ried( taking( a'tho%gh( getting( What is peculiar in toward( ha'#( water( stomach( who''y( again( $ody( s%cceeded( o#( To re$e$ber !hether re'ie#, $e'ie#, etc&, ha%e the #igraph ie or ei, notice that e just prece#es # in the alphabet an# in the !or#, !hile the i is nearer the 'W besi#es, the !or#s contain the !or# 'ie& 7n receive, receipt, the e is place# nearest the c, !hich it is nearest in the alphabet& Or, think of 'iceO i follo!s ' an# e follo!s a, as in the !or#s $e'ieve an# receive& Obser%e the t!o 'Vs in who''y,N one in who'eW !e #o not ha%e who'e'y, as !e $ight eJpect& Also obser%e that in again an#against ai has the soun# of e short, as a has that soun# in any an# many&

IV. & 7 belie%e it is i$possible trul to eJpress !hat the ecstasies of the soul are !hen it is so sa%e#, as 7 $a sa , out of the gra%e& N5or su##en jo s, like su##en griefs, confoun# at first&P .& 7 !alke# about on the shore, $ !hole being !rappe# up in thinking of !hat 7 ha# been through, an# thanking Go# for $ #eli%erance& :ot one soul ha# been sa%e# but $ self& :or #i# 7 after!ar# see an sign of the$, eJcept three of their hats, one cap, an# t!o shoes& & 7 soon began to look about $e& 7 ha# no change of clothes, nor an thing either to eat or #rinkW nor #i# 7 see an thing before $e but # ing of hunger or being eaten b !il# beasts& K"rusoe after!ar# cast up a sort of le#ger account of the goo# an# e%il in his lot& On the si#e of e%il he place#, first, the fact that he ha# been thro!n upon a bare an# barren islan#, !ith no hope of escape& Against this he set the ite$ that he alone ha# been sa%e#& On the si#e of e%il he note# that he ha# no clothesW but on the other han#, this !as a !ar$ cli$ate, !here he coul# har#l !ear clothes if he ha# the$& T!ent (fi%e ears later he thought he !oul# be perfectl happ if he !ere not in terror of $en co$ing to his islan#]]!ho, he feare#, $ight eat hi$&L uestions an# :otes& 6o! #o ou re$e$ber the ie in $e'ieve, grie#, etc&Y Gi%e se%eral illustrations fro$ the abo%e paragraphs of the principle that !e ha%e a #ouble consonant Kin an accente# penulti$ate s llableL after a short %o!el& Gi%e illustrations of the single consonant after a long %o!el& Oake a list of the !or#s containing silent letters, inclu#ing all #igraphs& What letter #oes tr%e ha%e !hich tr%'y #oes notY 7s who'e pronounce# like ho'e( who''y like ho'y( What is the #ifference bet!een c'othes an# c'oths( What soun# has a in anyY 6o! #o ou re$e$ber that i follo!s e in their( What rule applies in the for$ation of dyingY Point out t!o !or#s or $ore in the abo%e in !hich !e ha%e a silent a follo!ing t!o consonants to in#icate a prece#ing long %o!el& Gi%e cases of a #igraph follo!e# b a silent e& K:ote& A## silent e to pastan# $ake paste\long a&L 7s the i in evi' soun#e#Y There !ere no $ears upon this islan#& Oention another kin# of $ear& Obser%e the #ifference bet!een hardware]] iron goo#s]]an# hard wear, $eaning tough usage& What is peculiar aboutso%'( impossi$'e( ecstasies( wrapped( de'iverance( sign( e)cept( shoes( h%nger( thrown( terror( is'and( V. 2& 7 #eci#e# to cli$b into a tree an# sit there until the neJt #a , to think !hat #eath 7 shoul# #ie& As night ca$e on $ heart !as hea% , since at night beasts co$e abroa# for their pre & 6a%ing cut a short stick for $ #efense, 7 took up $ lo#ging on a bough, an# fell fast asleep& 7 after!ar# foun# 7 ha# no reason to fear !il# beasts, for ne%er #i# 7 $eet an har$ful ani$al& 1-& When 7 a!oke it !as broa# #a , the !eather !as clear an# 7 sa! the ship #ri%en al$ost to the rock !here 7 ha# been so bruise#& The ship see$ing to stan# upright still, 7 !ishe# $ self aboar#, that 7 $ight sa%e so$e necessar things for $ use& K"rusoe sho!s his goo# ju#g$ent in thinking at once of sa%ing so$ething fro$ the ship for his after use& While others !oul# ha%e been be$oaning their fate, he took fro$ the %essel !hat he kne! !oul# pro%e useful, an# in his %er labors he at last foun# happiness& :ot onl !hile his ho$e(buil#ing !as ne!, but e%en ears after, !e fin# hi$ still har# at !ork an# still in%enting ne! things&L uestions an# :otes& There are t!o 'Vs in ti''W !h not in %nti'( What other !or#s en#ing in t!o 'Vs #rop one ' in co$poun#sY What t!o soun#s #o ou fin# gi%en to oa in the prece#ing paragraphsY What is peculiar about c'im$( death( dies( night( heart( heavy( since( $easts( prey( de#ense( 'odging( $o%gh( never( harm#%'( weather( driven( $r%ised( necessary( 3%dgment( others( happiness( $%i'd( 9se the follo!ing !or#s in appropriate sentences) c'ime, dye, pray, $ow, write, wo%'d& What t!o

pronunciations $a $owha%e, an# !hat is the #ifference in $eaningY What t!o soun#s $a s ha%e in %se, an# !hat #ifference #o the $arkY What t!o rules are %iolate# in 3%dgment( What other !or#s are si$ilar eJceptionsY VI. 11& As 7 foun# the !ater %er cal$ an# the ship but a Xuarter of a $ile out, 7 $a#e up $ $in# to s!i$ out an# get on boar# her& 7 at once procee#e# to the task& O first !ork !as to search out the pro%isions, since 7 !as %er !ell #ispose# to eat& 7 !ent to the brea#(roo$ an# fille# $ pockets !ith biscuit& 7 sa! that 7 !ante# nothing but a boat to suppl $ self !ith $an things !hich !oul# be necessar to $e, an# 7 glance# about $e to see ho! 7 $ight $eet this nee#& 1,& 7 foun# t!o or three large spars an# a spare $ast or t!o, !hich 7 thre! o%erboar#, t ing e%er one !ith a rope that it $ight not #rift a!a & "li$bing #o!n the shipVs si#e, 7 pulle# the$ to!ar# $e an# tie# four of the$ fast together in the for$ of a raft, la ing t!o or three pieces of plank upon the$ cross!ise& 1{& 7 no! ha# a raft strong enough to bear an reasonable !eight& O neJt care !as to loa# it& 7 got three of the sea$enVs chests, !hich 7 $anage# to break open an# e$pt & These 7 fille# !ith brea#, rice, fi%e pieces of #rie# goatVs flesh, an# a little re$ain#er of European grain& There ha# been so$e barle an# !heat togetherW but the rats ha# eaten or spoile# it& uestions an# :otes& 7n ca'm ou ha%e a silent 'W !hat other !or#s can ou $ention !ith this silent 'Y :ote the #ouble e inproceed an# s%cceed, precede has one e !ith the silent e at the en#& :ote that % is inserte# into $isc%it si$pl to $ake the char# before iW !ith this allo!ance, this !or# is spelle# regularl & What is the #ifference bet!een spar an# spare( What other !or# ha%e !e ha# pronounce# like threwY EJplain tying an# tied& +i# an change take place !hen ed !as a##e# totieY :ote that #o%r is spelle# !ith o% for the long o soun#W #orty !ith a si$ple o& 6o! is 1P spelle#Y 6o! #o ou re$e$berie in pieceY What soun# has ei in weightY Oention another !or# in !hich ei has the sa$e soun#& What other !or# is pronounce# like $earY 6o! #o ou spell the !or# like this !hich is the na$e of a kin# of ani$alY 7n !hat three !a s #o ou fin# the long soun# of a represente# in the abo%e paragraphsY Oake a list of the !or#s !ith silent consonantsY VII. 1|& O neJt care !as for ar$s& There !ere t!o %er goo# fo!ling(pieces in the great cabin, an# t!o pistols& An# no! 7 thought $ self prett !ell freighte#, an# began to think ho! 7 shoul# get to shore, ha%ing neither sail, oar, nor ru##erW an# the least capful of !in# !oul# ha%e o%erset $e& 1^& 7 $a#e $an other journe s to the ship, an# took a!a a$ong other things t!o or three bags of nails, t!o or three iron cro!s, an# a great roll of sheet lea#& This last 7 ha# to tear apart an# carr a!a in pieces, it !as so hea% & 7 ha# the goo# luck to fin# a boJ of sugar an# a barrel of fine flour& On $ t!elfth %o age 7 foun# t!o or three ra[ors !ith perfect e#ges, one pair of large scissors, !ith so$e ten or a #o[en goo# kni%es an# forks& 7n a #ra!er 7 foun# so$e $one & NOh, #rug_P 7 eJclai$e#& NWhat art thou goo# forYP KTo a $an alone on a #esert islan#, $one certainl has no %alue& 6e can bu nothing, sell nothingW he has no #ebts to be pai#W he earns his brea# b the s!eat of his bro!, his business is all !ith hi$self an# nature, an# nature eJpects no profit, but allo!s no cre#it, for a $an $ust pa in !ork as he goes along& "rusoe ha# $an sche$esW but it took a great #eal of !ork to carr the$ outW an# the su$ of all !as stea# !ork for t!ent (fi%e ears& 7n the en# !e conclu#e that !hate%er he got !as #earl bought& We co$e to kno! !hat a thing is !orth onl b $easuring its %alue in the !ork !hich it takes to get that thing or to $ake it, as "rusoe #i# his chairs, tables, earthen!are, etc&L uestions an# :otes& What is peculiar in these !or#s) ca$in, pisto's, ra&ors, money, va'%e, meas%ring, $o%ght, $ar'ey, cap#%', ro'', s%ccessors, desert, certain'y( What soun#

has o% in 3o%rneys( 7s this soun# for o% co$$onY What rule applies to the plural of 3o%rney( 6o! else $a !e pronounce 'ead( What part of speech is it thereY What is the past participle of'ead( 7s that pronounce# like 'ead, the $etalY 6o! else $a tear be pronounce#Y What #oes that other !or# $eanY 5in# a !or# in the abo%e paragraphs pronounce# like #'ower& What other !or# pronounce# like $%y( pro#it( s%m( dear( know( ware( What soun# has s in s%garY Oake a list of the #ifferent !a s in !hich long e is represente#& What is peculiar aboutgoesY Oake a list of the #ifferent !a s in !hich long a is represente# in the abo%e paragraphs& What soun# has o in ironY 7sd silent in edgesY What soun# has ai in pairsY What other !or# pronounce# like thisY 6o! #o ou spell the fruit pronounce# like pairY 6o! #o ou spell the !or# for the act of taking the skin off an fruitY What soun# has % in $%siness( 7n !hat other !or# has it the sa$e soun#Y Oention another !or# in !hich ch has the sa$e soun# that it has in schemes& What other !or# in the abo%e has ai !ith the sa$e soun# that it has in chairsY VIII. 1& 7 no! procee#e# to choose a health , con%enient, an# pleasant spot for $ ho$e& 7 ha# chiefl to consi#er three things) 5irst, airW secon#, shelter fro$ the heatW thir#, safet fro$ !il# creatures, !hether $en or beastsW fourth, a %ie! of the sea, that if Go# sent an ship in sight 7 $ight not lose an chance of #eli%erance& 7n the course of $ search 7 foun# a little plain on the si#e of a rising hill, !ith a hollo! like the entrance to a ca%e& 6ere 7 resol%e# to pitch $ tent& K6e after!ar# foun# a broa#, grass prairie on the other si#e of the islan#, !here he !ishe# he ha# $a#e his ho$e& On the slope abo%e gre! grapes, le$ons, citrons, $elons, an# other kin#s of fruit&L 1.& Aft er ten or t!el%e #a s it ca$e into $ thoughts that 7 shoul# lose $ reckoning for !ant of pen an# inkW but to pre%ent this 7 cut !ith $ knife upon a large post in capital letters the follo!ing !or#s) N7 ca$e on shore here on the {-th of Septe$ber, 1^2&P On the si#es of this post 7 cut e%er #a a notchW an# thus 7 kept $ calen#ar, or !eekl , $onthl , an# earl reckoning of ti$e& K6e after!ar# foun# pen, ink, an# paper in the shipW but the recor# on the post !as $ore lasting than an thing he coul# ha%e !ritten on paper& 6o!e%er, !hen he got his pen an# ink he !rote out a #ail journal, gi%ing the histor of his life al$ost to the hour an# $inute& Thus he tells us that the shocks of earthXuake !ere eight $inutes apart, an# that he spent eighteen #a s !i#ening his ca%e&L 1& 7 $a#e a strong fence of stakes about $ tent that no ani$al coul# tear #o!n, an# #ug a ca%e in the si#e of the hill, !here 7 store# $ po!#er an# other %aluables& E%er #a 7 !ent out !ith $ gun on this scene of silent life& 7 coul# onl listen to the bir#s, an# hear the !in# a$ong the trees& 7 ca$e out, ho!e%er, to shoot goats for foo#& 7 foun# that as 7 ca$e #o!n fro$ the hills into the %alle s, the !il# goats #i# not see $eW but if the caught sight of $e, as the #i# if 7 !ent to!ar# the$ fro$ belo!, the !oul# turn tail an# run so fast 7 coul# capture nothing& uestions an# :otes& Are all !or#s in 1ceed spelle# !ith a #ouble eY What t!o other co$$on !or#s besi#es proceed ha%e !e alrea# stu#ie#Y What soun# has ea in hea'thy( in p'easant( in p'ease( 6o! #o ou re$e$ber that i co$es before e inchie#( What soun# has ai in air( +o ou spell 1| an# |- !ith o% as ou #o #o%rth( What other !or# pronounce# like sea(:ote the three !or#s, 'ose, 'oose, an# 'oss, !hat is the #ifference in $eaningY Wh #oes chance en# !ith a silent e( change( What other classes of !or#s take a silent e !here !e shoul# not eJpect itY What other !or# pronounce# likeco%rse( What #oes it $eanY 6o! #o ou spell the !or# for the tool !ith !hich a carpenter s$ooths boar#sY Oention fi%e other !or#s !ith a silent t before ch, as in pitch& To re$e$ber the or#er of letters in prairie, notice that there is an i neJt to the r on either si#e& What other letters represent the %o!el soun# hear# in grew( What t!o peculiarities in the spelling oftho%ghts( Oention another !or# in !hich o% has the sa$e soun# as in tho%ght& 6o! is this soun# regularl represente#Y What other !or# pronounce# like capita'( KAns!er& Capito'& The chief go%ern$ent buil#ing is calle# the capito', the cit in !hich the seat of go%ern$ent is locate# is calle# the capita', just as the large

letters are calle# capita's&L What soun# has %iin #r%it( What other t!o soun#s ha%e !e ha# for %iY Woul# ou eJpect a #ouble consonant in me'ons an# 'emons, or are these !or#s spelle# regularl Y What is peculiar about the spelling of ca'endar( What other !or# like it, an# !hat #oes it $eanY What other !or# spelle# like min%te, but pronounce# #ifferentl Y What soun# has % in this !or#Y What other !or# pronounce# like scene( 7s t silent in 'isten( in oftenY Wh is y not change# to i or ie in va''eys( What other plural is $a#e in the sa$e !a Y Write sentences in !hich the follo!ing !or#s shall be correctl use#) are, #orth, see Kt!o $eaningsL, cent, cite, coarse, rate, ate, tare, seen, here, site, ta'e& 7n !hat t!o !a s $a wind be pronounce#, an# !hat is the #ifference in $eaningY IX. 12& 7 soon foun# that 7 lacke# nee#les, pins, an# threa#, an# especiall linen& 'et 7 $a#e clothes an# se!e# up the sea$s !ith tough stripe of goatskin& 7 after!ar# got han#kerchiefs an# shirts fro$ another !reck& 6o!e%er, for !ant of tools $ !ork !ent on hea%il W et 7 $anage# to $ake a chair, a table, an# se%eral large shel%es& 5or a long ti$e 7 !as in !ant of a !agon or carriage of so$e kin#& At last 7 he!e# out a !heel of !oo# an# $a#e a !heelbarro!& ,-& 7 !orke# as stea#il as 7 coul# for the rain, for this !as the rain season& 7 $a sa 7 !as al!a s bus & 7 raise# a turf !all close outsi#e $ #ouble fence, an# felt sure if an people ca$e on shore the !oul# not see an thing like a #!elling& 7 also $a#e $ roun#s in the !oo#s e%er #a & As 7 ha%e alrea# sai#, 7 foun# plent of !il# goats& 7 also foun# a kin# of !il# pigeon, !hich buil#s, not as !oo# pigeons #o, in trees, but in holes of the rocks& The oung ones !ere %er goo# $eat& uestions an# :otes& What soun# has ea in thread( What is peculiar in the spelling of 'iven( What is peculiar in the spelling of handkerchie#s( !recksY What rule applie# to the for$ation of the !or# heavi'y( What soun# has ai in chair( 7s the i or the a silent in carriage( KLook this up in the #ictionar &L What soun# has % in bus Y What other !or# !ith the sa$e soun# for %Y 7s there an !or# besi#es peop'e in !hich eo has the soun# of e longY 7n !hat other co$poun#s besi#es a'so #oes a''#rop one 'Y What soun# has ai in said( +oes it ha%e this soun# in an other !or#Y What soun# has eo in pigeon( %i in$%i'ds( What other !or# pronounce# like ho'e( 6o! #o ou re$e$ber ei in their( 9se the follo!ing !or#s in appropriate sentences) so, seem, hew, rein, meet& What #ifferences #o ou fin# in the principles of for$ation of second, wreck, 'ock, reckon( 7n !hat #ifferent !a s is the soun# of long a represente# in paragraphs 12 an# ,-Y What is peculiar in to%gh( especia''y( handkerchie#s( season( raised( do%$'e( #ence( a'ready( pigeon( ones( very( were( X. ,1& 7 foun# that the seasons of the ear $ight generall be #i%i#e#, not into su$$er an# !inter, as in Europe, but into the rain seasons an# the #r seasons, !hich !ere generall thus) 5ro$ the $i##le of 5ebruar to the $i##le of April Kinclu#ing OarchL, rain W the sun being then on or near the eXuinoJ& 5ro$ the $i##le of April to the $i##le of August Kinclu#ing Oa , 8une, an# 8ul L, #r W the sun being then north of the eXuator& 5ro$ the $i##le of August till the $i##le of October Kinclu#ing Septe$berL, rain W the sun being then co$e back to the eXuator& 5ro$ the $i##le of October till the $i##le of 5ebruar Kinclu#ing :o%e$ber, +ece$ber, an# 8anuar L, #r W the sun being then to the south of the eXuator& ,,& 7 ha%e alrea# $a#e $ention of so$e grain that ha# been spoile# b the rats& Seeing nothing but husks an# #ust in the bag !hich ha# containe# this, 7 shook it out one #a un#er the rock on one si#e of $ ca%e& 7t !as just before the rain season began& About a $onth later 7 !as surprise# to see ten or t!el%e ears of English barle that ha# sprung up an# se%eral stalks of rice& 'ou $a be sure 7 sa%e# the see#, hoping that in ti$e 7 $ight ha%e enough grain to suppl $e !ith brea#& 7t !as not until the fourth season that 7 coul# allo! $ self the least particle to eat, an# none of it !as e%er

!aste#& 5ro$ this han#ful, 7 ha# in ti$e all the rice an# barle 7 nee#e# for foo#,\abo%e fort bushels of each in a ear, as 7 $ight guess, for 7 ha# no $easure& ,{& 7 $a $ention that 7 took fro$ the ship t!o catsW an# the shipVs #og !hich 7 foun# there !as so o%erjo e# to see $e that he s!a$ ashore !ith $e& These !ere $uch co$fort to $e& But one of the cats #isappeare# an# 7 thought she !as #ea#& 7 hear# no $ore of her till she ca$e ho$e !ith three kittens& 7n the en# 7 !as so o%errun !ith cats that 7 ha# to shoot so$e, !hen $ost of the re$ain#er #isappeare# in the !oo#s an# #i# not trouble $e an $ore& uestions an# :otes& Wh is g soft in genera''y( 6o! #o ou pronounce =e$r%ary( What soun# ha=%e the }s{V>s ins%rprised( Oention three or four other !or#s en#ing in the soun# of i&e !hich are spelle# !ith an s& What soun# has o% ineno%gh( What other !or#s ha%e gh !ith the soun# of #Y We ha%e here the spelling of !aste]]$eaning carelessl to #estro or allo! to be #estro e#W !hat is the spelling of the !or# !hich $eans the $i##le of the bo# Y 7s #%' al!a s !ritten !ith one ' in #eri%ati%es, as in hand#%' abo%eY Oention so$e other !or#s in !hich ce has the soun# of c as in rice& 6o! #o ou spell 1PY like fort Y Wh is % place# before e in g%ess( 7s it part of a #igraph !ith eY What soun# has ea in meas%re(What soun# has it in this !or#Y What other !or# pronounce# like heard( Which is spelle# regularl Y 6o! $an 'Vs has ti''in co$poun#sY Oention an eJa$ple& 9se the follo!ing !or#s in sentences) herd, write, $%tt, reign, won, $red, waist, kneaded, s%m& What is peculiar aboutyear( divided( e*%ator( Cecem$er( grain( nothing( contain( $ar'ey( %nti'( each( there( tho%ght( some( disappeared( tro%$'e( XI. ,|& One #a in 8une 7 foun# $ self %er ill& 7 ha# a col# fit an# then a hot one, !ith faint s!eats after it& O bo# ache# all o%er, an# 7 ha# %iolent pains in $ hea#& The neJt #a 7 felt $uch better, but ha# #rea#ful fears of sickness, since 7 re$e$bere# that 7 !as alone, an# ha# no $e#icines, an# not e%en an foo# or #rink in the house& The follo!ing #a 7 ha# a terrible hea#ache !ith $ chills an# fe%erW but the #a after that 7 !as better again, an# !ent out !ith $ gun an# shot a she(goatW et 7 foun# $ self %er !eak& After so$e #a s, in !hich 7 learne# to pra to Go# for the first ti$e after eight ears of !icke# seafaring life, 7 $a#e a sort of $e#icine $y steeping tobacco leaf in ru$& 7 took a large #ose of this se%eral ti$es a #a & 7n the course of a !eek or t!o 7 got !ellW but for so$e ti$e after 7 !as %er pale, an# $ $uscles !ere !eak an# flabb & ,^& After 7 ha# #isco%ere# the %arious kin#s of fruit !hich gre! on the other si#e of the islan#, especiall the grapes !hich 7 #rie# for raisins, $ $eals !ere as follo!s) 7 ate a bunch of raisins for $ breakfastW for #inner a piece of goatVs flesh or of turtle broile#W an# t!o or three turtleVs eggs for supper& As et 7 ha# nothing in !hich 7 coul# boil or ste! an thing& When $ grain !as gro!n 7 ha# nothing !ith !hich to $o! or reap it, nothing !ith !hich to thresh it or separate it fro$ the chaff, no $ill to grin# it, no sie%e to clean it, no east or salt to $ake it into brea#, an# no o%en in !hich to bake it& 7 #i# not e%en ha%e a !ater(pail& 'et all these things 7 #i# !ithout& 7n ti$e 7 contri%e# earthen %essels !hich !ere %er useful, though rather rough an# coarseW an# 7 built a hearth !hich 7 $a#e to ans!er for an o%en& uestions an# :otes& What is peculiar about $ody( What soun# has ch in ached( :ote that there are t=!>o iVs in medicine& What is peculiar about ho%se( What other !or# pronounce# like weak( 9se it in a sentence& What is the plural of 'ea#( What are all the #ifferences bet!een does an# dose( Wh is week in the phrase N7n the course of a !eek or t!oP spelle# !ith #ouble e instea# of ea( What is irregular about the !or# m%sc'es( 7s c soft before 'Y 7s it silent in m%sc'es( What three #ifferent soun#s $a %i ha%eY Besi#es #r%it, !hat other !or#s !ith %iY What soun# has ea in $reak#ast( What t!o pronunciations has the !or# mow( What #ifference in $eaningY What soun# has e in thresh( 6o! #o ou re$e$ber the a inseparate( What soun# has ie in sieve( +o ou kno! an other !or# in !hich ie has this soun#Y What other soun# #oes it

often ha%eY +oes ea ha%e the sa$e soun# in earthen an# hearth( 7s w soun#e# in answer( What soun# has o in oven( 9se the follo!ing !or#s in sentences) week, po'e, #r%it, pane, weak, co%rse, $red, pai', r%##& XII. ,& 'ou !oul# ha%e s$ile# to see $e sit #o!n to #inner !ith $ fa$il & There !as $ parrot, !hich 7 ha# taught to speak& O #og !as gro!n %er ol# an# cra[ W but he sat at $ right han#& Then there !ere $ t!o cats, one on one si#e of the table an# one on the other& Besi#es these, 7 ha# a ta$e ki# or t!o al!a s about the house, an# se%eral sea(fo!ls !hose !ings 7 ha# clippe#& These !ere $ subjects& 7n their societ 7 felt $ self a king& 7 !as lor# of all the lan# about, as far as $ e e coul# reach& 7 ha# a broa# an# !ealth #o$ain& 6ere 7 reigne# sole $aster for t!ent (fi%e ears& Onl once #i# 7 tr to lea%e $ islan# in a boatW an# then 7 ca$e near being carrie# out into the ocean fore%er b an ocean current 7 ha# not notice# before& ,.& When 7 ha# been on the islan# t!ent (three ears 7 !as greatl frightene# to see a footprint in the san#& 5or t!o ears after 7 sa! no hu$an beingW but then a large co$pan of sa%ages appeare# in canoes& When the ha# lan#e# the built a fire an# #ance# about it& Presentl the see$e# about to $ake a feast on t!o capti%es the ha# brought !ith the$& B chance, ho!e%er, one of the$ escape#& T!o of the ban# follo!e# hi$W but he !as a s!ifter runner than the & :o!, 7 thought, is $ chance to get a ser%ant& So 7 ran #o!n the hill, an# !ith the butt of $ $usket knocke# #o!n one of the t!o pursuers& When 7 sa! the other about to #ra! his bo!& 7 !as oblige# to shoot hi$& The $an 7 ha# sa%e# see$e# at first as frightene# at $e as !ere his pursuers& But 7 beckone# hi$ to co$e to $e an# ga%e hi$ all the signs of encourage$ent 7 coul# think of& ,& 6e !as a han#so$e fello!, !ith straight, strong li$bs& 6e ha# a %er goo# countenance, not a fierce an# surl appearance& 6is hair !as long an# black, not curle# like !oolW his forehea# !as %er high an# largeW an# the color of his skin !as not Xuite black, but ta!n & 6is face !as roun# an# plu$pW his nose s$all, not flat like that of negroesW an# he ha# fine teeth, !ell set, an# as !hite as i%or & ,2& :e%er $an ha# a $ore faithful, lo%ing, sincere ser%ant than 5ri#a !as to $e Kfor so 7 calle# hi$ fro$ the #a on !hich 7 ha# sa%e# his lifeL& 7 !as greatl #elighte# !ith hi$ an# $a#e it $ business to teach hi$ e%er thing that !as proper to $ake hi$ useful, han# , an# helpful& 6e !as the aptest scholar that e%er !as, an# so $err , an# so please# !hen he coul# but un#erstan# $e, that it !as %er pleasant to $e to talk to hi$& :o! $ life began to be so eas , that 7 sai# to $ self, that coul# 7 but feel safe fro$ $ore sa%ages, 7 care# not if 7 !ere ne%er to re$o%e fro$ the place !here 7 li%e#& K5ri#a !as $ore like a son than a ser%ant to "rusoe& 6ere !as one being !ho coul# un#er(stan# hu$an speech, !ho coul# learn the #ifference bet!een right an# !rong, !ho coul# be neighbor, frien#, an# co$panion& "rusoe ha# often rea# fro$ his BibleW but no! he $ight teach this heathen also to rea# fro$ it the truth of life& 5ri#a pro%e# a goo# bo , an# ne%er got into $ischief&L uestions an# :otes& What is the singular of canoes( What is the $eaning of $%tt( 6o! #o ou spell the !or# pronounce# like this !hich $eans a hogshea#Y 7n !hat t!o !a s is $ow pronounce#Y What is the #ifference in $eaningY What other !or# pronounce# like $ow !hen it $eans the front en# of a boatY Enco%ragement has an e after the gW #o ou kno! t!o !or#s en#ing in ment preceE#e# b the soft g soun# !hich o$it the silent eY Oake a list of all the !or#s ou kno! !hich, like #ierce, ha%e ie !ith the soun# of a long& 6o! #o ou pronounce #orehead( Oention t!o peculiarities in the spelling ofco'or& "o$pare it !ith co''ar& What is the singular of negroes( What other !or#s take es in the pluralY What is the plural ofto$acco( "o$pare speak, !ith its ea for the soun# of e long, an# speech, !ith its #ouble e& What t!o peculiarities inneigh$or( What soun# has ie in #riend( 7n the last paragraph abo%e, ho! #o ou pronounce the first !or# read( 6o! the secon#Y What other !or# pronounce#

like read !ith ea like short aY "o$pare to 'ead, 'ed, an# the $etal 'ead& 6o! #o ou pronounce mischie#( 9se the follo!ing !or#s in sentences) #o%', reign, so'e, strait, c%rrant& What is peculiar in these !or#s) parrot( ta%ght( a'ways( reach( on'y( 'eave( is'and( carried( ocean( notice( $%i't( dance( $ro%ght( get( r%nner( $%tt( knock( +eri%ation of !or#s& 7t is al!a s #ifficult to #o t!o things at the sa$e ti$e, an# for that reason no reference has been $a#e in the prece#ing eJercises to the rules for prefiJes an# suffiJes, an# in general to the #eri%ation of !or#s& This shoul# be taken up as a separate stu# , until the $eaning of e%er prefiJ an# suffiJ is clear in the $in# in connection !ith each !or#& This stu# , ho!e%er, $a %er !ell be postpone# till the stu# of gra$$ar has been taken up& APPENDIX VARIOUS SPELLINGS Authori[e# b +ifferent +ictionaries& There are not $an !or#s !hich are #ifferentl spelle# b the %arious stan#ar# #ictionaries& The follo!ing is a list of the $ore co$$on ones& The for$ preferre# b each #ictionar is in#icate# b letters in parantheses as follo!s) "&, "entur W S&, Stan#ar#W 7&, WebsterVs 7nternationalW W&, WorcesterW E&, English usage as represente# b the 7$perial& When the ne! OJfor# #iffers fro$ the 7$perial, it is in#icate# b O& Stor$onthVs English #ictionar in $an instances prefers WebsterVs spellings to those of the 7$perial& accoutre K"&, W&, E&L accouter KS&, 7&L alu$iniu$ K"&, 7&, W&, E&L alu$inu$ KS&L anal [e K"&, S&, 7&, W&L anal se KE&L anesthetic K"&, S&L ansthetic K7&, W&, E&L appal K"&, S&, E&L appall K7&, W&L asbestos K"&, S&, W&, E&L asbetus K7&L ascen#anc K"&, W&L ascen#anc KS&, 7&, E&L aJ K"&, S&, 7&L aJe KW&, E&L a /fore%er3 K"&, S&, O&L a e K7&, W&, E&L a e / es3 K"&, S&, 7&, O&L a KW&, E&L ban#ana K"&, E&L ban#anna KS&,= >7&,= >W&,= >O&L biase# K"&, S&, 7&, O&L biasse# KW&, E&L boul#er K"&, S&, W&, E&L bo!l#er K7&L Brah$an K"&, S&, 7&, E&L Brah$in KW&, O&L

brai[e K"&, S&L braise K7&, W&, E&L calif K"&, S&, E&L caliph K7&, W&, O&L callisthenics K"&, S&, E&L calisthenics K7&, W&L cancelation K"&, S&L cancellation K7&, W&, E&L clue K"&, S&, E&L cle! K7&, W&L coolie K"&, S&, E&L cool K7&, W&L courte[an K"&, 7&, E&L courtesan K7&, W&, O&L co[ K"&, S&, 7&L cose KW&, E&L cos KO&L cro[ier K"&, 7&, E&L crosier K7&, W&, O&L #efense K"&, S&, 7&L #efence KW&, E&L #espatch K"&, S&, W&, E&L #ispatch K7&, O&L #iarrhea K"&, S&, 7&L #iarrhoa KW&, E&L #ick K"&, W&, O&L #icke KS&, 7&, E&L #isk K"&, S&, 7&, W&, O&L #isc KE&L #istil K"&, S&, W&, E&L #istill K7&L #ullness K"&, 7&, O&L #ulness KS&, W&, E&L e$plo ee K"&, S&, E&L e$plo =/$ale3>K7&, W&, O&L encu$brance K"&, S&, W&, 7&L incu$brance K7&L enforce]]see reinforce engulf K"&, S&, W&, E&L ingulf K7&L enrol$ent K"&, S&, W&, E&L enroll$ent K7&L enthrall K"&, S&, E&L inthrall K7&, W&L eXui%oke K"&, S&, W&L eXui%oXue K7&, E&L escallope# K"&, S&, O&L escalope# K7&, W&, E&L esthetic K"&, S&L sthetic K7&, W&, E&L feces K"&, S&L fces K7&, W&, E&L fetish K"&, S&, O&L fetich K7&, W&, E&L fetus K"&, S&, 7&, E&L ftus KW&, O&L flunk K"&, S&, 7&, W&L flunke KE&L fulfil K"&, S&, W&, E&L fulfill K7&L fullness K"&, 7&, O&L fulness KS&, W&, E&L gage /$easure3 K"&, S&L gauge K7&, W&, E=&L> gaiet K"&, S&, E&L ga et K7&, W&L ga[el K"&, S&L ga[elle K7&, W&, E&L guil# K7&, W&, E&L gil# K"&, S&L gips K"&, S&, O&L g ps K7&, W&, E&L gra$ K"&, S&, 7&L gra$$e KW&, E&L grueso$e K"&, S&, O&L gre!so$e K7&, W&, E&L harken K"&, S&L hearken K7&, W&, E&L hin#rance K"&, S&, 7&, O&L hin#erance KW&, E&L 6in#u K"&, S&, E&L 6in#oo K7&, W&L 6in#ustani K"&, S&, E&L 6in#oostanee K7&L ho$eopathic K"&, S&, 7&L ho$opathic KW&, E&L i$pale K"&, 7&, E&L e$pale KS&, W&L incase K"&, S&, 7&, E&L encase KW&, O&L inclose K"&, 7&, E&L enclose KS&, W&, O&L instil K"&, S&, W&, E&L instill K7&L je!elr K"&, S&, 7&, E&L je!eller KW&, O&L ku$iss K"&, S&, E&L kou$iss K7&, W&, O&L $augre K"&, S&, W&, E&L $auger K7&L $eager K"&, S&, 7&L $eagre KW&, E&L $e#ie%al K"&, S&L $e#i%al K7&, W&, E&L $ol# K"&, S&, 7&L $oul# KW&, E&L $olt K"&, S&, 7&L $oult KW&, EL offense K"&, S&, 7&L offence KW&, E&L pan#oor K"&, W&, E&L pan#our KS&, 7&L papoose K"&, S&, W&, E&L pappoose KW&L paral [e K"&, S&, W&, 7&L paral se KE&L

pasha K"&, S&, 7&, E&L pacha KW&L pe##ler K"&, 7&L pe#ler KS&, W&L pe#lar KE&L pheniJ K"&, S&, 7&L phniJ KW&, E&L plo! K"&, S&, 7&L plough KW&, E&L pretense K"&, S&, 7&L pretence KW&, E&L progra$ K"&, S&L progra$$e K7&, W&, E&L racoon K"&L raccoon KS&, 7&, W&, E&L rajah K7&, W&, E&L raja K"&, S&L reconnaissance K"&, S&, E&L reconnoissance K7&, W&L referable K"&, S&, 7&L referrible KW&, E&L reinforce K"&, E&L renforce KS&, 7&, W&L re%erie K"&, S&, 7&, E&L re%er KW&L rh $e K7&, W&, E&L ri$e K"&, S&L ron#eau KW&, E&L ron#o K"&, S&, 7&L shinn K"&, S&L shint K7&, W&, E&L skean K"&, S&, 7&, E&L skain KW&L skilful K"&, S&, W&, E&L skillful K7&L s$ol#er K"&, S&, 7&L s$oul#er KW&, E&L spoon K"&, S&, E&L spoone K7&, W&L su$ac K"&, S&, 7&, E&L su$ach KW&L s!ingletree K"&, S&, W&L singletree K7&L s non $ K"&, S&, 7&, E&L s non $e KW&L s rup K"&, E&L sirup KS&, 7&, W&L Tartar K7&, W&, E&L Tatar K"&, S&L threno# K"&, S&, W&, E&L threno#e K7&L tigerish K"&, S&, 7&L

tigrish KW&, E&L ti$bal K"&, S&L t $bal K7&, W&, EL titbit K"&, S&L ti#bit K7&, W&, E&L %ise /tool3 K"&, S&, 7&L %ice KW&, E&L %i[ier KS&, 7&, W&, E&L %i[ir K"&L %isor K7&, W&, E&L %i[or K"&, S&L !hippletree KS&, 7&, W&, E&L !hiffletree K"&L !hi$s K"&, S&L !hi$se K7&, W&, E&L !hisk K"&, S&, 7&, E&L !hiske KW&=, 7rish>L !ilful K"&, S&, W&, E&L !illful K7&L !oeful K"&, 7&, E&L !oful KS&, W&L !orshipe# K"&, S&, 7&L !orshippe# KW&, E&L All #ictionaries but the "entur $ake enve'op the %erb, enve'ope the noun& The "entur spells the noun enve'op as !ell as the %erb& Accor#ing to the "entur , Worcester, an# the English #ictionaries, practise K!ith sL is the %erb, practice K!ith cL is the noun& The Stan#ar# spells both practise, an# Webster both practice& +oubling l& Worcester an# the English #ictionaries #ouble a final ' in all cases !hen a s llable is a##e#, Webster, the "entur , an# the Stan#ar# onl !hen the rule reXuires it& Thus) !ool]]!oollen, 8e!el]]je!elle#, tra%el]]tra%eller& *e for er& The follo!ing are the !or#s !hich Worcester an# the English #ictionaries spell re, !hile Webster, the "entur , an# the Stan#ar# prefer erO "alibre, centre, litre, lustre, $anu%re K7& $aneu%erL, $eagre, $etre, $itre, nitre, ochre, o$bre, piastre, sabre, sceptre, sepulchre, so$bre, spectre, theatre, [affre,=&> English !or#s !ith our& The follo!ing are the !or#s in !hich the English retain the % in en#ings spelle# or b A$erican #ictionaries& All other !or#s, such as a%thor, emperor, etc&, though for$erl spelle# !ith %, no longer retain it e%en in Englan#) Arbour, ar#our, ar$our, beha%iour, can#our, cla$our, colour, contour, #e$eanour, #olour, ena$our, en#ea%our, fa%our, fer%our, fla%our, gla$our, harbour, honour, hu$our, labour, neighbour, o#our, parlour, rancour, rigour, ru$our, sa%iour, splen#our, succour, tabour, ta$bour, tre$our, %alour, %apour, %igour,& ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ T6E A*T QR W*7T7:G & SPEA;7:G STU E:GL7S6 LA:G9AGE

SHERWIN CODY Special S ' S T E O E#ition "OOPOS7T7O: & *hetoric The Ol# Greek Press Chicago New{ }York Boston Revised Edition& Copyright,1 !", B' S6E*W7: "O+'& Note& The thanks of the author are #ue to +r& E#!in 6& Le!is, of the Le!is 7nstitute, "hicago, an# to Prof& 8ohn 5& Genung, Ph& +&, of A$herst "ollege, for suggestions $a#e after rea#ing the proof of this series& CONTENTS. 7:T*O+9"T7O:&]]T6E OET6O+ O5 T6E OASTE*S . * 7& +7"T7O:& "6APTE* 77& 57G9*ES O5 SPEE"6& "6APTE* 777& ST'LE& "6APTE* 7a& 69OO*&]]]A##ison, Ste%enson, La$b& "6APTE* a& *7+7"9LE&]]]Poe& "6APTE* a7& T6E *6ETO*7"AL, 7OPASS7O:E+ A:+ LO5T' ST'LES& ]]]Oacaula an# +e uince & "6APTE* a77& *ESE*aE&]]]Thackera & "6APTE* a777& "*7T7"7SO&]]]Oatthe! Arnol# an# *uskin& "6APTE* 7& T6E ST'LE O5 57"T7O:) :A**AT7aE, +ES"*7PT7O:, A:+ +7ALOG9E&]]]]+ickens& "6APTE* & T6E EP7G*AOOAT7" ST'LE&]]]]Stephen "rane& "6APTE* 7& T6E POWE* O5 S7OPL7"7T'&]]]]The Bible, 5ranklin, Lincoln& "6APTE* 77& 6A*OO:' O5 ST'LE&]]]]7r%ing an# 6a!thorne& "6APTE* 777& 7OAG7:AT7O: A:+ *EAL7T'&]]]]T6E A9+7E:"E& "6APTE* 7a& T6E 9SE O5 OO+ELS 7: W*7T7:G 57"T7O:& "6APTE* a& "O:T*AST& APPE:+7 CO+POSITION INTRODUCTION. THE +ETHOD OF THE +ASTERS 5or Learning to Write an# Speak Oasterl English& The first teJtbook on rhetoric !hich still re$ains to us !as !ritten b Aristotle& 6e #efines rhetoric as the art of !riting effecti%el , %ie!ing it pri$aril as the art of persuasion in public speaking, but $aking it inclu#e all the #e%ices for con%incing or $o%ing the $in# of the hearer or rea#er& AristotleVs treatise is profoun# an# scholarl , an# e%er teJtbook of rhetoric since !ritten is little $ore than a restate$ent of so$e part of his co$prehensi%e !ork& 7t is a scientific anal sis of the subject, prepare# for critics an# $en of a highl culture# an# in%estigating turn of $in#, an# !as not originall inten#e# to instruct or#inar persons in the $anage$ent of !or#s an# sentences for practical purposes& While no one #oubts that an or#inar co$$an# of !or#s $a be learne#, there is an al$ost

uni%ersal i$pression in the public $in#, an# has been e%en fro$ the ti$e of Aristotle hi$self, that !riting !ell or ill is al$ost purel a $atter of talent, genius, or, let us sa , instinct& 7t has been trul obser%e# that the for$al stu# of rhetoric ne%er has $a#e a single successful !riter, an# a great $an !riters ha%e succee#e# pre$inentl !ithout e%er ha%ing opene# a rhetorical teJtbook& 7t has not been #ifficult, therefore, to co$e to the conclusion that !riting !ell or ill co$es b nature alone, an# that all !e can #o is to pra for luck,\or, at the $ost, to practise incessantl & Write, !rite, !riteW an# keep on !ritingW an# #estro !hat ou !rite an# !rite againW co%er a ton of paper !ith inkW so$e #a perhaps ou !ill succee#\sa s the literar a#%iser to the oung author& An# to the business $an !ho has letters to !rite an# !ishes to !rite the$ !ell, no one e%er sa s an thing& The business $an hi$self has begun to ha%e a %ague i$pression that he !oul# like to i$pro%e his co$$an# of languageW but !ho is there !ho e%en preten#s to ha%e an po!er to help hi$Y There is the school grin# of Ngra$$ar an# co$position,P an# if it is kept up for enough ears, an# the stu#ent happens to fin# an point of interest in it, so$e goo# $a result fro$ it& That is the best that an one has to offer& So$e thoughtful people are con%ince# that !riting, e%en business letters, is as $uch a $atter for professional training as $usic or painting or carpentr or plu$bing& That %ie! certainl see$s reasonable& An# against that is the con%iction of the general public that use of language is an art essentiall #ifferent fro$ an of the other arts, that all people possess it $ore or less, an# that the #egree to !hich the possess it #epen#s on their general e#ucation an# en%iron$entW !hile the fe! !ho possess it in a pre$inent #egree, #o so b reason of peculiar en#o!$ents an# talent, not to sa genius& This latter %ie!, too, is full of truth& We ha%e onl to reflect a $o$ent to see that rhetoric as it is co$$onl taught can b no possibilit gi%e actual skill& *hetoric is a s ste$ of scientific anal sis& Aristotle !as a scientist, not an artist& Anal sis tears to pieces, #i%i#es into parts, an# so #estro s& The practical art of !riting is !holl s nthesis,\buil#ing up, putting together, creating, \an# so, of course, a $atter of instinct& All the #issection, or %i%isection, in the !orl#, !oul# ne%er teach a $an ho! to bring a hu$an being into the !orl#, or an other li%ing thingW et the untaught instinct of all ani$als sol%es the proble$ of creation e%er $inute of the !orl#Vs histor & 7n fact, it is a fa%orite co$parison to speak of poe$s, stories, an# other !orks of literar art as being the chil#ren of the !riterVs brainW as if !orks of literar art ca$e about in precisel the sa$e si$ple, et $ sterious, !a that chil#ren are concei%e# an# brought into the !orl#& 'et the co$parison $ust not be pushe# too far, an# !e $ust not lose sight of the facts in the case& 'ou an# 7 !ere not especiall en#o!e# !ith literar talent& Perhaps !e are business $en an# are gla# !e are not so en#o!e#& But !e !ant to !rite an# speak better than !e #o, \if possible, better than those !ith !ho$ !e ha%e to co$pete& :o!, is there not a practical !a in !hich !e can help oursel%esY There is no thought that !e shall beco$e geniuses, or an thing of the kin#& 5or us, !h shoul# there be an #ifference bet!een plu$bing an# !ritingY 7f all $en !ere born plu$bers, still so$e !oul# be $uch better than others, an# no #oubt the poor ones coul# i$pro%e their !ork in a great $easure, si$pl b getting hints an# tr ing& 6o!e%er, !e all kno! that the tr ing !ill not #o very $uch goo# !ithout the hints& :o!, !here are the $aster(plu$berVs hints\or rather, the $aster(!riterVs hints, for the apprentice !riterY :o #oubt so$e half $illion unsuccessful authors !ill ju$p to their feet on the instant an# offer their ser%ices& But the business $an is not con%ince# of their abilit to help hi$& :or #oes he eJpect %er $uch real help fro$ the hun#re# thousan# school teachers !ho teach Ngra$$ar an# co$positionP in the schools& The fact is, the rank an# file of teachers in the co$$on schools ha%e learne# just enough to kno! that the !ant help the$sel%es& Probabl there is not a $ore eager class in eJistence than the & The stock a#%ice of successful authors is, Practise& But unluckil 7 ha%e practise#, an# it #oes not see$, to #o an goo#& N7 !rite one hun#re# long letters Kor rather #ictate the$ to $ stenographerL e%er #a ,P sa s the business $an& NO ne!spaper reports !oul# fill a hun#re# splen#i# folios,P sa s the ne!spaper $an, Nan# et\an# et\7 canVt see$ to hit it !hen 7 !rite a no%el&P :o, practice !ithout gui#ance !ill not #o %er $uch, especiall if !e happen to be of the huge class of

the uninspire#& Our lack of genius, ho!e%er, #oes not see$ to be a reason !h !e shoul# continue utterl ignorant of the art of $aking oursel%es felt as !ell as hear# !hen !e use !or#s& 6ere again use of language #iffers so$e!hat fro$ painting or $usic, for unless !e ha# so$e talent there !oul# be no reason for atte$pting those arts& Let us attack our proble$ fro$ a co$$on(sense point of %ie!& 6o! ha%e greater !riters learne# to !riteY 6o! #o plu$bers learn plu$bingY The process b !hich plu$bers learn is si$ple& The !atch the $aster(plu$ber, an# then tr to #o like!ise, an# the keep at this for t!o or three ears& At the en# the are the$sel%es $aster( plu$bers, or at least $asters of plu$bing& The $etho# b !hich great !riters, especiall great !riters !ho #i#nVt start !ith a peculiar genius, ha%e learne# to !rite is $uch the sa$e& Take Ste%enson, for instance) he sa s he Npla e# the se#ulous ape&P 6e stu#ie# the $asterpieces of literature, an# trie# to i$itate the$& 6e kept at this for se%eral ears& At the en# he !as a $aster hi$self& We ha%e reason to belie%e that the sa$e !as true of Thackera , of +u$as, of "ooper, of Bal[ac, of Lo!ell& All these $en o!e their skill %er largel to practice in i$itation of other great !riters, an# often of !riters not as great as the the$sel%es& Ooreo%er, no one !ill accuse an of these !riters of not being original in the highest #egree& To i$itate a #o[en or fift great !riters ne%er $akes i$itatorsW the i$itator, so calle#, is the person !ho i$itates one& To i$itate e%en t!o #estro s all the ba# effects of i$itation& 5ranklin, hi$self a great !riter, !ell #escribes the $etho# in his autobiograph ) 6o! 5ranklin Learne# to Write& NA Xuestion !as once, so$eho! or other, starte# bet!een "ollins an# $e, of the propriet of e#ucating the fe$ale seJ in learning, an# their abilities for stu# & 6e !as of the opinion that it !as i$proper, an# that the !ere naturall uneXual to it& 7 took the contrar si#e, perhaps a little for #isputeVs sake& 6e !as naturall $ore eloXuent, ha%ing a rea# plent of !or#s, an# so$eti$es, as 7 thought, 7 !as %anXuishe# $ore b his fluenc than b the strength of his reasons& As !e parte# !ithout settling the point, an# !ere not to see one another again for so$e ti$e, 7 sat #o!n to put $ argu$ents in !riting, !hich 7 copie# fair an# sent to hi$& 6e ans!ere#, an# 7 replie#& Three or four letters on a si#e ha# passe#, !hen $ father happene# to fin# $ papers an# rea# the$& Without entering into the subject in #ispute, he took occasion to talk to $e about the $anner of $ !ritingW obser%e# that, though 7 ha# the a#%antage of $ antagonist in correct spelling an# pointing K!hich 7 o!e# to the printing(houseL, 7 fell far short in elegance of eJpression, in $etho#, an# in perspicuit , of !hich he con%ince# $e b se%eral instances& 7 sa! the justice of his re$arks, an# thence gre! $ore attenti%e to the $anner in !riting, an# #eter$ine# to en#ea%or an i$pro%e$ent& NAbout this ti$e 7 $et !ith an o## %olu$e of the Spectator& 7t !as the thir#& 7 ha# ne%er before seen an of the$& 7 bought it, rea# it o%er an# o%er, an# !as $uch #elighte# !ith it& 7 thought the !riting eJcellent, an# !ishe# it possible to i$itate it& With this %ie! 7 took so$e of the papers, an# $aking short hints of the senti$ents in each sentence, lai# the$ b a fe! #a s, an# then, !ithout looking at the book, trie# to co$plete the papers again, b eJpressing each hinte# senti$ent at length, an# as full as it ha# been eJpresse# before, in an suitable !or#s that shoul# co$e to han#& Then 7 co$pare# $ Spectator !ith the original, #isco%ere# so$e of $ faults, an# correcte# the$& But 7 foun# 7 !ante# a stock of !or#s, or a rea#iness in recollecting an# using the$, !hich 7 thought 7 shoul# ha%e acXuire# before that ti$e if 7 ha# gone on $aking %erses, since the continue# search for !or#s of the sa$e i$port, but of #ifferent length to suit the $easure, or of #ifferent soun# for the rh $e, !oul# ha%e lai# $e un#er a constant necessit of searching for %ariet , an# also ha%e ten#e# to fiJ that %ariet in $in#, an# $ake $e $aster of it& Therefore 7 took so$e of the tales an# turne# the$ into %erseW an#, after a ti$e, !hen 7 ha# prett !ell forgotten the prose, turne# the$ back again& N7 also so$eti$es ju$ble# $ collection of hints into confusion, an# after so$e !eeks en#ea%ore# to re#uce the$ into the best or#er before 7 began to for$ the full sentences an# co$plete the

subject& This !as to teach $e $etho# in the arrange$ent of the thoughts& B co$paring $ !ork !ith the original, 7 #isco%ere# $ faults an# a$en#e# the$W but 7 so$eti$es ha# the pleasure of fanc ing, that, in certain particulars of s$all i$port, 7 ha# been fortunate enough to i$pro%e the $etho# or the language, an# this encourage# $e to think that 7 $ight possibl in ti$e co$e to be a tolerable English !riterW of !hich 7 !as eJtre$el a$bitious& O ti$e for these eJercises an# for rea#ing !as at night, after !ork, or before it began in the $orning, or on Sun#a s, !hen 7 contri%e# to be in the printing(house alone, e%a#ing as $uch as 7 coul# the co$$on atten#ance on public !orship !hich $ father use# to eJact of $e !hen 7 !as un#er his care, an# !hich in#ee# 7 still continue# to consi#er a #ut , though 7 coul# not, as it see$e# to $e, affor# ti$e to practise it&P A Practical Oetho#& AristotleVs $etho#, though perfect in theor , has faile# in practice& 5ranklinVs $etho# is too ele$entar an# un#e%elope# to be of general use& Taking AristotleVs $etho# Krepresente# b our stan#ar# teJtbooks on rhetoricL as our gui#e, let us #e%elop 5ranklinVs $etho# into a s ste$ as %arie# an# co$plete as AristotleVs& We shall then ha%e a $etho# at the sa$e ti$e practical an# scholarl & We ha%e stu#ie# the art of !riting !or#s correctl KspellingL an# !riting sentences correctl Kgra$$arL&4 :o! !e !ish to learn to !rite sentences, paragraphs, an# entire co$positions e##ective'y& 4See the earlier %olu$eI in this series& 5irst, !e $ust for$ the habit of obser%ing the $eanings an# %alues of !or#s, the structure of sentences, of paragraphs, an# of entire co$positions as !e rea# stan#ar# literature\just as !e ha%e been tr ing to for$ the habit of obser%ing the spelling of !or#s, an# the logical relationships of !or#s in sentences& 7n or#er that !e $a kno! !hat to look for in our obser%ation !e $ust anal se a 'itt'e, but !e !ill not i$agine that !e shall learn to #o a thing b en#less talk about #oing it& Secon#, !e !ill practise in the i$itation of selections fro$ $aster !riters, in e%er case fiJing our attention on the rhetorical ele$ent each particular !riter best illustrates& This i$itation !ill be continue# until !e ha%e $astere# the subject to!ar# !hich !e are especiall #irecting our attention, an# all the subjects !hich go to the $aking of an acco$plishe# !riter& Thir#, !e !ill finall $ake in#epen#ent co$positions for oursel%es !ith a %ie! to stu# ing an# eJpressing the stock of i#eas !hich !e ha%e to eJpress& This !ill in%ol%e a stu# of the people on !ho$ !e !ish to i$press our i#eas, an# reXuire that !e constantl test the results of our !ork to see !hat the actual effect on the $in# of our au#ience is& Let us no! begin our !ork& CHAPTER I. DICTION. N+ictionP is #eri%e# fro$ the Latin dictio, a !or#, an# in rhetoric it #enotes choice of !or#s& 7n the stu# of gra$$ar !e ha%e learne# that all !or#s ha%e logical relationships in sentences, an# in so$e cases certain for$s to agree !ith particular relationships& We ha%e also taken note of Ni#io$s,P in !hich !or#s are use# !ith peculiar %alues& On the subject of 7#io$ Arlo Bates in his book NOn Writing EnglishP has so$e %er forcible re$arks& Sa s he, NAn i#io$ is the personal\if the !or# $a be allo!e#\the personal i#ios ncras of a language& 7t is a $etho# of speech !herein the genius of the race $aking the language sho!s itself as #iffering fro$ that of all other peoples& What st le is to the $an, that is i#io$ to the race& 7t is the cr stali[ation in %erbal for$s of peculiarities of race te$pera$ent\ perhaps e%en of race eccentricities English !hich is not i#io$atic beco$es at once for$al an#

lifeless, as if the tongue !ere alrea# #ea# an# its re$ains e$bal$e# in those honorable sepulchres, the philological #ictionaries& On the other han#, English !hich goes too far, an# fails of a #elicate #istinction bet!een !hat is reall an# essentiall i#io$atic an# !hat is colloXuial, beco$es at once %ulgar an# utterl !anting in that subtle Xualit of #ignit for !hich there is no better ter$ thandistinction&P4 4As eJa$ples of i#io$s Or& Bates gi%es the follo!ing) A ten(foot Kinstea# of ten(feetL poleW the use of the Nflat a#%erbP or a#jecti%e for$ in such eJpressions as Nspeak lou#&P N!alk fast,P Nthe sun shines hot,P N#rink #eepWP an# the use of prepositions a#%erbiall at the en# of a sentence, as in NWhere are ou going toYP NThe subject !hich 7 spoke to ou about,P etc& We therefore see that i#io$ is not onl a thing to justif , but so$ething to stri%e for !ith all our $ight& The use of it gi%es character to our selection of !or#s, an# better than an thing else illustrates !hat !e shoul# be looking for in for$ing our habit of obser%ing the $eanings an# uses of !or#s as !e rea#& Another thing !e ought to note in our stu# of !or#s is the s%ggestion !hich $an !or#s carr !ith the$ in a##ition to their ob%ious $eaning& 5or instance, consi#er !hat a !orl# of i#eas the $ere na$e of Lincoln or Washington or 5ranklin or :apoleon or "hrist calls up& On their face the are but na$es of $en, or possibl so$eti$es of placesW but !e cannot utter the na$e of Lincoln !ithout thinking of the !hole terrible struggle of our "i%il WarW the na$e of Washington, !ithout thinking of nobilit , patriotis$, an# self(sacrifice in a pure an# great $anW :apoleon, !ithout thinking of a$bition an# bloo#W of "hrist, !ithout lifting our e es to the sk in an attitu#e of !orship an# thanksgi%ing to Go#& So co$$on !or#s carr !ith the$ a !orl# of suggeste# thought& The !or# dr%nk calls up a picture horri# an# #isgustingW vio'et suggests blueness, s!eetness, an# innocenceW oak suggests stur# courage an# strengthW 'ove suggests all that is #ear in the histories of our o!n li%es& 8ust !hat !ill be suggeste# #epen#s largel on the person !ho hears the !or#, an# in thinking of suggestion !e $ust reflect also on the $in#s of the persons to !ho$ !e speak& The best practical eJercise for the enlarge$ent of oneVs %ocabular is translating, or !riting %erses& 5ranklin co$$en#s %erse(!riting, but it is har#l $echanical enough to be of %alue in all cases& At the sa$e ti$e, $an people are not in a position to translate fro$ a foreign languageW an# e%en if the !ere, the #anger of acXuiring foreign i#io$s an# strange uses of !or#s is so great as to offset the positi%e gain& But !e can easil eJercise oursel%es in translating one kin# of English into another, as poetr into prose, or an antiXue st le into $o#ern& To #o this the constant use of the English #ictionar !ill be necessar , an# inci#entall !e shall learn a great #eal about !or#s& As an eJa$ple of this $etho# of stu# , !e subjoin a series of notes on the passage Xuote# fro$ 5ranklin in the last chapter& 7n our stu# !e constantl ask oursel%es, N+oes this use of the !or# soun# perfectl naturalYP At e%er point !e appeal to our instinct, an# in ti$e co$e to trust it to a %er great eJtent& We e%en train it& To train our instinct for !or#s is the first great object of our stu# & :otes on 5ranklin& KSee N6o! 5ranklin Learne# to WriteP in prece#ing chapter&L 1& NThe fe$ale seJP inclu#es ani$als as !ell as hu$an beings, an# in $o#ern ti$es !e sa si$pl N!o$en,P though !hen 5ranklin !rote Nthe fe$ale seJP !as consi#ere# an elegant phrase& ,& :ote that NtheirP refers to the collecti%e noun NseJ&P {& 7f !e confine the possessi%e case to persons !e !oul# not sa Nfor #isputeVs sake,P an# in#ee# Nfor the sake of #isputeP is just as goo#, if not better, in other respects& |& N*ea# plent P is antiXue usage for Nrea# abun#ance&P Which is the strongerY ^& N*easonsP in the phrase Nstrength of his reasonsP is a si$ple an# forcible substitute for Nargu$ents&P

& N"opie# fairP sho!s an i#io$atic use of an a#jecti%e for$ !hich perhaps can be justifie#, but the co$bination has gi%en !a in these #a s to N$a#e a fair cop of&P .& Obser%e that 5ranklin uses NpointingP for p%nct%ation, an# Nprinting(houseP for printing1o##ice& & The ol# i#io$ Nen#ea%or at i$pro%e$entP has been change# to endeavor to improve, or endeavor to make improvement& 2& :ote ho! the use of the !or# sentiment has change#& We !oul# be $ore likel to sa ideas in a connection like this& 1-& 5or Nlai# the$ b ,P sa 'aid them away& 11& 5or Nlai# $e un#er necessit P !e $ight sa compe''ed me, or made it necessary that ; sho%'d& 1,& NA$en#e#P is not so co$$on no! as corrected& 1{& 5or Ne%a#ingP Katten#ance at public !orshipL !e shoul# no! sa avoiding& We Ne%a#eP $ore subtle things than atten#ance at church& There are $an other slight #ifferences in the use of !or#s !hich the stu#ent !ill obser%e& 7t !oul# be an eJcellent eJercise to !rite out, not onl this passage, but a nu$ber of others fro$ the Autobiograph , in the $ost perfect of si$ple $o#ern English& We $a also take a $o#ern !riter like ;ipling an# translate his st le into si$ple, et attracti%e an# goo# proseW an# the sa$e process $a be applie# to an of the selections in this book, si$pl tr ing to fin# eXui%alent an# if possible eXuall goo# !or#s to eJpress the sa$e i#eas, or slight %ariations of the sa$e i#eas& *obinson "rusoe, BaconVs Essa s, an# Pilgri$Vs Progress are eJcellent books to translate into $o#ern prose& The chief thing is to #o the !ork slo!l an# thoughtfull & CHAPTER II. FIGURES OF SPEECH. 7t is not an eas thing to pass fro$ the logical precision of gra$$ar to the %ague suggesti%eness of !or#s that call up !hole troops of i#eas not containe# in the si$ple i#ea for !hich a !or# stan#s& Specific i#io$s are the$sel%es at %ariance !ith gra$$ar an# logic, an# the gra$$arians are fore%er fighting the$W but !hen !e go into the %ague real$ of poetic st le, the logical $in# is lost at once& An# et it is $ore i$portant to use !or#s pregnant !ith $eaning than to be strictl gra$$atical& We $ust re#uce gra$$ar to an instinct that !ill guar# us against being contra#ictor or cru#e in our construction of sentences, an# then !e shall $ake that instinct har$oni[e !ith all the other instincts !hich a successful !riter $ust ha%e& When gra$$ar is treate# Kas !e ha%e trie# to treat itL as Nlogical instinct,P then there can be no conflict !ith other instincts& The suggesti%eness of !or#s fin#s its specific e$bo#i$ent in the so calle# Nfigures of speech&P We $ust eJa$ine the$ a little, because !hen !e co$e to such an eJpression as NThe kettle boilsP after a fe! lessons in tracing logical connections, !e are likel to sa !ithout hesitation that !e ha%e foun# an error, an absur#it & On its face it is an absur#it to sa NThe kettle boilsP !hen !e $ean NThe !ater in the kettle boils&P But reflection !ill sho! us that !e ha%e $erel con#ense# our !or#s a little& Oan i#io$s are curious con#ensations, an# $an figures of speech $a be eJplaine# as natural an# eas con#ensations& We ha%e alrea# seen such a con#ensation in N$ore co$pleteP for N$ore nearl co$plete&P The follo!ing #efinitions an# illustrations are for reference& We #o not nee# to kno! the na$es of an of these figures in or#er to use the$, an# it is altogether probable that learning to na$e an# anal se the$ !ill to so$e eJtent $ake us too self(conscious to use the$ at all& At the sa$e ti$e, the !ill help us to eJplain things that other!ise $ight pu[[le us in our stu# &

1& Si$ile& The si$plest figure of speech is the simi'e& 7t is nothing $ore or less than a #irect co$parison b the use of such !or#s as 'ike an# as& EJa$ples) 9nstable as !ater, thou shalt not eJcel& 6o! often !oul# 7 ha%e gathere# $ chil#ren together, as a hen #oth gather her broo#un#er her !ings_ The ;ing#o$ of Go# is like a grain of $ustar# see#, is like lea%en hi##en in three $easures of $eal& Their li%es gli#e on like ri%ers that !ater the !oo#lan#& Oerc #roppeth as the gentle rain fro$ hea%en upon the place beneath& ,& Oetaphor& A metaphor is an i$plie# or assu$e# co$parison& The !or#s 'ike an# as are no longer use#, but the construction of the sentence is such that the co$parison is taken for grante# an# the thing to !hich co$parison is $a#e is treate# as if it !ere the thing itself& E)amp'es) The %aliant taste of #eath but once& Stop $ houseVs ears& 6is strong $in# reele# un#er the blo!& The co$presse# passions of a centur eJplo#e# in the 5rench *e%olution& 7t !as !ritten at a !hite heat& 6e can scarcel keep the !olf fro$ the #oor& Strike !hile the iron is hot& Ourra Vs eloXuence ne%er bla[e# into su##en flashes, but its clear, placi#, an# $ello! splen#or !as ne%er o%erclou#e#& The $etaphor is the co$$onest figure of speech& Our language is a sort of bur ing(groun# of fa#e# $etaphors& Look up in the #ictionar the et $olog of such !or#s as o$vio%s, r%minating, ins%pera$'e, dainty, ponder, etc&, an# ou !ill see that the got their present $eanings through $etaphors !hich ha%e no! so fa#e# that !e no longer recogni[e the$& So$eti$es !e get into trouble b intro#ucing t!o co$parisons in the sa$e sentence or paragraph, one of !hich contra#icts the other& Thus shoul# !e sa NPilot us through the !il#erness of lifeP !e !oul# intro#uce t!o figures of speech, that of a ship being pilote# an# that of a cara%an in a !il#erness being gui#e#, !hich !oul# contra#ict each other& This is calle# a N$iJe# $etaphor&P {& Allusion& So$eti$es a $etaphor consists in a reference or allusion to a !ell kno!n passage in literature or a fact of histor & E)amp'es) +ail , !ith souls that cringe an# plot, !e Sinais cli$b an# kno! it not& K*eference to Ooses on Ot& SinaiL& 6e recei%e# the lionVs share of the profits& K*eference to the fable of the lionVs shareL& Suffer not oursel%es to be betra e# b a kiss& K*eference to the betra al of "hrist b 8u#asL& |& Personification& So$eti$es the $etaphor consists in speaking of inani$ate things or ani$als as if the !ere hu$an& This is calle# the figure of personi#ication& 7t raises the lo!er to the #ignit of the higher, an# so gi%es it $ore i$portance& E)amp'es) Earth felt the !oun#& :eJt Anger rushe#, his e es on fire& The $oping O!l #oth to the Ooon co$plain& True 6ope is s!ift an# flies !ith s!allo!Vs !ings& aice is a $onster of so frightful $ien, as to be hate# nee#s but to be seen& Speckle# aanit !ill sicken soon an# #ie& K:ote in the neJt to the last eJa$ple that the purel i$personal is raise#, not to hu$an le%el, but to that of the brute creation& Still the figure is calle# personificationL& ^& Apostrophe& When inani$ate things, or the absent, !hether li%ing or #ea#, are a##resse# as if the !ere li%ing an# present, !e ha%e a figure of speech calle# apostrophe& This figure of speech gi%es ani$ation to the st le& E)amp'es) O *o$e, *o$e, thou hast been a ten#er nurse to $e& Blo!, !in#s, an# crack our cheeks& Take her, O Bri#egroo$, ol# an# gra _ & Antithesis& The prece#ing figures ha%e been base# on likeness& :ntithesis is a figure of speech in !hich opposites are contraste#, or one thing is set against another& "ontrast is al$ost as po!erful as co$parison in $aking our i#eas clear an# %i%i#& E)amp'es) KOacaula , $ore than an other !riter, habituall uses antithesesL& Saul, seeking his fatherVs asses, foun# hi$self turne# into a king& 5it the sa$e intellect to a $an an# it is a bo!stringW to a !o$an an# it is a harp(string& 7 thought that this $an ha# been a lor# a$ong !its, but 7 fin# that he is onl a !it a$ong lor#s& Better to reign in hell than to ser%e in hea%en& 5or fools rush in !here angels fear to trea#&

.& Oeton $ & Besi#es the figures of likeness an# unlikeness, there are others of Xuite a #ifferent kin#& <etonymy consists in the substitution for the thing itself of so$ething closel associate# !ith it, as the sign or s $bol for the thing s $boli[e#, the cause for the effect, the instru$ent for the user of it, the container for the thing containe#, the $aterial for the thing $a#e of it, etc& E)amp'es) 6e is a sla%e to the c%p& Strike for our a'tars an# our #ires& The kett'e $oi's, 6e rose an# a##resse# the chair& The pa'ace shoul# not scorn the cottage& The !atche# pot ne%er boils& The re# coats turne# an# fle#& ;ron baile# an# 'eadraine# upon the ene$ & The pen is $ightier than the sword& & S nec#oche& There is a special kin# of $eton $ !hich is gi%en the #ignit of a separate na$e& 7t is the substitution of the part for the !hole or the !hole for the part& The %alue of it consists in putting for!ar# the thing best kno!n, the thing that !ill appeal $ost po!erfull to the thought an# feeling& E)amp'es) "o$e an# trip it as ou go, on the light fantastic toe& A$erican co$$erce is carrie# in British $ottoms& 6e bought a hun#re# head of cattle& 7t is a %illage of fi%e hun#re# chimneys& 6e crie#, NA sail, a sail_P The bus #ingers toll on& EJercise& 7n#icate the figure of speech use# in each of the follo!ing sentences) 1& "o$e, seeling :ight, scarf up the ten#er e e of pitiful +a & ,& The coat #oes not $ake the $an& {& 5ro$ t!o hun#re# obser%atories in Europe an# A$erica, the glorious artiller of science nightl assaults the skies& |& The la$p is burning& ^& Blo!, blo!, thou !inter !in#, thou art not so unkin# as $anVs ingratitu#e& & 6is reasons are as t!o grains of !heat hi# in t!o bushels of chaff& .& Laughter an# tears are $eant to turn the !heels of the $achiner of sensibilit W one is !in# po!er, the other !ater po!er& & When ou are an an%il, hol# ou stillW !hen ou are a ha$$er, strike our fill& 2& Sa%e the er$ine fro$ pollution& 1-& There is a ti#e in the affairs of $en, !hich, taken at the floo#, lea#s on to fortuneW o$itte#, all the %o age of their li%es is boun# in shallo!s an# in $iseries& Turn each of the abo%e sentences into plain language& ;e ) Kthe nu$bers in parantheses in#icate the figure of speech in the sentences as nu$bere# abo%eL& 1& K|LW ,& K.LW {& K,LW |& K.LW ^& K^LW & K1LW .& K, an# LW & K, an# LW 2& K.LW 1-& K,L& CHAPTER III. STYLE. There ha%e been $an #efinitions of st leW but the #isputes of the rhetoricians #o not concern us& Sty'e, as the !or# is co$$onl un#erstoo#, is the choice an# arrange$ent of !or#s in sentences an# of sentences in paragraphs as that arrange$ent is effecti%e in eJpressing our $eaning an# con%incing our rea#ers or hearers& A good sty'e is one that is effecti%e, an# a $ad sty'e is one !hich fails of #oing !hat the !riter !ishes to #o& There are as $an !a s of eJpressing i#eas as there are !a s of co$bining !or#s Kthat is, an infinite nu$berL, an# as $an st les as there are !riters& :one of us !ishes precisel to get the st le of an one elseW but !e !ant to for$ a goo# one of our o!n&

We !ill briefl note the ele$ents $entione# b those !ho anal se st le, an# then pass on to concrete eJa$ples& Arrange$ent of !or#s in a sentence& The first reXuire$ent is that the arrange$ent of !or#s shoul# be logical, that is gra$$atical& The rhetorical reXuire$ents are that\ 1& One sentence, !ith one principal subject an# one principal pre#icate, shoul# tr to eJpress one thought an# no $ore& 7f !e tr to $iJ t!o thoughts in the sa$e sentence, !e shall co$e to grief& Like!ise, !e shall fail if !e atte$pt to $iJ t!o subjects in the sa$e paragraph or co$position& ,& The !or#s in the sentence shoul# be arrange# that those !hich are e$phatic !ill co$e in the e$phatic places& The beginning an# the en# of a sentence are e$phatic positions, the place before an $ark of punctuation is usuall e$phatic, an# an !or# not in its usual place !ith relation to the !or# it $o#ifies gra$$aticall is especiall e$phatic& We $ust learn the e$phatic positions b eJperience, an# then our instinct !ill gui#e us& The !hole subject is one of the relati%e %alues of !or#s& {& The !or#s in a sentence shoul# follo! each other in such a si$ple, logical or#er that one lea#s on to another, an# the !hole $eaning flo!s like a strea$ of !ater& The rea#er shoul# ne%er be co$pelle# to stop an# look back to see ho! the %arious i#eas Nhang together&P This is the rhetorical si#e of the logical relationship !hich gra$$ar reXuires& :ot onl $ust gra$$atical rules be obe e#, but logical instinct $ust be satisfie# !ith the linking of i#ea to i#ea to $ake a co$plete thought& An# the sa$e la! hol#s goo# in linking sentences into paragraphs an# paragraphs into !hole co$positions& These three reXuire$ents ha%e been na$e# 9nit , Oass, an# "oherence& The %ariations in sentences #ue to e$phasis ha%e gi%en rise to a rhetorical #i%ision of sentences into t!o classes, calle# loose an# perio#ic& A loose sentence is one in !hich !or#s follo! each other in their natural or#er, the $o#ifiers of the %erb of course follo!ing the %erb& Often $an of these $o#ifiers are not strictl necessar to co$plete the sense an# a perio# $a be inserte# at so$e point before the close of the sentence !ithout #estro ing its gra$$atical co$pleteness& The a##ition of phrases an# clauses not strictl reXuire# constitutes 'ooseness of sentence structure& A perio#ic sentence is one !hich is not gra$$aticall or logicall co$plete till the en#& 7f the sentence is so$e!hat long, the $in# is hel# in suspense until the last !or# is uttere#& E)amp'e& The follo!ing is a loose sentence) N7 stoo# on the bri#ge at $i#night, as the clocks !ere striking the hour&P The sa$e sentence beco$es perio#ic b transposition of the less i$portant pre#icate $o#ifiers, thus\NAt $i#night, as the clocks !ere striking the hour, 7 stoo# on the bri#ge&P 7t !ill be obser%e# that the perio#ic for$ is a#apte# to orator an# si$ilar for$s of eloXuent !riting in !hich the $in# of the rea#er or hearer is ke e# up to a high pitch of eJpectanc W !hile the loose sentence is the one co$$on in all si$ple narrati%e an# uneJcite# state$ent& ualities of St le& Writers on rhetoric note three essential Xualities of st le, na$el c'earness, #orce, an# e'egance& "learness of st le is the #irect result of clearness an# si$plicit of thought& 9nless !e ha%e $astere# our thought in e%er particular before tr ing to eJpress it, confusion is ine%itable& At the sa$e ti$e, if !e ha%e $astere# our thought perfectl , an# et eJpress it in language not un#erstoo# b the persons to !ho$ an# for !ho$ !e !rite or speak, our st le !ill not be clear to the$, an# !e shall ha%e faile# in con%e ing our thoughts as $uch as if !e ha# ne%er $astere# the$& 5orce is reXuire# to pro#uce an effect on the $in# of the hearer& 6e $ust not onl un#erstan# !hat !e sa , but ha%e so$e e$otion in regar# to itW else he !ill ha%e forgotten our !or#s before !e ha%e fairl uttere# the$& 5orce is the appeal !hich !or#s $ake to the feeling, as clearness is the appeal

the $ake to the un#erstan#ing& Elegance is reXuire# onl in !riting !hich purports to be goo# literature& 7t is useful but not reXuire# in business letters, or in ne!spaper !ritingW but it is absolutel essential to higher literar art& 7t is the appeal !hich the !or#s chosen an# the arrange$ent selecte# $ake to our sense of beaut & That !hich is not beautiful has no right to be calle# Nliterature,P an# a st le !hich #oes not possess the subtle ele$ents of beaut is not a strictl Nliterar P st le& Oost of us b persistent effort can conXuer the subject of clearness& E%en the hu$blest person shoul# not open his $outh or take up his pen %oluntaril unless he can eJpress hi$self clearl W an# if he has an thought to eJpress that is !orth eJpressing, an# !ants to eJpress it, he !ill sooner or later fin# a satisfactor !a of eJpressing it& The thing that $ost of us !ish to fin# out is, ho! to !rite !ith force& 5orce is attaine# in %arious !a s, su$$ari[e# as follo!s) 1& B using !or#s !hich are in the$sel%es eJpressi%e& ,& B placing those !or#s in e$phatic positions in the sentence& {& B %ar ing the length an# for$ of successi%e sentences so that the rea#er or hearer shall ne%er be !earie# b $onoton & |& B figures of speech, or constant co$parison an# illustration, an# $aking !or#s suggest ten ti$es as $uch as the sa & ^& B keeping persistentl at one i#ea, though fro$ e%er possible point of %ie! an# !ithout repetition of an kin#, till that i#ea has sunk into the $in# of the hearer an# has been full co$prehen#e#& 5orce is #estro e# b the\aice of repetition !ith slight change or a##itionW aice of $onoton in the !or#s, sentences or paragraphsW aice of o%er(literalness an# eJactnessW aice of tr ing to e$phasi[e $ore than one thing at a ti$eW aice of using $an !or#s !ith little $eaningW or !or#s barren of suggesti%eness an# #estitute of figures of speechW an# its opposite, the aice of o%erloa#ing the st le !ith so $an figures of speech an# so $uch suggestion an# %ariet as to #isgust or confuse& These %ices ha%e been na$e# tautolog , #r ness, an# Nfine !riting&P Without #oubt the si$plest narration is the har#est kin# of co$position to !rite, chiefl because !e #o not reali[e ho! har# it is& The first necessit for a stu#ent is to reali[e the enor$ous reXuire$ents for a perfect $aster of st le& The #ifficulties !ill not appear to the one !ho tries original co$position b !a of practice, since there is no !a of Nchecking upP his !ork& 6e $a Kor $a notL be a!are that !hat he is #oing #oes not pro#uce the effect that the !riting of a $aster pro#ucesW but if he #oes reali[e it, he !ill certainl fail to #isco%er !herein his o!n !eakness consists& The onl effecti%e !a of $aking the #isco%er is that #escribe# b 5ranklin, an# there is no $asterpiece of literature better to practise upon than *uskinVs NThe ;ing of the Gol#en *i%er&P 9nlike $uch beautiful an# po!erful !riting, it is so si$ple that a chil# can un#erstan# it& "o$plete co$prehension of the $eaning is absolutel necessar before an skill in eJpressing that $eaning can be looke# for, an# an atte$pt to i$itate that !hich is not perfectl clear !ill not gi%e skill& An# !ith this si$plicit there is consu$$ate art& *uskin uses nearl all the #e%ices #escribe# in the prece#ing pages& Let us look at so$e of these in the first three paragraphs of *uskinVs stor ) 7n a seclu#e# an# $ountainous part of St ria, there !as, in ol# ti$e, a %alle of $ost surprising an# luJuriant fertilit & 7t !as surroun#e# on all si#es b steep an# rock $ountains rising into peaks !hich !ere al!a s co%ere# !ith sno! an# fro$ !hich a nu$ber of torrents #escen#e# in constant cataracts& One of these fell !est!ar#, o%er the face of a crag so high that, !hen the sun ha# set to e%er thing else, an# all belo! !as #arkness, his bea$s still shone full upon this !aterfall, so that it looke# like a sho!er of gol#& 7t !as, therefore, calle# b the people of the neighborhoo# the Gol#en *i%er=&> 7t !as strange that none of these strea$s fell into the %alle itself& The all #escen#e# on the other si#e of the $ountains, an# !oun# through broa# plains an# b populous cities& But the

clou#s !ere #ra!n so constantl to the sno! hills, an# reste# so softl in the circular hollo!, that, in ti$e of #rought an# heat, !hen all the countr roun# !as burnt up, there !as still rain in the little %alle W an# its crops !ere so hea% , an# its ha so high, an# its apples so re#, an# its grapes so blue, an# its !ine so rich, an# its hone so s!eet, that it !as a $ar%el to e%er one !ho behel# it, an# !as co$$onl calle# the Treasure aalle & The !hole of this little %alle belonge# to three brothers, calle# Sch!art[, 6ans, an# Gluck& Sch!art[ an# 6ans, the t!o el#er brothers, !ere %er ugl $en, !ith o%er!hel$ing e ebro!s an# s$all, #ull e es, !hich !ere al!a s half shut, so that ou coul#nVt see into the$, an# al!a s fancie# the sa! %er far into yo%& The li%e# b far$ing the Treasure aalle , an# %er goo# far$ers the !ere& The kille# e%er thing that #i# not pa for its eating& The shot the blackbir#s, because the pecke# the fruitW an# kille# the he#ge(hogs, lest the shoul# suck the co!sW the poisone# the crickets for eating the cru$bs in the kitchenW an# s$othere# the cica#as, !hich use# to sing all su$$er in the li$e(trees& The !orke# their ser%ants !ithout an !ages, till the coul# not !ork an $ore, an# then Xuarrelle# !ith the$ an# turne# the$ out of #oors !ithout pa ing the$& 7t !oul# ha%e been %er o##, if, !ith such a far$, an# such a s ste$ of far$ing, the ha#nVt got %er richW an# %er rich the #i# get& The generall contri%e# to keep their corn b the$ till it !as %er #ear, an# then sell it for t!ice its %alueW the ha# heaps of gol# l ing about on their floors, et it !as ne%er kno!n that the ha# gi%en so $uch as a penn or a crust in charit W the ne%er !ent to $assW gru$ble# perpetuall at pa ing tithesW an# !ere, in a !or#, of so cruel an# grin#ing a te$per, as to recei%e fro$ all those !ith !ho$ the ha# an #ealings, the nickna$e of the NBlack Brothers&P The oungest brother, Gluck, !as as co$pletel oppose#, in both appearance an# character, to his seniors as coul# possibl be i$agine# or #esire#& 6e !as not abo%e t!el%e ears ol#, fair, blue( e e#, an# kin# in te$per to e%er li%ing thing& 6e #i# not, of course, agree particularl !ell !ith his brothers, or rather the #i# not agree !ith hi$& 6e !as usuall appointe# to the honorable office of turnspit, !hen there !as an thing to roast, !hich !as not oftenW for, to #o the brothers justice, the !ere har#l less sparing upon the$sel%es than upon other people& At other ti$es he use# to clean the shoes, the floors, an# so$eti$es the plates, occasionall getting !hat !as left on the$, b !a of encourage$ent, an# a !holeso$e Xuantit of #r blo!s, b !a of e#ucation& The author starts out !ith a perio#ic sentence, beginning !ith a pre#icate $o#ifier an# placing the subject last& This ser%es to fiJ our attention fro$ the first& The arrange$ent also thro!s the e$phasis on Nsurprising an# luJuriant fertilit &P The last !or# is the essential one in con%e ing the $eaning, though a $o#ifier of the si$ple subject noun N%alle &P The neJt sentence is a loose one& After catching the attention of the rea#er, !e $ust not bur#en his $in# too $uch till he gets intereste#& We $ust $o%e along naturall an# easil , an# this *uskin #oes& The thir# sentence is perio#ic again& We are no! a!ake an# able to bear transposition for the sake of e$phasis& *uskin first e$phasi[es Nso high,P the a#jecti%e being place# after its noun, an# then lea#s the !a to the chief e$phasis, !hich co$es on the !or# Ngol#,P the last in the sentence& There is also an antithesis bet!een the #arkness belo! an# the light on the peak !hich is bright enough to turn the !ater into gol#& This also helps to e$phasi[e Ngol#&P We ha%e no! ha# three long sentences an# the fourth sentence, !hich conclu#es this portion of the subject, is a short one& NGol#en *i%erP is e$phasi[e# b being thro!n Xuite to the en#, a little out of its natural or#er, !hich !oul# ha%e been i$$e#iatel after the %erb& The e$phasis on Ngol#P in the prece#ing sentence prepare# the !a for the e$phasis on NGol#en *i%erWP an# b looking back !e see ho! e%er !or# has been easil , gracefull lea#ing up to this conclusion& Or#inaril this !oul# be the en# of a paragraph& We $a call the first four sentences a Nsub( paragraph&P The capital letters in NGol#en *i%erP $ark the #i%ision to the e e, an# the e$phasis $arks the #i%ision to the $in#& We #o not begin !ith a ne! paragraph, si$pl because the subject that follo!s is $ore closel connecte# !ith the first four sentences than !ith the paragraph !hich follo!s&

Beginning !ith N7t !as strange that none of these strea$sP etc&, !e ha%e t!o rather short, si$ple, loose sentences, !hich intro#uce us in a $ost natural $anner to the subject to be presente#, an# prepare the !a for a %er long, so$e!hat co$plicate# sentence, full of antitheses, en#ing !ith the e$phatic !or#s NTreasure aalle &P These t!o !or#s are to this part of the paragraph !hat the !or#s NGol#en *i%erP !ere to the first partW an# besi#es, !e see before us the si$ple, beautiful picture of the Gol#en *i%er abo%e the Treasure aalle , presente# in !or#s !hose po!er an# grace !e cannot fail to appreciate& The secon# paragraph goes for!ar# in the $ost $atter(of(course an# eas !a & The first sentence is short, but the secon# is longer, !ith a pleasing %ariation of long an# short phrases, an# it en#s !ith a contrast $arke# to the e e b the italic !or#s Nthe$P an# N ou&P The neJt t!o sentences are Xuite short, an# %ariet is gi%en b the si$ple transposition in Nan# %er goo# far$ers the !ere&P This is no $ore than a graceful little t!irl to relie%e an possible $onoton & The fourth sentence in the paragraph is also %er short, purposel $a#e so for e$phasis& 7t gi%es in a !or# !hat the follo!ing long sentence presents in #etail& An# obser%e the constant %ariation in the for$ of this long sentence) in the first clause !e ha%e NThe shot because,P in the secon#, Nan# kille# lestP Kthe subject of kille# being i$plie#, but its place supplie# b an#L, !hile in the thir#, the subject of the %erb is again eJpresse#, an# then !e ha%e the prepositional for$ Nfor eatingP instea# of the conjunction an# %erb in a subor#inate sentence& Ooreo%er !e ha%e three #ifferent %erbs $eaning the sa$e thing\shot, kille#, poisone#& B the %ariation *uskin a%oi#s $onoton W et b the si$ilarit he gains e$phasis& The likeness of the successi%e clauses is as i$portant as their #ifference& There is also in each an i$plie# contrast, bet!een the se%ere penalt an# the slight offense& B i$plication each !or# gi%es an a##e# touch to the picture of har#ness an# cruelt of the t!o brothers& *uskin fin#s a #o[en #ifferent !a s of illustrating the i$portant state$ent he $a#e in the secon# sentence Kthe first sentence being $erel intro#uctor L& An# at the en# of the paragraph !e ha%e the !hole su$$e# up in a long sentence full of #eliberate rather than i$plie# contrasts, !hich cul$inate in the t!o !or#s NBlack Brothers&P 7t is eas to see that $uch of the strength of these t!o paragraphs lies in the continue# an# repeate# use of contrast& The first paragraph, !ith its beautiful #escription of the NGol#en *i%erP an# the NTreasure aalle ,P is itself a perfect contrast to the secon#, !ith its NBlack BrothersP an# all their $eannessW an# !e ha%e alrea# seen that the secon# paragraph itself is fille# !ith antitheses& 7n these t!o paragraphs !e ha%e but t!o si$ple i#eas, that of the place !ith all its beaut , an# that of the brothers !ith all their ugliness& *uskin $ight ha%e spoken of the$ in t!o sentences, or e%en in oneW but as a $atter of fact, in or#er to $ake us think long enough about these t!o things, he takes the$ one at a ti$e an# gi%es us glints, like the reflections fro$ the #ifferent facets of a #ia$on# slo!l turne# about in the light& Each is al$ost like the prece#ing, et a little #ifferentW an# !hen !e ha%e seen all in succession, !e un#erstan# each better, an# the !hole subject is %i%i#l i$presse# on our $in#s& 7n the thir# paragraph !e ha%e still another contrast in the #escription of little Gluck& This paragraph is shorter, but the sa$e #e%ices are use# that !e foun# in the prece#ing& 7n these three paragraphs the follo!ing points are !ell illustrate#) 1& Each paragraph #e%elops one subject, !hich has a natural relation to !hat prece#es an# !hat follo!sW ,& Each i#ea is presente# in a succession of s$all #etails !hich follo! in eas , logical or#er one after the otherW {& There is constant %ariet an# contrast, #ifference !ith likeness an# likeness !ith #ifference&

CHAPTER IV. HU+OR, A##ison, Ste%enson, La$b& Oere correctness in sentence structure Kgra$$arL $a be purel scientificW but the art of rhetoric is so !rappe# up !ith hu$an e$otion that the stu# of hu$an nature counts for infinitel $ore than the theor of arrange$ent, figures of speech, etc&, 9nless the stu#ent has so$e i#ea ho! the hu$an $in# !orks Khis o!n $in# an# the $in#s of his rea#ersL, he !ill $ake little or no progress in his stu# of this subject& Professional teachers ignore this al$ost co$pletel , an# that is one reason !h the so often failW an# it is also a reason !h persons !ho #o not go to the$ for training so often succee#) the latter class fin#s that kno!le#ge of the hu$an heart $akes up for $an #eficiencies& The first i$portant consi#eration is good nat%re& 7t is not often that !e can use !or#s to co$pelW !e $ust !inW an# it is an ol# pro%erb that N$ore flies are caught !ith $olasses than !ith %inegar&P The no%ice in !riting is al!a s too serious, e%en to $orbi#ness, too Nfierce,P too arrogant an# #o$ineering in his !hole thought an# feeling& So$eti$es such a person co$pels attention, but not often& The uni%ersal !a is to attract, !in o%er, please& Oost of the arts of for$al rhetoric are arts of $aking language pleasingW but !hat is the %alue of kno!ing the theor in regar# to these #e%ices !hen the spirit of pleasing is absentY We $ust go at our !ork gentl an# goo#(nature#l , an# then there !ill be no straining or $orbi#ness or repulsi%eness of $anner& But all this fin#s its consu$$ation in !hat is calle# h%mor& 6u$or is a thing that can be culti%ate#, e%en learne#W an# it is one of the $ost i$portant things in the !hole art of !riting& We !ill not atte$pt to sa just !hat hu$or is& The effort coul# bring no results of %alue& Suffice it to sa that there is i$plante# in $ost of us a sense of the ri#iculous\of the incongruous& 7f a thing is a little too big or a little too s$all for the place it is inten#e# to fill, for so$e occult reason !e regar# it as funn & The #ifference of a hair see$s to tickle us, !hereas a great #ifference #oes not pro#uce that kin# of effect at all& We $a secure hu$or b intro#ucing into our !riting the slightest possible eJaggeration !hich !ill result in the slightest possible incongruit & Of course this presupposes that !e un#erstan# the facts in a $ost thorough an# #elicate !a & Our language is not precisel representati%e of things as the are, but it pro%es better than an other language that !e kno! just !hat the truth is& 6u$or is the touchstone b !hich !e ought to tr oursel%es an# our !ork& 7t !ill pre%ent our getting %er far a!a fro$ !hat is nor$al an# natural& So $uch for its effect on oursel%es& To our rea#ers it pro%es that !e are goo#(nature#, honest, an# #eter$ine# to be agreeable& Besi#es, it $akes an appeal to the$ on their !eakest si#e& 5e! people can resist a joke& There is ne%er an occasion for the$ to culti%ate resistance& So there is no $ore certain !a b !hich !e can get Xuickl an# ine%itabl into their confi#ence an# fello!ship& When once !e are on goo# ter$s !ith the$ the !ill listen to us !hile !e sa an thing !e $a ha%e to sa & Of course !e shall often ha%e $an serious things to sa W but hu$or !ill open the !a for us to sa the$ better than an other agenc & 7t is to be note# that hu$or is slighter an# $ore #elicate than an other for$ of !it, an# that it is use# b serious an# acco$plishe# !riters& 7t is the ele$ent of success in nearl all essa (!riting, especiall in lettersW an# the business $an !ill fin# it his $ost po!erful !eapon in a#%ertising& 7ts %alue is to be seen b uses so %arious& The stu#ent is in%ite# to stu# three eJa$ples of hu$or& The first is A##isonVs NA#%ice in Lo%e&P 7t is ob%ious that this subject coul# not %er !ell be treate# in an other !a & 7t is too #elicate for

an thing but #elicate hu$or, for hu$or can han#le subjects !hich !oul# be i$possible for an other kin# of language& Besi#es, the senti$ent !oul# be likel to nauseate us b its eJcess or its $orbi#it , eJcept for the health salt of hu$or& 6u$or $akes this essa instructi%e an# interesting& :eJt !e present t!o letters fro$ Ste%enson& 6ere !e see that hu$or $akes co$$onplace things interesting& 6o! #ea#l #ull !oul# be the #etails Ste%enson gi%es in these letters but for the enli%en$ent of hu$or_ B !hat other $etho# coul# an thing !orth rea#ing ha%e been gotten out of the factsY The selection fro$ "harles La$b is an illustration of ho! hu$or $a sa%e the utterl absur# fro$ being unrea#able& La$b ha# absolutel nothing to sa !hen he sat #o!n to !rite this letterW an# et he contri%e# to be a$using, if not actuall interesting& The $aster of hu$or can #ra! upon the riches of his o!n $in#, an# thereb e$bellish an# enli%en an subject he $a #esire to !rite upon& Of these three selections, the easiest to i$itate is A##ison& 5irst, !e shoul# note the ol#(fashione# phrasing an# choice of !or#s, an# perhaps translate A##ison into si$ple, i#io$atic, $o#ern English, altering as little as possible& We note that the letter offere# b A##ison is purposel fille# !ith all the faults of rhetoric !hich !e ne%er fin# in his o!n !riting& A##isonVs hu$orous i$itation of these faults gi%es us t!ice as goo# a lesson as an possible eJa$ple of real faults $a#e b so$e !riter unconsciousl & 7n Ste%ensonVs letters !e see the %alue of !hat has been calle# Nthe $agic !or#&P :earl the !hole of his hu$or consists in selecting a !or# !hich suggests ten ti$es as $uch as it eJpresses on its face& There is a !hole !orl# of fun in this suggestion& So$eti$es it is $erel co$$onplace punning, as !hen he speaks of the N$enialP of Nhigh +utch eJtractionP as et Nonl partiall eJtracte#WP an# again it is the #elicate insinuation containe# in spelling NParcP !ith a c, for that one letter gi%es us an entire foreign at$osphere, an# the #isproportion bet!een the s$allness of the letter an# the eJtent of the suggesti%eness touches our sense of the ri#iculous& The for$ of stu# of these passages $a be slightl altere#& 7nstea# of $aking notes an# re!riting eJactl as the original authors !rote, !e shoul# keep the original open before us an# tr to pro#uce so$ething slightl #ifferent in the sa$e %ein& We $a suppose the letter on lo%e !ritten b a $an instea# of b a !o$an& Of course its character !ill be Xuite #ifferent, though eJactl the sa$e characteristics !ill be illustrate#& This change !ill reXuire an alteration in al$ost e%er sentence of the essa & Our effort shoul# be to see ho! little change in the !or#ing !ill be reXuire# b this one change in subjectW though of course !e shoul# al!a s $o#erni[e the phrasing& 7n the case of Ste%enson, !e $a suppose that !e are !riting a si$ilar letter to frien#s, but fro$ so$e other cit than San 5rancisco& We $a i$itate La$b b #escribing our feelings !hen afflicte# b so$e other ail$ent than a col#& ADVICE IN LOVE. B 8oseph A##ison& 7t is an ol# obser%ation, !hich has been $a#e of politicians !ho !oul# rather ingratiate, the$sel%es !ith their so%ereign, than pro$ote his real ser%ice, that the acco$$o#ate their counsels to his inclinations, an# a#%ise hi$ to such actions onl as his heart is naturall set upon& The pri% ( counsellor of one in lo%e $ust obser%e the sa$e con#uct, unless he !oul# forfeit the frien#ship of the person !ho #esires his a#%ice& 7 ha%e kno!n se%eral o## cases of this nature& 6ipparchus !as going to $arr a co$$on !o$an, but being resol%e# to #o nothing !ithout the a#%ice of his frien# Philan#er, he consulte# hi$ upon the occasion& Philan#er tol# hi$ his $in# freel , an# represente# his $istress to hi$ in such strong colors, that the neJt $orning he recei%e# a challenge for his pains, an# before t!el%e oVclock !as run through the bo# b the $an !ho ha# aske# his a#%ice& "elia !as $ore pru#ent on the like occasionW she #esire# Leonilla to gi%e her opinion freel upon a oung fello! !ho $a#e his a##resses to her& Leonilla, to oblige her, tol# her !ith great frankness,

that she looke# upon hi$ as one of the $ost !orthless\ "elia, foreseeing !hat a character she !as to eJpect, begge# her not to go on, for that she ha# been pri%atel $arrie# to hi$ abo%e a fortnight& The truth of it is a !o$an sel#o$ asks a#%ice before she has bought her !e##ing clothes& When she has $a#e her o!n choice, for for$Vs sake she sen#s a cong/ d5/'ire to her frien#s& 7f !e look into the secret springs an# $oti%es that set people at !ork on these occasions, an# put the$ upon asking a#%ice, !hich the ne%er inten# to takeW 7 look upon it to be none of the least, that the are incapable of keeping a secret !hich is so %er pleasing to the$& A girl longs to tell her confi#ant that she hopes to be $arrie# in a little ti$e, an#, in or#er to talk of the prett fello! that #!ells so $uch in her thoughts, asks her gra%el , !hat she !oul# a#%ise her to in a case of so $uch #ifficult & Wh else shoul# Oelissa, !ho ha# not a thousan# poun#s in the !orl#, go into e%er Xuarter of the to!n to ask her acXuaintance !hether the !oul# a#%ise her to take To$ To!nl , that $a#e his a##resses to her !ith an estate of fi%e thousan# a earY VTis %er pleasant on this occasion to hear the la# propose her #oubts, an# to see the pains she is at to get o%er the$& 7 $ust not here o$it a practice that is in use a$ong the %ainer part of our o!n seJ, !ho !ill often ask a frien#Vs a#%ice, in relation to a fortune !ho$ the are ne%er likel to co$e at& Will 6one co$b, !ho is no! on the %erge of threescore, took $e asi#e not long since, an# ask $e in his $ost serious look, !hether 7 !oul# a#%ise hi$ to $arr $ La# Bett Single, !ho, b the !a , is one of the greatest fortunes about to!n& 7 stare# hi$ full in the face upon so strange a XuestionW upon !hich he i$$e#iatel ga%e $e an in%entor of her je!els an# estate, a##ing, that he !as resol%e# to #o nothing in a $atter of such conseXuence !ithout $ approbation& 5in#ing he !oul# ha%e an ans!er, 7 tol# hi$, if he coul# get the la# Vs consent, he ha# $ine& This is about the tenth $atch !hich, to $ kno!le#ge, Will has consulte# his frien#s upon, !ithout e%er opening his $in# to the part herself& 7 ha%e been engage# in this subject b the follo!ing letter, !hich co$es to $e fro$ so$e notable oung fe$ale scribe, !ho, b the contents of it, see$s to ha%e carrie# $atters so far that she is ripe for asking a#%iceW but as 7 !oul# not lose her goo#(!ill, nor forfeit the reputation !hich 7 ha%e !ith her for !is#o$, 7 shall onl co$$unicate the letter to the public, !ithout returning an ans!er to it& NOr& Spectator, :o!, sir, the thing is this) Or& Shapel is the prettiest gentle$an about to!n& 6e is %er tall, but not too tall neither& 6e #ances like an angel& 6is $outh is $a#e 7 #o not kno! ho!, but it is the prettiest that 7 e%er sa! in $ life& 6e is al!a s laughing, for he has an infinite #eal of !it& 7f ou #i# but see ho! he rolls his stockings_ 6e has a thousan# prett fancies, an# 7 a$ sure, if ou sa! hi$, ou !oul# like hi$, he is a %er goo# scholar, an# can talk Latin as fast as English& 7 !ish ou coul# but see hi$ #ance& :o! ou $ust un#erstan# poor Or& Shapel has no estateW but ho! can he help that, ou kno!Y An# et $ frien#s are so unreasonable as to be al!a s teasing $e about hi$, because he has no estate) but 7 a$ sure he has that that is better than an estateW for he is a goo#(nature#, ingenious, $o#est, ci%il, tall, !ell(bre#, han#so$e $an, an# 7 a$ oblige# to hi$ for his ci%ilities e%er since 7 sa! hi$& 7 forgot to tell ou that he has black e es, an# looks upon $e no! an# then as if he ha# tears in the$& An# et $ frien#s are so unreasonable, that the !oul# ha%e $e be unci%il to hi$& 7 ha%e a goo# portion !hich the cannot hin#er $e of, an# 7 shall be fourteen on the ,2th #a of August neJt, an# a$ therefore !illing to settle in the !orl# as soon as 7 can, an# so is Or& Shapel & But e%er bo# 7 a#%ise !ith here is poor Or& Shapel Vs ene$ & 7 #esire, therefore, ou !ill gi%e $e our a#%ice, for 7 kno! ou are a !ise $an) an# if ou a#%ise $e !ell, 7 a$ resol%e# to follo! it& 7 heartil !ish ou coul# see hi$ #ance, an# a$, NSir, our $ost hu$ble ser%ant& B& +&P N6e lo%es our Spectator $ightil &P :otes& A##isonVs object in !riting this paper is largel serious) he !ishes to criticise an# correct $anners an# $orals& 6e is satirical, but so goo#(hu$ore# in his satire that no one coul# be offen#e#& 6e also contri%es to gi%e the i$pression that he refers to Nthe other fello!,P not to ou& This #elicac an# tact are as i$portant in the !riter as in the #iplo$at, for the !riter Xuite as $uch as the #iplo$at

li%es b fa%or& A##ison is not a %er strict !riter, an# his !orks ha%e gi%en eJa$ples for the critics b the score& One of these is seen in Nbegge# her not to go on, #or1that she ha# been pri%atel $arrie#)P Nbegge#P an# Nfor thatP #o not go !ell together& To a $o#ern rea#er such a phrasing as N7f !e look into 7 look upon it to beP etc&, see$s a little a!k!ar#, if not cru#eW but !e $a eJcuse these see$ing #iscrepancies as NantiXue usage,P along !ith such phrases as Na#%ise her to in a case of such #ifficult P an# Nto hear the la# propose her #oubts, an# to see the pains she is at to get o%er the$&P N5ortune !ho$P is e%i#entl a personification& The use of party in Nto the part herselfP is no! reckone# an A$ericanis$ K_L NEngage# in this subjectP is e%i#entl antiXuate#& We $iss in A##ison the %ariet !hich !e foun# in *uskin& 6e #oes not see$ to un#erstan# the art of alternating long an# short sentences, an# follo!ing one sentence for$ b another in Xuick succession& The fact is, English prose st le has $a#e enor$ous a#%ances since the ti$e of A##ison, an# !e learn $ore b co$paring hi$ !ith a !riter like *uskin than b #eliberatel i$itating hi$& At the sa$e ti$e his $etho# is si$pler, an# since it is so !e $a fin# hi$ a goo# !riter to begin our stu# !ith& 7n spite of an little faults !e $a fin# !ith hi$, he !as an# is a great !riter, an# !e shoul# be sure !e can !rite as we'' as he before !e reject hi$& LETTERS. B *obert Louis Ste%enson& I. O +ear Oother,\7 a$ here at last, sitting in $ roo$, !ithout coat or !aistcoat, an# !ith both !in#o! an# #oor open, an# et perspiring like a terra(cotta jug or a Gru =>Ere cheese) We ha# a %er goo# passage, !hich !e certainl #eser%e# no co$pensation for ha%ing to sleep on the cabin floor an# fin#ing absolutel nothing fit for hu$an foo# in the !hole filth e$barkation& We $a#e up for lost ti$e b sleeping on #eck a goo# part of the forenoon& When 7 a!oke, Si$pson !as still sleeping the sleep of the just, on a coil of ropes an# Kas appeare# after!ar#sL his o!n hatW so 7 got a bottle of Bass an# a pipe an# lai# hol# of an ol# 5rench$an of so$e!hat filth aspect Kfiat eJperi$entu$ in corpora %iiL to tr $ 5rench upon& 7 $a#e %er hea% !eather of it& The 5rench$an ha# a %er prett oung !ifeW but $ 5rench al!a s #eserte# $e entirel !hen 7 ha# to ans!er her, an# so she soon #re! a!a an# left $e to her lor#, !ho talke# of 5rench politics, Africa, an# #o$estic econo$ !ith great %i%acit & 5ro$ Osten# a s$oking hot journe to Brussels_ At Brussels !e !ent off after #inner to the Pare& 7f an person !ants to be happ , 7 shoul# a#%ise the Pare& 'ou sit #rinking ice# #rinks an# s$oking penn cigars un#er great ol# trees& The ban# place, co%ere# !alks, etc&, are all lit upW an# ou canVt fanc ho! beautiful !as the contrast of the great $asses of la$plit foliage an# the #ark sapphire night sk !ith just one blue star set o%erhea# in the $i##le of the largest patch& 7n the #ark !alks, too, there are cro!#s of people !hose faces ou cannot see, an# here an# there a colossal !hite statue at the corner of an alle that gi%es the place a nice, arti#icia', eighteenth(centur senti$ent& There !as a goo# #eal of su$$er lightning blinking o%erhea#, an# the black a%enues an# !hite statues leapt out e%er $inute into short(li%e# #istinctness& II. O #ear "ol%in,\An ti$e bet!een eight an# half(past nine in the $orning, a slen#er gentle$an in an ulster, !ith a %olu$e buttone# into the breast of it, $a be obser%e# lea%ing :o& - Bush an# #escen#ing Po!ell !ith an acti%e step& The gentle$an is *& L& S&W the %olu$e relates to Benja$in 5ranklin, on !ho$ he $e#itates one of his char$ing essa s& 6e #escen#s Po!ell, crosses Oarket, an# #escen#s in SiJth on a branch of the original Pine Street "offee 6ouse, no lessW 7 belie%e he

!oul# be capable of going to the original itself, if he coul# onl fin# it& 7n the branch he seats hi$self at a table co%ere# !ith !aJcloth, an# a pa$pere# $enial, of high +utch eJtraction an#, in#ee#, as et onl partiall eJtracte#, la s before hi$ a cup of coffee, a roll, an# a pat of butter, all, to Xuote the #eit , %er goo#& A!hile ago, an# 6& L& S& use# to fin# the suppl of butter insufficientW but he has no! learne# the art to eJactitu#e, an# butter an# roll eJpire at the sa$e $o$ent& 5or this refection he pa s ten cents, or fi%e pence sterling K- -s ^#L& 6alf an hour later, the inhabitants of Bush Street obser%e the sa$e slen#er gentle$an ar$e#, like George Washington, !ith his little hatchet, splitting kin#ling, an# breaking coal for his fire& 6e #oes this Xuasi(publicl upon the !in#o!(sillW but this is not to be attribute# to an lo%e of notoriet , though he is in#ee# %ain of his pro!ess !ith the hatchet K!hich he persists in calling an aJeL, an# #ail surprise# at the perpetuation of his fingers& The reason is this) that the sill is a strong, supporting bea$, an# that blo!s of the sa$e e$phasis in other parts, of his roo$ $ight knock the entire shant into hell& Thenceforth, for fro$ three to four hours, he is engage# #arkl !ith an ink( bottle& 'et he is not blacking his boots, for the onl pair that he possesses are innocent of lustre an# !ear the natural hue of the $aterial turne# up !ith cake# an# %enerable slush& The oungest chil# of his lan#la# re$arks se%eral ti$es a #a , as this strange occupant enters or Xuits the house, N+ereVs #e author&P "an it be that this bright(haire# innocent has foun# the true clue to the $ ster Y The being in Xuestion is, at least, poor enough to belong to that honorable craft& :otes& The first of these t!o letters b Ste%enson !as !ritten %er earl in his literar career, the secon# !hen he $a be suppose# to ha%e been at the height of his po!ers& 7t is interesting to see to !hat eJtent he ha# i$pro%e# his st le& :ote no! $uch suggesti%eness Kapart fro$ the apparent $eaningL is containe# in such !or#s an# phrases as Nthe !hole filth e$barkationWP N$a#e %er hea% !eather of itP Kspeaking 5renchLW NParcPW Narti#icia'P Kthe peculiar $eaning being in#icate# b italici[ingLW Npa$pere# $enialP Kthe reference being to just the oppositeL& There is a peculiar $echanical sort of hu$or in o$itting the !or# street after NBush,P NPo!ell,P etc&, an# in gi%ing the cost of his $eal so elaboratel \Nten cents, or fi%epence sterling K- -s ^#L&P The chief source of fun is in gi%ing s$all things an i$portance the #o not #eser%e& The author is $aking fun at hi$self& Of course since he $akes fun at hi$self it is goo#(nature#W but it $ust be just as goo#(nature# if one is to $ake fun of an one else& A##ison !as so successful because no suggestion of $alice e%er crept into his satire& A LETTER TO BERNARD BARTON. B "harles La$b& 8anuar 2, 1,|& +ear B& B&,\+o ou kno! !hat it is to succu$b un#er an insur$ountable #a ($are,\a N!horeson letharg ,P 5alstaff calls it,\an in#isposition to #o an thing or to be an thingW a total #ea#ness an# #istasteW a suspension of %italit W an in#ifference to localit W a nu$b, soporifical goo#( for(nothingnessW an ossification all o%erW an o ster(like insensibilit to the passing e%entsW a $in#( stuporW a bra!n #e(fiance to the nee#les of a thrust(in conscienceY +i# ou e%er ha%e a %er ba# col# !ith a total irresolution to sub$it to !ater(gruel processesY This has been for $an !eeks $ lot an# $ eJcuse& O fingers #rag hea%il o%er this paper, an# to $ thinking it is three(an#( t!ent furlongs fro$ here to the en# of this #e$i(sheet& 7 ha%e not a thing to sa , nothing is of $ore i$portance than another& 7 a$ flatter than a #enial or a pancakeW e$ptier than 8u#ge ParkeVs !ig !hen the hea# is in itW #uller than a countr stage !hen the actors are off it,\a cipher, an o_ 7 ackno!le#ge life at all onl b an occasional con%ulsional cough, an# a per$anent phleg$atic pain in the chest& 7 a$ !ear of the !orl#W life is !ear of $e& O #a is gone into t!ilight, an# 7 #onVt

think it !orth the eJpense of can#les& O !ick bath a thief in it, but 7 canVt $uster courage to snuff it& 7 inhale suffocationW 7 canVt #istinguish %eal fro$ $uttonW nothing interests $e& VTis t!el%e oVclock, an# Thurtell4 is just no! co$ing out upon the ne! #rop, 8ack ;etch alertl tucking up his greas slee%es to #o the last office of $ortalit W et cannot 7 elicit a groan or a $oral reflection& 7f ou tol# $e the !orl# !ill be at an en# to$orro!, 7 shoul# sa NWill itYP 7 ha%e not %olition enough left to #ot $ iVs, $uch less to co$b $ e ebro!sW $ e es are set in $ hea#W $ brains are gone out to see a poor relation in Ooorfiel#s, an# the #i# not sa !hen the V# co$e back againW $ skull is a Grub(street attic to let,\not so $uch as a joint(stool left in itW $ han# !rites, not 7, fro$ habit, as chickens run about a little !hen their hea#s are cut off& Oh for a %igorous fit of gout, colic, toothache\an ear!ig=>? in $ au#itor , a fl in $ %isual organsW pain is life,\the sharper the $ore e%i#ence of lifeW but this apath , this #eath_ +i# ou e%er ha%e an obstinate col#, a siJ or se%en !eeksV uninter$itting chill an# suspension of hope, fear, conscience, an# e%er thingY 'et #o 7 tr all 7 can to cure it& 7 tr !ine, an# spirits, an# s$oking, an# snuff in unsparing XuantitiesW but the all onl see$ to $ake $e !orse, instea# of better& 7 sleep in a #a$p roo$, but it #oes no goo#W 7 co$e ho$e late oV nights, but #o not fin# an %isible a$en#$ent_ Who shall #eli%er $e fro$ the bo# of this #eathY 46ange# that #a for the $ur#er of Weare& =>?An ant 7t is just fifteen $inutes after t!el%e& Thurtell is b this ti$e a goo# !a on his journe , baiting at Scorpion, perhaps& ;etch is bargaining for his cast coat an# !aistcoatW an# the 8e! #e$urs at first at three half(cro!ns, but on consi#eration that he $a get so$e!hat b sho!ing Ve$ in the to!n, finall closes& "& L& :otes& The #anger of not a#apting our $etho# to our au#itor is !ell illustrate# b the beginning of La$bVs neJt letter to the sa$e person) NO #ear sir,\That pee%ish letter of $ine, !hich !as $eant to con%e an apolog for $ incapacit to !rite, see$s to ha%e been taken b ou in too serious a light,\it !as onl $ !a of telling ou 7 ha# a se%ere col#&P La$bVs letter is fille# !ith about e%er figure of speech kno!n to rhetoricians) 7t !ill be a useful eJercise to pick the$ out& An person !ho #oes not ha%e a !ell #e%elope# sense of hu$or !ill har#l see the force of the reference to Thurtell, the $ur#erer& 7t is a !hi$sical !a of in#icating b a specific eJa$ple ho! e$pt the !riterVs brain !as, forcing hi$ to reflect on such a subject in so tri%ial a $anner& Obser%e the occasional su$$ing up of the $eaning, curiousl repeating eJactl the sa$e thing\N+i# ou e%er ha%e a %er ba# col#\YP N+i# ou e%er ha%e an obstinate col#\YP The %er short sentences su$$ari[e the %er long ones& The repetition is $eant to gi%e the i$pression of being clu$s an# stupi#& 7n #escribing harshness !e use !or#s that are harsh, in #escribing a!k!ar#ness !e use !or#s that are a!k!ar#, in #escribing brightness an# lightness !e use !or#s that are bright an# light, in the %er !or#s the$sel%es gi%ing a concrete illustration of !hat !e $ean& CHAPTER V. RIDICULE, Poe& 7 ha%e sai# that hu$or is goo#(nature# an# !inning& This is al!a s true, though the !inning of one rea#er $a be at the eJpense of so$e other& 6u$or use# to !in one at the eJpense of another is

calle# satire an# sarcasm& The si$plest for$ of using satire an# sarcas$ is in #irect ridic%'e& *i#icule, satire, an# sarcas$ are suitable for use against an open ene$ , such as a political opponent, against a public nuisance !hich ought to be suppresse#, or in behalf of higher i#eals an# stan#ar#s& The one thing that $akes this st le of little effect is anger or $orbi# intensit & While so$e thing or so$e one is attacke#, perhaps !ith ferocit , results are to be obtaine# b !inning the rea#er& So it co$es about that !inning, goo#(nature# hu$or is an essential ele$ent in reall successful ri#icule& 7f intense or $orbi# hatre# or te$per is allo!e# to #o$inate, the rea#er is repulse# an# $a#e #istrustful, an# turns a!a !ithout being affecte# in the #esire# !a at all& The follo!ing, !hich opens a little kno!n essa of E#gar Allan PoeVs, is one of the $ost perfect eJa$ples of si$ple ri#icule in the English language& We $a ha%e our #oubts as to !hether Poe !as justifie# in using such !ithering satire on poor Or& "hanningW but !e cannot help feeling that the !ork$anship is just !hat it ought to be !hen ri#icule is e$plo e# in a proper cause& Perhaps the boosting of books into public regar# b the use of great na$es is a proper an# sufficient subject for attack b ri#icule& WILLIA+ ELLERY CHANNING. B E#gar Allan Poe& 7n speaking of Or& Willia$ Eller "hanning, !ho has just publishe# a %er neat little %olu$e of poe$s, !e feel the necessit of e$plo ing the in#efinite rather than the #efinite article& 6e is a, an# b no $eans the, Willia$ Eller "hanning& 6e is onl the son4 of the great essa ist #ecease# 7t $a be sai# in his fa%or that nobo# e%er hear# of hi$& Like an honest !o$an, he has al!a s succee#e# in keeping hi$self fro$ being $a#e the subject of gossip& 6is book contains about siJt ( three things, !hich he calls poe$s, an# !hich he no #oubt seriousl supposes to be such& The are full of all kin#s of $istakes, of !hich the $ost i$portant is that of their ha%ing been printe# at all& The are not precisel English\nor !ill !e insult a great nation b calling the$ ;ickapooW perhaps the are "hanningese& We $a con%e so$e general i#ea of the$ b t!o foreign ter$s not in co$$on use\the 7talian pavoneggiarsi, Nto strut like a peacock,P an# the Ger$an !or# for Nsk (rocketing,P Schwarmerei& The are $ore preposterous, in a !or#, than an poe$s eJcept those of the author of NSa$ PatchWP for !e presu$e !e are right Kare !e notYL in taking it for grante# that the author of NSa$ PatchP is the %er !orst of all the !retche# poets that e%er eJiste# upon the earth& 7n spite, ho!e%er, of the custo$ar phrase of a $anVs N$aking a fool of hi$self,P !e #oubt if an one !as e%er a fool of his o!n free !ill an# accor#& A poet, therefore, shoul# not al!a s be taken too strictl to task& 6e shoul# be treate# !ith lenienc , an# e%en !hen #a$ne#, shoul# be #a$ne# !ith respect& :obilit of #escent, too, shoul# be allo!e# its pri%ileges not $ore in social life than in letters& The son of a great author cannot be han#le# too ten#erl b the critical 8ack ;etch& Or& "hanning $ust be hung, thatVs true& 6e $ust be hung in terrorem 22and for this there is no help un#er the sunW but then !e shall #o hi$ all $anner of justice, an# obser%e e%er species of #ecoru$, an# be especiall careful of his feelings, an# hang hi$ gingerl an# gracefull , !ith a silken cor#, as Spaniar#s hang their gran#ees of the blue bloo#, their nobles of the sangre a&%'& 4*eall the nephew& To be serious, then, as !e al!a s !ish to be, if possible, Or& "hanning K!ho$ !e suppose to be a very oung $an, since !e are preclu#e# fro$ supposing hi$ a very ol# oneL, appears to ha%e been inoculate# at the sa$e $o$ent !ith vir%s fro$ Tenn son an# fro$ "arl le, etc& :otes& The three paragraphs !hich !e ha%e Xuote# illustrate three #ifferent $etho#s of using ri#icule& The first is the si$ple one of conte$ptuous epithets]]Ncalling na$es,P as !e put it in colloXuial parlance& So long as it is goo#(hu$ore# an# the !riter #oes not sho! personal $alice, it is a goo#

!a W but the rea#er soon tires of it& A sense of fairness pre%ents hi$ fro$ listening to $ere calling of na$es %er long& So in the secon# paragraph Poe changes his $etho# to one $ore subtile) he preten#s to apologi[e an# fin# eJcuses, %irtuall sa ing to the rea#er, NOh, 7V$ going to be perfectl fair,P !hile at the sa$e ti$e the eJcuses are so absur# that the effect is ri#icule of a still $ore intense an# biting t pe& 7n the thir# paragraph Poe see$s to ans!er the rea#erVs $ental co$$ent to the effect that N ou are $erel a$using us b our cle%er !itP b asserting that he $eans to be eJtre$el serious& 6e then procee#s about his business !ith a $ost sole$n face, !hich is as a$using in literature as it is in co$ic representations on the stage& 7n practising upon this t pe of !riting one $ust select a subject that he feels to be #eci#e#l in nee# of suppression& Perhaps the $ost i$personal an# eas subject to select for practice is a popular no%el in !hich one can see absur#ities, or certain ri#iculous #epart$ents in the ne!spapers, such as the personal(a#%ice colu$n& Taking such a subject, a#apt PoeVs language to it !ith as little change as possible& CHAPTER VI. THE RHETORICAL- I+PASSIONED AND LOFTY STYLES, Oacaula an# +e uince & The fa$iliar st le of the hu$orist is al$ost uni%ersal in its a%ailabilit & 7t is the st le of con%ersation, to a great eJtent\at least of the best con%ersation,\of letter(!riting, of essa (!riting, an#, in large part, of fiction& But there are $o$ents !hen a #ifferent an# $ore, har# an# artificial st le is reXuire#& These $o$ents are fe!, an# $an people ne%er ha%e the$ at all& So$e people tr to ha%e the$ an# thereb fall into the fault of Nfine !riting&P But it is certainl %er i$portant that !hen the great $o$ent co$es !e shoul# be prepare# for it& Then a loft an# $ore or less artificial st le is #e$an#e# as i$perati%el as the ke (stone of an arch !hen the arch is co$plete# eJcept for the ke (stone& Without the abilit to !rite one loft sentence, all else that !e ha%e sai# $a co$pletel fail of its effect, ho!e%er eJcellent in itself& There are three kin#s of prose !hich $a be use# on such occasions as !e ha%e #escribe#& The lo!est an# $ost co$$on of these, as it is the $ost artificial an# $ost easil acXuire#, is the rhetorical, or oratorical, st le, the st le of all orators, the st le !hich is calle# eloXuence& Of course !e $a fin# speci$ens of it in actual orator , but it is best illustrate# in its use for !ritten co$positions in Oacaula & The neJt %ariet , $ore rarel use#, !as especiall #e%elope# if not actuall in%ente# b +e uince an# !as calle# b hi$ i$passione# prose& 7t !oul# see$ at first that language coul# go no higherW but it #oes $ount a little higher si$pl b tr ing to #o less, an# !e ha%e loftiness in its plain si$plicit , as !hen $an stan#s barehea#e# an# hu$ble in the presence of Go# alone& Oacaula Vs st le is highl artificial, but its rotun#it , its $o%e$ent, its i$pressi%e s!eep ha%e $a#e it popular& Al$ost an one can acXuire so$e of its featuresW but the ease !ith !hich it is acXuire# $akes it #angerous in a high #egree, for the !riter beco$es fascinate# !ith it an# uses it far too often& 7t is true that Oacaula use# it practicall all the ti$eW but it is %er #oubtful it Oacaula !oul# ha%e succee#e# so !ell !ith it to(#a , !hen the po!er of si$plicit is so $uch better un#erstoo#& +e uince Vs Ni$passione# proseP !as an atte$pt on his part to i$itate the effects of poetr in prose& Without #oubt he succee#e# !on#erfull W but the art is so #ifficult that no one else has eXualle# hi$ an# prose of the kin# that he !rote is not often !ritten& Still, it is !orth !hile to tr to catch so$e of his skill& 6e began to !rite this kin# of co$position in NThe "onfessions of an English Opiu$ Eater,P but he reache# perfection onl in so$e co$positions inten#e# as seXuels to that book, na$el , NSuspiria #e Profun#is,P an# NThe English Oail "oach,P !ith its Naision of Su##en +eath,P an# N+rea$(5ugueP upon the the$e of su##en #eath& What !e shoul# stri%e for abo%e all is the $ight effect of si$ple an# bare loftiness of thought&

Oasters of this st le ha%e not been fe!, an# the see$ to slip into it !ith a su##en an# eas up!ar# s!eep that can be co$pare# to nothing so trul as to the up!ar# flight of an eagle& The $ount because their spirits are loft & :o one !ho has not a loft thought has an occasion to !rite the loft st leW an# such a person !ill usuall succee# best b pa ing %er little attention to the $anner !hen he actuall co$es to !rite of high i#eas& Still, the loft st le shoul# be stu#ie# an# $astere# like an other& 7t is to be note# that all these st les are applicable chiefl if not altogether to #escription& :arration $a beco$e intense at ti$es, but its intensit #e$an#s no especial alteration of st le& +ialogue, too, $a be loft , but onl in #ra$as of passion, an# %er fe! people are calle# upon to !rite these& But it is often necessar to in#icate a loftier, a $ore serious at$osphere, an# this is effecte# b #escription of surroun#ing #etails in an ele%ate# $anner& One of the $ost natural, si$ple, an# graceful of loft #escriptions $a be foun# in *uskinVs N;ing of the Gol#en *i%er,P "hapter 777, !here he pictures the $ountain scener ) 7t !as, in#ee#, a $orning that $ight ha%e $a#e an one happ , e%en !ith no Gol#en *i%er to seek for& Le%el lines of #e! $ist la stretche# along the %alle , out of !hich rose the $ass $ountains,\their lo!er cliffs in pale gra sha#o!, har#l #istinguishable fro$ the floating %apor, but gra#uall ascen#ing till the caught the sunlight, !hich ran in sharp touches of ru## color along the angular crags, an# pierce# in long, le%el ra s, through their fringes of spear(like Pine& 5ar abo%e, shot up splintere# $asses of castellate# rock, jagge# an# shi%ere# into $ ria#s of fantastic for$s, !ith here an# there a streak of sunlit sno!, trace# #o!n their chas$s like a line of forke# lightningW an#, far be on#, an# far abo%e all these, fainter than the $orning clou#, but purer an# changeless, slept in the blue sk , the ut$ost peaks of the eternal sno!& 7f !e ask ho! this loftiness is attaine#, the repl $ust be, first, that the subject is loft an# #eser%ing of loft #escription& 7n#ee#, the #escription ne%er has a right to be loftier than the subject& Then, eJa$ining this passage in #etail, !e fin# that the !or#s are all #ignifie#, an# in their %er soun# the are loft , as for instance N$ass ,P N$ ria#s,P Ncastellate#,P Nangular crags&P The %er soun# of the !or#s see$s to correspon# to the i#ea& :otice the repetition of the letter i in NLe%el lines of #e! $ist la stretche# along the %alle &P This repetition of a letter is calle# alliteration, an# here it ser%es to suggest in an# of itself the i#ea of the le%el& The sa$e effect is pro#uce# again in Nstreak of sunlit sno!P !ith the repetition of s& The entire passage is fille# !ith a''iteration, but it is use# so naturall that ou !oul# ne%er think of it unless our attention !ere calle# to it& :eJt, !e note that the structure rises gra#uall but stea#il up!ar#& We ne%er ju$p to loftiness, an# al!a s fin# it necessar to cli$b there& N8u$ping to loftinessP is like tr ing to lift oneself b oneVs boot(straps) it is %er ri#iculous to all !ho behol# it& *uskin begins !ith a %er or#inar sentence& 6e sa s it !as a fine $orning, just as an one $ight sa it& But the neJt sentence starts su##enl up!ar# fro$ the #ea# le%el, an# to the en# of the paragraph !e rise, terrace on terrace, b splen#i# s!eeps an# jagge# cliffs, till at the en# !e reach Nthe eternal sno!&P EJercise& The stu# of the follo!ing selections fro$ Oacaula an# +e uince $a be con#ucte# on a plan a trifle #ifferent fro$ that heretofore e$plo e#& The present !riter spent t!o hours each #a for t!o !eeks rea#ing this passage fro$ Oacaula o%er an# o%er) then he !rote a short essa on NOacaula as a Oo#el of St le,P tr ing to #escribe Oacaula Vs st le as forcibl an# skillfull as Oacaula #escribes the Puritans& The resulting paper #i# not appear to be an i$itation of Oacaula , but it ha# $an of the strong features of Oacaula Vs st le !hich ha# not appeare# in pre%ious !ork& The sa$e $etho# !as follo!e# in the stu# of +e uince Vs NEnglish Oail "oach,P !ith e%en better results& The great #ifficult arose fro$ the fact that these loft st les !ere learne# onl too !ell an# !ere not counterbalance# b the stu# of other

an# $ore uni%ersall useful st les& 7t is #angerous to beco$e fascinate# !ith the loft st le, highl useful as it is on occasion& 7f the stu#ent #oes not feel that he is able to succee# b the $etho# of stu# just #escribe#, let hi$ confine hi$self to $ore #irect i$itation, follo!ing out 5ranklinVs plan& THE PURITANS. K5ro$ the essa on Oilton&L B T& B& Oacaula & We !oul# speak first of the Puritans, the $ost re$arkable bo# of $en, perhaps, !hich the !orl# has e%er pro#uce#& The o#ious an# ri#iculous parts of their character lie on the surface& 6e that runs $a rea# the$W nor ha%e there been !anting attenti%e an# $alicious obser%ers to point the$ out& 5or $an ears after the *estoration, the !ere the the$e of un$easure# in%ecti%e an# #erision& The !ere eJpose# to the ut$ost licentiousness of the press an# of the stage, !hen the press an# the stage !ere $ost licentious& The !ere not $en of lettersW the !ere, as a bo# , unpopularW the coul# not #efen# the$sel%esW an# the public !oul# not take the$ un#er its protection& The !ere therefore aban#one#, !ithout reser%e, to the ten#er $ercies of the satirists an# #ra$atists& The ostentatious si$plicit of their #ress, their sour aspect, their nasal t!ang, their stiff posture, their long graces, their 6ebre! na$es, the Scriptural phrases !hich the intro#uce# on e%er occasion, their conte$pt of hu$an learning, their #estestation of polite a$use$ents, !ere in#ee# fair ga$e for the laughers& But it is not fro$ the laughers alone that the philosoph of histor is to be learnt& An# he !ho approaches this subject shoul# carefull guar# against the influence of that potent ri#icule !hich has alrea# $isle# so $an eJcellent !riters& &&&&&&&& Those !ho rouse# the people to resistance, !ho #irecte# their $easures through a long series of e%entful ears, !ho for$e# out of the $ost unpro$ising $aterials, the finest ar$ that Europe has e%er seen, !ho tra$ple# #o!n ;ing, "hurch, an# Aristocrac , !ho, in the short inter%als of #o$estic se#ition an# rebellion, $a#e the na$e of Englan# terrible to e%er nation on the face of the earth, !ere no %ulgar fanatics& Oost of their absur#ities !ere $ere eJternal ba#ges, like the signs of free$asonr , or the #ress of the friars& We regret that these ba#ges !ere not $ore attracti%e& We regret that a bo# to !hose courage an# talents $ankin# has o!e# inesti$able obligations ha# not the loft elegance !hich #istinguishe# so$e of the a#herents of "harles the 5irst, or the eas goo#(bree#ing for !hich the court of "harles the Secon# !as celebrate#& But, if !e $ust $ake our choice, !e shall, like Bassanio in the pla , turn fro$ the specious caskets !hich contain onl the +eathVs hea# an# the 5oolVs hea# an# fiJ on the plain lea#en chest !hich conceals the treasure& The Puritans !ere $en !hose $in#s ha# #eri%e# a peculiar character fro$ the #ail conte$plation of superior beings an# eternal interests& :ot content !ith ackno!le#ging in general ter$s an o%erruling Pro%i#ence, the habituall ascribe# e%er e%ent to the !ill of the Great Being, for !hose po!er nothing !as too %ast, for !hose inspection nothing !as too $inute& To kno! hi$, to ser%e hi$, to enjo hi$, !as !ith the$ the great en# of eJistence& The rejecte# !ith conte$pt the cere$onious ho$age !hich other sects substitute# for the pure !orship of the soul& 7nstea# of catching occasional gli$pses of the +eit through an obscuring %eil, the aspire# to ga[e full on his intolerable brightness, an# to co$$une !ith hi$ face to face& 6ence originate# their conte$pt for terrestrial #istinctions& The #ifference bet!een the greatest an# the $eanest of $ankin# see$e# to %anish, !hen co$pare# !ith the boun#less inter%als !hich separate# the !hole race fro$ hi$ on !ho$ their e es !ere constantl fiJe#& The recogni[e# no title to superiorit but his fa%orW an#, confi#ent of that fa%or, the #espise# all the acco$plish$ents an# all the #ignities of the !orl#& 7f the !ere unacXuainte# !ith the !orks of philosophers an# poets, the !ere #eepl rea# in the oracles of Go#& 7f their na$es !ere not foun# in the registers of heral#s, the !ere recor#e# in the Book of Life& 7f their steps !ere not acco$panie# b a splen#i# train of $enials, legions of

$inistering angels ha# charge o%er the$& Their palaces !ere houses not $a#e !ith han#sW their #ia#e$s cro!ns of glor !hich shoul# ne%er fa#e a!a & On the rich an# the eloXuent, on nobles an# priests, the looke# #o!n !ith conte$pt) for the estee$e# the$sel%es rich in a $ore precious treasure, an# eloXuent in a $ore subli$e language, noblesV b the right of an earlier creation, an# priests b the i$position of a $ightier han#& The %er $eanest of the$ !as a being to !hose fate a $ sterious an# terrible i$portance belonge#, on !hose slightest action the spirits of light an# #arkness looke# !ith anJious interest, !ho ha# been #estine#, before hea%en an# earth !ere create#, to enjo a felicit !hich shoul# continue !hen hea%en an# earth shoul# ha%e passe# a!a & E%ents !hich shortsighte# politicians ascribe# to earthl causes, ha# been or#aine# on his account& 5or his sake e$pires ha# risen, an# flourishe#, an# #eca e#& 5or his sake the Al$ight ha# proclai$e# his !ill b the pen of the E%angelist, an# the harp of the prophet& 6e ha# been !reste# b no co$$on #eli%erer fro$ the grasp of no co$$on foe& 6e ha# been ranso$e# b the s!eat of no %ulgar agon , b the bloo# of no earthl sacrifice& 7t !as for hi$ that the sun ha# been #arkene#, that the rocks ha# been rent, that the #ea# ha# risen, that all nature ha# shu##ere# at the suffering of her eJpiring Go#& Thus the Puritans !ere $a#e up of t!o #ifferent $en, the one all self(abase$ent, penitence, gratitu#e, passion, the other prou#, cal$, infleJible, sagacious& 6e prostrate# hi$self in the #ust before his Oaker) but he set his foot on the neck of his king& 7n his #e%otional retire$ent, he pra e# !ith con%ulsions, an# groans, an# tears& 6e !as half $a##ene# b glorious or terrible illusions& 6e hear# the l res of angels or the te$pting !hispers of fien#s& 6e caught a glea$ of the Beatific aision, or !oke screa$ing fro$ #rea$s of e%erlasting fire& Like aane, he thought hi$self intruste# !ith the sceptre of the $illienial ear& Like 5leet!oo# he crie# in the bitterness of his soul that Go# ha# hi# his face fro$ hi$& But !hen he took his seat in the council, or girt on his s!or# for !ar, these te$pestuous !orks of the soul ha# left no perceptible trace behin# the$& People !ho sa! nothing of the go#l but their uncouth %isages, an# hear# nothing fro$ the$ but their groans an# their !hining h $ns, $ight laugh at the$& But those ha# little reason to laugh !ho encountere# the$ in the hall of #ebate or in the fiel# of battle& These fanatics brought to ci%il affairs a coolness of ju#g$ent an# an i$$utabilit of purpose !hich so$e !riters ha%e thought inconsistent !ith their religious [eal, but !hich !ere in fact the necessar effects of it& The intensit of their feelings on one subject $a#e the$ tranXuil on e%er other& One o%erpo!ering senti$ent ha# subjecte# to itself pit an# hatre#, a$bition an# fear& +eath ha# lost its terrors, an# pleasure its char$s& The ha# their s$iles an# their tears, their raptures an# their sorro!s, but not for the things of this !orl#& Enthusias$ ha# $a#e the$ Stoics, ha# cleare# their $in#s fro$ e%er %ulgar passion an# preju#ice, an# raise# the$ abo%e the influence of #anger an# of corruption& 7t so$eti$es $ight lea# the$ to pursue un!ise en#s, but ne%er to choose un!ise $eans& The !ent through the !orl# like Sir ArtegalVs iron $an Talus !ith his flail, crushing an# tra$pling #o!n oppressors, $ingling !ith hu$an beings, but ha%ing neither part nor lot in hu$an infir$ities, insensible to fatigue, to pleasure, an# to pain, not to be pierce# b an !eapon, not to be !ithstoo# b aH barrier& Such !e belie%e to ha%e been the character of the Puritans& We percei%e the absur#it of their $anners& We #islike the sullen gloo$ of their #o$estic habits& We ackno!le#ge that the tone of their $in#s !as often injure# b straining after things too high for $ortal reach) an# !e kno! that, in spite of their hatre# of Poper , the too often fell into the !orst %ices of that ba# s ste$, intolerance an# eJtra%agant austerit , that the ha# their anchorites an# their crusa#es, their +unstans an# their +e Oontforts, their +o$inics an# their Escobars& 'et, !hen all circu$stances are taken into consi#eration, !e #o not hesitate to pronounce the$ a bra%e, a !ise, an honest, an# a useful bo# & :otes& The $ost casual eJa$ination of Oacaula Vs st le sho!s us that the !or#s, the sentences, an# the paragraphs are all arrange# in ro!s, one on this si#e, one on that, a colu$n here, another just like it

o%er there, a !hole ro! of colu$ns abo%e this !in#o!, an# a !hole ro! of colu$ns abo%e that !in#o!, just as bricks are built up in geo$etrical #esign& Al$ost e%er !or# contains an antithesis& The !hole constitutes !hat is calle# the $a'anced str%ct%re& We see also that Oacaula freXuentl repeats the sa$e !or# again an# again, an# the repetition gi%es strength& 7n#ee#, repetition is necessar to $ake this balance# structure) there $ust al!a s be so $uch likeness an# so $uch unlikeness\an# the likeness an# unlikeness $ust just balance& We ha%e sho!n the utilit of %ariation) Oacaula sho!s the force there is in $onoton , in repetition& 7n one sentence after another through an entire paragraph he repeats the sa$e thing o%er an# o%er an# o%er& There is no rising b step after step to so$ething higher in Oacaula ) e%er thing is on the #ea# le%elW but it is a po!erful, heroic le%el& The first !or#s repeate# an# contraste# are press an# stage& The sentence containing these !or#s is balance# nicel & 7n the follo!ing sentence !e ha%e four short sentences unite# into one, an# the first clause contrasts !ith the secon# an# the thir# !ith the fourth& The sentence beginning NThe ostentatious si$plicit of their #ressP gi%es us a !hole series of subjects, all resting on a single short pre#icate\N!ere fair ga$e for the laughers&P The neJt sentence catches up the, !or# NlaughersP an# pla s upon it& 7n the secon# paragraph !e ha%e as subject NthoseP follo!e# b a !hole series of relati%e clauses beginning !ith N!ho,P an# this series again rests on a %er short pre#icate\N!ere no %ulgar fanatics&P An# so on through the entire #escription, !e fin# series after series, contrast after contrastW no! it is a #o[en !or#s all in the sa$e construction, no! a nu$ber of sentences all beginning in the sa$e !a an# en#ing in the sa$e !a & The first paragraph takes up the subject of the contrast of those !ho laughe# an# those !ho !ere laughe# at& The secon# paragraph enlarges upon goo# points in the objects of the eJa$ination& The thir# paragraph #escribes their $in#s, an# !e percei%e that Oacaula has all along been lea#ing into this b his series of contrasts& 7n the fourth paragraph he brings the t!o si#es into the closest possible relations, so that the contrast reaches its height& The last short paragraph su$s up the facts& This st le, though highl artificial, is highl useful !hen use# in $o#eration& 7t is unfortunate that Oacaula uses it so constantl & When he cannot fin# contrasts he so$eti$es $akes the$, an# to $ake the$ he #istorts the truth& Besi#es, he !earies us b keeping us too $onotonousl on a high #ea# le%el& 7n ti$e !e co$e to feel that he is $aking contrasts $erel because he has a passion for $aking the$, not because the ser%e an purpose& But for one !ho !ishes to learn this st le, no better $o#el can be foun# in the English language& DREA+-FUGUE On the The$e of Su##en +eath&4 B Tho$as +e uince & 4NThe English Oail("oachP consists of three sections, NThe Glor of Ootion,P N%ision of Su##en +eath,P an# N+rea$(5ugue&P +e uince #escribes ri#ing on the top of a hea% $ail(coach& 7n the #ea# of night the pass a oung couple in a light gig, an# the hea% $ail(coach just escapes shattering the light gig an# perhaps killing the oung occupants& +e uince #e%elops his sensations in !itnessing this N%ision of su##en #eath,P an# rises step b step to the $ajestic beaut an# poetic passion of the #rea$(fugue& NWhence the soun# Of instru$ents, that $a#e $elo#ious chi$e, Was hear#, of harp an# organW an# !ho $o%e# Their stops an# chor#s, !as seenW his %olant touch

7nstinct through all proportions, lo! an# high, 5le# an# pursue# trans%erse the resonant fugue&P Para#ise Lost, Book 7& @%m%'t%osissimamente& Passion of su##en #eath_ that once in outh 7 rea# an# interprete# b the sha#o!s of th a%erte# signs_\rapture of panic taking the shape K!hich a$ongst to$bs in churches 7 ha%e seenL of !o$an bursting her selpuchral bon#s\of !o$anVs ionic for$ ben#ing for!ar# fro$ the ruins of her gra%e !ith arching foot, !ith e es upraise#, !ith claspe#, a#oring han#s\!aiting, !atching, tre$bling, pra ing for the tru$petVs call to rise fro$ #ust fore%er_ Ah, %ision too fearful of shu##ering hu$anit on the brink of $ight ab sses_\%ision that #i#st start back, that #i#st reel a!a , like a shi%ering scroll before the !rath of fire racing on the !ings of the !in#_ Epileps so brief of horror, !herefore is it that thou canst not #ieY Passing so su##enl into #arkness, !herefore is it that still thou she##est th sa# funeral blights upon the gorgeous $osaic of #rea$sY 5rag$ents of $usic too passionate, hear# once an# hear# no $ore, !hat aileth thee, that th #eep rolling chor#s co$e up at inter%als through all the !orl#s of sleep, an# after fort ears, ha%e lost no ele$ent of horrorY I. Lo, it is su$$er\al$ight su$$er_ The e%erlasting gates of life an# su$$er are thro!n open !i#eW an# on the ocean tranXuil an# %er#ant as a sa%annah, the unkno!n la# fro$ the #rea#ful %ision an# 7 $ self are floating\she upon a fair pinnace, an# 7 upon an English three(#ecker& Both of us are !ooing gales of festi%e happiness !ithin the #o$ain of our co$$on countr , !ithin that ancient !ater park, !ithin that pathless chase of ocean, !here Englan# takes her pleasure as a huntress through !inter an# su$$er, fro$ the rising to the setting sun& Ah, !hat a !il#erness of floral beaut !as hi##en, or !as su##enl re%eale#, upon the tropic islan#s through !hich the pinnace $o%e#_ An# upon her #eck !hat a be% of hu$an flo!ers\ oung !o$en ho! lo%el , oung $en bo! noble, that !ere #ancing together, an# slo!l #rifting to!ar# us a$i#st $usic an# incense, a$i#st blosso$s fro$ forests an# gorgeous cor $bi fro$ %intages, a$i#st natural carolling, an# the echoes of s!eet girlish laughter& Slo!l the pinnace nears us, gail she hails us, an# silentl she #isappears beneath the sha#o! of our $ight bo!s& But then, as at so$e signal fro$ hea%en, the $usic, an# the carols, an# the s!eet echoing of girlish laughter,\all are hushe#& What e%il has s$itten the pinnace, $eeting or o%ertaking herY +i# ruin to our frien#s couch !ithin our o!n #rea#ful sha#o!Y Was our sha#o! the sha#o! of #eathY 7 looke# o%er the bo! for an ans!er, an#, behol#_ the pinnace !as #is$antle#W the re%el an# the re%ellers !ere foun# no $oreW the glor of the %intage !as #ustW an# the forests !ith their beaut !ere left !ithout a !itness upon the seas& NBut !here,P an# 7 turne# to our cre!\ N!here are the lo%el !o$en that #ance# beneath the a!ning of flo!ers an# clustering cor nibiY Whither ha%e fle# the noble oung $en that #ance# !ith them(P Ans!er there !as none& But su##enl the $an at the $asthea#, !hose countenance #arkene# !ith alar$, crie# out, NSail on the !eather bea$_ +o!n she co$es upon usW in se%ent secon#s she also !ill foun#er,P II. 7 looke# to the !eather si#e, an# the su$$er ha# #eparte#& The sea !as rocking, an# shaking !ith gathering !rath& 9pon its surface sat $ight $ists, !hich groupe# the$sel%es into arches an# long cathe#ral aisles& +o!n one of these, !ith the fier pace of a Xuarrel fro$ a crossbo!, ran a frigate right ath!art our course& NAre the $a#YP so$e %oice eJclai$e# fro$ our #eck& N+o the !oo their ruinYP But in a $o$ent, as she !as close upon us, so$e i$pulse of a hea# current or local %orteJ ga%e a !heeling bias to her course, an# off she forge# !ithout a shock& As she ran past us, high aloft a$ongst the shrou#s stoo# the la# of the pinnace& The #eeps in $alice opene# ahea# to recei%e her, the billo!s !ere fierce to catch her& But far a!a she !as borne upon the #esert spaces of the sea)

!hilst still b sight 7 follo!e# her, she ran before the ho!ling gale, chase# b angr sea(bir#s an# b $a##ening billo!s) still 7 sa! her, as at the $o$ent !hen she ran past us, stan#ing a$ongst the shrou#s, !ith her !hite #raperies strea$ing before the !in#& There she stoo#, !ith hair #ishe%elle#, one han# clutche# a$ongst the tackling\rising, sinking, fluttering, tre$bling, pra ing\there for leagues 7 sa! her as she stoo#, raising at inter%als one han# to hea%en, a$i#st the fier crests of the pursuing !a%es an# the ra%ing of the stor$W until at last, upon a soun# fro$ afar of $alicious laughter an# $ocker , all !as hi##en fore%er in #ri%ing sho!ersW an# after!ar#s, but !hen 7 kno! not, nor ho!& :otes& +e uince Vs N+rea$(5ugueP is as luJuriant an# eJtra%agant a use of $etaphor as Oacaula Vs NPuritansP is of the use of antithesis an# the balance# structure& The !hole thing is a $etaphor, an# e%er part is a $etaphor !ithin a $etaphor& This is $uch $ore than $ere fine !riting& 7t is a $etaphorical representation of the inci#ent he has pre%iousl #escribe#& 7n that inci#ent he !as particular struck b the actions of the la# & The oung $an turne# his horse out of the path of the coach, but so$e part of the coach struck one of the !heels of the gig, an# as it #i# so, the la# in%oluntaril starte# up, thro!ing up her ar$s, an# at once sank back as in a faint& +e uince #i# not see her face, an# hence he speaks in this #escription of Na%erte# signsYP The N!o$an bursting her sepulchral bon#sP probabl refers to a to$b in West$inster Abbe !hich represents a !o$an escaping fro$ the #oor of the to$b, an# +eath, a skeleton, is just behin# her, but too late to catch her Narching footP as she flies up!ar#\presu$abl as a spirit& So e%er i$age correspon#s to a realit , either in the facts or in +e uince Vs e$otion at the sight of the$& The no%ice fails in such !riting as this because he beco$es ena$ore# of his beautiful i$ages an# forgets !hat he is tr ing to illustrate& The relation bet!een realit an# i$age shoul# be as in%ariable as $athe$atics& 7f such startling i$ages cannot be use# !ith perfect clearness an# %i%i# perception of their usefulness an# %alue, the shoul# not be use# at all& +e uince is so successful because his $in# co$prehen#s e%er #etail of the scene, an# through the i$ages !e see the botto$ truth as through a perfect cr stal& A clou#e# #ia$on# is no $ore ruine# b its clou#iness than a clou#e# $etaphor& As in *uskinVs #escription of the $ountain, !e see in this the %alue of the soun#s of !or#s, an# ho! the see$ to $ake $usic in the$sel%es& A Wor# lacking in #ignit in the %er least !oul# ha%e ruine# the !hole picture, an# so !oul# a !or# !hose rotun# soun# #i# not correspon# to the loftiness of the passage& Perhaps the onl !or# that jars is NEnglish three(#eckerP\but the language apparentl affor#e# +e uince no substitute !hich !oul# $ake his $eaning clear& CHAPTER VII. RESERVE, Thackera & 7t has been hinte# that the rhetorical, i$passione#, an# loft st les are in a $easure #angerous& The natural correcti%e of that #anger is artistic reserve& *eser%e is a negati%e Xualit , an# so it has not been e$phasi[e# b !riters on co$position as it ought to be& But if it is negati%e, it is none the less real an# i$portant, an# fortunatel !e ha%e in Thackera a $asterl eJa$ple of its positi%e po!er& Originall reser%e is to be trace# to a natural reticence an# $o#est in the character of the author !ho e$plo s it& 7t $a be stu#ie#, ho!e%er, an# culti%ate# as a characteristic of st le& As an artistic Xualit it consists in sa ing eJactl !hat the facts #e$an#, no $ore, no less\an# to sa no $ore especiall on those occasions !hen $ost people e$plo superlati%es& Oacaula !as not

characteri[e# b reser%e& 6e speaks of the Puritans as Nthe $ost re$arkable bo# of $en the !orl# e%er pro#uce#&P NOostP is a co$$on !or# in his %ocabular , since it ser%e# so !ell to roun# out the phrase an# the i#ea& Thackera , on the other han#, is al$ost too $o#est& 6e is so afrai# of sa ing too $uch that so$eti$es he #oes not sa enough, an# that $a possibl account for the fact that he !as ne%er as popular as the o%erflo!ing +ickens& The lack of reser%e $a#e +ickens Nslop o%erP occasionall , as in#elicate critics ha%e put itW an# the presence of reser%e #i# $ore than an other one thing to gi%e Thackera the reputation for perfect st le !hich all conce#e to hi$& One of the $ost fa$ous passages in all of Thackera Vs !orks is the #escription of the battle of Waterloo in Naanit 5air,P ch& 77) All that #a , fro$ $orning till past sunset, the cannon ne%er cease# to roar& 7t !as #ark !hen the cannona#ing stoppe# all of a su##en& All of us ha%e rea# of !hat occurre# #uring that inter%al& The tale is in e%er English$anVs $outhW an# ou an# 7, !ho !ere chil#ren !hen the great battle !as !on an# lost, are ne%er tire# of hearing an# recounting the histor of that fa$ous action& 7ts re$e$brance rankles still in the boso$s of $illions of the countr $en of those bra%e $en !ho lost the #a & The pant for an opportunit of re%enging that hu$iliationW an# if a contest, en#ing in a %ictor on their part, shoul# ensue, elating the$ in their turn, an# lea%ing its curse# legac of hatre# an# rage behin# to us, there is no en# to the so calle# glor an# sha$e, an# to the alternation of successful an# unsuccessful $ur#er, in !hich t!o high(spirite# nations $ight engage& "enturies hence, !e 5rench$en an# English$en $ight be boasting an# killing each other still, carr ing out bra%el the +e%ilVs co#e of honor& All our frien#s took their share, an# fought like $en in the great fiel#& All #a long, !hile the !o$en !ere pra ing ten $iles a!a , the lines of the #auntless English infantr !ere recei%ing an# repelling the furious charges of the 5rench horse$en& Guns !hich !ere hear# in Brussels !ere ploughing up their ranks, an# co$ra#es falling, an# the resolute sur%i%ors closing in& To!ar#s e%ening, the attack of the 5rench, repeate# an# resiste# so bra%el , slackene# in its fur & The ha# other foes besi#es the British to engage, or !ere preparing for a final onset& 7t ca$e at lastW the colu$ns of the 7$perial Guar# $arche# up the hill of Saint 8ean, at length an# at once to s!eep the English fro$ the height !hich the ha# $aintaine# all #a an# spite of allW unscare# b the thun#er of the artiller , !hich hurle# #eath fro$ the English line,\the #ark rolling colu$n presse# on an# up the hill& 7t see$e# al$ost to crest the e$inence, !hen it began to !a%e an# falter& Then it stoppe#, still facing the shot& Then, at last, the English troops rushe# fro$ the post fro$ !hich no ene$ ha# been able to #islo#ge the$, an# the Guar# turne# an# fle#& :o $ore firing !as hear# at Brussels,\the pursuit rolle# $iles a!a & +arkness ca$e #o!n on the fiel# an# cit W an# A$elia !as pra ing for George, !ho !as l ing on his face, #ea#, !ith a bullet through his heart&P Who before e%er began the #escription of a great %ictor b praising the ene$ _ An# et !hen !e consi#er it, there is no $ore artisticall po!erful $etho# than this, of sho!ing ho! %er great the ene$ !as, an# then sa ing si$pl , NThe English #efeate# the$&P But Thackera !ishe# to #o $ore than this& 6e !as preparing the rea#er for the a!ful presence of #eath in a pri%ate affliction, A$eliaVs loss of her husban# George& To #o this he lets his heart go out in s $path for the 5rench, an# b that s $path he see$s to rise abo%e all race, to a supre$e height !here eJist the griefs of the hu$an heart an# Go# alone& With all this careful preparation, the short, si$ple closing paragraph\ the barest possible state$ent of the facts\pro#uces an effect unsurpasse# in literature& The !hole situation see$s to cr out for superlati%esW et Thackera uses none, but re$ains #ignifie#, cal$, an# therefore gran#& The follo!ing selection ser%es as a sort of preface to the no%el Naanit 5air&P 7t is Xuite as re$arkable for the things it lea%es unsai# as for the things it sa s& Of course its object is to !het the rea#erVs appetite for the stor that is to follo!W but throughout the author see$s to be laughing at

hi$self& 7n the last paragraph !e see one of the fe! superlati%es to be foun# 7n Thackera \he sa s the sho! has been N$ost fa%orabl notice#P b the Ncon#uctors of the Public Press, an# b the :obilit an# Gentr &P Those capital letters pro%e the hu$orous intent of the superlati%e, !hich see$s to be a burlesXue on other authors !ho praise the$sel%es& One of the criticis$s ha# been that A$elia !as no better than a #ollW an# Thackera takes the critics at their !or# an# refers to the NA$elia +oll,P $erel hinting gentl that e%en a #oll $a fin# frien#s& BEFORE THE CURTAIN. KPreface to Naanit 5air&PL B W& O& Thackera & As the Oanager of the Perfor$ance sits before the curtain on the boar#s, an# looks into the 5air, a feeling of profoun# $elanchol co$es o%er hi$ in his sur%e of the bustling place& There is a great Xuantit of eating an# #rinking, $aking lo%e an# jilting, laughing an# the contrar , s$oking, cheating, fighting, #ancing, an# fi##ling) there are bullies pushing about, bucks ogling the !o$en, kna%es picking pockets, police$en on the lookout, Xuacks Kother Xuacks, plague take the$_L ba!ling in front of their booths, an# okels looking up at the tinselle# #ancers an# poor ol# rouge# tu$blers, !hile the light(fingere# folk are operating upon their pockets behin#& 'es, this is aanit 5airW not a $oral place certainl W nor a $err one, though %er nois & Look at the faces of the actors an# buffoons !hen the co$e off fro$ their businessW an# To$ 5ool !ashing the paint off his cheeks before he sits #o!n to #inner !ith his !ife an# the little 8ack Pu##ings behin# the can%as& The curtain !ill be up presentl , an# he !ill be turning o%er hea# an# heels, an# cr ing, N6o! are ouYP A $an !ith a reflecti%e turn of $in#, !alking through an eJhibition of this sort, !ill not be oppresse#, 7 take it, b his o!n or other peopleVs hilarit & An episo#e of hu$or or kin#ness touches an# a$uses hi$ here an# there,\a prett chil# looking at a gingerbrea# stallW a prett girl blushing !hilst her lo%er talks to her an# chooses her fairingW poor To$ 5ool, on#er behin# the !agon $u$bling his bone !ith the honest fa$il !hich li%es b his tu$blingW but the general i$pression is one $ore $elanchol than $irthful& When ou co$e ho$e, ou sit #o!n, in a sober, conte$plati%e, not uncharitable fra$e of $in#, an# appl ourself to our books or our business& 7 ha%e no other $oral than this to tag to the present stor of Naanit 5air&P So$e people consi#er 5airs i$$oral altogether, an# esche! such, !ith their ser%ants an# fa$iliesW %er likel the are right& But persons !ho think other!ise, an# are of a la[ , or a bene%olent, or a sarcastic $oo#, $a perhaps like to step in for half an hour, an# look at the perfor$ances& There are scenes of all sortsW so$e #rea#ful co$bats, so$e gran# an# loft horse(ri#ing, so$e scenes of high life, an# so$e of %er $i##ling in#ee#W so$e lo%e($aking for the senti$ental, an# so$e light co$ic businessW the !hole acco$panie# b appropriate scener , an# brilliantl illu$inate# !ith the AuthorVs o!n can#les& What $ore has the Oanager of the Perfor$ance to sa Y\To ackno!le#ge the kin#ness !ith !hich it has been recei%e# in all the principal to!ns of Englan# through !hich the sho! has passe#, an# !here it has been $ost fa%orabl notice# b the respecte# con#uctors of the Public Press, an# b the :obilit an# Gentr & 6e is prou# to think that his Puppets ha%e gi%en satisfaction to the %er best co$pan in this e$pire& The fa$ous little Beck Puppet has been pronounce# to be unco$$onl fleJible in the joints, an# li%el on the !ire) the A$elia +oll, though it has ha# a s$aller circle of a#$irers, has et been car%e# an# #resse# !ith the greatest care b the artist) the +obbin 5igure, though apparentl clu$s , et #ances in a %er a$using an# natural $anner) the Little Bo Vs +ance has been like# b so$eW an# please to re$ark the richl #resse# figure of the Wicke# :oble$an, on !hich no eJpense has been spare#, an# !hich Ol# :ick !ill fetch a!a at the en# of this singular perfor$ance& An# !ith this, an# a profoun# bo! to his patrons, the Oanager retires, an# the curtain rises&

Lon#on, 8une ,, 1|& CHAPTER VIII. CRITICIS+, Oatthe! Arnol# an# *uskin& The ter$ Ncriticis$P $a appropriatel be use# to #esignate all !riting in !hich logic pre#o$inates o%er e$otion& The st le of criticis$ is the st le of argu$ent, eJposition, an# #ebate, as !ell as of literar anal sisW an# it is the appropriate st le to be use# in $athe$atical #iscussions an# all scientific essa s& Of course the strictl critical st le $a be unite# !ith al$ost an other& We are presenting pure t pesW but %er sel#o$ #oes it happen that an co$position or#inaril pro#uce# belongs to an one pure t pe& "riticis$ !oul# be #ull !ithout the enli%ening effects of so$e appeal to the e$otions& We shall illustrate this point in a Xuotation fro$ *uskin& The critical st le has just one secret) 7t #epen#s on a %er close #efinition of !ork in or#inar use, !or#s #o not ha%e a sufficientl #efinite $eaning for scientific purposes& Therefore in scientific !riting it is necessar to #efine the$ eJactl , an# so change co$$on !or#s into technical ter$s& To these $a be a##e# the great bo# of !or#s use# in no other !a than as technical ter$s& Of course our first preparation for criticis$ is to $aster the technical ter$s an# technical uses of !or#s peculiar to the subject !e are treating& Then !e $ust $ake it clear to the rea#er that !e are using !or#s in their technical senses so that he !ill kno! ho! to interpret the$& But be on# that !e $ust $ake technical ter$s as !e go along, b #efining co$$on !or#s %er strictl & This is nicel illustrate# b Oatthe! Arnol#, one of the $ost acco$plishe# of pure critics& The opening paragraphs of the first chapter of N"ulture an# Anarch P\the chapter entitle# NS!eetness an# LightP\!ill ser%e for illustration, an# the stu#ent is referre# to the co$plete !ork for $aterial for further stu# an# i$itation& 5ro$ NS!eetness an# Light&P The #isparagers of culture, /sa s Or& Arnol#3, $ake its $oti%e curiosit W so$eti$es, in#ee#, the $ake its $oti%e $ere eJclusi%eness an# %anit & The culture !hich is suppose# to plu$e itself on a s$attering of Greek an# Latin is a culture !hich is begotten b nothing so intellectual as curiosit W it is %alue# either out of sheer %anit an# ignorance, or else as an engine of social an# class #istinction, separating its hol#er, like a ba#ge or title, fro$ other people !ho ha%e not got it& :o serious $an !oul# call this c%'t%re, or attach an %alue to it, as culture, at all& To fin# the real groun# for the %er #ifferent esti$ate !hich serious people !ill set upon culture, !e $ust fin# so$e $oti%e for culture in the ter$s of !hich $a lie a real a$biguit W an# such a $oti%e the !or# c%riosity gi%es us& 7 ha%e before no! pointe# out that !e English #o not, like the foreigners, use this !or# in a goo# sense as !ell as in a ba# sense& A liberal an# intelligent eagerness about the things of the $in# $a be $eant b a foreigner !hen he speaks of curiosit , but !ith us the !or# al!a s con%e s a certain notion of fri%olous an# une#if ing acti%it & 7n the >%arter'y Review,so$e little ti$e ago, !as an esti$ate of the celebrate# 5rench critic, O& Sainte(Beu%e, an# a %er ina#eXuate esti$ate it in $ ju#g$ent !as& An# its ina#eXuac consiste# chiefl in this) that in our English !a it left out of sight the #ouble sense reall in%ol%e# in the !or# c%riosity, thinking enough !as sai# to sta$p O& Sainte(Beu%e !ith bla$e if it !as sai# that he !as i$pelle# in his operations as a critic b curiosit , an# o$itting either to percei%e that O& Sainte(Beu%e hi$self, an# $an other people !ith hi$, !oul# consi#er that this !as praise!orth an# not bla$e!orth , or to point out !h it ought reall to be accounte# !orth of bla$e an# not of praise& 5or as there is a curiosit about intellectual $atters !hich is futile, an# $erel a #isease, so there is certainl a curiosit ,\a #esire after the

things of the $in# si$pl for their o!n sakes an# for the pleasure of seeing the$ as the are,\!hich is, in an intelligent being, natural an# lau#able& :a , an# the %er #esire to see things as the are i$plies a balance an# regulation of $in# !hich is not often attaine# !ithout fruitful effort, an# !hich is the %er opposite of the blin# an# #isease# i$pulse of $in# !hich is !hat !e $ean to bla$e !hen !e bla$e curiosit & OontesXuieu sa s) The first $oti%e !hich ought to i$pel us to stu# is the #esire to aug$ent the eJcellence of our nature, an# to ren#er an intelligent being et $ore intelligent& This is the true groun# to assign for the genuine scientific passion, ho!e%er $anifeste#, an# for culture, %ie!e# si$pl as a fruit of this passionW an# it is a !orth groun#, e%en though !e let the ter$ c%riosity stan# to #escribe it& Starting !ith eJact #efinitions of !or#s, it is eas to pass to eJact #efinitions of i#eas, !hich is the thing !e shoul# be ai$ing at all the ti$e& The logical accurac of our language, ho!e%er, is apparent throughout& Oatthe! Arnol# #oes not e$bellish his criticis$, nor #oes he $ake an special appeal to the feelings or e$otions of his rea#ers& :ot so *uskin& 6e #isco%ers intellectual e$otions, an# $akes pleasant appeals to those e$otions& "onseXuentl his criticis$ has been $ore popular than Oatthe! Arnol#Vs& As an eJa$ple of this freer, $ore %arie# critical st le, let us cite the opening paragraphs of the lecture NOf ueensV Gar#ensP]]in NSesa$e an# LiliesP) 5ro$ NSesa$e an# Lilies&P 7t !ill be !ell that 7 shoul# shortl state to ou $ general intention The Xuestions speciall propose# to ou in $ for$er lecture, na$el 6o! an# What to *ea#, rose out of a far #eeper one, !hich it !as $ en#ea%or to $ake ou propose earnestl to oursel%es, na$el , Wh to *ea# 7 !ant ou to feel, !ith $e, that !hate%er a#%antage !e possess in the present #a in the #iffusion of e#ucation an# of literature, can onl be rightl use# b an of us !hen !e ha%e apprehen#e# clearl !hat e#ucation is to lea# to, an# literature to teach& 7 !ish ou to see that both !ell #irecte# $oral training an# !ell chosen rea#ing lea# to the possession of a po!er o%er the ill(gui#e# an# illiterate, !hich is, accor#ing to the $easure of it, in the truest sense kingl W4 conferring in#ee# the purest kingship that can eJist a$ong $en& Too $an other kingships Kho!e%er #istinguishe# b %isible insignia or $aterial po!erL being either spectral, or t rannousW spectral\that is to sa , aspects an# sha#o!s onl of ro alt , hollo! as #eath, an# !hich onl the Nlikeness of a kingl cro!n ha%e onWP or else t rannous\that is to sa , substituting their o!n !ill for the la! of justice an# lo%e b !hich all true kings rule& 4The prece#ing lecture !as entitle# NOf ;ingsVs Treasures&P There is then, 7 repeat Kan# as 7 !ant to lea%e this i#ea !ith ou, 7 begin !ith it, an# shall en# !ith itL onl one pure kin# of kingship, \an ine%itable or eternal kin#, cro!ne# or not,\the kingship, na$el , !hich consists in a stronger $oral state an# truer thoughtful state than that of others, enabling ou, therefore, to gui#e or to raise the$& Obser%e that !or# NstateP !e ha%e got into a loose !a of using it& 7t $eans literall the stan#ing an# stabilit of a thingW an# ou ha%e the full force of it in the #eri%e# !or# NstatueP\Nthe i$$o%able thing&P A kingVs $ajest or Nstate,P then, an# the right of his king#o$ to be calle# a State, #epen#s on the $o%elessness of both,\!ithout tre$or, !ithout Xui%er of balance, establishe# an# enthrone# upon a foun#ation of eternal la! !hich nothing can alter or o%erthro!& Belie%ing that all literature an# all e#ucation are onl useful so far as the ten# to confir$ this cal$, beneficent, an# therefore kingl , po!er,\first o%er oursel%es, an#, through oursel%es, o%er all aroun# us,\7 a$ no! going to ask ou to consi#er !ith $e further, !hat special portion or kin# of this ro al authorit , arising out of noble e#ucation, $a rightl be possesse# b !o$enW an# ho! far the also are calle# to a true Xueenl po!er,\not in their househol#s $erel , but o%er all !ithin their sphere& An# in !hat sense, if the rightl un#erstoo# an# eJercise# this ro al or gracious influence, the or#er an# beaut in#uce# b such benignant po!er !oul# justif us in speaking of the territories o%er !hich each of the$ reigne# as ueensV Gar#ens&

6ere still is the true critical st le, !ith eJact #efinitionsW but the !hole argu$ent is a $etaphor, an# the object of the criticis$ is to rouse feelings that !ill lea# to action& 7t !ill be obser%e# that !or#s !hich b #efinition are to be taken in so$e sort of technical sense are #istinguishe# to the e e in so$e !a & Oatthe! Arnol# use# italics& *uskin first places NstateP !ithin Xuotation $arks, an# then, !hen he uses the !or# in a still #ifferent sense, he !rites it !ith a capital letter\State& "apitali[ation is perhaps the $ost co$$on !a for #esignating co$$on !or#s !hen use# in a special sense !hich is #efine# b the !riter\or #efine# b i$plication& This is the eJplanation of the capital letters !ith !hich the !ritings of "arl le are fille#& 6e constantl en#ea%ors to $ake !or#s $ean $ore than, or so$ething #ifferent fro$, the $eaning the usuall ha%e& The peculiar e$bellish$ents of the critical !riter are epigra$, para#oJ, an# satire& An epigram is a %er short phrase or sentence !hich is so full of i$plie# $eaning or suggestion that it catches the attention at once, an# re$ains in the $e$or easil & The parado) is so$ething of the sa$e sort on a larger scale& 7t is a state$ent that !e can har#l belie%e to be true, since it see$s at first sight to be self(contra#ictor , or to contra#ict !ell kno!n truths or la!sW but on eJa$ination !e fin# that in a peculiar sense it is strictl true& Satire is a %ariation of hu$or peculiarl a#apte# to criticis$, since it is inten#e# to $ake the co$$on i#ea ri#iculous !hen co$pare# !ith the i#eas !hich the critic is tr ing to bring out) it is a sort of argu$ent b force of stinging points& We $a fin# an eJa$ple of satire in its perfection in S!ift, especiall in his NGulli%erVs Tra%elsP\since these are satires the point of !hich !e can appreciate to(#a & Oscar Wil#e !as peculiarl gi%en to epigra$, an# in his pla s especiall !e $a fin# epigra$ carrie# to the sa$e eJcess that the balance# structure is carrie# b Oacaula & Oore $o#erate epigra$ $a be foun# in E$erson an# "arl le& Para#oJ is so$ething that !e shoul# use onl on special occasion& CHAPTER IX. THE STYLE OF FICTION, :arrati%e, +escription, an# +ialogue& +ickens& 7n fiction there are three #ifferent kin#s of !riting !hich $ust be blen#e# !ith a fine skill, an# this fact $akes fiction so $uch the $ore #ifficult than an other sort of !riting& 6istor is largel narrati%e, pure an# si$ple, ne!spaper articles are #escription, #ra$as are #ialogue, but fiction $ust unite in a !a peculiar to itself the niceties of all three& We $ust take each st le separatel an# $aster it thoroughl before tr ing to co$bine the three in a !ork of fiction& The si$plest is narrati%e, an# consists chiefl in the abilit to tell a plain stor straight on to the en#, just as in con%ersation :eighbor Gossip co$es an# tells a long stor to her frien# the Listener& A !riter !ill gain this skill if he practise on !riting out tales or stories just as nearl as possible as a chil# !oul# #o it, supposing the chil# ha# a sufficient %ocabular & Letter( !riting, !hen one is a!a fro$ ho$e an# !ishes to tell his inti$ate frien#s all that has happene# to hi$, is practice of just this sort, an# the best practice& :e!spaper articles are $ore #escripti%e than an other sort of !riting& 'ou ha%e a #escription of a ne! in%ention, of a great fire, of a prisoner at the bar of justice& 7t is not Xuite so spontaneous as narrati%e& "hil#ren sel#o$ #escribe, an# the ne!spaper $an fin#s #ifficult in $aking !hat see$s a %er brief tale into a colu$n article until he can !ea%e #escription as rea#il as he breathes& +ialogue in a stor is b no $eans the sa$e as the #ialogue of a pla ) it ought rather to be a #escription of a con%ersation, an# %er sel#o$ is it a full report of !hat is sai# on each si#e& +escription is use# in its technical sense to #esignate the presentation of a scene !ithout reference to e%entsW narrati%e is a #escription of e%ents as the ha%e happene#, a #ialogue is a #escription of

con%ersation& 5iction is essentiall a #escripti%e art, an# Xuite as $uch is it #escripti%e in #ialogue as in an other part& The best !a to $aster #ialogue as an ele$ent b itself is to stu# the no%els of !riters like +ickens, Thackera , or George Eliot& +ialogue has its full #e%elop$ent onl in the no%el, an# it is here an# not in short stories that the stu#ent of fiction shoul# stu# it& The i$portant points to be notice# are that onl characteristic an# significant speeches are repro#uce#& When the con%ersation gi%es onl facts that shoul# be kno!n to the rea#er it is thro!n into the in#irect or narrati%e for$, an# freXuentl !hen the i$pression that a con%ersation $akes is all that is i$portant, this i$pression is #escribe# in general ter$s instea# of in a #etaile# report of the con%ersation itself& So $uch for the three #ifferent $o#es of !riting in#i%i#uall consi#ere#& The i$portant an# #ifficult point co$es in the balance# co$bination of the three, not in the %arious parts of the stor , but in each single paragraph& 6enr 8a$es in his paper on NThe Art of 5iction,P sa s %er trul that e%er #escripti%e passage is at the sa$e ti$e narrati%e, an# e%er #ialogue is in its essence also #escripti%e& The truth is, the !riter of stories has a st le of his o!n, !hich !e $a call the narrati%e(#escripti%e(#ialogue st le, !hich is a union in one an# the sa$e sentence of all three sorts of !riting& 7n each sentence, to be sure, narrati%e or #escription or #ialogue !ill pre#o$inateW but still the narrati%e is al!a s present in the #escription, an# the #escription in the #ialogue, as Or& 8a$es sa sW an# if ou take a paragraph this fact !ill appear $ore clearl , an# if ou take three or four paragraphs, or a !hole stor , the fusion of all three st les in the sa$e !or#s is clearl apparent& 7t is i$possible to gi%e fiJe# rules for the %ar ing proportion of #escription, narration, or #ialogue in an gi%en passage& The !riter $ust gui#e hi$self entirel b the i$pression in his o!n $in#& 6e sees !ith his $in#Vs e e a scene an# e%ents happening in it& As he #escribes this fro$ point to point he constantl asks hi$self, !hat $etho# of using !or#s !ill be $ost effecti%e hereY 6e keeps the i$pression al!a s closel in $in#& 6e #oes not !an#er fro$ it to put in a #escripti%e passage or a cle%er bit of #ialogue or a pleasing narrati%e) he follo!s out his #escription of the i$pression !ith faithful accurac , thinking onl of being true to his o!n conception, an# constantl ransacking his !hole kno!le#ge of language to get the best eJpression, !hate%er it $a be& :o! it $a be a little #escripti%e touch, no! a sentence or t!o out of a con%ersation, no! plain narration of e%ents& +ialogue is the $ost eJpansi%e an# tiring, an# shoul# freXuentl be relie%e# b the con#ense# narrati%e, !hich is si$ple an# eas rea#ing& +escription shoul# sel#o$ be gi%en in chunks, but rather in touches of a brief an# #elicate kin#, an# !ith the ai$ of being suggesti%e rather than full an# #etaile#& 6u$or, an# especiall goo# hu$or, are in#ispensable to the $ost successful !orks of fiction& Abo%e all other kin#s of !riting, fiction $ust !in the heart of the rea#er& An# this reXuires that the heart of the !riter shoul# be ten#er an# s $pathetic& 6arsh critics call this Xualit senti$ent, an# e%en senti$entalit & +ickens ha# it abo%e all other !riters, an# it is probable that this popularit has ne%er been surpasse#& Scott succee#e# b his splen#i# #escriptions, but no one can #en that he !as also one of the biggest hearte# $en in the !orl#& An# Thackera , !ith all his reser%e, ha# a heart as ten#er an# s $pathetic as !as e%er borne b so polishe# a gentle$an& As an al$ost perfect eJa$ple of the blen#ing of narrati%e, #escription, an# #ialogue, all !el#e# into an effecti%e !hole b the $ost #elicate an# !inning senti$ent, !e offer the follo!ing selection fro$ BarboJ Bros& & "o&, in NOugb 8unction&P POLLY. B "harles +ickens& Although he ha# arri%e# at his journe Vs en# for the #a at noon, he ha# since insensibl !alke# about the to!n so far an# so long that the la$plighters !ere no! at their !ork in the streets, an# the shops !ere sparkling up brilliantl & Thus re$in#e# to turn to!ar#s his Xuarters, he !as in the act of #oing so, !hen a %er little han# crept into his, an# a %er little %oice sai#)

NO_ 7f ou please, 7 a$ lost_P 6e looke# #o!n, an# sa! a %er little fair(haire# girl& N'es,P she sai#, confir$ing her !or#s !ith a serious no#& N7 a$, in#ee#& 7 a$ lost&P Greatl perpleJe#, he stoppe#, looke# about hi$ for help, #escrie# none, an# sai#, ben#ing lo!) NWhere #o ou li%e, $ chil#YP N7 #onVt kno! !here 7 li%e,P she returne#& N7 a$ lost&P NWhat is our na$eYP NPoll &P NWhat is our other na$eYP The repl !as pro$pt, but unintelligible& 7$itating the soun#, as he caught it, he ha[ar#e# the guess, NTri%itsYP NO no_P sai# the chil#, shaking her hea#& N:othing like that&P NSa it again, little oneP An unpro$ising business& 5or this ti$e it ha# Xuite a #ifferent soun#& 6e $a#e the %enture) NPa##ensYP NO no_P sai# the chil#& N:othing like that&P NOnce $ore& Let us tr it again, #ear&P A $ost hopeless business& This ti$e it s!elle# into four s llables& N7t canVt be Tappitar%erYP IB FD sai# BarboJ Brothers, rubbing his hea# !ith his hat in #isco$fiture& N:o_ 7t ainVt,P the chil# Xuietl assente#& On her tr ing this unfortunate na$e once $ore, !ith eJtraor#inar efforts at #istinction, it s!elle# into eight s llables at least& NAh_ 7 think,P sai# BarboJ Brothers, !ith a #esperate air of resignation, Nthat !e ha# better gi%e it up&P NBut 7 a$ lost,P sai# the chil# nestling her little han# $ore closel in his, Nan# ouVll take care of $e, !onVt ouYP 7f e%er a $an !ere #isconcerte# b #i%ision bet!een co$passion on the one han#, an# the %er i$becilit of irresolution on the other, here the $an !as& NLost_P he repeate#, looking #o!n at the chil#& N7 a$ sure 7 a$& What is to be #one_P NWhere #o yo% li%eYP aske# the chil#, looking up at hi$ !istfull & NO%er there,P he ans!ere#, pointing %aguel in the #irection of the hotel& N6a#nVt !e better go thereYP sai# the chil#& N*eall ,P he replie#, N7 #onVt kno! but !hat !e ha#&P So the set off, han# in han#W\he, through co$parison of hi$self against his little co$panion, !ith a clu$s feeling on hi$ as if he ha# just #e%elope# into a foolish giantW\she, clearl ele%ate# in her o!n tin opinion b ha%ing got hi$ so neatl out of his e$barrass$ent& NWe are going to ha%e #inner !hen !e get there, 7 supposeYP sai# Poll & NWell,P he rejoine#, N7\ es, 7 suppose !e are&P

N+o ou like our #innerYP aske# the chil#& NWh , on the !hole,P sai# BarboJ Brothers, N es, 7 think 7 #o&P N7 #o $ine,P sai# Poll N6a%e ou an brothers an# sistersYP N:o, ha%e ouYP NOine are #ea#&P NO_P sai# BarboJ Brothers& With that absur# sense of un!iel#iness of $in# an# bo# !eighing hi$ #o!n, he !oul# not ha%e kno!n ho! to pursue the con%ersation be on# this curt rejoin#er, but that the chil# !as al!a s rea# for hi$& NWhat,P she aske#, turning her soft han# coaJingl in his, Nare ou going to #o to a$use $e, after #innerYP N9pon $ soul, Poll ,P eJclai$e# BarboJ Brothers, %er $uch at a loss, N7 ha%e not the slightest i#ea_P NThen 7 tell ou !hat,P sai# Poll & N6a%e ou got an car#s at the houseYP NPlent ,P sai# BarboJ Brothers, in a boastful %ein& Naer !ell& Then 7Vll buil# houses, an# ou shall look at $e& 'ou $ustnVt blo!, ou kno!&P NO no_P sai# BarboJ Brothers& N:o, no, no_ :o blo!ing_ Blo!ingVs not fair&P 6e flattere# hi$self that he ha# sai# this prett !ell for an i#iotic $onsterW but the chil#, instantl percei%ing the a!k!ar#ness of his atte$pt to a#apt hi$self to her le%el, utterl #estro e# his hopeful opinion of hi$self b sa ing, co$passionatel ) NWhat a funn $an ou are_P 5eeling, after this $elanchol failure, as if he e%er $inute gre! bigger an# hea%ier in person, an# !eaker in $in#, BarboJ ga%e hi$self up for a ba# job& :o giant e%er sub$itte# $ore $eekl to be le# in triu$ph b all(conXuering 8ack, than he to be boun# in sla%er to Poll & N+o ou kno! an storiesYP she aske# hi$& 6e !as re#uce# to the hu$iliating confession) NWhat a #unce ou $ust be, $ustnVt ouYP sai# Poll & 6e !as re#uce# to the hu$iliating confession) NWoul# ou like $e to teach ou a stor Y But ou $ust re$e$ber it, ou kno!, an# be able to tell it right to so$ebo# else after!ar#sYP 6e professe# that it !oul# affor# hi$ the highest $ental gratification to be taught a stor , an# that he !oul# hu$bl en#ea%or to retain it in his $in#& Whereupon Poll , gi%ing her han# a ne! little turn in his, eJpressi%e of settling #o!n for enjo $ent, co$$ence# a long ro$ance, of !hich e%er relishing clause began !ith the !or#s) NSo this,P or NAn# so this&P As, NSo this bo WP or, NSo this fair WP or NAn# so this pie !as four ar#s roun#, an# t!o ar#s an# a Xuarter #eep&P The interest of the ro$ance !as #eri%e# fro$ the inter%ention of this fair to punish this bo for ha%ing a gree# appetite& To achie%e !hich purpose, this fair $a#e this pie, an# this bo ate an# ate an# ate, an# his cheeks s!elle# an# s!elle# an# s!elle#& There !ere $an tributar circu$stances, but the forcible interest cul$inate# in the total consu$ption of this pie, an# the bursting of this bo & Trul he !as a fine sight, BarboJ Brothers, !ith serious attenti%e face, an ear bent #o!n, $uch jostle# on the pa%e$ents of the bus to!n, but afrai# of losing a single inci#ent of the epic, lest he shoul# be eJa$ine# in it b (an#(b an# foun# #eficient& EJercise& *e!rite this little stor , locating the scene in our o!n to!n an# #escribing ourself in the place of BarboJ Bros& Oake as fe! changes in the !or#ing as possible&

CHAPTER X. THE EPIGRA++ATIC STYLE, Stephen "rane& A peculiarl $o#ern st le is that in !hich %er short sentences are use# for pungent effect& 7f to this characteristic of short sentences !e a## a slightl unusual though perfectl ob%ious use of co$$on !or#s, !e ha%e !hat has been calle# the Nepigra$$atic st le,P though it #oes not necessaril ha%e an epigra$s in it& 7t is the $o#ern ne!spaper an# a#%ertise$ent !riterVs $etho# of e$phasisW an# if it coul# be use# in $o#eration, or on occasion, it !oul# be eJtre$el effecti%e& But to use it at all ti$es an# for all subjects is a %ice #istinctl to be a%oi#e#& Stephen "raneVs NThe *e# Ba#ge of "ourageP is !ritten al$ost !holl in this st le& 7f !e rea# three or four chapters of this stor !e $a see ho! tiring it is for the $in# to be constantl jerke# along& At the sa$e ti$e, in a brief a#%ertising booklet probabl no other st le that is sufficientl si$ple an# #irect !oul# be as likel to attract i$$e#iate attention an# hol# it for the short ti$e usuall reXuire# to rea# an a#%ertise$ent& "raneVs st le has a literar turn an# Xualit !hich !ill not be foun# in the epigra$$atic a#%ertise$ent, chiefl because "rane is #escripti%e, !hile the a#%ertiser is $erel argu$entati%e& 6o!e%er, the a#%ertise$ent !riter !ill learn the epigra$$atic st le $ost surel an# Xuickl b stu# ing the literar for$ of it& 5ro$ NThe *e# Ba#ge of "ourage&P The blue ha[e of e%ening !as upon the fiel#& The lines of forest !ere long purple sha#o!s& One clou# la along the !estern sk partl s$othering the re#& As the outh left the scene behin# hi$, he hear# the guns su##enl roar out& 6e i$agine# the$ shaking in black rage& The belche# an# ho!le# like brass #e%ils guar#ing a gate& The soft air !as fille# !ith the tre$en#ous re$onstrance& With it ca$e the shattering peal of opposing infantr & Turning to look behin# hi$, he coul# see sheets of orange light illu$ine the sha#o! #istance& There !ere subtle an# su##en lightnings in the far air& At ti$es he thought he coul# see hea%ing $asses of $en& 6e hurrie# on in the #usk& The #a ha# fa#e# until he coul# barel #istinguish place for his feet& The purple #arkness !as fille# !ith $en !ho lecture# an# jabbere#& So$eti$es he coul# see the$ gesticulating against the blue an# so$ber sk & There see$e# to be a great ruck of $en an# $unitions sprea# about in the forest an# in the fiel#s 6is thoughts as he !alke# fiJe# intentl upon his hurt& There !as a cool, liXui# feeling about it an# he i$agine# bloo# $o%ing slo!l #o!n un#er his hair& 6is hea# see$e# s!ollen to a si[e that $a#e hi$ think his neck to be ina#eXuate& The ne! silence of his !oun# $a#e $uch !orri$ent& The little blistering %oices of pain that ha# calle# out fro$ his scalp !ere, he thought, #efinite in their eJpression of #anger& B the$ he belie%e# that he coul# $easure his plight& But !hen the re$aine# o$inousl silent he beca$e frightene# an# i$agine# terrible fingers that clutche# into his brain& A$i# it he began to reflect upon %arious inci#ents an# con#itions of the past& 6e bethought hi$ of certain $eals his $other ha# cooke# at ho$e, in !hich those #ishes of !hich he !as particularl fon# ha# occupie# pro$inent positions& 6e sa! the sprea# table& The pine !alls of the kitchen !ere glo!ing in the !ar$ light fro$ the sto%e& Too, he re$e$bere# ho! he an# his co$panions use# to go fro$ the school(house to the bank of a sha#e# pool& 6e sa! his clothes in #isor#erl arra upon the grass of the bank& 6e felt the s!ash of the fragrant !ater upon his bo# & The lea%es of the o%erhanging $aple rustle# !ith $elo# in the !in# of outhful su$$er& EJercise&

After rea#ing this passage o%er a #o[en ti$es %er slo!l an# carefull , an# cop ing it phrase b phrase, continue the narrati%e in "raneVs st le through t!o $ore paragraphs, bringing the stor of this #a Vs #oing to so$e natural conclusion& CHAPTER XI. THE POWER OF SI+PLICITY, The Bible, 5ranklin, Lincoln& We ha%e all hear# that the si$plest st le is the strongestW an# no #oubt $ost of us ha%e !on#ere# ho! this coul# be, as !e turne# o%er in our $in#s eJa$ples of !hat see$e# to us si$plicit , co$paring the$ !ith the rhetorical, the loft , an# the subli$e passages !e coul# call to $in#& Precisel this !on#er !as in the $in#s of a nu$ber of %er !ell e#ucate# people !ho gathere# to atten# the #e#icator eJercises of the Gett sburg $onu$ent, an# Abraha$ Lincoln ga%e the$ one of the %er finest illustrations in the !hole range of the !orl#Vs histor , of ho! si$plicit can be stronger than rhetoric& E#!ar# E%erett !as the orator of the #a , an# he #eli%ere# a $ost polishe# an# brilliant oration& When he sat #o!n the frien#s of Lincoln regrette# that this ho$el countr $an !as to be aske# to Nsa a fe! !or#s,P since the felt that !hate%er he $ight sa !oul# be a #eci#e# anticli$aJ& The fe! !or#s that he #i# utter are the i$$ortal NGett sburg speech,P b far the shortest great oration on recor#& E#!ar# E%erett after!ar# re$arke#, N7 !ish 7 coul# ha%e pro#uce# in t!o hours the effect that Lincoln pro#uce# in t!o $inutes&P The tre$en#ous effect of that speech coul# ha%e been pro#uce# in no other !a than b the po!er of si$plicit , !hich per$its the co$pression of $ore thought into a fe! !or#s than an other st le(for$& All rhetoric is $ore or less !in# & The Xualit of a si$ple st le is that in or#er to be an thing at all it $ust be soli# $etal all the !a through& The Bible, the greatest literar pro#uction in the !orl# as atheists an# "hristians alike a#$it, is our supre$e eJa$ple of the !on#erful po!er of si$plicit , an# it $ore than an other one book has ser%e# to $oul# the st le of great !riters& To take a purel literar passage, !hat coul# be $ore affecting, et $ore si$ple, than these !or#s fro$ EcclesiastesY 5ro$ NEcclesiastes&P *e$e$ber no! th "reator in the #a s of th outh, !hile the e%il #a s co$e not, nor the ears #ra! nigh, !hen thou shalt sa , 7 ha%e no pleasure in the$W !hile the sun, or the light, or the $oon, or the stars, be not #arkene#, nor the clou#s return after the rain) 7n the #a !hen the keepers of the house shall tre$ble, an# the strong $en shall bo! the$sel%es, an# the grin#ers cease because the are fe!, an# those that look out of the !in#o!s be #arkene#W an# the #oors shall be shut in the streets, !hen the soun# of the grin#ing is lo!, an# he shall rise up at the %oice of the bir#, an# all the #aughters of $usic shall be brought lo!W also !hen the shall be afrai# of that !hich is high, an# fears shall be in the !a , an# the al$on# tree shall flourish, an# the grasshoppers shall be a bur#en, an# #esire shall fail) because $an goeth to his long ho$e, an# the $ourners go about the streets) Or e%er the sil%er cor# be loose#, or the gol#en bo!l be broken, or the pitcher be broken at the fountain, or the !heel broken at the cistern& Then shall the #ust return to the earth as it !as) an# the spirit shall return unto Go# !ho ga%e it& This is the sort of barbaric poetr that $an in his natural an# original state $ight be suppose# to utter& 7t lacks the nice logic an# fine polish of Greek cultureW in#ee# its gra$$ar is so$e!hat confuse#& But there is a higher logic than the logic of gra$$ar, na$el the logic of life an# suffering& The $an !ho !rote this passage ha# put a ear of his eJistence into e%er phraseW an# that is !h it happens that !e can fin# here $ore phrases Xuote# b e%er bo# than !e can e%en in the best passage of si$ilar length in Shakspere or an other $o#ern !riter& We see in pro%erbs ho! b the po!er of si$plicit an enor$ous a$ount of thought can be packe#

into a single line& So$e of these ha%e taken thousan#s of ears to gro!W an# because so $uch ti$e is reXuire# in the $aking of the$, our facile $o#ern !riters ne%er pro#uce an & Their fleeting epigra$s appear to be spurious coin the $o$ent the are place# si#e b si#e !ith 5ranklinVs epigra$s, for instance& 5ranklin !orke# his pro%erbs into the %acant spaces in his al$anac #uring a perio# of t!ent (fi%e ears, an# then collecte# all those pro%erbs into a short paper entitle#, NThe Wa to Wealth&P 7t $a be a##e#, also, that he #i# not e%en originate $ost of these sa ings, but onl ga%e a ne! sta$p to !hat he foun# in 6in#u an# Arabic recor#s& 5or all that, Poor *ichar#Vs Al$anac is $ore likel to beco$e i$$ortal than e%en 5ranklinVs o!n na$e an# fa$e& The histor of BaconVs essa s is another fine eJa$ple of !hat si$plicit can effect in the !a of greatness& These essa s !ere originall nothing $ore than single sentences jotte# #o!n in a notebook, probabl as an ai# to con%ersation& 6o! $an ti$es the !ere !orke# o%er !e ha%e no $eans of kno!ingW but !e ha%e three printe# e#itions of the essa s, each of !hich is i$$ensel #e%elope# fro$ !hat !ent before& 7n rea#ing the follo!ing lines fro$ 5ranklin, let us reflect that not less than a ear !ent to the !riting of e%er phrase that can be calle# greatW an# that if !e coul# spen# a ear in !riting a single sentence, it $ight be as !ell !orth preser%ing as these pro%erbs& So$e $en ha%e been $a#e fa$ous b one sentence, usuall because it so$eho! eJpresse# the substance of a lifeti$e& 5ro$ NPoor *ichar#Vs Al$anac&P 5ather Abraha$ stoo# up an# replie#, N7f ou !oul# ha%e $ a#%ice, 7 !ill gi%e it ou in shortW #or a word to the wise is eno%gh, and essay words won5t #i'' a $%she', as POO* *7"6A*+ sa s&P The all joine# hi$ an# #esire# hi$ to speak his $in#W an# gathering the$ aroun# hi$, he procee#e# as follo!s) 5rien#s, sa s he, an# neighbors_ The taJes are in#ee# %er hea% W an# if those lai# on b the Go%ern$ent !ere the onl ones !e ha# to pa , !e $ight the $ore easil #ischarge the$W but !e ha%e $an others, an# $uch $ore grie%ous to so$e of us& We are taJe# t!ice as $uch b our i#leness, three ti$es as $uch b our Pri#e, an# four ti$es as $uch b our 5oll W an# fro$ these taJes the "o$$issioners cannot ease or #eli%er us b allo!ing an abate$ent& 6o!e%er, let us hearken to goo# a#%ice, an# so$ething $a be #one for us, 4od he'ps them that he'ps themse'ves, as POO* *7"6A*+ sa s in his :'manac of 1.{{& 7t !oul# be thought a har# go%ern$ent that shoul# taJ its people one tenth part of their ti$e, to be e$plo e# in its ser%ice& But i#leness taJes $an of us $uch $oreW if !e reckon all that is spent in absolute sloth, or #oing of nothingW !ith that !hich is spent in i#le e$plo $ents or a$use$ents that a$ounts to nothing& Sloth, b bringing on #isease, absolutel shortens life& Sloth, 'ike R%st, cons%mes #aster than +a$or !eanW !hile the %sed keg is a'ways $right, as POO* *7"6A*+ sa s& B%t dost tho% 'ove +i#e( @hen do not s*%ander time_ for that5s the st%## +i#e is made o#, as POO* *7"6A*+ sa s& 6o! $uch $ore ti$e than is necessar #o !e spen# in sleepY forgetting that the s'eeping #o) catches no po%'try, an# thatthere wi'' $e s'eeping eno%gh in the grave, as POO* *7"6A*+ sa s& 7f Ti$e be of all things the $ost precious, !asting o# @ime m%st $e Kas POO* *7"6A*+ sa sL the greatest prodiga'ity,an# since, as he else!here tells us, +ost time is never #o%nd again, an# what we call Ti$e enough_ al!a s pro%es little enough, let us then up an# be #oing, an# #oing to the purpose) so, b #iligence, shall !e #o $ore !ith less perpleJit & S'oth makes a'' things di##ic%'t, $%t ;nd%stry a'' things easy, as POO* *7"6A*+ sa s) an# Ae that riseth 'ate, m%st trot a'' day, and sha'' scarce overtake his $%siness at night9 ?hi'e +a&iness trave's so s'ow'y, that 8overty soon over1takes him, as we read in POO* *7"6A*+ !ho a##s, Crive thy $%sinessQ +et not that drive thee_ an# Ear'y to $ed and ear'y to rise, <akes a man hea'thy, wea'thy, and wise& As 5ranklin eJtracte# these sa ings one b one out of the Arabic an# other sources, in each case gi%ing the phrases a ne! turn, an# as Bacon jotte# #o!n in his notebook e%er !itt !or# he hear#, so !e !ill $ake reputations for oursel%es if !e are al!a s picking up the goo# things of others an#

using the$ !hene%er !e can& THE GETTYSBURG SPEECH B Abraha$ Lincoln& 5ourscore an# se%en ears ago our fathers brought forth on this continent a ne! nation, concei%e# in libert , an# #e#icate# to the proposition that all $en are create# eXual& :o! !e are engage# in a great ci%il !ar, testing !hether that nation, or an nation so concei%e# an# so #e#icate#, can long en#ure& We are $et on a great battlefiel# of that !ar& We ha%e co$e to #e#icate a portion of that fiel# as a final resting(place for those !ho here ga%e their li%es that that nation $ight li%e& 7t is altogether fitting an# proper that !e shoul# #o this& But in a larger sense !e cannot #e#icate, !e cannot consecrate, !e cannot hallo! this groun#& The bra%e $en, li%ing an# #ea#, !ho struggle# here, ha%e consecrate# it far abo%e our poor po!er to a## or #etract& The !orl# !ill little note, nor long re$e$ber, !hat !e, sa here, but it can ne%er forget !hat the #i# here& 7t is for us, the li%ing, rather to be #e#icate# here to the unfinishe# !ork !hich the !ho fought here ha%e thus far so nobl a#%ance#& 7t is rather for us to be here #e#icate# to the great task re$aining before us,\that fro$ these honore# #ea# !e take increase# #e%otion to that cause for !hich the ga%e the last full $easure of #e%otion,\that !e here highl resol%e that these #ea# shall not ha%e #ie# in %ain,\that this nation, un#er Go#, shall ha%e a ne! birth of free#o$,\an# that go%ern$ent of the people, b the people, for the people, shall not perish fro$ the earth& CHAPTER XII. HAR+ONY OF STYLE, 7r%ing an# 6a!thorne& A !ork of literar art is like a piece of $usic) one false note $akes a #iscor# that spoils the effect of the !hole& But it is useless to gi%e rules for !riting an har$onious st le& When one sits #o!n to !rite he shoul# gi%e his !hole thought an# energ to eJpressing hi$self forcibl an# !ith the %ital glo! of an o%erpo!ering interest& An interesting thought eJpresse# !ith force an# suggesti%eness is !orth %olu$es of co$$onplaces couche# in the $ost faultless language& The !riter shoul# ne%er hesitate in choosing bet!een perfectness of language an# %igor& On the first !riting %erbal perfection shoul# be sacrifice# !ithout a $o$entVs hesitation& But !hen a stor or essa has once been !ritten, the !riter !ill turn his attention to those s$all #etails of st le& 6e $ust har$oni[e his language& 6e $ust polish& 7t is one of the $ost te#ious processes in literature, an# to the no%ice the $ost #ifficult on !hich to $ake a beginning& 'et there is nothing $ore surel a $atter of labor and not of genius& 7t is for this that one $asters gra$$ar an# rhetoric, an# stu#ies the in#i%i#ual uses of !or#s& "arrie# to an eJtre$e it is fatal to %italit of st le& But hu$an nature is $ore often prone to shirk, an# this is the thing that is passe# o%er fro$ la[iness& 7f ou fin# one !ho #eclai$s against the ut$ost care in %erbal polish, ou !ill fin# a la[ $an& The beginner, ho!e%er, rarel kno!s ho! to set to !ork, an# this chapter is inten#e# to gi%e so$e practical hints& We assu$e that the stu#ent kno!s perfectl !ell !hat goo# gra$$ar is, as !ell as the lea#ing principles of rhetoric, an# coul# easil correct his faults in these if he shoul# see the$& There are se%eral #istinct classes of errors to look for) faults of gra$$ar, such as the $iJing of $o#es an# tenses, an# the agree$ent of %erbs an# particles in nu$ber !hen collecti%e nouns are referre# toW faults of rhetoric, such as the $iJing of figures of speechW faults of taste, such as the use of !or#s !ith a #isagreeable or $islea#ing at$osphere about the$, though their strict $eaning $akes their use correct enoughW faults of repetition of the sa$e !or# in #iffering senses in the sa$e sentence or paragraphW faults of te#iousness of phrasing or eJplanationW faults of lack of clearness in eJpressing the eJact $eaningW faults of senti$ental use of language, that is, falling into fine phrases

!hich ha%e no #istinct $eaning\the $ost #iscor#ant fault of allW faults of #igression in the structure of the co$position& This list is co$prehensi%e of the chief points to look for in %erbal re%ision& 5aults of gra$$ar nee# no eJplanation here& But !e !oul# sa , Be!are& The $ost skille# !riters are al$ost constantl falling into errors of this kin#, for the are the $ost subtle an# elusi%e of all, %erbal failings& There is, in#ee#, but one certain !a to be sure that the are all re$o%e#, an# that is b parsing e%er !or# b gra$$atical for$ula it is a so$e!hat te#ious $etho#, but b practice one $a !eigh each !or# !ith rapi#it , an# it is onl b consi#ering each !or# alone that one $a be sure that nothing is passe# o%er& 7n the sa$e !a each phrase or sentence, or figure of speech, shoul# be !eighe# separatel , for its rhetorical accurac & 5aults of taste are #etecte# b a $uch $ore #elicate process than the application of for$ul, but the al$ost in%ariabl arise Kif ones nati%e sense is keenL fro$ the use of a !or# in a perfectl legiti$ate an# pure sense, !hen the public attaches to it an at$osphere Klet us call itL !hich is %ulgar or #isagreeable& 7n such cases the !or# shoul# be sacrifice#, for the at$osphere of a !or# carries a hun#re# ti$es $ore !eight !ith the co$$on rea#er than the strict an# logical $eaning& 5or instance, the !or# me''ow is applie# to o%er(ripe fruit, an# to light of a peculiarl soft Xualit , if one is !riting for a class of people !ho are fa$iliar !ith the poets, it is proper enough to use the !or# in its poetic senseW but if the $ajorit of the rea#ers of oneVs !ork al!a s associate me''ow !ith o%er(ripe fruit, to use it in its poetic sense !oul# be #isastrous& The repetition of the sa$e !or# $an ti$es in succee#ing phrases is a figure of speech $uch use# b certain recogni[e# !riters, an# is a $ost %aluable one& :or shoul# one be afrai# of repetition !hene%er clearness $akes it necessar & But the repetition of the sa$e !or# in #iffering senses in a#joining phrases is a fault to be strictl guar#e# against& The !riter !as hi$self once guilt of perpetrating the follo!ing abo$ination) NThe #orm !hich represente# her, though i#eali[e# so$e!hat, is an actual likeness ele%ate# b the force of the sculptorVs lo%e into a #orm of surpassing beaut & 7t is her #orm reclining on a couch, onl a soft, thin #raper co%ering her transparent #orm, her hea# slightl raise# an# turne# to one si#e, an# ha%ing concentrate# in its for$ an# posture the height of the !hole figureVs beaut &P "areful eJa$ination !ill sho! that for$, use# fi%e ti$es in this paragraph, has at least three %er slightl #iffering $eanings, a fact !hich greatl a##s to the objectionableness of the recurrence of the soun#& A !riter !ho has a high regar# for accurac an# co$pleteness of eJpression is %er liable to fall into te#iousness in his eJplanations, he reali[es that he is te#ious, but he asks, N6o! can 7 sa !hat 7 ha%e to sa !ithout being te#iousYP Te#iousness $eans that !hat is sai# is not !orth sa ing at all, or that it can be sai# in fe!er !or#s& The best $etho# of con#ensation is the use of so$e pregnant phrase or co$parison !hich rapi#l suggests the $eaning !ithout actuall stating it& The art of using suggesti%e phrases is the secret of con#ensation& But in the rapi# telling of a stor or #escription of a scene, perhaps no fault is so surel fatal as a $o$entar lapse into $eaningless fine phrases, or senti$entalit & 7n !riting a %i%i# #escription the author fin#s his pen $o%ing e%en after he has finishe# putting #o!n e%er significant #etail& 6e is not for the $o$ent sure that he has finishe#, an# thinks that to co$plete the picture, to Nroun# it up,P a fe! general phrases are necessar & But !hen he re(rea#s !hat he has !ritten, he sees that it fails, for so$e unkno!n reason, of the po!er of effect on !hich he ha# counte#& 6is glo!ing #escription see$s ta!#r , or o%er!rought& 6e kno!s that it is not possible that the !hole is ba#) But !here is the #ifficult Y Al$ost in%ariabl the trouble !ill be foun# to be in so$e false phrase, for one alone is enough to spoil a !hole pro#uction& 7t is as if a single flat or sharp note is intro#uce# into a s $phon , pro#ucing a #iscor# !hich rings through the $in# #uring the !hole perfor$ance& To #etect the fault, go o%er the !ork !ith the ut$ost care, !eighing each ite$ of the #escription, an# asking the Xuestion, 7s that an absolutel necessar an# true ele$ent of the picture 7 ha# in

$in#Y :ine ti$es out of ten the !riter !ill #isco%er so$e sentence or phrase !hich $a be calle# a Nglittering generalit ,P or that is a !eak repetition of !hat has alrea# been !ell sai#, or that is si$pl NfineP language\senti$entalit of so$e sort& Let hi$ ruthlessl cut a!a that paragraph, sentence, or phrase, an# then re(rea#& 7t is al$ost startling to obser%e ho! the re$o%al or a##ition of a single phrase !ill change the effect of a #escription co%ering $an pages& But often a long co$position !ill lack har$on of structure, a fault %er #ifferent fro$ an !e ha%e $entione#, 6itherto !e ha%e spoken of #efinite faults that $ust be cut out& 7t is as often necessar to $ake a##itions& 7n the first place, each paragraph $ust be balance# !ithin itself& The language $ust be fluent an# %arie#, an# each thought or suggestion $ust flo! easil an# s$oothl into the neJt, unless abruptness is use# for a #efinite purpose& Like!ise each successi%e stage of a #escription or #ialogue $ust ha%e its relati%e as !ell as its intrinsic %alue& The !riter $ust stu# carefull the proportions of the parts, an# nicel a#just an# har$oni[e each to the other& E%er paragraph, e%er sentence, e%er phrase an# !or#, shoul# ha%e its o!n #istinct an# clear $eaning, an# the !riter shoul# ne%er allo! hi$self to be in #oubt as to the nee# or %alue of this or that& To secure har$on of st le an# structure is a $atter of personal ju#g$ent an# stu# & Though rules for it cannot be gi%en, it !ill be foun# to be a natural result of follo!ing all the principles of gra$$ar, rhetoric, an# co$position& But the har# !ork in%ol%e# in securing this proportion an# har$on of structure can ne%er be a%oi#e# or e%a#e# !ithout #isastrous conseXuences& Toil, toil, toil_ That shoul# be e%er !riterVs $otto if he aspires to success, e%en in the si$plest for$s of !riting& The a$bitious !riter !ill not learn har$on of st le fro$ an single short selection, ho!e%er perfect such a co$position $a be in itself& 7t reXuires persistent rea#ing, as !ell as %er thoughtful rea#ing, of the $asters of perfect st le& T!o such $asters are especiall to be reco$$en#e#,\7r%ing an# 6a!thorne& An# a$ong their !orks, the best for such stu# are NThe Sketchbook,P especiall *ip aan Winkle an# Legen# of Sleep 6ollo!, b 7r%ing, an# NThe Scarlet LetterP an# such short stories as NThe Great Stone 5ace,P b 6a!thorne& To these $a be a##e# Thackera Vs Naanit 5air,P ScottVs N7%anhoe,P an# La$bVs NEssa s of Elia&P These books shoul# be rea# an# re(rea# $an ti$esW an# !hene%er an co$position is to be teste#, it $a con%enientl be co$pare# as to st le to so$e part of one or other of these books& 7n conclusion !e !oul# sa that the stu# of too $an $asterpieces is an error& 7t $eans that none of the$ are full absorbe# or $astere#& The selections here gi%en,4 together !ith the %olu$es reco$$en#e# abo%e, $a of course be ju#iciousl supple$ente# if occasion reXuiresW but as a rule, these !ill be foun# a$ple& Each t pe shoul# be stu#ie# an# $astere#, one t pe after another& 7t !oul# be a $istake to o$it an one, e%en if it is a t pe that #oes not particularl interest the stu#ent, an# is one he thinks he !ill ne%er !ish to use in its purit ) $aster of it !ill enrich an other st le that $a be chosen) 7f it is foun# useful for shaping no $ore than a single sentence, it is to be re$e$bere# that that sentence $a shape the #estinies of a life& 4A fuller collection of the $asterpieces of st le than the present %olu$e contains $a be foun# in NThe Best English Essa s,P e#ite# b Sher!in "o# & CHAPTER XIII. I+AGINATION AND REALITY..THE AUDIENCE. So far !e ha%e gi%en our attention to st le, the effecti%e use of !or#s& We !ill no! consi#er so$e of those general principles of thought en# eJpression !hich are essential to #istincti%el literar co$positionW an# first the relation bet!een i$agination an# realit , or actualit &

7n real life a thousan# currents cross each other, an# counter cross, an# cross again& Life is a $a[e of en#less continuit , to !hich, ne%ertheless, !e #esire to fin# so$e ke & Literature offers us a picture of life to !hich there is a ke , an# b so$e analog it suggests eJplanations of real life& 7t is of far $ore %alue to be true to the principles of life than to the outer facts& The outer facts are frag$entar an# uncertain, $ere passing suggestions, signs in the #arkness& The principles of life are a cle! of threa# !hich $a gui#e the hu$an ju#g$ent through $an #ark an# #ifficult places& 7t is to these that the artistic !riter $ust be true& 7n the real inci#ent the !riter sees an i#ea !hich he thinks $a illustrate a principle he kno!s of& The obser%e# fact $ust illustrate the principle, but he $ust shape it to that en#& A car%er takes a block of !oo# an# sets out to $ake a %ase& 5irst he cuts a!a all the useless parts) The !riter shoul# reject all the useless facts connecte# !ith his stor an# reser%e onl !hat illustrates his i#ea& Often, ho!e%er, the car%er fin#s his block of !oo# too s$all, or i$perfect& Perfect blocks of !oo# are rare, an# so are perfect stories in real life& The car%er cuts out the i$perfect part an# fits in a ne! piece of !oo#& Perhaps the !hole base of his %ase $ust be $a#e of another piece an# scre!e# on& 7t is Xuite usual that the !hole setting of a stor $ust co$e fro$ another source& One has obser%e# life in a thousan# #ifferent phases, just as a car%er has accu$ulate# about hi$ scores of #ifferent pieces of !oo# %ar ing in shape an# si[e to suit al$ost an possible nee#& When a car%er $akes a %ase he takes one block for the $ain portion, the starting point in his !ork, an# buil#s up the rest fro$ that& The !riter takes one real inci#ent as the chief one, an# perfects it artisticall b a##ing #o[ens of other inci#ents that he has obser%e#& The !riter creates onl in the sense that the !oo# car%er creates his %ase& 6e #oes not create i#eas cut of nothing, an $ore than the car%er creates the separate blocks of !oo#& The !riter $a coin his o!n soul into substance for his stories, but creating out of oneVs $in# an# creating out of nothing are t!o %er #ifferent things& The !riter obser%es hi$self, notices ho! his $in# !orks, ho! it beha%es un#er gi%en circu$stances, an# that gi%es hi$ $aterial eJactl the sa$e in kin# as that !hich he gains fro$ obser%ing the !orking of other peopleVs $in#& But the car%er in fashioning a %ase thinks of the effect it !ill pro#uce !hen it is finishe#, on the $in# of his custo$er or on the $in# of an person !ho appreciates beaut W an# his !hole en# an# ai$ is for this result& 6e cuts out !hat he thinks !ill hin#er, an# puts in !hat he thinks !ill help& 6e certainl #oes a great #eal $ore than present polishe# speci$ens of the %arious kin#s of !oo#s he has collecte#& The creati%e !riter\!ho inten#s to #o so$ething $ore than present polishe# speci$ens of real life\$ust !ork on the sa$e plan& 6e $ust !rite for his realer, for his au#ience& But just !hat is it to !rite for an au#ienceY The essential ele$ent in it is so$e $essage a so$ebo# & A $essage is of no %alue unless it is to so$ebo# in particular& Shouting $essages into the air !hen ou #o not kno! !hether an one is at han# to hear !oul# be eXuall foolish !hether a !riter ga%e forth his $essage of inspiration in that !a , or a telegraph bo shoute# his $essage in front of the telegraph off=i>ce in the hope that the $an to !ho$ the $essage !as a##resse# $ight be passing, or that so$e of hi$ frien#s $ight o%erhear it& The ne!spaper reporter goes to see a fire, fin#s out all about it, !rites it up, an# sen#s it to his paper& The paper prints it for the rea#ers, !ho are anJious to kno! !hat the fire !as an# the #a$age it #i#& The reporter #oes not !rite it up in the spirit of #oing it for the pleasure there is in nor #oes he allo! hi$self to #o it in the $anner his $oo# #ictates& 6e !rites so that certain people !ill get certain facts an# i#eas& The facts he ha# nothing to #o !ith creating, nor #i# he $ake the #esire of the people& 6e !as si$pl a $essenger, a pur%e or& The pro#ucer of literature, !e ha%e sai#, $ust !rite for an au#ienceW but he #oes not go an# hunt up his au#ience, fin# out its nee#s, an# then tell to it his stor & 6e si$ple !rites for the au#ience that he kno!s, !hich others ha%e prepare# for hi$& To kno! hu$an life, to kno! !hat people reall nee#, is !ork for a genius& 7t rese$bles the buil#ing up of a #ail paper, !ith its patronage an# its stu# of the public pulse& But the reporter has little or nothing to #o !ith that& Like!ise the or#inar !riter

shoul# not trouble hi$self about so large a proble$, at least until he has $astere# the si$pler ones& Writing for an au#ience if one !ants to get printe# in a certain $aga[ine is !riting those things !hich one fin#s b eJperience the rea#ers of that $aga[ine, as represente# in the e#itor, !ant to rea#& Or one $a !rite !ith his $in# on those rea#ers of the $aga[ine !ho$ he kno!s personall & The essential point is that the effecti%e !riter $ust cease to think of hi$self !hen he begins to !rite, an# turn his $ental %ision stea#il upon the likes or nee#s of his possible rea#ers, selecting so$e #efinite rea#er in particular if nee# be& At an rate, he $ust not !rite %aguel for people he #oes not kno!& 7f he please these he #oes kno!, he $a also please $an he #oes not kno!& The best he can #o is to take the au#ience he thoroughl un#erstan#s, though it be an au#ience of one, an# !rite for that au#ience so$ething that !ill be of %alue, in the !a of a$use$ent or infor$ation or inspiration& CHAPTER XIV. THE USE OF +ODELS IN WRITING FICTION. We ha%e seen ho! a real inci#ent is !orke# o%er into the fun#a$ental i#ea for a co$position& The sa$e principle ought to hol# in the use of real persons in $aking the characters in, a no%el, or an stor !here character(#ra!ing is an i$portant ite$& 7n a no%el especiall , the characters $ust be #ra!n !ith the greatest care& The $ust be $a#e genuine personages& 'et the ill(taste of Nputting our frien#s into a stor P is onl less pronounce# than the ba# art or #ra!ing characters purel out of the i$agination& There is no art in the sla%ish cop ing of persons in real life& 'et it is practicall i$possible to create genuine characters in the $in# !ithout reference to real life& The si$ple solution !oul# see$ to be to follo! the $etho# of the painter !ho uses $o#els, though in so #oing he #oes not $ake portraits& There !as a ti$e in #ra!ing !hen the school of Nout(of(the(hea#ersP pre%aile#, but their !ork !as often grotesXue, i$perfect, an# so$eti$es utterl futile in eJpressing e%en the i#ea the artist ha# in $in#& The opposite eJtre$e in graphic art is photograph & The rational use of $o#els is the happ $ean bet!een the t!o& But the goo# artist al!a s #ra!s !ith his e e on the object, an# the goo# !riter shoul# !rite !ith his e e on a #efinite conception or so$e real thing or person, fro$ !hich he %aries consciousl an# for artistic purpose& The or#inar obser%er sees first the peculiarities of a thing& 7f he is looking at an ol# gentle$an he sees a fl sitting upon the bal# spot on his hea#, a !art on his nose, his collar pulle# up behin#& But the traine# an# artistic obser%er sees the peculiarl perfect outline of the ol# $anVs features an# for$, an# in the tottering, gait bent shoul#ers, an# soile# senilit a straight, han#so$e outh, fasti#ious in his #ress an# perfect in his for$& Such the ol# $an !as once, an# all the ele$ents of his broken outh are clearl %isible un#er the hapless %eneer of ti$e for the one !ho has an e e to see& This is but one illustration of $an that $ight be offere#& A poor shop girl $a ha%e the bearing of a princess& A$ong :e! 'ork illustrators the t pical $o#el for a societ girl is a oung !o$an of the $ost or#inar birth an# bree#ing, $isfortunes !hich are clearl %isible in her personal appearance& But she has the bearing, the air of the social Xueen, an# to the artist she is that alone& 6e #oes not see the %eneer of circu$stances, though the real societ girl !oul# see nothing else in her hu$ble artistic ri%al& 7n #ra!ing characters the !riter has a $uch larger range of $o#els fro$ !hich to choose, in one sense& 6is $o#els are the people he kno!s b personal association #a b #a #uring %arious perio#s of his life, fro$ chil#hoo# up& Each person he has kno!n has left an i$pression on his $in#, an# that i$pression is the thing he consi#ers& The art of painting reXuires the actual presence in ph sical person of the $o#el, a li$itation the !riter fortunatel #oes not ha%e& At the sa$e ti$e, the artist of the brush can seek ne! $o#els an# bring the$ into his stu#io !ithout taking too $uch ti$e or greatl incon%eniencing hi$self& The !riter can get ne! $o#els onl b changing his !hole $o#e of life& Tra%el is an eJcellent thing, et practicall it pro%es ina#eXuate& The fleeting i$pressions #o not re$ain, an# onl !hat re$ains stea#il an# per$anentl in the $in# can be

use# as a $o#el b the no%elist& But #uring a lifeti$e one accu$ulates a large nu$ber of $o#els si$pl b habituall obser%ing e%er thing that co$es in oneVs !a & When the !riter takes up =the> pen to pro#uce a stor , he searches through his $ental collection for a suitable $o#el& So$eti$es it is necessar to use se%eral $o#els in #ra!ing the sa$e character, one for this characteristic, an# another for that& But in !riting the no%elist shoul# ha%e his e e on his $o#el just as stea#il an# persistentl as the painter, for so alone can he catch the spirit an# inner truth of natureW an# art& 7f it is an thing, is the interpretation of nature& The i#eal character $ust be $a#e the interpretation of the real one, not a photographic cop , not i#eali[ation or glorification or caricature, unless the i#eali[ation or glorification or caricature has a #efinite %alue in the interpretation& CHAPTER XV. CONTRAST. 7n all effecti%e !riting contrast is far $ore than a figure of speech) it is an essential ele$ent in $aking strength& A !ork of literar art !ithout contrast $a ha%e all the ele$ents of construction, st le, an# originalit of i#ea, but it !ill be !eak, narro!, li$p& The truth is, contrast is the $easure of the brea#th of oneVs obser%ation& We often think of it as a figure of speech, a $etho# of language !hich !e use for effect& A better %ie! of it is as a $easure of brea#th& 'ou ha%e a #ark, !icke# $an on one si#e, an# a fair, sunn , s!eet !o$an on the other& These are t!o eJtre$es, a contrast, an# the inclu#e all bet!een& 7f a !riter un#erstan#s these eJtre$es he un#erstan#s all bet!een, an# if in a stor he sets up one t pe against another he in a !a $arks out those eJtre$es as the boun#aries of his intellectual fiel#, an# he clai$s all !ithin the$& 7f the contrast is great, he clai$s a great fiel#W if feeble, then he has onl a narro! fiel#& "ontrast an# oneVs po!er of $astering it in#icate oneVs brea#th of thought an# especiall the brea#th of oneVs thinking in a particular creati%e atte$pt& E%er !riter shoul# stri%e for the greatest possible brea#th, for the greater his brea#th the $ore people there are !ho !ill be intereste# in his !ork& :arro! $in#s interest a fe! people, an# broa# $in#s interest correspon#ingl $an & The best !a to culti%ate brea#th is to culti%ate the use of contrast in our !riting& But to assu$e a brea#th !hich one #oes not ha%e, to pass fro$ one eJtre$e to another !ithout perfect $aster of all that lies bet!een, results in being ri#iculous& 7t is like tr ing to eJten# the range of the %oice too far& One #esires a %oice !ith the greatest possible rangeW but if in forcing the %oice up one breaks into a falsetto, the effect is #isastrous& So in seeking range of character eJpression one $ust be %er careful not to break into a falsetto, !hile straining the true %oice to its ut$ost in or#er to eJten# its range& Let us no! pass fro$ the contrast of characters an# situations of the $ost general kin# to contrasts of a $ore particular sort& Let us consi#er the use of language first& Light con%ersation $ust not last too long or it beco$es $onotonous, as !e all kno!& But if the !riter can pass so$eti$es rapi#l fro$ tight con%ersation to serious narrati%e, both the light #ialogue an# the serious see$ the $ore eJpressi%e for the contrast& The onl thing to be consi#ere# is, can ou #o it !ith perfect ease an# graceY 7f ou cannot, better let it alone& Like!ise, the long sentence $a be use# in one paragraph, an# a fine contrast sho!n b using %er short sentences in the neJt& But let us #istinguish bet!een %ariet an# contrast& The !riter $a pass fro$ long sentences to short ones !hen the rea#er has tire# of long ones, an# vice versa, he $a pass fro$ a tragic character to a co$ic one in or#er to rest the $in# of the rea#er& 7n this there !ill be no %er #eci#e# contrast& But !hen the t!o eJtre$es are brought close together, are force# together perhaps, then !e ha%e an electric effect& To use contrast !ell reXuires great skill in the han#ling of language, for contrast $eans passing fro$ one eJtre$e to another in a %er short space, an# if this, passing is not #one gracefull , the !hole effect is spoile#&

What has been sai# of contrast in language, character, etc&, $a also be applie# to contrasts in an s$all #etail, inci#ent, or e%en si$ile& Let us eJa$ine a fe! of the contrasts in Oaupassant, for he is a great a#ept in their use& Let us take the opening paragraph of NThe :ecklaceP an# see !hat a $ar%el of contrast it is) NShe !as one of those prett an# char$ing girls !ho are so$eti$es, as if b a $istake of #estin , born in a fa$il of clerks& She ha# no #o!r , no eJpectations, no $eans of being kno!n, un#erstoo#, lo%e#, !e##e#, b an rich an# #istinguishe# $anW an# she ha# let herself be $arrie# to a little clerk in the Oinistr of Public 7nstruction&P :otice Nprett an# char$ingP\ Nfa$il of clerks&P These t!o contraste# i#eas Ki$plie# i#eas, of courseL are gracefull linke# b Nas if b a $istake of #estin &P Then the author goes on to $ention !hat the girl #i# not ha%e in a !a that i$plies that she ought to ha%e ha# all these things& She coul# not be !e##e# to Nan rich an# #istinguishe# $anPW Nshe let herself be $arrie# to a little clerk&P The !hole of the follo!ing #escription of Oa#a$ Loisel is one $ass of cle%er contrasts of the things she $ight ha%e been, !ante# to be, !ith !hat she !as an# ha#& A little farther on, ho!e%er, !e get a #ifferent sort of contrast& Though poor, she has a rich frien#& Then her husban# brings ho$e an in%itation at !hich he is perfectl #elighte#& 7$$e#iatel she is sho!n !retche#, a striking contrast& 6e is sho!n patientW she is irritate#& She is selfish in !ishing a #ress an# finer W he is unselfish in gi%ing up his gun an# the shooting& With the ball the author gi%es us a #escription of Oa#a$ Loisel ha%ing all she ha# #rea$e# of ha%ing& 6er hopes are satisfie# co$pletel , it appears, until su##enl , !hen she is about to go a!a , the fact of her lack of !raps contrasts tellingl !ith her pre%ious attracti%eness& These t!o little #escriptions\one of the success of the ball, one of hurr ing a!a in sha$e, the !retche# cab an# all\are a $ost forcible contrast, an# $ost skilfull an# naturall represente#& The pre%ious happiness is further set into relief b the utter !retche#ness she eJperiences upon #isco%ering the loss of the necklace& Then !e ha%e her ne! life of har# !ork, !hich !e contrast in $in# not onl !ith !hat she ha# reall been ha%ing, but !ith that !hich she ha# #rea$e# of ha%ing, ha# see$e# about to reali[e, an# ha# su##enl lost for e%er& Then at last !e ha%e the contrast, elaborate, strongl #ra!n an# telling, bet!een Oa#a$ Loisel after ten ears an# her frien#, !ho represents in flesh an# bloo# !hat she $ight ha%e been& Then at the en# co$es the short, sharp contrast of paste an# #ia$on#s& 7n using contrast one #oes not ha%e to search for so$ething to set up against so$ething else& E%er situation has a certain brea#th, it has t!o si#es, !hether the are far apart or near together& To gi%e the real effect of a conception it is necessar to pass fro$ one si#e to the other %er rapi#l an# freXuentl , for onl in so #oing can one keep the !hole situation in $in#& One $ust see the !hole stor , both si#es an# all in bet!een, at the sa$e ti$e& The $ore one sees at the sa$e ti$e, the $ore of life one grasps an# the $ore in%igorating is the co$position& The use of contrast is e$inentl a $atter of acXuire# skill, an# !hen one has beco$e skilful he uses contrast unconsciousl an# !ith the sa$e effort that he $akes his choice of !or#s& APPENDIX Errors in the 9se of Wor#s& :'' o#& O$it the o#& :ggravate& +oes not $ean provoke or irritate& :mong one another& This phrase is illogical& :nd who& O$it the and unless there is a prece#ing who to !hich this is an a##ition& :nother #rom& Shoul# be another then&

:nyhow, $eaning at any rate, is not to be use# in literar co$position& :ny p'ace& 7ncorrect for anywhere& :t& We li%e at a s$all place, in a large one, an# usuall arrive at, not in& :vocation& :ot to be confuse# !ith vocation, a $ain calling, since avocation is a si#e calling& :w#%' #oes not $ean very& Back o%t& An A$ericanis$ for withdraw& Ba'ance& :ot proper for remainder, but onl for that which makes e*%a'& Beginner& :e%er sa new $eginner& Beside, $esides& The first $eans $y the side o#, the secon# in addition to& Be that as it wi''& Sa , $e that as it may& B'ame on& We $a la the $'ame on, but !e cannot $'ame it on an one& B%t what& Shoul# be $%t that& Ca'c%'ate& +o not use for intend& Can& +o not use for may& N<ay 7 go !ith ouYP not NCan 7 go !ith ouYP C'ever& +oes not $ean good1nat%red, but ta'ented& Cemean& Oeans to $ehave, not to de$ase or degrade& Cisremem$er& :o! obsolete& Con5t& :ot to be use# for doesn5t, after a singular subject such as he& E'se& :ot follo! b $%tW sa , Nnothing else than pri#e&P E)pect& +o not use for think, as in N7 e)pect it is so&P =etch& Oeans to go and $ring, hence go and #etch is !rong& =i)& :ot use# for arrange or the like, as NfiJ the furniture&P =rom& Sa , N6e #ie# of cholera,P not #rom& 4ot& Properl ou Nha%e gotP !hat ou $a#e an effort to get, not !hat ou $erel Nha%e&P 4rad%ate& Sa , NThe $an is grad%ated fro$ college,P an# NThe college grad%ates the $an&P Aad o%ght9 -%ght ne%er reXuires an part of the %erb to have& Aad rather, had $etter& +ispute#, but use# b goo# !riters& Aandy& +oes not $ean near $y& ;n so #ar as& O$it the in& Hind o#& After these t!o !or#s o$it a, an# sa , NWhat kin# of $an,P not NWhat kin# of a $an&P Also, #o not sa , Nkind of tire#&P +ady& 5e$inine for 'ord, therefore #o not speak of a Nsales(la# ,P Na $an an# his la# ,P etc& +ast, 'atter& We sa 'atter of t!o, in preference to 'ast, but 'ast of three& +ay, 'ie& We 'ay a thing #o!n, but !e oursel%es 'ie #o!nW !e sa , N6e lai# the Bible on the table,P but N6e la #o!n on the couchWP NThe coat has been lai# a!a ,P an# N7t has lain in the #ra!er&P +ay, 'aid, 'aid]]takes an objectW 'ie, 'ay, 'ain]]#oes not& +earn& :e%er use# as an acti%e %erb !ith an object, a in N7 'earned hi$ his letters&P We sa , N6e 'earned his letters,P an# N7ta%ght hi$ his letters&P

+earned& NA 'earned $anP]]pronounce 'earn1ed !ith t!o s llablesW but N6e has 'earned his lessonP]]one s llable& +ike& +o not sa , N+o 'ike 7 #o&P 9se as !hen a conjunction is reXuire#& +ives& +o not sa , N7 ha# just as 'ives as not,P but N7 ha# just as +ie#&P +ot& +oes not $ean many, as in Na 'ot of $en,P but one division, as, Nin that lot&P +ove'y& +o not o%er!ork this !or#& A rose $a be 'ove'y, but har#l a plate of soup& <ad& We prefer to sa angry if !e $ean out o# temper& <istaken& So$e critics insist that it is !rong to sa N7 a$ $istakenP !hen !e $ean N7 $istake&P +ove& We 'ike can# rather than 'ove it& Sa%e Lo%e for so$ething higher& <ost& 7n !riting, #o not use 5most for a'most& <%t%a' #riend& Though +ickens use# this eJpression in one of his titles in the sense of co$$on #riend, it is consi#ere# incorrect b $an critics& The proper $eaning of m%t%a' is reciprocal& Nothing +ike& +o not sa , N:othing 'ike as han#so$e&P -# a'' others& :ot proper after a superlati%eW as, Ngreatest of all others,P the $eaning being Nthe greatest of all,P or Ngreat abo%e all others&P -n'y& Be careful not to place this !or# so that its application !ill be #oubtful, as in N6is $other onl spoke to hi$,P $eaning NOnl his $other&P -n to& :ot one !or# like into& 9se it as ou !oul# on an# to together& -rate& :ot goo# usage& 8'enty& Sa , N5ruit !as plentiful,P not Nplent &P 8reventative& Shoul# be preventive& 8revio%s& Sa , Npre%iousl to,P not Npre%ious to&P Also, #o not sa , N6e !as too pre%iousP]]it is a pure %ulgaris$& 8roviding& Sa , N8rovided he has $one ,P not NPro%i#ing&P 8ropose& +o not confuse !ith p%rpose& One proposes a plan, but p%rposes to #o so$ething, though it is also possible apropose, or $ake a proposition, to #o so$ething& >%ite& +o not sa , Nuite a !a ,P or Nuite a goo# #eal,P but reser%e the !or# for such phrases as Nuite sure,P Nuite to the e#ge,P etc& Raise, rise& :e%er tell a person to Nraise up,P $eaning Nraise hi$self up,P but to Nrise up&P Also, #o not speak of Nraising chil#ren,P though !e $a Nraise horses&P Scarce'y& +o not sa , N7 shall scarcel Khar#l L finish before night,P though it is proper to use it of ti$e, as in N7 sa! hi$ scarcel an hour ago&P Se'dom or ever& 7ncorrect for Nsel#o$ if e%er&P Set, sit& We set the cup #o!n, an# sit #o!n oursel%es& The hen sits, the sun setsW a #ress sits& Sewerage, sewage& The first $eans the s ste$ of se!ers, the secon# the !aste $atter& Some& +o not sa , N7 a$ some tire#,P N7 like it some,P etc& Stop& Sa , NSta in to!n,P not NStop in town&P S%ch another& Sa Nanother such&P @hey& +o not refer to any one, b they, their, or them, as in N7f an one !ishes a cup of tea, the $a

get it in the neJt roo$&P Sa , N7f an one he $a P @ranspire& +oes not $ean Noccur,P an# hence !e #o not sa NOan e%ents transpire# that ear&P We $a sa , N7t transpire# that he ha# been $arrie# a ear&P Rni*%e& The !or# $eans sing'e, a'one, the on'y one so !e cannot sa , N%er uniXue,P or the like& Sery& Sa , Nvery $uch please#,P not Nvery please#,P though the latter usage is sustaine# b so$e authorities& ?ays& Sa , Na long way,P not Na long ways&P ?here& A preposition of place is not reXuire# !ith !here, an# it is consi#ere# incorrect to sa , NWhere is he gone toYP ?ho'e o#& O$it the o#& ?itho%t& +o not sa , NWithout it rains,P etc&, in the sense of unless, eJcept& ?itness& +o not sa , N6e !itnesse# a bull(fightPW reser%e it for N!itnessing a signature,P an# the like& En# of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Art Of Writing & Speaking The English Language, b Sher!in "o# 444 E:+ O5 T67S P*O8E"T G9TE:BE*G EBOO; T6E A*T O5 W*7T7:G 444 44444 This file shoul# be na$e# 12.12(-&tJt or 12.12(-&[ip 44444 This an# all associate# files of %arious for$ats !ill be foun# in) http)!!!&gutenberg&org12.112.12 Pro#uce# b An#re! 6o#son 9p#ate# e#itions !ill replace the pre%ious one]the ol# e#itions !ill be rena$e#& "reating the !orks fro$ public #o$ain print e#itions $eans that no one o!ns a 9nite# States cop right in these !orks, so the 5oun#ation Kan# ou_L can cop an# #istribute it in the 9nite# States !ithout per$ission an# !ithout pa ing cop right ro alties& Special rules, set forth in the General Ter$s of 9se part of this license, appl to cop ing an# #istributing Project Gutenberg(t$ electronic !orks to protect the P*O8E"T G9TE:BE*G(t$ concept an# tra#e$ark& Project Gutenberg is a registere# tra#e$ark, an# $a not be use# if ou charge for the eBooks, unless ou recei%e specific per$ission& 7f ou #o not charge an thing for copies of this eBook, co$pl ing !ith the rules is %er eas & 'ou $a use this eBook for nearl an purpose such as creation of #eri%ati%e !orks, reports, perfor$ances an# research& The $a be $o#ifie# an# printe# an# gi%en a!a ] ou $a #o practicall A:'T67:G !ith public #o$ain eBooks& *e#istribution is subject to the tra#e$ark license, especiall co$$ercial re#istribution& /// START, FULL LICENSE /// THE FULL PRO0ECT GUTENBERG LICENSE PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK To protect the Project Gutenberg(t$ $ission of pro$oting the free #istribution of electronic !orks, b using or #istributing this !ork Kor an other !ork associate# in an !a !ith the phrase Project GutenbergL, ou agree to co$pl !ith all the ter$s of the 5ull Project Gutenberg(t$ License Ka%ailable !ith this file or online at http)gutenberg&orglicenseL& S!()'*$ 1. G!$!2# T!23" *4 U"! #$% R!%'")2'5u)'$6 P2*7!() Gu)!$5!26-)3 ! !()2*$'( 8*29" 1&A& B rea#ing or using an part of this Project Gutenberg(t$ electronic !ork, ou in#icate that ou ha%e rea#, un#erstan#, agree to an# accept all the ter$s of this license an# intellectual propert

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