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Aging Assessment Field Guide

Technical Report

PLANT SUPPORT ENGINEERING

Aging Assessment Field Guide


1007933 Final Report, December 2003 Cosponsor Altran Corporation

EPRI Project Manager K. Huffman

EPRI 3412 Hillview Avenue, Palo Alto, California 94304 PO Box 10412, Palo Alto, California 94303 USA 800.313.3774 650.855.2121 askepri@epri.com www.epri.com

DISCLAIMER OF WARRANTIES AND LIMITATION OF LIABILITIES


THIS DOCUMENT WAS PREPARED BY THE ORGANIZATION(S) NAMED BELOW AS AN ACCOUNT OF WORK SPONSORED OR COSPONSORED BY THE ELECTRIC POWER RESEARCH INSTITUTE, INC. (EPRI). NEITHER EPRI, ANY MEMBER OF EPRI, ANY COSPONSOR,THE ORGANIZATION(S) BELOW, NOR ANY PERSON ACTING ON BEHALF OF ANY OF THEM: (A) MAKES ANY WARRANTY OR REPRESENTATION WHATSOEVER, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, (I) WITH RESPECT TO THE USE OF ANY INFORMATION, APPARATUS, METHOD, PROCESS, OR SIMILAR ITEM DISCLOSED IN THIS DOCUMENT, INCLUDING MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE, OR (II) THAT SUCH USE DOES NOT INFRINGE ON OR INTERFERE WITH PRIVATELY OWNED RIGHTS, INCLUDING ANY PARTY'S INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY, OR (III) THAT THIS DOCUMENT IS SUITABLE TO ANY PARTICULAR USER'S CIRCUMSTANCE; OR (B) ASSUMES RESPONSIBILITY FOR ANY DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY WHATSOEVER (INCLUDING ANY CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES, EVEN IF EPRI OR ANY EPRI REPRESENTATIVE HAS BEEN ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGES) RESULTING FROM YOUR SELECTION OR USE OF THIS DOCUMENT OR ANY INFORMATION, APPARATUS, METHOD, PROCESS, OR SIMILAR ITEM DISCLOSED IN THIS DOCUMENT. ORGANIZATION(S) THAT PREPARED THIS DOCUMENT ALTRAN Corporation

ORDERING INFORMATION
Requests for copies of this report should be directed to EPRI Orders and Conferences, 1355 Willow Way, Suite 278, Concord, CA 94520.Toll-free number: 800.313.3774, press 2, or internally x5379; voice: 925.609.9169; fax: 925.609.1310. Electric Power Research Institute and EPRI are registered service marks of the Electric Power Research Institute, Inc. EPRI. ELECTRIFY THE WORLD is a service mark of the Electric Power Research Institute, Inc. Copyright 2003 Electric Power Research Institute, Inc. All rights reserved.

CITATIONS
This report was prepared by Altran Corporation 451 D Street Boston, MA 02210 Principal Investigator R. Martin This report describes research sponsored by EPRI and ALTRAN Corporation. The report is a corporate document that should be cited in the literature in the following manner: Aging Assessment Field Guide, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA, and ALTRAN Corporation, Boston, MA: 2003. 1007933.

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PRODUCT DESCRIPTION
Aging-related degradation continues to cause equipment reliability problems in nuclear power plants. Effective strategies to address aging issues are not consistently applied. There are two major obstacles to forming an effective aging management strategy: 1) plant personnel lack the ability to identify the leading indicators of aging degradation, and 2) there is a lack of simple methodologies to support plant staff application of this knowledge. This field guide provides plant engineers with a pocket reference to carry with them into the plant during a system walkdown. Results and Findings This guide provides practical information that describes the aging degradation mechanisms likely to affect plant systems, structures, and components (SSCs). It also describes the indicators of these mechanisms and how to mitigate their effects, and it identifies the aging degradation mechanisms likely to be found in a variety of plant systems. Challenges and Objectives This guide is intended for use by plant engineers during a walkdown of

the systems and/or components for which they are responsible. Having this type of information readily available during a walkdown allows a plant engineer to: Understand the mechanisms of aging degradation Understand the aging degradation mechanisms that are likely to affect different plant SSCs Identify conditions where aging degradation is likely to occur Identify the indicators of aging degradation and possibly reduce its negative impact Applications,Values, and Use As nuclear plants continue to age, nuclear plant staff need practical tools to identify and address aging degradation. This field guide provides plant engineers with a practical guide to assist in the identification and mitigation of the negative impact of aging degradation.

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EPRI Perspective EPRI has created numerous products to help plant personnel meet the challenges of working with aging SSCs. This field guide provides this information in a form that allows plant personnel to have a ready reference with them as they investigate the condition of plant SSCs. Approach This field guide was developed from EPRIs Aging and Aging Indicators Training Material. It also incorporates years of investigating aging degradation. Keywords Aging Aging management Equipment reliability Material degradation

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The individuals listed below were ongoing members of the Plant Support Engineering Aging Leading Indicators Task Group. As such, they have made significant contributions to the development of this guide and the other products associated with this project. They have provided significant technical expertise and insights into producing products that are useful and effective tools for plant personnel. Sharon E. Merciel Quang H. Dong Joseph DeMarco Michael Semmler Garry G. Young Ted Ivy Gary Toman Neil Wilmshurst Jeffrey A. Goldman Kenneth Karcher Eugene M. Nagy Maurice E. Dingler AmerenUE Detroit Edison Co. Dominion Generation Duke Energy Corp. Entergy Services, Inc. Entergy Services, Inc. EPRI EPRI Exelon Corporation Progress Energy PSEG Nuclear, LLC Wolf Creek Nuclear Operating Corp.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................1 AGING ASSESSMENT ........................................................................2 Know the Condition ..............................................................................................4 Understand the Stressor ........................................................................................5 Mechanical Stressors ............................................................................6 Chemical Stressors ........................................................................................................8 Electrochemical Stressors ............................................................................................9 Thermal Stressors ......................................................................................................10 Nuclear Radiation Stressors ....................................................................................11 Ultraviolet Radiation Stressors ................................................................................11 DEGRADATION MECHANISMS ....................................................12 Metal Degradation ................................................................................................13 Corrosion of Exposed or Unprotected Metal Surfaces ....................................14 Corrosion Concepts ....................................................................................................15 Uniform Corrosion ......................................................................................................16

Pitting Attack ................................................................................................................17 Crevice Corrosion ........................................................................................................18 Intergranular Corrosion ............................................................................................19 Galvanic Corrosion ......................................................................................................20 Galvanic Series in Seawater ....................................................................................21 Stress Corrosion Cracking ........................................................................................22 Other Environmentally Induced Corrosion Mechanisms ..................................24 Selective Leaching (Dealloying) ..............................................................................25 Flow-Accelerated Corrosion (FAC) ..........................................................................26 Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion ..................................................................29 Cavitation ......................................................................................................................31 Impingement ................................................................................................................32 Wear ..............................................................................................................................34 Fatigue............................................................................................................................38 Irradiation Embrittlement ........................................................................................39 Concrete Degradation..........................................................................................40 Freeze-Thaw Cycling ..................................................................................................43
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Aggressive Chemical Attack......................................................................................44 Alkali-Aggregate Reaction ........................................................................................45 Leaching of Calcium Hydroxide ..............................................................................46 Abrasion and Cavitation ............................................................................................47 Elevated Temperature ................................................................................................48 Fatigue............................................................................................................................49 Settlement ....................................................................................................................50 Polymer Degradation ............................................................................................51 Stressors and Degradation Mechanisms..............................................................60 Simple Evaluation of PolymersScratch, Sniff, and Stretch ......................69 Lubricant Degradation ..........................................................................................70 Protective Coatings Degradation ......................................................................72 Crazing or Checking ..................................................................................................73 Mud Cracking and Alligatoring................................................................................74 Cracking ........................................................................................................................74 Blistering ........................................................................................................................75 Discoloration ................................................................................................................76

Chalking ........................................................................................................................76 Dissolution ....................................................................................................................76 Delamination and Peeling ........................................................................................76 Pinholes and Holidays................................................................................................77 Pinpoint Rusting ..........................................................................................................77 Degradation of Galvanized Coatings ....................................................................78 Other Degradation Mechanisms ............................................................................78 Conditions Conducive to Premature Coating Failure ........................................79 Mitigation of Coating Failure ..................................................................................83 Electrical Equipment Degradation......................................................................84 Power Transformers ....................................................................................................85 Generators ....................................................................................................................87 Metal-Clad Switchgear Buses, Breakers, and Bus Ducts..................................88 Environmental Cable and Wiring Seals (Environmental Seals) ......................89 Electrical Protective Devices ....................................................................................90 Electrical Cables ..........................................................................................................91 Motors............................................................................................................................96
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DC Power Systems......................................................................................................97 Electronics and I&C....................................................................................................98 Electronics and I&C Degradation Causes and Indicators ..............................99 MONITORING FOR INDICATORS DURING WALKDOWNS ..100 System Engineer Walkdowns ............................................................................101 Optimizing Walkdowns ..........................................................................................102 How to Look ..............................................................................................................103 When to Look ..........................................................................................................105 Where to Look..........................................................................................................106 What to Look For ....................................................................................................109 How to Document ..................................................................................................121 Materials Characterization ................................................................................122 Characterization of Liquids....................................................................................122 Characterization of Solids......................................................................................123 Relative Corrosion Sensitivity of Metals ............................................................124 Chemical or Degradation Resistance of Several Protective Coatings ........125 Interaction of Metals and Nonmetals ................................................................126

Lubricants on Steel ..................................................................................................126 EVALUATION OF NON-CLASS 1 MECHANICAL COMPONENTS ..............................................................................128 Treated Water/Steam/Stainless Steel, Nickel-Based Alloys, and Titanium..........................................................................................................129 Treated Water/Steam/Carbon Steel, Cast Iron, Aluminum, and Aluminum Alloys ..........................................................................................133 Treated Water/Copper and Copper Alloys ..................................................137 Raw Water/Steam/Stainless Steel, Nickel-Based Alloys, and Titanium..........................................................................................................141 Raw Water/Steam/Carbon Steel, Low-Alloy Steel, and Cast Iron............145 Raw Water/Copper and Copper Alloys ........................................................149 Lube Oil ................................................................................................................153 Fuel Oil ..................................................................................................................155 Air/Gas Environment ..........................................................................................159 External Surfaces ................................................................................................163
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INTRODUCTION
Many nuclear power plants are taking action to renew their operating licenses. In many cases, renewal can extend operations by as much as 30 years. The plants must continue to meet safety, production, and cost goals during that extended period. At the same time, rising prices of replacement power and environmental issues have an added impact on the cost of operation. These factors place additional focus on the need for enhanced plant reliability. Efficient management of aging effects on the plant structures, systems, and components (SSCs) for the remainder of plant life becomes a significant factor in maintaining plant reliability. A key objective in developing effective aging management strategies is enhancement of the plant staffs understanding of aging degradation and their ability to detect the associated leading indicators of degradation. To meet this objective, EPRI has commissioned a training course on aging and aging indicators. This field guide is a concise course reference and a tool to assist plant personnel in detecting aging-related degradation and monitoring the performance of their SSCs. It presents information to

assist them in recognizing indicators of degradation, improving walkdowns and system monitoring activities, and interpreting the significance of observed system conditions to component aging and plant life cycle management. In no case should the information presented in this field guide be used to the exclusion of established and applicable codes, standards, plant procedures, and criteria. This includes the notification of responsible personnel at your plant for investigation of degradation that may be noted. Conversion Units Used in This Report 1 in. C 1 psi 1 ksi 1 rad = = = = = 2.54 cm (F -32) X (5/9) 6.90 kPa 6.90 MPa 0.01 grays

AGING ASSESSMENT
A fundamental objective of the aging assessment of the plant systems, structures, and components (SSCs) is to prevent unacceptable consequencesfor example, reduced performance, reliability, and service life. It is important that the plant staff first fully understand the function of the SSCs. To perform an effective aging assessment, the staff must be able to identify degradation and recognize indicators of degradation. The aging assessment process involves each of the following: Condition The condition or environment that exists, or previously existed, at the structure or component; the condition might or might not accelerate degradation. Stressor A condition or environment that has the potential to accelerate or promote material degradation.

Degradation mechanism A mechanism of degradation that can lead to an undesirable change in the ability of the structure or component to perform its function. Indicator A recognizable indicator of a reduced ability to operate, a degraded functional condition, or a condition that may accelerate degradation. Consequence The unacceptable event that results from degradation. Mitigator Action taken to reduce the effect of the stressor.

Examples of these items and a typical relationship between them and example indicators in an aging assessment are: Assessment Item Condition Stressor Degradation mechanism Indicator Consequence Mitigator Example Situation Reduced cooling air flow through motor Higher temperature in motor Thermal degradation of insulation, polymers, and lubricants Signs of poor housekeeping, dusty environment, blocked air passages; burning odor, hot surfaces Reduced motor performance, shortened motor life, bearing failure Maintenance of adequate cooling air flow; enforcement of housekeeping

Performance of an aging assessment should incorporate each of the aging assessment items in these basic steps: Know the Condition (such as the environment, loads, maintenance). Understand the Stressor (such as relative motion, corrosive environment, salt water exposure, thermal stratification). Identify the Degradation mechanisms (such as galvanic corrosion, wear, pitting, fatigue, thermal embrittlement). Define the Indicators that allow recognition of degradation or a condition that can lead to degradation. Prevent the Consequence. Apply the Mitigator.

Know the Condition


Knowledge of the condition is required to develop a basis for assessing SSC acceptability. The condition can be classified as anticipated or unanticipated and might or might not cause unacceptable stressors. Past conditions must also be included to the extent practical. Anticipated Conditions Normal environment (such as flow, temperature, chemistry) Expected maintenance Unanticipated Conditions Off-normal environments (such as chemical fumes, spills, excessive humidity, hot spots) Maintenance oversights (such as clogged drains, stray currents, clogged filters) Subcomponent failures (such as thermostat failure, pressure transmitter failure) Applied loads (such as waterhammers, climbing workers)
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Understand the Stressor


A stressor is any condition or environment that accelerates or promotes material degradation. Power plant stressors can be classified into six general categories: Mechanical Chemical Electrochemical (Corrosion) Thermal Nuclear radiation Ultraviolet radiation

Plant personnel must understand and be able to recognize stressors to the SSC. An understanding of the stressors is important to identifying and implementing appropriate mitigating actions. Circumstantial stressors and past stressors also must be known and understood. A description of each of the six stressors follows.
Condition of a ventilation ductclamp bolt missing.

Understand the Stressor

Mechanical Stressors All plant materials are susceptible to mechanical damage that can be caused by applied static, dynamic or cyclic loads, or by residual stresses. Examples of mechanical stressors include: Off-normal and unanticipated static loads Inadequate component support * Loose anchor bolts * Corroded supports * Uneven foundation settlement Unanticipated forces * Worker climbing on pipes or cables * Inadvertent overpressurization * Inappropriate hoist attachments Overtorqued bolts Construction activities (such as materials lay down area, long cable pulls) Freezing of wet soils

Mechanical stressor (dynamic load) examples: (A) gap between baseplate and wall, (B) gap between baseplate and bolt head. 6

Dynamic loads Fluid transients * Fast-acting valves * Steam bubble collapse waterhammer * Other waterhammers * Steam hammers * Drop forces * Other impact forces Gaps in restraints and linkages Cyclic loads Rotating equipment Positive displacement pumps On/off cyclic operation Temperature transients causing thermal expansion cycles Frozen snubbers causing high thermal expansion stresses Cantilevered drain or vent lines that can vibrate Understand the Stressor

Repetitive maintenance activities Wear at contact surfaces * Valve seats * Electrical contacts * Loose connections * Sliding supports Flow-induced vibration in heat exchangers and pipes * Fluid dynamic * Fluid resonance * Side branch harmonic * Others Cavitation damage at flow choke points Water droplet impingement Residual stresses that are locked in from original construction and material processing

Chemical Stressors Inadvertent or improper contact between a material and chemicals that are aggressive to the material can cause degradation. Examples of chemical stressors include: Exposure to chemicals that may be aggressive to the materials, such as: Amines Biocides Boric acid Caustic/acids Solvents Coatings Petroleum products Microbiological activity Bird droppings Soil constituents Chemical cleaning compounds Lubricants Long term exposure to less aggressive chemical environments Inappropriate material applications

Chemical stressor examples: (A) sodium hypochlorite tank fill connection, (B) rust staining from corrosion of valve packing bolts by chemical spills, (C) corrosion of grating by chemical spills. 8

Electrochemical Stressors Electrochemical stressors are those conditions or environments that induce an electrical current between two connected metal surfaces in the presence of a current-carrying medium (electrolyte). Electrochemical stressors can cause corrosion of metals. Examples of electrochemical stressors include: Many of the conditions inside pipes and tanks used to transport or store fluids Alternating wet-dry conditions Air-to-water interface conditions at the waterline in tanks Groundwater in contact with buried metals or tank bottoms Sweat on cold-water pipes Water accumulation in low areas Conditions typically present in intake and screenhouse areas Microbiological activitycommon in raw water systems and fuel oil systems Understand the Stressor

Electrochemical stressor example: the horizontal surface near an intake structure exposed to a damp or wet environment acts as a water catch, leading to corrosion.

Piping systems that are improperly drained for shutdown Rain water collection on metal surfaces Water leakage through concrete walls Leakage from fluid systems onto nearby components High ambient humidity Exposure of direct buried systems to the combination and variability of soil conditions Exposure of indirectly buried systems (such as components in conduit, ducts, manholes) to the combination and variability of soil conditions Strong currents resulting from an inadequate electrical ground Electrical currents generated by an improperly operated or inappropriately designed cathodic protection system Contact between dissimilar metals in a corrosive environment Stagnant flow areas in fluid systems, such as fire protection Recent excavation and backfill placement

Thermal Stressors Elevated temperatures accelerate degradation mechanisms in many materials. Examples of high-temperature thermal stressors in the plant include: High ambient temperatures Poorly ventilated control cabinets, power equipment, bus ducts Exhaust from diesel generator engines or exhaust from air heat exchangers Hot running equipment Hot pipes Solar heating, particularly during the summer Cold-temperature exposures can also be thermal stressors. Examples include: Outdoor ambient temperatures during winter Ice condensers Cryogenic piping and equipment
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Nuclear Radiation Stressors Various metallic and nonmetallic materials can degrade when exposed to nuclear radiation. Examples of nuclear radiation stressors in the plant include: Proximity to active fuel Radwaste areas Within or near the primary coolant loop

Ultraviolet Radiation Stressors Exposure to ultraviolet radiation can damage nonmetallic materials, particularly some polymers. Ultraviolet radiation sources include: Direct sunlight Mercury arc lamps Prolonged corona discharge

Understand the Stressor

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DEGRADATION MECHANISMS
Plant SSCs are subject to various degradation mechanisms and environmental conditions that can impact their effective service life. Two significant groups of mechanisms involve degradation by corrosion of exposed or unprotected metal surfaces and environmental degradation of nonmetallic materials. Other conditions adverse to service life include wear, fatigue, and embrittlement. Many components are protected from corrosion and chemical attack with protective coatings. Protective coatings, however, are subject to degradation mechanisms that can prevent the coating from performing its protective function. Although coating failure does not constitute a degradation mechanism of an SSC, such failure can establish an environment conducive to the acceleration of SSC degradation.

The following sections describe the various material degradation mechanisms and conditions that affect SSCs, identify the contributions conditions, and address actions to prevent and/or mitigate the degradation.

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Metal Degradation
Metals are susceptible to a variety of degradation mechanisms in nuclear power plant applications. The more common mechanisms are listed here and described in this section: Corrosion Uniform corrosion Pitting attack Crevice corrosion Intergranular corrosion Galvanic corrosion Stress corrosion cracking Other environmentally induced corrosion (HIC, CFC) Selective leaching (dealloying) Flow-accelerated corrosion (FAC) Microbiologically influenced corrosion (MIC)

Water droplet and particle impingement Cavitation Wear Fatigue Irradiation embrittlement

Metal Degradation

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Corrosion of Exposed or Unprotected Metal Surfaces Corrosion is the destructive result of an adverse chemical reaction between a metal or metal alloy and its environment. Corrosion effectively returns the metal to a combined state similar to the ores from which the metals were extracted in the first place, such as oxides, chlorides, nitrates, phosphates, and carbonates. The three conditions necessary for corrosion are: Exposed or unprotected metal surface Electrochemical potential (dissimilar conditions) Electrolyte (water or aqueous solution)

Most corrosion reactions are electrochemical in nature and involve the transfer of an electric charge in aqueous solution: Anode: Normally corroding area that releases metal ions to the electrolyte. Cathode: Normally noncorroding area that receives electrons from the anode. Cathode may exhibit corrosion products on the surface. A corrosion cell consists of an anode and cathode that are electrically connected metal surface areas exposed to an electrolyte. The location of the anodic (corroding) area relative to a cathodic area can be easy or difficult to predict, depending on the electrochemical influences present.

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Corrosion Concepts

Galvanic Series All metal surfaces exhibit an electrochemical potential that varies primarily with composition. Large differences between metals that are in contact, or immersed in a charge-carrying medium, increase the probability or severity of corrosion damage.

Passivation Layers Corrosion rates can be reduced by the presence of a passive oxide film on the surface of the metal. Chromium oxide, nickel oxide, and aluminum oxide are examples of protective passivation layers. The oxide forms an insulating layer that impedes the flow of charge carriers in the corrosion reaction.

Area Effects The ratio of noble (noncorroding) surface area to active (corroding) surface area directly affects corrosion rate. If the exposed area of the corroding material is small in comparison to the more noble material, the corrosion rate will be accelerated. Protective coatings or passivation layers impede corrosion current flow and inhibit corrosion. Coatings should be applied to either the noble material or to both the noble and active materials, but not to the active material only.

Metal Degradation

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Uniform Corrosion Appearance Uniform, regular removal of metal over entire surface of structure Uniform thinning of metal Contributing Conditions Corrosive environment must have the same access to all parts. Material must be of uniform composition. Prevention/Mitigation Proper materials selection Barrier coatings Inhibitors Cathodic protection
Uniform corrosion and example (right). General corrosion examplepipes and conduits.

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Pitting Attack Appearance Localized corrosion attack of otherwise unaffected base metal Results from the failure of a passive film or localized impurities Small relative to total exposed area Self-propagating in nature once initiated Difficult to detect or to predict, but very destructive Contributing Conditions Oxidizing aqueous environment Chlorides present in most cases Can be initiated by surface or exposed bulk discontinuities (for example, sulfide inclusions, deposits, scratches) Pit becomes anodic, remainder of exposed metal is cathodic unfavorable area ratio Increased temperature usually increases the rate of pitting Pits can initiate stress corrosion cracking.

Prevention/Mitigation Decrease aggressiveness of environment by decreasing chloride, temperature, and/or adjustment of pH. Increase corrosion resistance of material. Remove any suspended materials from solutions. Cathodic protection feasible under some conditions. Design for complete drainage to avoid stagnant conditions.

Pitting attack examples.

Metal Degradation

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Crevice Corrosion Appearance Similar to pitting, but occurs in crevices created by equipment geometry. Rate partially depends on crevice geometry and dimensions. Autocatalytic in nature once initiated. Failure occurs eventually by pitting propagation or stress corrosion cracking. Contributing Conditions Part of the surface is shielded by the crevice, thereby enhancing the formation of differential aeration cells and/or chloride concentration cells. Chlorides are usually present. Stagnant solutions have an accelerating effect.

Prevention/Mitigation Welded joints are preferable to riveted or bolted joints. Avoid use of weld joint backing rings or lap joints in susceptible environments. Use impervious gasket materialsavoid wet packing materials. Remove deposits regularly. Close crevices with appropriate sealers. Design to avoid crevices and to maintain uniform flow conditions.
Crevice corrosion in threaded area. 18

Intergranular Corrosion Appearance Localized attack of grain boundaries and areas adjacent to them with relatively little corrosion of the grain itself Contributing Conditions Segregation of certain alloying elements into the grain boundary area Sensitization of stainless steels caused by precipitation of chromium carbides along grain boundaries resulting in chromium depletion adjacent to the grain boundaries (also applies to intergranular stress corrosion cracking) Prevention/Mitigation Use low-carbon or stabilized stainless steels. Solution anneal and quench stainless steel welded structures whenever possible. Metal Degradation

Ensure austenitic stainless steels are purchased in solution-annealed condition. Cast products/materials can be less susceptible than wrought and forged.

Grain Boundaries Attacked Preferentially.

Intergranular attack of a Type 410 stainless steel valve stem (magnified approx. 500x). Attack follows along grain boundaries, causing grains at the surface to become detached and removed. 19

Electrically insulate dissimilar material connections whenever possible. Appearance Exercise caution when applying Corrosion of one metal joined to another that remains coatings to avoid area effects. undamaged Apply coatings to the cathode only or Contributing Conditions to both the cathode and anode, but Electrical contact between two dissimilar materials in a not to the anode only. conducting environment (see galvanic series) Large enough difference between the electrochemical potential of the materials Large cathodic area versus a small anodic area increases the severity of attack (unfavorable area ratio) Galvanic Corrosion Prevention/Mitigation Avoid couples between metals with large difference in corrosion potentials. Avoid unfavorable area ratio effect of a small anode and a large cathode.
(anode oxidation) (cathode reduction) 20

Galvanic corrosion of steel clamp on copper pipe.

Galvanic Series in Seawater

Note: Although this series is specific to aerated sea water, differences with other solutions of moderately high corrosivity are usually minor. This series can be found with the respective corrosion potentials (voltages) included to provide more quantitative relative rankings.

Metal Degradation

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Stress Corrosion Cracking Appearance Highly localized form of corrosion Brittle-appearing fracture of a normally ductile alloy in the presence of an environment that causes minimal uniform corrosion Transgranular Often initiated at pits or other discontinuities Crack growth progresses across the metal grain without regard to grain boundary Intergranular Initiated at areas of intergranular corrosion attack, pitting, or other discontinuities Crack growth progresses along the grain boundaries Contributing Conditions Most alloys are affected (pure metals are comparatively resistant) Somewhat elevated temperature (typically >120F)

Tensile stress (applied or residual, static, or cyclic) in the presence of specific environmental conditions Transgranular cracking promoted by: High-purity oxygenated water with stainless steel and nickel-based alloys Halogens (for example, chlorides) with stainless steel Ammonia with brass Nitrates with carbon steel Intergranular cracking promoted by: High-purity oxygenated water with stainless steel and nickel-based alloys Segregation of certain impurity elements at grain boundaries (for example, phosphorous, sulfur, antimony) Sensitization of stainless steel resulting from chromium depletion along grains Cold working, such as heavy grinding, can induce surface stresses that can induce stress corrosion cracking in an unfavorable environment
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Prevention/Mitigation Eliminate at least one of the following contributing factors: Tensile stress (for example, redesign, produce surface compressive residual stresses)

Critical environment (remove oxidizing conditions, oxidizers, or other specific anions) Susceptible alloy (replace with less susceptible or stabilized alloy, for example, low-carbon, stabilized stainless steels) Ensure austenitic stainless steels are purchased in solution-annealed condition (sensitization testing can be performed to ASTM A-262).

Intergranular stress corrosion cracking (IGSCC) (magnified approx. 150x). The crack propagates along the grain boundaries.

Transgranular stress corrosion cracking (TGSCC) (magnified approx. 150x). The crack propagates through the grain and typically exhibits branching. 23

Metal Degradation

Other Environmentally Induced Corrosion Mechanisms Appearance Brittle-appearing fracture of a normally ductile alloy in the presence of an environment that causes minimal uniform corrosion Two types: Corrosion-fatigue cracking (CFC) Hydrogen-induced cracking (HIC) Contributing Conditions CFC Cyclic stress in a corrosive environment Both alloys and pure metals are susceptible HIC Hydrogen diffusing into alloy during hydrogen evolution reaction Accelerated by cathodic polarization Can lead to hydrogen blistering

Prevention/Mitigation CFC Remove cyclic stress. Reduce general corrosion rate. HIC Remove hydrogen source. Decrease tensile stress. Apply barrier coating.

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Selective Leaching (Dealloying) Appearance

Prevention/Mitigation

Reduce aggressiveness of environment. One or more components of an alloy that are more Use less susceptible alloys. susceptible to corrosion are preferentially Reduce fluid velocity. dissolved leaving behind a honeycomb-like structure (for example, dezincification of brass, selective leaching of iron from gray cast iron). Iron oxide buildup on cast iron can be the only visible indication of selective leaching. Remaining graphite structure is soft and can be removed with a knife or other sharp tool. Contributing Conditions Alloying element, which is active relative to the major component, is likely to be preferentially corroded.
Selective leaching (graphitization) of gray cast iron (after excavating graphite structure to sound metal).

Metal Degradation

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Flow-Accelerated Corrosion (FAC) FAC is a chemical damage mechanism that causes progressive wall thinning with measured wall loss of up to 0.1 in. per year. Appearance Wall thickness reduction in relatively localized areas associated with local flow conditions Scalloped, wavy, or orange peel appearance on the surface; size and density of scallops can vary from coarse to fine within a given localized FAC site: Scallops can be difficult to see with the naked eye. Edges of scallops are usually smooth and do not exhibit pits or cracks. Often a dark gray or black-colored surface film of magnetite or a bare metal appearance Irregular scar patterns referred to as tiger stripes

Contributing Conditions Loss of the normally protective oxide film by dissolution. Can occur in liquid (single-phase) or wet steam (two-phase) exposures. There is no threshold velocity below which FAC will not occur. An increase in flow velocity increases the rate of FAC. FAC occurs most often at hydrodynamic disturbances at or immediately downstream of fittings: Elbow Pipe bend Reducer Tee Pipe entry Flow control orifice Valve Throttled valves Weld beads Chill rings
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FAC is more likely in temperature range of 250 to 400F . Lower pH increases FAC. Lower dissolved oxygen levels increases FAC. Carbon steels having a chromium content less than 0.1 weight percent are more susceptible to FAC. Steam quality between 0.1 and 0.9 increases FAC. Prevention/Mitigation Water chemistry Maintain a higher dissolved oxygen level to maintain a protective oxide film. Maintain a higher pH. Material selection Select a material more resistant to FAC (that is, steel with a chromium content of greater than 0.1 weight percent). Line the surface with an alloy resistant to FAC (such as clad pipe, weld overlay). Metal Degradation

Modify operating conditions Reduce amount of moisture in the steam. Avoid excessive use of bypass lines. Ensure isolation valves are tightly closed to minimize high velocity leakage. Local design changes Reduce turbulence. Reduce velocity. Inspection Identify and monitor susceptible locations for wall thinning on a programmatic basis. Analyze and trend data to predict FAC. Use computer software programs available to monitor and predict FAC vulnerability (for example, CHECWORKS by EPRI). Ensure that the mechanism causing the wall thinning is FAC and not water droplet or particulate impingement erosion or some other corrosion mechanism Maintain awareness of chemistry, operating, and maintenance changes that can affect FAC
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Scalloped surface on 10-inch diameter elbow; scallops are approximately pea size.

Tiger-striped surface in 24-inch diameter pipe elbow. Note 2-inch pipe connection on right side. 28

Two categories of bacteria: anaerobic (oxygen not required for growth) and aerobic (oxygen Appearance required for growth) Presence of bacteria known to induce corrosion Increased temperature often accelerates growth (Note: Presence of microbes is not an exclusive Low flow conditions indicator of MIC.) Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion Prevention/Mitigation Periodically clean the systems to remove organic deposits (mechanical and/or chemical dispersants). Use biocides, following cleaning, to kill bacteria. Avoid stagnant conditions. Avoid thermal shock. Eliminate nutrient source(s). Contributing Conditions Increase pH to > 9.0, if appropriate. Presence of bacteria creates favorable conditions Use materials with improved resistance to MIC for several forms of corrosion to occur (no material is immune to MIC). Heavy surface deposits or tubercules Severe corrosion of materials in solutions to which they are normally resistant Moderate to severe occlusion of pipe, heavy surface deposits on tank walls Undulating, nonuniform surface Foul odor often present Slimy feel Metal Degradation

Promptly address evidence of MIC as a system-wide problem. MIC can appear to be a localized corrosion problem, but failure to address MIC system-wide can result in system unreliability and the need for systemwide material replacement activities.

Microbiological attack on stainless steel weldment. 29

Corrosion pit (right) beneath tuberculation in carbon steel cooling water system (above, left). 30

Detection Loud flow noise characterized as Description rattling, popping, or crackling Localized metal removal caused by pressure impacts sound resulting from collapse or implosion of bubbles in Reduced pump performance fluid stream Mitigation Dense population of spherical pit-like indications Reduce fluid flow rate. Appears similar to pitting but with rougher, sharper Eliminate unneccesary valve throttling. surfaces Use more resistant material (none are Susceptibility immune, but harder and tougher Surfaces immediately downstream of low pressure materials generally perform better). regions caused by high velocity fluid flow across Increase suction head on pumps. curved surfaces Increase system pressure. Locations can include: Ensure mechanism causing wall loss is Pump impellers, guide vanes cavitation and not erosion, then Pipe downstream of an orifice implement appropriate mitigation. Throttled valves and downstream pipe Heat exchangers Cavitation Metal Degradation

Cavitation damage in a 6-inch diameter pipe downstream of a flow controller.

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Impingement Appearance Loss of material due to water droplets in steam striking a metal surface at high velocity and removing steel Directional in nature Sharp edges Localized to area of impact Susceptible areas include: Downstream of control valves at large pressure drops Downstream of steam traps System areas where water flashes to steam Contributing Conditions Can be extremely aggressive degradation mechanism influenced by: Flow velocity

Pressure and temperature Type of flow control device Pipe geometry Wear and fatigue resistance of the metal Entrained solids greatly accelerate impingement damage in: Heat exchanger tubing Raw water systems with entrained silt or sand Any high-velocity system with entrained solids

Mitigation Remove entrained solids (for example, filter or strainer). Prevent introduction of solids (for example, move pump suction). Modify system operating parameters to avoid large pressure drops.

Water droplet impingement. 32

Surface morphology created by water droplet impingement. All edges are sharp and angular.

Particulate impingemententrained particulate caused metal removal upon impingement with the pipe wall. Stainless steel replacement (right) provided no improvement in service life over carbon steel original (left). 33

Metal Degradation

Wear Description Loss of surface material due to relative movement between two contacting surfaces Wear rate defines a volume of lost material as a function of relative movement Predominant metal wear mechanisms include: Fretting: caused by small-amplitude oscillatory movement that can occur between contacting surfaces that are nominally at rest, such as flexible couplings and splines, and shrink- or press-fit connections Galling: transfer of metal from one contacting surface to the other due to adhesion; strain hardening and plastic shearing of the surface Abrasion: scratching or scoring of a surface by another surface or particles trapped between two surfaces Surface melting: localized melting of surface caused by friction heat Corrosion assisted: removal of oxides formed on wearing surface by fluid flow or abrasive impingement

Contact fatigue: special form of pitting in rolling contacts (bearings) caused by particles spalling in long-term service Susceptibility Wear rate for any particular dry or non-lubricated sliding situation depends on: Surface finish Contact stresses Relative sliding velocity Initial temperature Thermal, mechanical, and chemical properties of the contacting materials and lubricants Higher load or sliding velocity typically increases wear rate Entrapped particles between the contacting surfaces typically increases the wear rate Combinations of materials of similar hardness are more susceptible to galling

34

Detection Wear is generally classified as mild or severe based on observable differences between the two regimes: Mild Wear: Results in extremely smooth surfaces often smoother than the original Debris extremely small Transient electrical contact resistance Severe Wear: Results in rough, deeply worn surfaces much rougher than the original Large metallic wear debris Transient electrical contact resistance (metallic junctions) Increased resistance to relative movement Worn or polished appearance of contact surface

Mitigation Apply lubricant to contacting surfaces. Reduce load at the point of contact. Reduce or eliminate relative motion. Use materials more resistant to wear: Consider materials wear resistance properties. Consider materials resistance to galling; hardness of materials in frictional contact is one of several factors to consider (combinations of materials of different hardness may be more resistant to galling). Design assembly so that the component most easily replaced will wear instead of the mating part.

Metal Degradation

35

Scoring resulted from galling as the misaligned plug (above) came into contact with the surrounding cage.The plug also exhibited scoring on the opposite side, near the bottom. Spalling of inner race of ball bearing on SWS pump motor. 36

Threshold Galling Stress for Selected Stainless Steels (Stress at Which Galling Begins) Type Condition and Nominal 410 Rockwell Hardness (ksi) Tempered (38 HRC) Tempered (36 HRC) Annealed (77 HRB) Annealed (81 HRB) Aged (84 HRB) Annealed (94 HRB) 3 4 2 2 3 50b Type 416 (ksi) 4 13 24 42 2 50b Type 304 (ksi) 2 24 2 2 2 50b Type 316 (ksi) 2 42 2 2 2 38

Alloy Type 410 Type 416 Type 304 Type 316 S17400 S21800

S17400 (17-4 PH) (ksi) 3 2 2 2 2 50b

S21800 (Nitronic 60) (ksi) 50b 50b 50b 38 50b 50b

a Based on button-on-block test, ASTM G98, unlubricated ground finish; condition and hardness apply to both horizontal and vertical axes. b Did not gall. From ASM Handbook, Vol. 18, Friction, Lubrication, and Wear Technology, 1992.

Metal Degradation

37

Mitigation Install vibration isolation equipment Description mounts. Progressive degradation of a material due to Redesign equipment and/or support to repeated application of alternating loads. minimize or eliminate vibrations or cyclic The endurance limit is a stress below which the loading. material can withstand an unlimited number of Use materials more resistant to fatigue in load/unload cycles. the particular service conditions. Susceptibility Change operating conditions to mitigate Components subjected to cyclic loadings thermal or hydraulic cycling. (mechanical, thermal, or hydrodynamic) Areas of excessive or abnormal vibration Fatigue Detection Microcracks that initiate and grow, eventually becoming visible on the surface (can begin subsurface and grow to the surface) Increase in component vibration or deflection Fracture or overload failure
Maintenance painting may hide fatigue cracks (above).

Cyclic loading fatigue.

38

Irradiation Embrittlement Description Changes in metal properties induced by neutron irradiation: Reduced toughness and impact strength Increase in the temperature at which the metal fracture mode transitions from ductile to brittle Susceptibility Metal components within the nuclear reactor environment subjected to a neutron radiation flux Certain impurity/alloy contents accelerate degradation (for example, copper, nickel, and phosphorus) Stress corrosion cracking can be enhanced by exposure to a neutron flux Detection Materials evaluation Irradiation damage monitored with coupons installed within the reactor vessel environment Metal Degradation

In-reactor fluence measurements at prescribed locations Fluence mapping of reactor belt-line region Mitigation Use materials and welding consumables more resistant to neutron irradiation damage. Redistribute fuel to minimize fluence at vessel wall. Use depleted fuel in outer fuel channels for self-shielding.

Changes in low-alloy steel toughness transit ion.

Effect of neutron flux on stress corrosion cracking. 39

Concrete Degradation
Concrete and concrete products are used in many structural applications in nuclear power plants. The basic concrete constituents include: Cement: Different types of cements are available for different applications. For example: Type I Type II Type III Type IV Type V Normal Portland cement Resistant to moderate sulfate attack and lower heat generation during setting Quick curing but higher shrinkage rate Low heat generation during setting High resistance to sulfate attack

Aggregate: Sand, coarse particles, and rock. Reinforcing: Various types, most typically include steel rods or steel wire mesh in various gauges. Admixtures: Various additives affect: Air entrainment (improved resistance to freeze-thaw, sulfate attack, and surface scaling caused by de-icing chemicals) Strength Workability Moisture penetration Setting time

40

Common Uses of Concrete Application Reactor containment Buildings, supports, missile shields Retaining walls, encasements,anchors Culverts, spillways, intakes, basins Sumps, tanks Removeable walls, shield walls X X X X X X X X X X X X X Reinforced Nonreinforced Prestressed X X X X Precast Masonry

Concrete Degradation

41

Concrete is susceptible to degradation by various mechanisms including: Surface deterioration in the form of pitting and scaling Spalling, popout Cracking, including active and passive Leaching Dissolution

Elevated temperatures Fatigue Settlement Concrete degradation mechanisms that are generally considered insignificant include: Irradiation: concrete exposed to relatively low levels of radiation (except for RPV supports and biological shield wall). Shrinkage: early age phenomenon. Shrinkage cracks are generally minor and controlled by design. Creep: minor effect except in prestressed concrete.

However, concrete degradation is most often described by the contributing condition, or stressor. The common contributing conditions and stressors that result in degradation are listed here and described in the following pages: Freeze-thaw cycling Aggressive chemical attack Alkali-aggregate reactions Leaching of calcium hydroxide Abrasion and cavitation

42

Freeze-Thaw Cycling Description Water permeates through pores in the concrete and freezes. Expansion of the water as it freezes imposes internal forces on the concrete matrix. Susceptibility Exposure to freezing temperatures Concrete surfaces subjected to water saturation Concrete mix with high permeability and without proper air entrainment Premature exposure of concrete prior to proper curing Aggregates with high porosity and low resistance to scaling Detection Visual inspection for scaling, spalling, and/or cracking Concrete Degradation

Mitigation Improve waterproofing. Repair cracks. Repair poor joints.

Internal Forces Caused by Entrained Water When It Freezes. Freeze-thaw action: degradation of pedestal caused by wet-dry and freeze-thaw cycling.

43

Aggressive Chemical Attack Description Acids, chlorides, and sulfates react chemically with concrete and aggregates. The attack starts at the surface and affects larger areas in the presence of cracks or over extended periods of exposure.

Susceptibility Concrete surfaces exposed to fluctuating water containing acids or sulfates Less dense, highly permeable, improperly consolidated, or improperly cured concrete is more susceptible Detection Visual inspection for scaling, spalling, or cracking Chemical analysis of surrounding water Chemical analysis of concrete Mitigation Improve waterproofing. Repair cracks and poor joints. Install barrier and drainage systems.

Aggressive chemical attack: sulfuric acid leakage from flanges attacks concrete and exposes aggregate along the leak path to the trough below.

44

Alkali-Aggregate Reaction Description Chemical reactions occur between alkalis in the concrete and certain aggregates. Alkalis are introduced by cement, admixtures, or salt contamination. Susceptibility Reactive aggregates that may be present in concrete mixes that fail to meet the requirements of ACI 201.2R. Ground water is available to provide the necessary moisture for the chemical reaction. Detection Visual inspection for long surface cracks and whitish and gelatinous deposits of silica Identification of reaction products

Mitigation Repair cracks and poor joints. Improve waterproofing. Use concrete with inherently low permeability, such as concrete with added pozzolan.

Alkali-Aggregate Reaction Causes Volume Increase.

Concrete Degradation

45

Leaching of Calcium Hydroxide Description Water passing through cracks, poor joints, or areas of inadequate consolidation can dissolve the calcium hydroxide (lime) in the concrete. Water movement (flow) through the concrete is required for leaching to occur. Leaching lowers the pH of the concrete and threatens the protective oxide film on the rebar. Excessive leaching leads to further decomposition of the cement, leaving silica and alumina gel. Susceptibility Water flowing through concrete with poor water tightness Water flowing through cracks or poor joints Detection Visual inspection for white deposits of lime on alternately wetted and dried surfaces

Mitigation Repair cracks and poor joints. Improve waterproofing.

Bar Surface Corrodes Due to Loss of Alkaline Protection

Concrete degradation: cracks in ceiling and wall of circulating water tunnel. 46

Abrasion and Cavitation Description Abrasion occurs when solids transported in water flowing over the concrete surface abrade the concrete, causing surface pitting and aggregate exposure. Water flowing around certain concrete surface profiles can cause cavitation (negative pressure) at the concrete surface resulting in surface pitting. Susceptibility Areas of flowing water such as intakes and spillways Worst locations are corners and abruptly changing slopes Areas of heavy traffic Detection Visual inspection for surface pitting and exposed aggregate Concrete Degradation

Mitigation Reduce transport of solids into susceptible areas. Protect vulnerable concrete corners with metal shapes. Apply protective coatings.

Exposed aggregate and degraded column pedestals. 47

Elevated Temperature Description Prolonged exposure to elevated temperatures results in a reduction of strength and modulus of elasticity. Susceptibility Hot pipe penetrations Hot equipment foundations Detection Direct temperature measurements of suspect areas

Mitigation Upgrade hot pipe penetration design. Insulate hot equipment. Follow ACI standards: Maintain concrete temperature below 150F . Limit exposure to 150200F to localized areas. Surface temperature below 350F for accident or any short-term period. Localized surface temperature below 650F from steam or water jets in event of pipe break.

48

Fatigue Description Progressive degradation caused by continued exposure to alternating stresses that are less than the ultimate static stress of the concrete Low cycle/high stress (<100 cycles) seismic and high wind loading High cyclefatigue loading Susceptibility Concrete structures and components that are susceptible to fatigue are: Supports of rotating equipment Supports or structures exposed to excessive or abnormal vibration

Detection Visual inspection for: Cracks visible on the concrete surface Fracture of the concrete Loose embedments or anchor bolts Mitigation To lessen the impact of fatigue: Install vibration insulation between the equipment and support. Eliminate source of vibration. Modify equipment operation or repair equipment to reduce generation of cyclic forces.

Cracking of rotating equipment concrete pedestal.

Concrete Degradation

49

Settlement Description Sinking of a structure into the soil over time (usually within first several months after construction) caused by soft soil conditions or changes in soil conditions, for example, changing water table elevation Susceptibility Concrete structures and components that are susceptible to settlement are: Structures built with minimum foundation Locations subject to large fluctuations in water table elevation Locations subject to soil erosion and improper drainage Detection Settlement can be detected by: Visual inspection for: Misalignment of components crossing building boundaries

Doors and windows become difficult to operate Tilting of building Deformed structural steel elements Cracks in walls or floors Unexplained changes in grade contour Periodic examination of settlement monitors Mitigation To lessen the impact of settlement: Improve drainage system. Eliminate soil erosion. For new construction, ensure adequate foundation design.

Settlement marker used to monitor concrete structure settlement. 50

Polymer Degradation
Definition Polymers are nonmetallic materials consisting of large macromolecules composed of many (poly) repeating monomer units (mer). For example, the polyvinyl chloride (PVC) macromolecule is a repeating chain of C2H3Cl monomers. Properties The molecular weight, which is a function of the number of monomer units in the chain, directly affects the properties of the polymer.

Influence of Molecular Weight on Polymer Properties

PROPERTY Increased elongation High tensile strength Increased flexibility High melting temperature Ease of fabrication Chemical/Thermal/Mechanical stability Improved abrasion resistance Improved compressive resistance
"X" indicates improvement to polymer property.

MOLECULAR WEIGHT Low High X X X X X X X X

Polymer Degradation

51

Classification Polymers are generally classified as thermoplastic or thermosetting Thermoplastic Major properties: Linear molecular chains Well-defined melting point Flexible Low modulus Thermosetting Major properties: Three-dimensional molecular chains No melting point Flexible to rigid High modulus Plastic flow resistant Chemically stable Examples: Epoxy Polyester Silicones

Polymers also are classified by general chemistry: Aliphatic Major properties: Flexible Semicrystalline Low melting point Moderate strength Examples: Nylon Polypropylene Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) Aromatic Major properties: Rigid Amorphous Decomposes before melting High strength Examples: Epoxy Polyester Silicones Organometallics Major properties: Flexible Semicrystalline Very high melting point Moderate strength Examples: Silicones Polysulfones Nitriles Teflon

Examples: ABS plastic Nylon Polypropylene Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) Polyethylene

Teflon is a registered trademark of E.I. DuPont de Nemours & Company.

52

Polymers are complex systems. For example, generic silicone can include a number of silicone compounds exhibiting a wide variety of properties: Large ranges in formulation: Constituent Silicone polymer Alloying polymer Reinforcement (such as clays, glass fibers) Dispersants, processing aids Concentration Range (wt%) 1020 1030 4060 25

No industry standards for compounds Formulation philosophy varies by manufacturer Formulations are typically proprietary
Polymer formulations are influenced by numerous factors within the production network. Most of these factors are beyond the end user's control.

Polymer Degradation

53

Cross-Linking Polymers are cross-linked to limit gross plastic deformation, particularly at elevated temperatures. Crosslinking is the establishment of short, rigid links between the host polymer chains. Crosslinking density directly affects the properties of the polymer.

Influence of Cross-Linking Density on Polymer Properties

PROPERTY Increased elongation High tensile strength Increased flexibility High melting temperature Ease of fabrication Chemical/Thermal/Mechanical stability

CROSS-LINK DENSITY Low High X X X X X X

"X" indicates improvement to polymer property.

54

Elastomers Elastomers are often regarded as soft parts. Major properties include: No melting point Extreme flexibility Low modulus Inherently rubbery Resist permanent plastic deformation Exhibit good resiliency Thermosetting

Common elastomers include: Butyl rubber Hypalon Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) (highly plasticized) Neoprene Chlorinated polyethylene elastomer (CPE) Chlorosulfonated polyethylene elastomer (CSPE) Buna-N Viton Silicone RTV silicone Tygon Ethylene propylene rubber (EPR) Ethylene propylene diene (EPDM) Viton and Hypalon are registered trademarks of Dupont-Dow Styrene butadiene rubber (SBR) Elastomers.
Tygon is a registered trademark of Norton Company. 55

Polymer Degradation

Polymer names Polymers are commonly known by trade names or acronyms, but the complex chemical name is equally important for material evaluation and selection. Compounds are made by alloying one or more polymers with a wide range of organic and inorganic additives. Generic treatment must be avoided.

Common and Chemical Names of Polymers COMMON NAME Butyl rubber Hypalon PVC Neoprene TPR CPE CSPE Buna-N ABS Viton Silicone RTV Tygon EPR EPDM Teflon Tefzel CHEMICAL NAME Polyisobutylene Chlorosulfonated polyethylene Polyvinyl chloride Chlorinated polyethylene Thermoplastic rubber (ethylene-propylene) Chlorinated polyethylene Chlorosulfonated polyethylene Acrylonitrile-butadiene copolymer Acrylonitrile butadiene-styrene Copolymer of vinylidene fluoride, tetrafluoroethylene, and hexafluoroethylene Polydimethylsiloxane or polymethyl-phenyl siloxane Room temperature vulcanizing silicone Plasticized vinyl Ethylene-propylene copolymer Terpolymer of ethylene, propylene, and diene Polytetrafluoroethylene Copolymer of polytetrafluoroethylene and ethylene 56

Tefzel is a registered trademark of E.I. DuPont de Nemours & Company.

Polarity Nonuniform electron configurations that result from asymmetrical arrangements of atoms As polarity of atoms increases, polarity of polymer increases Polarity affects polymer properties Nonpolar Polar Major properties: Major properties: Nonreactive Reactive Generally hydrophobic Generally hydroscopic Not easily blended Easily blended Compounding difficult Simpler compounding Typically low strength High strength achievable Examples: Examples: Polyethlylene Acrilonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) Polyphenylene oxide Nylon 6,6 Polypropylene Polycarbonate (Lexan) Polystyrene Polymethyl methacrylate (Plexiglas) Polytetrafluoroethlyene (Teflon) Polysulfone Polyethylene terephthalate (Mylar) Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) Silicone rubber Acrilonitrile-butadiene copolymer Polymer Degradation

Mylar is a registered trademark of E.I. DuPont de Nemours & Company. Lexan is a registered trademark of General Electric Company.

57

Packaging and Storage Considerations Elastomers are particularly susceptible to degradation during shipping, handling, and storage if inadequate consideration is given to packaging and storage requirements. Plastic packaging * No plasticizers (PVC, others); can alter elastomer properties. * No shrink wrap; adhesion can damage elastomer. * No elastomers; bonding and/or diffusion can alter properties. * No adhesives; pressure-sensitive adhesives are powerful plasticizers. Paper packaging/backing * Avoid paper contact; sulfates can oxidize elastomer. Metallized or metal foil * Oxidation can be catalyzed. * Product invisible; package opening inevitable for peeking.

No packaging * Not recommended; uncontrolled exposure to dust, vapors Safe packing option * Simple, nonpigmented polyethylene bag * Zip-lock type enclosure * External label

58

Polymers are widely used in nearly all areas of a nuclear power plant. Some of the common uses are identified in the following table. Seals Gaskets SBR Silicone Hypalon EPR EPDM Polyurethane Polysulfone Buna rubber Viton Polymer Degradation
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Construction Joints Butyl rubber Silicone Polypropylene

Cable Jackets Neoprene Hypalon Buna rubber PVC HDPE1 LPDE1

Cable Insulation Butyl rubber Silicone EPR Buna rubber

Linings Rubber Polyurethane Neoprene Hypalon PVC

O-rings Neoprene Hypalon Polyurethane Polysulfone Polyethylene PTFE3

Caulking/ Sealants Butyl rubber Silicone Vinyl polymers Polyurethane Buna rubber Viton

Vibration Isolation Neoprene Polyurethane EPR

Piping/ Conduit ABS PVC Propylene Polyethylene

Stressors and Degradation Mechanisms Polymers used in plant components can be degraded by environmental conditions and exposure to non-compatible materials and chemicals. Selecting the proper polymer material for the service environment is an important part of minimizing degradation and thereby extending the service life of the component. Degradation of polymers in plant components can be grouped into seven principal mechanisms: chemical, thermal, radiation, ultraviolet, biological, electrical, and polymer-lubricant interaction. Examples of common stressors that can promote or accelerate degradation of polymers include the following (among others): Chemical Exposure to chemical fumes from storage tanks or vent lines Subject to chemical spills in chemical handling areas

Repeated surface cleaning using solvents Use of incompatible lubricant Thermal Proximity to steam piping Internal heating (electrical cables) Poor HVAC Proximity to hot equipment (such as lamps, heaters) Radiation Use within radiation areas (general area) Proximity to radiation sources (such as reactor coolant piping, local hot spots) Ultraviolet Exposure to direct sunlight Electrical arcing

Biological Direct burial in wet soils Immersion in raw waters Electrical Electrical faults Stray currents, voltage spikes Dielectric breakdown Frequently switched circuits Ozone Polymer-lubricant interaction Spills and leaks Air stream or vapors Design During processing (mold release)

60

DEGRADATION Chemical Degradation Selective dissolution or leaching of additives (antioxidant, processing aids, plasticizers) Dissolution of base polymer Softening of part and loss of dimensions Plasticization (typically by oil/fuel absorption) Stress cracking (detergents, soaps)

INDICATIONS

Embrittlement, crazing, surface bloom, discoloration Chalking, gross distortion Physical distortion Gross softening Spontaneous cracking, severe embrittlement

Chemical attack of an air-operated valve diaphragm resulting in crazing and cracking. Note the small voids caused by preferential solution of the polymer formulation by the solvent.The attack was precipitated by painting the valve operator external surfaces while the diaphragm was in place. Paint was applied to the exposed edge of the diaphragm.

Polymer Degradation

61

DEGRADATION Thermal Degradation Oxidation of polymer Migration of additives and processing aids Water solubility increase Conductivity increase Molecular weight decrease Softening (sulfur-cured polymers) Creep damage

INDICATIONS

Embrittlement, discoloration, crazing, reduced elongation limit Embrittlement, discoloration, surface film, reduced elongation limit, increased hardness Volume loss, wrinkling Signal degradation, increased dielectric losses, decreased capacitance Reduced tensile strength, reduced elongation limit, reduced hardness, decreased creep resistance Reduced tensile strength, decreased hardness, reduced creep strength Localized or overall distortion

62

Solenoid-operated valve (SOV) coilexposure to long-term elevated temperatures and continuously energized service has degraded the insulation. Embrittled windings broke resulting in open circuit and failure of safety-related SOV to operate.

Polymer Degradation

63

DEGRADATION Radiation Degradation Oxidation of polymer New cross-links formed at high dose Cross-links broken at low dose Molecular weight decrease Chains broken or shortened

INDICATIONS

Embrittlement, reduced tensile strength, reduced elongation limit, increased stiffness, increased hardness Decreased elongation limit, increased tensile strength, increased stiffness Increased elongation limit, decreased tensile strength, reduced hardness Increased elongation limit, decreased tensile strength, decreased hardness Reduced hardness, reduced tensile strength

64

DEGRADATION Ultraviolet Degradation Oxidation of polymer Crazing Chain scission Discoloration

INDICATIONS

Embrittlement, yellowing, chalking, increased moisture absorption Reduced strength, spontaneous fracture Reduced strength, spontaneous fracture Benign condition, suggests attention to be given

Ultraviolet degradationdeteriorated EPDM termination, field-aged approximately 14 years. Long-term outdoor exposure of this termination has caused the EPDM to be oxidized, brittle, and cracked. Moisture transport to the encapsulated terminals is a concern.

Polymer Degradation

65

DEGRADATION Biological Degradation

INDICATIONS

Partial decomposition of polymer additives (oils, processing aids, certain organics) Chalking, crazing, dulling of surface, slimy feel Localized penetration Dull surface, increased moisture absorption

Electrical Degradation Corona High current Faults Tree formation Surface tracking, spurious instrument readings Surface tracking, spurious instrument readings, soot traces High shield current, spurious instrument readings, soot traces No external evidence (sporadic discharges, faults, shield current spikes)

66

Electrical agingcorona damage to polypropylene housing of high-voltage fault indicator.

Polymer Degradation

67

DEGRADATION Polymer-Lubricant Interaction Severity


Mild Moderate Severe Degradation Mechanisms Solvolysis Swelling Oxidation/chlorination Selective extraction

INDICATIONS

Limited swelling, increased tackiness, reduced static, dynamic friction Significant swelling, increased thickness, decreased recovery, plastic deformation Shrinkage, bonding to surfaces, gross plastic deformation, crazing/cracking, discoloration, dissolution

Lubricant dissolves non-cross-linked portion of the polymer causing shrinkage, increased stiffness, cracking, decreased recovery Lubricant absorbed by polymer causing potentially permanent changes including compression fractures, decreased hardness/modulus, decreased tensile strength Chemical components can interactacids in penetrants can cause oxidation, aliphatic esters can cause plasticization, fatty acids can dissolve antioxidants, aromatics can dissolve processing aids, chlorinated hydrocarbons can soften polymer Removal of antioxidant leaves polymer susceptible to embrittlement and greatly reduces high-temperature resistance Dissolution of processing aids stiffens elastomer, reduces permanent set resistance, reduces chemical resistance Removal of plasticizer stiffens and can embrittle elastomer, reduces permanent set resistance Dissolution of low molecular weight and non-cross-linked elastomer greatly reduces permanent set resistance, reduces modulus, reduces permeation resistance 68

Simple Evaluation of PolymersScratch, Sniff, and Stretch Scratch fingernail along surface. Screens for waxy residues, mold release, antioxidant bloom. Press fingernail into surface. Qualitative assessment of resiliency characteristics. Fold elastomer over itself. Observe surface crazing. Whitening of surface indicates poor bonding of filler. Notch and stretch. Evaluate tear resistance. Examine surface finish. Should be smooth, void-free, mold-mark-free. Sniff. Acrid odor can indicate sulfur cure. High volatile compound concentration can indicate overcure. Polymer Degradation
69

Lubricant Degradation
Lubricant performance characteristics and useful service life are affected by the service environment. Factors that have the most significant effect on the performance and service life of lubricants are: Temperature Presence or absence of oxygen Radiation Degradation of lubricants is indicated by changes in physical properties and appearance, such as: Viscosity: measure of the lubricants resistance to flow Viscosity index: measure of viscosity variance with temperature Neutralization number: measure of acid capacity of lubricant Oxidation stability: measure of lubricant change caused by air Consistency: measure of hardness of grease Resistance to foaming Color: indication of lubricant uniformity

The service life of lubricating oils is often monitored by neutralization number: Oxidation of oil occurs during service and increases acid content of oil Neutralization number indicates amount of acid content Increased rate of oxidation increases rate of acid production and shortens service life Oxidation rate of lubricating oils: Increased by elevated temperatures Increased by radiation dosage Effect of temperature on oxidation rate is greatly accelerated in presence of radiation In a nuclear plant, radiation dosage above threshold levels can be a significant degradation factor: Effects of radiation dosage less than threshold level are functionally insignificant. Effects of radiation dosage greater than threshold level progress rapidly.
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Effects of radiation dosage on lubricants: Effects vary greatly depending on the lubricant formulation and additives Polymer chain scission Gas evolution (off gassing) Reduced viscosity of lubricants Reduced hardness of solid lubricants, including greases Polymer chain cross-linking Increased viscosity of lubricants Lubricant Degradation

Relative radiation resistance of base lubricating oils (from EPRI NP-4735)

Increased hardness of solid lubricants, including greases Destruction of anti-foaming additives Disintegration of gelling agents Release chlorine and sulfur used in extreme pressure (EP) additives, possibly causing corrosion Lubricant systems typically contain many polymer and elastomer components. In most cases, these materials exhibit lower radiation resistance than lubricants.
71

Protective Coatings Degradation


Protective coatings are used to mitigate corrosion and degradation of plant structures and components. When used and maintained properly, they provide effective protection. Deterioration of the protective coatings, however, allows degradation mechanisms affecting component surfaces to occur. Therefore, system engineers should include protective coatings within the scope of their systems monitoring and condition assessment. Many types of protective coatings are used in a nuclear power plant. Because many can be applied to steel, concrete, and wood surfaces, the specific service conditions dictate which types are appropriate. A system engineer can expect to find several types used in similar environments. The term protective coatingas used in this guiderefers to: Organic and inorganic liquid applied coating materials Inorganic zinc Organic zinc-rich primers Alkyds Polyurethanes Acrylics Silicone liquids

Epoxies Other various organics Thermally applied organic and inorganic coating materials Fusion bonded epoxies Flame spray applied powders Pure metal films (such as zinc, nickel, and aluminum) Metallic plating Hot dip and electrogalvanizing Cadmium plating Nickel plating Chromium plating Coatings protect the surface from corrosion attack or other environmental degradation by: Excluding moisture and oxygen Providing physical protection against scratching, abrasion, and other forms of passive oxide film disruption Providing chemical protection and electrochemical isolation
72

Protective coatings are susceptible to a variety of defects and degradation mechanisms that can lead to a loss of protection to the surface. Typically, defects are related to the application process and can be evident at the time of coating application and cure. Degradation mechanisms are usually manifested later in the service life of the coating and are generally related to either the application process or the service environment. The following description summarizes the more common defects and degradation mechanisms affecting the performance of protective coatings applied to SSCs. Crazing or Checking Surface phenomenon Small breaks in coating surface as coating ages

Checking.

Protective Coating Degradation

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Cracking Breaks through coating to expose previous coat or substrate Results from aging and weathering

Mud Cracking and Alligatoring Breaks through entire coating thickness to expose substrate Caused by overthickness of highly filled coatings Overthick application of the inorganic zinc primer commonly used on nuclear power plant containment liners and drywells resulted in mud cracking of the primer Mud cracking and alligatoring have similar appearances; however, alligatoring is more of a checking reaction in which the surface of the coating hardens and shrinks at a much faster rate than the body of the coating itself. Alligatoring might or might not penetrate through the coating surface to the more flexible layer.

Mud cracking of thick coating film.

Cracking. 74

Blistering Blistering is the formation of bubbles in the coating film. They can be under the coating film at the surface or between individual layers of the coating system. Intercoat blisters are typically caused by application of the finish coat before the underlying coat has sufficiently dried, resulting in solvent trapped between coats. Blisters formed at the metal surface can be caused by the presence of surface contamination at the time of coating application, which in turn creates an osmotic cell. Moisture is drawn to the metal surface at the contaminant location, resulting in corrosion of the surface.

Blistering of the coating caused corrosion of a metal door. Expansion of the iron as it oxidized contributed to the bubbling of the coating. Delamination of floor coating at large blister due to inadequate surface cleaning and preparation for coating application. 75

Protective Coating Degradation

Discoloration A change in the color of the coating in service can indicate degradation due to aging, heat, or chemical attack. Chalking Chalking is a loss of gloss and the formation of a powdery surface on the finish coat as the coating binder disintegrates. This degradation, typically caused by ultraviolet (UV) radiation, does not occur in coatings protected from the suns rays. Dissolution Dissolution of protective coatings can result when a coating is exposed to an aggressive chemical environment to which it is not resistant. A coating experiencing dissolution will exhibit a softened, spongy characteristic and will be easily removed from the surface. Dissolution of protective coatings can occur following a chemical spill or a fuel spill that allows the chemicals or fuel to contact the coating.

Delamination and Peeling Delamination and peeling describe a loss of adhesion between the coating film and the steel surface or between individual layers of the coating system. The loss of adhesion can be caused by improper surface preparation, incompatible coating materials, intercoat contamination, or excessive cure time between coats. The terms disbondment and delamination are often used interchangeably. Disbondment is loss of adhesion to substrate. Delamination is loss of adhesion between coats.

Intercoat Delamination.

76

Pinpoint Rusting Pinpoint rusting occurs when the applied coating thickness is insufficient to completely or adequately cover the steel surface texture or profile. Pinpoint rusting involves corrosion of the peaks of the surface profile that extend through the coating film.

Pinholes and Holidays Holidays are discontinuities in the coating film that expose the steel surface to the environment. Pinholes are small holidays that might not be readily visible. Pinholes occur during application and are typically caused by the escape of trapped air or solvent. They can also be caused by incorrect viscosity of the coating material. Typically, limits are placed on the number of holidays in the coating film when the coating is to be used in an immersion or buried service. When limits are specified, the coating film is tested as part of the application process. Because pinholes and holidays are related to coating application, they are not degradation mechanisms that occur with exposure. However, during service, the presence of pinholes in a coating applied to steel will be indicated by discrete points of corrosion products penetrating the coating film. Continued exposure and corrosion of the metal surface will cause undercutting of the coating adjacent to the pinhole.

Pinpoint Rusting.

Pinholes Caused by Entrapped Air or Concrete.

Protective Coating Degradation

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Degradation of Galvanized Coatings In most environments, zinc has a much lower corrosion rate than steel. The metallic zinc coating protects the steel in two ways: 1) serving as a barrier between the steel and the environment, and 2) electrochemically because of its position in the galvanic series. Zinc continues to provide corrosion protection until it is consumed by corrosion or is removed by mechanical damage. Consumption The zinc coating reacts with the atmosphere to form an insoluble zinc carbonate film that provides weather resistance. However, failure to form this film or penetration of this film results in the formation of soluble zinc oxide and zinc hydroxide films that attack the zinc more rapidly. Mechanical Damage Removal or reduction of thickness of the zinc coating by mechanical damage reduces the corrosion protection provided by the zinc. A reduced thickness reduces the amount of zinc available for consumption and therefore reduces the effective service life of the zinc coating. At small perforations in the zinc coating, the exposed steel will be galvanically

(cathodically) protected by the surrounding zinc until the zinc is consumed. At larger areas of zinc removal, the galvanic protection might not be sufficient to protect the entire steel surface exposed by the mechanical damage. Other Degradation Mechanisms Zinc splitting Observed in zinc-rich primers Inner-coat failure of the zinc primer that can occur when an over coat, for example, epoxy coating, is applied before the primer has fully cured Biological attack Coating becomes food source for microbes Mechanical damage Corrosion Zinc coatings in a wet environment above approximately 140F will cause the zinc to switch from anode to cathode, resulting in corrosion of the carbon steel (for example, zinc-coated hot piping under thermal insulation that has been wetted).
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Conditions Conducive to Premature Coating Failure Likely Locations for Early Coating Failure Sharp corners and edges Threads Interface between steel equipment and concrete foundation Inaccessible areas (for example, back-to-back angles with spacers Riveted and bolted connections Thin coatings at sharp edges are more susceptible to mechanical damage, as illus Stitch-welded joints trated by the premature coating failure on the sharp edges of the threads (right). Water catches Rough weld beads and weld spatter High-traffic areas on floors, hallways, and doors Submerged components where silt and corrosion products can build up Thinner coatings Protective Coating Degradation
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Fasteners are a source of many sharp edges where the coating film will tend to be thinner and crevices where the coating is less likely to coat the surfaces within the crevice.

(Right) Mating surfaces such as two members bolted together also present crevice situations subject to premature coating failure. Moisture that migrates into the crevice can cause corrosion of the unprotected steel with degradation of the adjacent coating film. In this example, corrosion product stains are found on the nuts (A) and ledge (B). 80

(Left) Poor welding practice can create sharp edges or crevices. (Right) Intermittent or stitch welding commonly used on lightweight assemblies creates numerous crevices.

Abandoned attachment welds not removed prior to coating application.

Corrosion of bare metal within the crevice exposed by the lack of a continuous weld.

Protective Coating Degradation

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Example: Back-to-Back Structural Angles Back-to-back angle commonly used for bracing in building structures and, as in this case, transmission towers. Narrow space between the two angles is not conducive to coating application, resulting in lesser protection of those surfaces. Corrosion of the unprotected surfaces produces a buildup of corrosion product that occupies approximately seven times the volume of the original steel. Corrosion product buildup exerts force on the angles causing them to spread apart except at the rivets and produces significant tensile loading of the rivets. Deformation of the angles shown above have created collection areas for rain water. Alternate wetting and drying of the coating in these areas is aggressive to the coating and can result in premature coating failure.
Corrosion product between angles deform the angles in the space between rivets (A). Water collection in the reverse slope of the angle has caused corrosion (B). 82

Mitigation of Coating Failure

Ensure sound coating application with: A clean surface with a suitable texture and Identify and remove cause of coating failure. in most cases, dry Verify suitability of coating or lining material for A proven application process using proper the service conditions. equipment and experienced personnel Repair or replace failed coating or lining. Control of the application and cure process Incorporate sound engineering and quality to ensure compliance with the control practices during selection and application manufacturers instructions or the approved of coating and lining materials. application procedure with regard to Select the proper coating material for the ambient conditions, induction time, pot intended service conditions. life, dry-to-recoat times, and cure times Correctly prepare the surface to be coated In-process inspection (self check by surface preparation accounts for the largest applicator, foreman/supervisor inspection, percentage of coating failures. or third party inspection)

Protective Coating Degradation

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Electrical Equipment Degradation


Electrical equipment is used throughout the plant. Most can be grouped into the following general types: Transformers Generators Buses and bus ducts Environmental cable seals Electrical protective devices Cables Motors Batteries, chargers, and uninterruptible power supplies (UPS) Electronics Instrumentation and control (I&C)

Aging assessment is challenging due to the wide variety of materials involvedmetals, polymers, ceramics, liquids, gases. Electrical equipment is subject to the aging degradation mechanisms affecting each of these materials. In the majority of electrical failures, these material degradation mechanisms are the cause of failure. A lesser amount of aging degradation is more directly related to electrical forces (for example, degradation due to corona discharge).

A cutout of a failed expulsion fuse.

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Power Transformers

Degradation Issues Overheating due to overloading and/or Usually either oil-filled or air-insulated. undercooling. Cooled by convection or forced circulation. Internal parts movement due to through fault All have paper and/or transformer board forces. insulation. Oil degradation can be caused by overheating due Subjected to thermal excursions, voltage to overload conditions, inadequate cooling, or hot stresses, mechanical forces. spots from circulating currents. Bushings are a common source of Compression of the insulation allows movement problems. of the conductors that can lead to fretting; polymerization of the insulation paper makes it brittle. Arcing can occur at loose connections. Oil degradation by arcing or overheating leads to gas generation. Gases generated by internal faults in oil include hydrogen (H2), methane (CH4), acetylene (C2H2), ethylene (C2H4), and ethane

(C2H6). When cellulose is involved, the faults produce methane (CH4), hydrogen (H2), carbon monoxide (CO), and carbon dioxide (CO2). Accumulation of unacceptable levels of combustible gases within the transformer can lead to explosive failure of the transformer.

Elect. Equipment Degradation

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Indicators Dissolved Gas In Oil Analysis (DGA). Changes in makeup of gases found in routine or post-event oil sample Changes in rate of generation of already identified gases Trends in installed instrumentation readings (such as temperature, pressure, flow). Trends in periodic electrical test results. Concentrations of each gas generated in the transformer can be used to determine condition (1-4, see IEEE C57.104-199). Fault type can be identified by the associated gas predominantly generated by the respective fault. Fault types identified by the ratio methods include: Thermal decomposition: oil Thermal decomposition: cellulose Corona (low-intensity partial discharge) Arcing (high-intensity partial discharge)

Ratios of the various gases are used to empirically identify the fault based on historical experience data. Two ratio methods (Doernenberg and Rogers) that are based on the experience of European systems, are being used to evaluate U.S. systems with varying degrees of success. An upward trend in the total dissolved combustible gases in the transformer oil can be an indication of insulation degradation and arcing within the transformer.

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Generators Main steam turbine-driven generatorswater- and hydrogencooled. Emergency diesel and gas or hydraulic turbine-driven generatorsusually air-cooled. Control rod drive motor-driven generators in pressurized water reactor (PWR) plantsair-cooled. Vital AC power motor-driven generator setsusually air-cooled Degradation Issues Polymer degradation. Cooling system degradation. Amortisseur winding and rotor forging damage.

Winding mechanical (chaffing) damage or shock-related damage. DC field supply, brushes, collector rings, or brushless exciter diode degradation. Stator insulation degradation, along with bearing issues, are a major cause of generator downtime. Individually or in combination, thermal, mechanical, electrical, and chemical stresses age the stator insulation. Delamination and microcracking play major role in multistress aging of the insulation (for example, thermal aging causes the

insulation to become brittle, cracks, Evidence of water and oil and delaminates. Voids in the leakage insulation grow and become more Excessive consumption of populated. Plasticizers are liberated makeup hydrogen and cooling and the loss tangent and water capacitance rise. Corona activities Industry operating experience escalate. Interaction between and for generators of similar combination of these effects design, size, or use accelerate degradation.). Indicators Trends in periodic electrical testing results Trends in electrical insulation inspections Operational history of the generator Increased maintenance requirements Trends in the monitored parameters
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Elect. Equipment Degradation

Metal-Clad Switchgear Buses, Breakers, and Bus Ducts


Designed to provide remote manual and auto-controlled switching of large supplies of power to loads Buses usually constructed of aluminum or copper bars with polymeric insulation and ceramic supports Insulation can be thermoplastic, thermosetting, or elastomeric in nature

Aluminum bus bars generally silver-plated at joints Degradation Issues Aging affects subcomponents Wear and breakage of latch mechanisms Fatigue of anchor clips for springs Thermal aging of polymer components (brittle, cracked) Pitting of contacts and increased resistance Cracked welds or fasteners and deformation of metal components Ceramic supports will exhibit aging degradation caused by accumulation of contaminants on surface. Connections between bars will degrade through thermal or corrosive mechanisms. Aluminum bus bar joint silver plating may oxidize or lift if not

correctly applied, treated for Periodic electrical testing results corrosion prevention, and/or reveal degradation of joints, high adequately bolted or torqued. contact make-up resistance, and trip test performance anomalies Aluminum bus bars cold flow, therefore Belleville washers or some other spring-loaded clamping system is necessary to keep the aluminum surfaces in contact. Indicators Breaker operations erratic or providing incorrect indications Visual evidence of: Worn latching mechanisms, main contact degradation (for example, pitting or signs of overheating) Missing or cracked insulation, The plasticizer exudation from these loss of breaker state control or PVC boots implies that degradation of indication, mechanical the polymer has begun. This degradation overstresses (such as weld cracks, liberates HCl gas, which forms hydrochloric wear, bends)
acid if any water vapor is present.

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Environmental Cable and Wiring Seals (Environmental Seals) Containment electrical penetrations (CEPS) Component entry seal devices (CESDS) Cable splices Wire splices Environment enclosures for electrical components Provision for enclosure drains Conduit system water trap potential

Degradation Mechanisms Corrosion of metal surfaces Water or chemical attack of wire insulation Indicators Discovery of moisture or water pooling within sealed or intentionally drained enclosures Anomalous and unexplained equipment operation or position/parameter indication potentially involving shorted, open, or high-resistance circuits

Visual indications of potential loss of seal integrity (can be due to aging, incorrect assembly, or insufficiently tightened seal mechanical components) Other visual indications Staining within the enclosure Deposit accumulation at the seal interface Corrosion of metal surfaces within the enclosure

Examples of environmental sealscontainment penetration (top) and cold shrink cable splice (bottom) 89

Elect. Equipment Degradation

Electrical Protective Devices Discreet electromagnetic or electronic parameter-specific protective devices for transformer, generator, bus, and load protection (for example, differential, reverse power, and over-current relays) Electromagnetic and thermal protective elements housed within molded case circuit breakers that are generally located in motor control centers (MCCs) Bimetallic or solder pot thermal overload devices generally included in MCC compartments (buckets) for small motor, lighting panel, and motor operated valve (MOV) protection Degradation Mechanisms Thermal degradation of wire insulation Thermal degradation of polymer housings

Corrosion of metal surfaces Visibly degraded electrical coils and/or coil spools Pitting or welding of contacts Clouding or spotting on Water or chemical attack of wire interior of cover might indicate insulation polymer degradation Indicators Unanticipated protective device actuation when protected equipment is operating within specification Failure of protective device to operate when protected equipment is operating out of specification Periodic trip testing failures Visible evidence of degraded (pitted, welded, or bent) contacts or poor contact wiping evidence
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Electrical Cables Low-voltage Generally 1000 volt and less Power, control, and instrumentation Medium-voltage power Generally 2 kV to 15 kV

Typical construction, medium-voltage cable (EPR-shielded neoprene).

Typical construction, low-voltage power and control cables. Note that the voltages stresses are not sufficient to warrant use of semiconducting shields.

4-kV power cable.

Typical construction, low-voltage instrumentation cable (very low level signals).

Elect. Equipment Degradation

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Degradation IssuesMedium-Voltage Cable Loss of shield semiconducting Susceptible to all degradation mechanisms that properties affect metals and polymers. Degradation of insulation Continuous high current levels (relative to Corrosion of conductor ratings) or exposure to high ambient temperature Electrical degradation can cause thermal degradation of the insulation. Partial discharge damage Exposure to radiation can cause degradation of Electrical tracking of surfaces or insulation physical properties. interfaces Radiation exposure is of concern primarily for Electrochemical water treeing cables located inside the reactor containment In nuclear plants (for example, reactor pump cables). Large percentage of medium Thermal degradation is more of a concern than voltage power cable failures Common Maladies in Buried Medium-Voltage Power Cables. radiation exposure. initiated externally by chemical Exposure to water immersion or chemicals attack, water immersion, Next largest group of failures initiated internally by Jacket deterioration elevated temperature, the presence of voids, agglomerations of the clay Corrosion of shield or drain wires mechanical damage loading, water trees, defects in the shielding.

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Degradation IssuesLow-Voltage Cable Susceptible to all degradation mechanisms that affect metals and polymers Physical distortion at tray rungs, conduit exits, and starts of significant vertical drops Continuous exposure to high ambient and/or internal temperatures leads to insulation damage, for example, (Above, left, and middle) exudation of plasticizer and loss of Widespread plasticizer exudation from PVC insulation on transformer control wiring. elongation and flexibility Corrosion of conductor and connections Chemical attack of insulation and jacket Signal cables most susceptible to degradation and anomalous signal behavior due to low signal levels and potential ground loops or loss of shielding Elect. Equipment Degradation

Released plasticizer affected other surfaces including relay contacts, terminations, and other nonmetallic materials.

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Indicators Visual evidence of mechanical damage in form of cuts, dents, stretch (outside diameter decrease), and severe minimum bend radius violations Trend evaluation of electrical megger or power factor test results Operating experience with similar cables in the industry

Improperly installed or supported cable is susceptible to failure. 94

Electrical Signatures of Cables Cable signatures obtained through electrical testing are indicative of the various conditions affecting medium-voltage cables. Aging Protrusion at shields Nonconcentric components Bonded contaminants Bonded inhomogeneities Voids at/near discharge limit Manufacturing Defects Protrusion at shields Nonconcentric components Bonded contaminants Bonded inhomogeneities Voids at/near discharge limit
CONDITION Water, ion exposure, water treeing Oxidation Water, ion exposure, no treeing ELECTRICAL SIGNATURE Increased loss tangent, increased ionic conductivity, partial discharge, breakdown Increased loss tangent, increased ionic conductivity Increased loss tangent, increased ionic conductivity

} }

As new, normal operating stresses As new, high field conditions (>100V/mil) Service aging, dry

None Partial discharge Electrical trees, partial discharge

Elect. Equipment Degradation

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insulating value and moisture intrusion Most nuclear unit motors are three- phase potential. squirrel-cage induction type. Embrittled winding end Sizes range from fractional horsepower to turns vulnerable to over 10,000 horsepower having vertical transient forces such as and horizontal shafts. those from high- speed Reactor recirculation, reactor recirculation bus transfers. MG set, feedwater, condensate, and reactor Rotor squirrel-cage bar and coolant pump motors among the largest. shorting ring aging Degradation Issues Number of motor starts Thermal degradation of winding insulation have direct impact on A time at temperature consideration rotor life. (i2t). Time to accelerate to Heating (normal or otherwise) reduces running speed determines motor winding life. rotor heat generation (i2t). As winding ages, long-term reliability Squirrel-cage shorting ring degrades brazed finger joints are the Insulation becomes brittle. weak link. Brittleness leads to fissures or cracks. Thermal degradation of Fissures and cracks lead to loss of bearing lubricant

Motors

Increased heat generation from bearing Bearing damage Potential lubricant contamination of windings Potential rotor/stator iron rub Bearing mechanical degradation mechanisms Fatigue Brinnelling Spalling Indicators Polarity index ratio reduction over time Increased high potential test current flow Increased temperature of winding/casing Increased vibration

Increased bearing lubricant consumption or degradation Odor associated with overheating of insulation or lubricant Reduced air flow through casing vents Increased current draw required for same load demand Acceleration to rated speed duration increase
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DC Power Systems Batteries Generally 125 VDC Large seismically capable and supported battery banks Battery chargers Large electrolytic capacitors Large solid-state power devices Battery buses High current switching and fault interrupting capability Inverters (integral to UPS) Large solid-state power devices Sensitive electronic controls Static switches (integral to UPS) Large solid-state power devices Sensitive electronic controls

Indicators Battery leakage and/or terminal posts corrosion Battery plate materials and/or paste buildup in battery jar Electrolytic capacitor leakage or loss of capacity Long periods of operation of solid-state power devices in ambient environments exceeding equipment thermal capability Erratic performance of uninterrupted switching capability from normal source to battery-derived source or the reverse

Elect. Equipment Degradation

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Electronics and I&C Electronics in nuclear power plants include a large variety of components such as: Capacitors Relays Potentiometers Logic circuits Printed circuits Regulators Microprocessors Light emitting diodes (LEDs)

Semiconductor failures are caused by: Degradation Issues Electronic components age by same Electrostatic discharge (ESD) or electrical overstress mechanisms affecting metals and (EOS) - 60% polymers in other plant equipment. Mechanical/chemical - 30% Electrical stresses can also cause Component wearout - 10% aging degradation. Semi-conductors, Thermal and mechanical exposures specifically, are more often are the most prevalent degradation degraded by electrical factors affecting most electronic causes than by related aging. mechanical exposure. Items such as fixed resistors, Thermal exposure of semicapacitors, and LED are susceptible conductors is often the to current-induced degradation. result of electrical For example, over-current can cause overstress. a relay coil winding to melt, creating an open circuit.

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Electronics and I&C Degradation Causes and Indicators


CAUSE Chemical reaction between Al2O3 in dielectric layer with water in electrolyte Copper contamination in electrolyte; damaged paper; damaged electrolytes Degradation of elastomer seal on relay environmental case released sulfur into case internal air space Crack in fixed resistor coating Thermal aging resulting from resistor characteristics inadequate to heat generated during normal operation Gold coating degradation on edge board Mechanical wear due to high number of plug/unplug cycles or inappropriate connector brushing of the edge connector Cracks in thyristor die, melting points visible Thermomechanical cycles induced solder joint aging and increased at trigger wire thermal resistance Offnormal readings on voltmeters and loss of lamp Thermal aging changes magnetic characteristics of meters; status lights function have finite life Low output from transmitters Aging, heat, and vibration changes physical characteristics of sensing elements and transducers Sluggish operation of pneumatic positioner Thermal and age degradation of elastomers Excessive delay in operation of agastat pneumatic Thermal and age degradation of elastomers switch Loss of control by process switch Thermal and age degradation of elastomers; end-of-life cycling and vibration of micro-switches DEGRADATION Evaporation of electrolyte from capacitor Capacitor increased leakage current and hot spots Relay contact coated with corrosion product INDICATOR Electrical parameters out of specification Explosion of capacitor case Increased contact resistance Open circuit Contact resistance degraded; risk of corrosion Short circuit between anode and cathode Calibration drift in meters, dimming or failure of lamp function Calibration, setpoint drift Leaking, drift, loss of function Setpoint drift Setpoint drift, loss of function 99

Elect. Equipment Degradation

MONITORING FOR INDICATORS DURING WALKDOWNS


Monitoring requires keeping manual and mental track of equipment and environmental conditions to assess SSC degradation. Manual trending of quantitative data, such as pressures, temperatures, levels, and current is vital. Mental trending of qualitative data, such as noise, color, and smell, is equally important. Noting a change in system/component operation is often the key to identifying degradation. An effective tool for monitoring conditions and detecting indicators of aging degradation is a walkdown. Each of the following walkdowns provides the opportunity to observe conditions: Physical walkdowns Operator rounds As-built walkdowns Security walkdowns Industrial safety walkdowns Technician rounds

Radiological surveys Management walkdowns Housekeeping inspections Walkdowns that involve physical surveillance are the most effective.

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System Engineer Walkdowns


This guide focuses on the system engineers walkdowns because they can be the most comprehensive. These walkdowns are not intended to replace those being performed by other plant disciplines, but to develop a comprehensive perspective and awareness of the SSCs that comprise the system. The objectives of a system engineer walkdown are: To become intimately familiar with sight and sound of system operation for mental trending (What is normal?) To record local data for trending and future reference To detect adverse conditions or performance trends early in the degradation process To identify situations that require further investigation To identify opportunities for predictive monitoring To learn from observing testing, maintenance, operation, and construction activities To identify environments or trends that will be detrimental to system or result in increased maintenance costs Walkdowns

Circumferential cracking in rubber expansion joint in condensate pump suction.

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Optimizing Walkdowns Optimizing walkdown inspections is necessary to maximize the benefit. The focus of walkdown inspections should be based on several factors such as: Presence and magnitude of stressors Susceptibility of material/component to stressors Consequence of component failure Plant experience Industry experience Anticipated subtlety of the degradation

System engineers should look more intensively in areas that are not well understood or that have the greatest degree of uncertainty. They should use opportunities wisely to inspect normally inaccessible areas. During a walkdown, a system engineer must consider both the primary parts of a system and the extended portions of the system. For a fluid system, an extended-system walkdown can include the following: Follow power and instrumentation cables to termination points. Examine equipment supports and foundations. Review structural steel, concrete walls, and ceilings. Consider all passive components, even those considered long-lived. Examine instrument air lines. Look at surrounding sources of stressors to the system: Is the HVAC system maintaining temperature? Are there sources of leaking fluids that can impinge on the system? Are radiation shielding measures adequate? Are staff performing nearby construction activities taking adequate precautions?
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Combining walkdowns with expertsfor example, civil engineers with material engineers to perform structural and coating/corrosion surveys simultaneouslyis an effective method of optimizing the walkdown. This is particularly effective in areas of limited access, aggressive environment, or high radiation.

How to Look Walkdowns are an important part of the data collection process. The walkdowns should be comprehensive. They should identify degraded areas of the plant/system/components and should also provide a baseline for trending. They must be focused to provide the information that will be necessary to separate real degradation from that degradation that might be cosmetic. Walkdowns must be planned, coordinated, and implemented effectively. They should include locations that are difficult to access. The system engineer should look beyond the system, component, or structure that is specifically being inspected and identify potential plant-wide contributors to the degradation of that system, component, or structure. Examples of Desired Extent of Inspection Observations must be repetitive in order to recognize what is normal. Indicators of potential degradation (such as scale, deposits, and delaminated or blistered coatings) should be removed to expose underlying damage. Tests should ensure repeatability of results and proper sampling of data. Walkdowns

Any irregular or blistered coating, even though aesthetically acceptable, should be viewed with suspicion. Poorly lighted and/or closed areas are often overlooked. Flashlight and mirror are useful in such areas; a fiber optic probe can also be useful. Increased rate of sacrificial anode consumption can indicate an abnormal corrosion condition. Sediments in vaults, basements, or tunnels should be monitored and subjected to periodic analysis for corrosion products. Components removed from service should be inspected for degradation to provide insight otherwise lost. Impressions can be used to record the extent of metal surface degradation. Loose and missing fasteners should be closely investigated. All five senses should be used. What is heard, smelled, felt, or tasted can sometimes be more telling than what is seen.

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Common Walkdown Tools Tape measure Pocket knife Camera Binoculars Magnet Clipboard or field book Ruler Flashlight Marking pen Plumb bob Small level Mirror Sample bags Pocket thermometer Rubber or plastic gloves

Occasional Walkdown Tools Conductivity meter Portable hardness tester Remote visual inspection devices Ion-specific conductivity probes Chemical spot-check kit Coating film thickness gauge Ultrasonic tester Hammer pH test kit Feeler gauge Stopwatch Vibration meter Electric multi-meter Contact thermometer Infrared camera or spot gun
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When to Look Walkdowns are typically performed for one of three reasons: Routine Routine system walkdowns are essential to all system engineers. The frequency for these walkdowns highly depends on the system importance and history. Specific A specific event, concern, or question dictates the need for walkdowns on an as-needed basis. Opportunistic System engineers should perform walkdowns and inspections during maintenance activities and outage situations. These inspections can typically provide opportunities to obtain information that is not available during normal plant operation. Some of the

normally inaccessible areas/items that become available during outages include: Opened or partially dismantled system Components disassembled for maintenance or repair De-energized electrical components Tanks and sumps drained and opened Radiologically limited access areas Heat exchangers opened for cleaning Buried components exposed during excavation activities

Inspect heat exchangers when they are opened for cleaning or maintenance.

Walkdowns

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Where to Look A system engineer must be thorough in the performance of a walkdown inspection and must recognize that hard-to-reach areas are often the least observed, but can be of particular interest. Susceptible conditions that can affect the system include: Alternating wet/dry Stagnant solutions High salt exposure Elevated temperature Degraded protective coatings Metals in degraded concrete Fretting contact Active metal contact Halogen, sulfate, and alkaline exposures Vibrating equipment Direct sunlight exposure Dissimilar metal contact

Alternating wet/dry conditions and high salt concentrations exist in intake systems.

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Common Areas Where Degradation Occurs Along climbing routes or short cuts Depressions on the ground surface that can indicate subsurface erosion Interior surfaces of exterior subsurface walls Cathodic protection systems where impressed current readings provide an indication of changing soil or protective coating condition Near positive displacement pumps At high fluid velocity locations or flow choke points In systems that contain entrained particulate Equipment that has seen a high maintenance frequency Components exposed to raw water Flexible joints

Piping subjected to transient flow or waterhammer Near storage areas Unintended soil contact locations such as at tank ringwalls and pier footings Areas of known chemical or fuel spillage: Previous spills can leave corrosive residues Areas under leaking tanks and pipes Low-lying areas and areas with poor drainage Areas where condensation can accumulate Unexplained loosening of bolted connections can indicate corrosion, fretting fatigue, or corrosion fatigue Terminations, especially HV boots, buses Rust, oxide dust deposits, can indicate serious corrosion problems

Concrete-to-metal interfaces showing rust bloom particularly sensitive; corrosion can be more severe within concrete Nonventilated spaces, such as the interface between outdoor equipment and concrete pads Surfaces near the ice condenser Areas of high humidity External surface of the shell of freestanding steel containments Dissimilar metal contact, for Cooling tower concrete base and example, equipment supports in wet environment. attachment and pipe supports Previous repair work Floor-mounted supports Near moving equipment subjected to spills
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Walkdowns

Hard-to-reach pipe supports: standoffs unlikely to engage U-bolt when regenerating HX line is hot (that is, support ineffective).

Example of restrictive or difficult access areas: bent support likely caused by live load (someone stepping on or hanging from the support). 108

What to Look For Ideally, one would look at everything in a system during a field walkdown. From a practical perspective, it might be necessary to focus more closely on components that are more susceptible to degradation and components that are critical from a safety, operability, or cost-containment perspective. A walkdown checklist can be a useful tool to ensure a programmatic and consistent approach to walkdowns. It should not, however, be allowed to restrict a walkdown or limit it to only the attributes identified on the checklist.

Fluid leak from above (multiple effects/concerns).

Walkdowns

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Additional Pointers Not all greases/oils protect against corrosion; many contain sulfates that hydrolyze to form sulfuric acid, hence corroding oil/water interfaces. Some popular rust-breaking lubricants contain oxalic acid; can promote corrosion after use. Silicone oils/greases offer very poor long-term corrosion protection; lubricants creep away from area of application. Surfactants/detergents are not benign; these can cause physical removal of protective oxides, thus promoting corrosion. AC currents can promote corrosion; in the presence of salts, partial rectification can occur, developing local DC currents. Many organic coatings are semi-porous, can promote interfacial corrosion by moisture trapping. Weld fluxes can be corrosive. Locations where metals are in contact with nonmetals can be problem areas. Thermal decomposition of certain nonmetallic materials can release corrosive chlorides or sulfides, for example, Neoprene, PVC, Hypalon.

Leaching of plasticizer from nearby polymer components can result in a corrosive environment. Thermal decomposition of lubricants can release sulfates, chlorides, nitrates. Abandoned structures and components can adversely affect operating systems. Cut ends of galvanized or coated steel, if not repainted, are not protected. Accelerated corrosion can occur at these locations. Condensation on piping entering a concrete wall or encasement is very aggressive and very difficult to mitigate. Oxide textures and colors can indicate operating characteristics out of spec (temperature, pH, O2).

The texture of the flow surfaces (such as pipe, tank, and pump) and location of flow-induced damage provides insight into causes.

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Foreign matter deposited on surfaces can be indicative of material decomposition, excessive lubrication, and other foreign matter. Foul or sulphur smells can be indicative of biological activity that can corrode or foul systems. Comparison of degradation between parallel trains can be indicative of other problems if it varies greatly. Interpretation of material damage characteristics can provide insight into root cause.

Boric acid salt accumulations on flow element flanges, corroded bolts. Dissimilar material combinations that are normally satisfactory can be a problem as soon as wetted, particularly with an aggressive fluid.

Walkdowns

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Quantitative Monitoring During walkdowns, it is also very useful to quantitatively baseline selected variables to allow for future monitoring and trending. Photograph observations with distance and perspective noted. A scale in view is often useful. Record positions: Snubbers Springs Hanger gaps Water levels Valves Expansion joint extension Record pressures from local gauges Record temperatures: Ambient Piping

Tanks Tail pipes on normally closed valves Equipment Lube oil Pipes downstream of traps Record leakage/flow rates: Drip rate Stream size Measured gpm Seal leakoff Floor drains Drainage pipes Sump flows

Concrete cracks, as seen on this pump pedestal, should be carefully monitored for growth.

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Record material degradation: Size Length Depth Pit density Color Crack width Remaining material thickness Use in situ marking: Use markers to mark crack tip locations. Paint over chipped concrete. Mark across interfaces with potential relative motion. Mark water levels. Mark extent of oxide or other staining.

Qualitative Monitoring Changes that can be seen, heard, felt, or smelled (and maybe tasted) without quantitative measurement are less quantitative, but are also important to monitor. Examples of qualitative monitoring include: The feel of the ambient conditions in the vicinity of the system (temperature, humidity) Component surface temperatures Volume level and type of noise emitted by the system Introduction of new noise or loss of old noise Color and surface condition of protective coatings and other uncoated surfaces Odors Visual appearance Misalignment, sagging, or bending Incremental or vibratory movement Corrosion or other deterioration

Walkdowns

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Qualitative Monitoring of Noises and Possible Causes

Noises Flowing gravel noises Whining noise Banging noise Increase in flow sounds Hissing noise Crackling noise Buzzing/humming noise Clanging noise Tapping noise Squeaking noise Change in sound character

Possible Causes Cavitation at pump suctions or downstream of flow restrictions can result in aggressive damage of pump internals, or piping. Can indicate problems with rotating equipment, such as bearing wear, misalignment, imbalance, inadequate or contaminated lubrication. Waterhammer caused by collapse of a steam bubble in a subcooled liquid or by fast-acting valves can quickly damage mechanical equipment and supports or rupture pressurized systems. Can also indicate inappropriate check valve operation. Can indicate increased turbulence or flow velocity, a change in operating mode, or development of a flow obstruction. Such conditions can cause erosion damage, loss of flow head, fretting and denting of tubes, or system vibration. Air leakage from a compressed air system or pneumatic components or air leakage into vacuum lines and condensers. High-voltage discharge. Ionization or high current loads. Loose parts. Unstable instruments, clamps, or pilot valves. Inadequate lubrication of moving parts or loose or dry belts. An increase, decrease, or change in sound character can be an important indicator.
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Trending Trending of quantitative and qualitative data is a powerful tool in predicting degradation rates and component service life. It is also very important in planning repairs, maintenance, and mitigation. Trending can be categorized as either pathological or predictive: Pathological: Trending that results from degradation, failure, or loss of function. Examples include: * Breaker trips * Instrumentation out of tolerance at calibration * Seal failure/replacement * Heat exchanger tube plugging * Strainer/filter cleaning * Out-of-specification water chemistry

Predictive: Trending of currently acceptable but changing conditions to predict degradation or failure. Examples include: * Temperatures, pressures, current, voltage, and other operating parameters * Change in these parameters, which can indicate component degradation or be early signs of failure and must be investigated.

Instrument air line supported with plastic tie wraps (temporary support that became permanent).

Walkdowns

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Outage Opportunities During plant outages, unique opportunities exist for the collection of important system information. These opportunities include: Inspection of normally inaccessible areas/items that become available: System opened or partially dismantled Components torn down for maintenance or repair Normally energized components de-energized Tanks drained and opened Radiologically limited access areas become available Heat exchangers open for cleaning Buried components exposed during excavation Observation of ISI and IST activities Observation of maintenance activities Operation of outage systems (for example, RHR)

Components, parts, and materials removed from service can provide real indicators of system aging. System engineers should review in situ conditions whenever possible. Maintenance and crafts should be encouraged to selectively save (temporarily) components, pieces, and materials removed from the system: O-rings Foreign matter Gaskets Filter debris Pipe sections Discarded fasteners Valve components Corrosion products Electrical components Degraded parts Much more! Selected components should be saved for comparison with components removed during the next outage. Particular attention should be paid to components removed for EQ reasons to determine whether the EQ life can be extended and the replacement frequency optimized.
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A potential source of aging for many plant components is the maintenance Interface with Maintenance activities themselves. More maintenance is not always better. Working with maintenance personnel presents an excellent opportunity to gain system knowledge because: Surface refinishing that removes material can only be done a limited number of times. Routine maintenance activities provide a unique opportunity to Fatigue stresses due to assembling and reassembling can propagate observe, learn, and record valuable data. cracks. Maintenance personnel typically follow detailed maintenance procedures that are focused on routine inspections and procedures. Air exposure can increase corrosion rates on internal surfaces normally A system engineer can and should provide the incentive and expertise exposed to a deoxygenated environment. to look more broadly. Increased worker activity increases the potential for damage to sensitive Do inspections cover all components including passive components (such as broken instruments, cracked sight glasses, bent components not subject to maintenance? tubing). What are the subtle (or not so subtle) signs that might be Loose parts (such as tools and gasket pieces) can cause operational overlooked during routine maintenance? problems including blockage of instrument taps, cooling channels, Understanding equipment function, through vendor manuals and valves, and other areas with tight clearances. observation, provides important background information for the Usage and spillage of chemicals and solvents can damage materials, system engineer. When the equipment is being torn down or particularly polymeric materials such as O-rings, soft seats, flex maintained, questions should be vigorously asked of maintenance, connections, and plastic housings. crafts, and vendors. This is an outstanding opportunity to learn the intimate details of how components work. Walkdowns
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The use of unprescribed procedures has the potential to damage equipment. Over-torqued parts can damage or warp components, particularly soft parts (such as diaphragms and gaskets). Flange torquing process can allow leaks to occur on startup. Chemical cleaners and lubricants can be particularly aggressive to polymers. Maintenance work (such as welding and bolting) on pump foundations or attached piping can cause alignment problems. Removal of oxides can accelerate the corrosion of exposed metals. Coating solvents can damage incompatible materials (elastomeric expansion joints).

Maintenance and crafts should be requested to selectively save (temporarily) components, pieces, and materials removed from the system. Removed parts can be labeled and retained with the system. Gaskets O-rings Pipe sections Valve components Electrical components Foreign matter

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Predictive Maintenance Predictive maintenance has in many cases replaced time-based maintenance as a tool to optimize maintenance efforts and to provide early warning signs of failure. Common predictive maintenance tools include: Rotating equipment vibration monitoring Thermography Oil analysis Stator cooling water analysis Moisture sampling in generator hydrogen gas Acoustic monitoring

Other less common methods can also provide important information regarding component condition and modes of degradation. These include: Head space gas analysis Grease analysis Valve stroke time Motor current signature analysis Instrument air sample analysis for contamination Electrical resistance measurements Filter/strainer debris quantity, type, and composition

Although occasional use of these tools can be beneficial, a consistent, programmatic use allows a more proactive, predictive approach.

Walkdowns

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Working with Other Groups Many actions of other plant groups can affect the system condition. Valuable system information can often be provided by these groups. It is important to work closely with other plant groups to: Keep informed of maintenance work being performed on the system and changes in the amount or type of maintenance required. Be aware of maintenance on associated or connected systems and the potential impact. Ensure that any material changes are thoroughly evaluated prior to making the changes. Be aware of changing plant operations that can affect the system. Take advantage of plant operators awareness of changing qualitative indicators of system condition. Ensure that planned performance testing is fully understood and deemed acceptable.
Pump and motor with vibration monitoring sites indicated with white labels. 120

How to Document All noteworthy degradation or indications of degradation should be quantified and mapped. Where photographic or videotape documentation is used, care should be taken to include a location reference (for example, floor, column, or room number) and a tape measure or an object of recognizable size (such as a coin or hand) for comparison to illustrate relative size. Results must be repeatable for future monitoring. Monitoring activities include: Measurements such as size, location, and population of cracks, pits, blisters, and settlement/movement Color photographs or videotape of the general condition, observed degradation indications, and specific degradation Sketches that map the location of degradation and degradation indications Written notes that describe the general condition, observed degradation indications, and specific degradation

In situ markings and measures provide additional monitoring capabilities: Painting of spalled concrete Crack and movement monitoring markings/templates Water level markings Level and plumb line markings Corrosion coupons Settlement markings Grids on the surface (useful for mapping)

Walkdowns

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Materials Characterization
Characterization of Liquids Procedures Check odors Check pH with test papers Check electrical conductivity Identify local liquid sources Check for slimy feel Possible Indications Sulfur or ammonia odors can indicate bacterial action. If above 9, survey for alkaline materials; if below 6, survey for acidic materials. No limits pertain, but high conductivity promotes corrosion. Walkdown surveys should be up to date. Can indicate bacteria, plasticizer, or pulling lubricant; sample should be thoroughly dried, re-wetted; if slimy feel returns, pulling lubricant most likely; if it does not dry, plasticizer most likely.

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Characterization of Solids Procedures Check odors Expose to deionized water, measure pH Check solubility in water Check melting point Note color Note surface properties Possible Indications Mildew, ammonia, or sulfur odor might indicate biological activity, hydrogen sulfide, or sulfuric acid. If below 7, acidic; if above 7, alkaline. If soluble, possibly a salt or other inorganic; if not, possibly waxy organic, oxide, or other. If under 200C (392F), probably organic; if above, might be inorganic. Brightly colored typically indicates a metallic compound, that is, oxide, chloride, sulfate, or chrome. If slippery and soft, might be wax, organic acid; if hard, smooth, might be inorganic salt, oxide, or silicate from concrete degradation.

Materials Characterization

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Relative Corrosion Sensitivity of Metals Agent Weak acids Strong acids Weak alkalies Strong alkalies Oxidizers Sulfates Nitrates Chlorides Organic solvents Aluminum Alloy P P F P G G G G E Carbon Steel F P G F F F F P E Stainless Steel G G G F F G G F E High-Strength Steel F F G F F G G F E Nickel-Based Alloy E G E E G G G F E Copper-Based Alloy F P G G P G F F E

KEY E = Excellent: resists corrosion under almost all service conditions G = Good: corrosion will occur only under severe conditions

F = Fair: can be used with special precautions P = Poor: unsatisfactory performance 124

Chemical or Degradation Resistance of Several Protective Coatings Coating Oil-base Alkyd Chlorinated rubber Coal tar epoxy Catalyzed epoxy Silicone aluminum Vinyl Urethane Zinc (inorganic) Acids 1 6 10 8 9 4 10 9 1 Alkalies 1 6 10 8 10 3 10 10 1 Salts 6 8 10 10 10 6 10 10 5 Solvents 2 4 4 7 9 2 5 9 10 Water 7 10 10 10 10 8 10 10 5 Weather 10 8 8 4 8 9 10 8 10 Oxidation 1 6 6 5 6 4 10 9 10 Abrasion 4 6 6 4 6 4 7 10 10

A value of 10 represents the best protection.


From: Fontana, M., Corrosion Engineering, McGraw Hill, 1986

Materials Characterization

125

Interaction of Metals and Nonmetals Thermal decomposition of certain nonmetallic materials can release corrosive chlorides or sulfides (for example, Neoprene, PVC, Hypalon). Leaching of plasticizer from nearby polymer components can result in a corrosive environment. Thermal decomposition of lubricants can release sulfides, chlorides, nitrates. Lubricants on Steel Molybdenum disulfide lubricants contain sulfide, which can cause stress corrosion cracking. Common popular rust-breaking lubricants contain oxalic acid, which can produce pitting and chemical attack.

Silicone oils/greases offer very poor long-term corrosion protection because they creep away from the area of application. Inadequately (nonuniformly) applied greases can cause oxygen depletion corrosion cells.

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Relative Sensitivities of Cable Insulation Materials, As-Formulated, to Various Agents Agent Acids Alkalines Mineral oils Silicone oils Salts Oxidizers Chlorinated solvents Hydrocarbon solvents High temperatures Ionizing radiation Mechanical damage
Key: 1 = Least affected 2 = More affected 3 = Most affected 127

Elastomers 3 3 3 3 1 3 3 (some) 3 1 2 1

Thermoplastics 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 3 3 2

Thermosets 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 2

Materials Characterization

EVALUATION OF NON-CLASS 1 MECHANICAL COMPONENTS


EPRI Report 1003056, Non-Class 1 Mechanical Implementation Guideline and Mechanical Tools, Rev. 3 (2001), contains flow diagrams that describe the process for evaluating various components based on the materials of construction and the exposure environment. These evaluation tools have been reproduced in this field guide and are presented in this section. Page 129132 133136 137140 141144 145148 149152 153154 155158 159162 163166 Evaluation Tool Treated Water/Steam/Stainless Steel, Nickel-Based Alloys, and Titanium Treated Water/Steam/Carbon Steel, Cast Iron, Aluminum, and Aluminum Alloys Treated Water/Copper and Copper Alloys Raw Water/Steam/Stainless Steel, Nickel-Based Alloys, and Titanium Raw Water/Steam/Carbon Steel, Low-Alloy Steel, and Cast Iron Raw Water/Copper and Copper Alloys Lube Oil Fuel Oil Air/Gas Environment External Surfaces Acronyms Used in Evaluation Tool Diagrams CC PC SCC IGA CASS FAC MIC Crevice corrosion Pitting corrosion Stress corrosion cracking Intergranular attack Cast austenitic stainless steel Flow-accelerated corrosion Microbiologically influenced corrosion
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Treated Water/Steam/Stainless Steel, Nickel-Based Alloys, and Titanium

Evaluation of Non-Class 1 Components

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Treated Water/Steam/Stainless Steel, Nickel-Based Alloys, and Titanium (cont.)

130

Evaluation of Non-Class 1 Components

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Treated Water/Steam/Stainless Steel, Nickel-Based Alloys, and Titanium (cont.)

132

Treated Water/Steam/Carbon Steel, Cast Iron, Aluminum, and Aluminum Alloys

Evaluation of Non-Class 1 Components

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Treated Water/Steam/Carbon Steel, Cast Iron, Aluminum, and Aluminum Alloys (cont.)

134

Evaluation of Non-Class 1 Components

135

Treated Water/Steam/Carbon Steel, Cast Iron, Aluminum, and Aluminum Alloys (cont.)

136

Treated Water/Copper and Copper Alloys

Evaluation of Non-Class 1 Components

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Treated Water/Copper and Copper Alloys (cont.)

138

Evaluation of Non-Class 1 Components

139

Treated Water/Copper and Copper Alloys (cont.)

140

Raw Water/Steam/Stainless Steel, Nickel-Based Alloys, and Titanium

Evaluation of Non-Class 1 Components

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Raw Water/Steam/Stainless Steel, Nickel-Based Alloys, and Titanium (cont.)

142

Evaluation of Non-Class 1 Components

143

Raw Water/Steam/Stainless Steel, Nickel-Based Alloys, and Titanium (cont.)

144

Raw Water/Steam/Carbon Steel, Low-Alloy Steel, and Cast Iron

Evaluation of Non-Class 1 Components

145

Raw Water/Steam/Carbon Steel, Low-Alloy Steel, and Cast Iron (cont.)

146

Evaluation of Non-Class 1 Components

147

Raw Water/Steam/Carbon Steel, Low-Alloy Steel, and Cast Iron (cont.)

148

Raw Water/Copper and Copper Alloys

Evaluation of Non-Class 1 Components

149

Raw Water/Copper and Copper Alloys (cont.)

150

Evaluation of Non-Class 1 Components

151

Raw Water/Copper and Copper Alloys (cont.)

152

Lube Oil

Evaluation of Non-Class 1 Components

153

Lube Oil (cont.)

154

Fuel Oil

Evaluation of Non-Class 1 Components

155

Fuel Oil (cont.)

156

Fuel Oil (cont.)

Evaluation of Non-Class 1 Components

157

Fuel Oil (cont.)

158

Air/Gas Environment

Evaluation of Non-Class 1 Components

159

Air/Gas Environment (cont.)

160

Evaluation of Non-Class 1 Components

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Air/Gas Environment (cont.)

162

External Surfaces

Evaluation of Non-Class 1 Components

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External Surfaces (cont.)

164

Evaluation of Non-Class 1 Components

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External Surfaces (cont.)

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Program: Nuclear Power

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