bghUslf

myF
v

jiyf

gf
v

ca
1.

cz Mjhufis nkgLJj

2.

moikahjY eyth

23

3.

kj cl cW klyf mik
braghLfS

33

4.

jhtuf mik braghLfS

57

5.

yFyf

79

6.

brfS RfS

103

7.

c - nta RH

125

8.

khRghL Xnrh ijtiljY

133

nta
9.

eik NJs gUbghUf ikahditah?

149

10.

mQ mik

163

11.

nt rkghL

177

12.

jkf Mtjd tifghL

191

13.

ntizf

209

aa
14.

msL fUf

223

15.

afK utfS

233

16.

ntiy, w, Mw kW btg

259

17.

xa

277

brKiwf

291

iii

myF 1

cz Mjhufis
nkgLJj

myF-1

ca
1.1. g cg nkghL

eh nrhW, rhgh, , njhir, rgh, , bghf, til, gnuhlh, buho,

f, gHfyit, gT(I) nghw gy jkhd czit rhLnwh.
it midJ jhaf, gUf, iuf, fhff, gHf kW yd
bghUfshd gh, Kil kW iw nghwtUJ jahfgLwd.
cz bghJthf jhtufUJ yFfUJ bgwgLwJ.
cdf ts, bgUf, cluik nghwtF cz
njitgLwJ. J eik nehUJ ghJfhwJ. nkY MwiyjUwJ.
ujf, fhnghiAnuLf, bfhGf, itlf kW jhJcfis
cz ekF tHFwJ.
cz bghU

ClrJ

jhaf

fhnghiAnuLf

gU tiff

uj

iw(Moiw, nfh iw) kW Kil

bfhG kW uj

gHf kW fhff Fghf griyiu,

KilnfhR nghw girfhff

jhJ cf kW
itlf

nH bfhLfgLs glfis ghf

2010

1990

j glfUJ eh vd bjJbfhnwh?
kf bjhif bgUf milJsJ.
ef tilJ, efukakhfgLsJ.
tskhd isyf mfgL, LfS bjhrhiyfS flgLsd.
kf bjhifbgUf

isyf
Fiw

cz njit
mf
cz gwhFiw

thW czgwhFiwfhd fhuzfis bjJbfhnwh.

2

cz Mjhufis nkgLJj
n
 kgLjgl auf
fis mKfgLJj.

cz gwhFiwia fhQ
tKiwf _y fyh.

 wj trha Kiwfis gWj
Mat _y gkfNiy
mffyh.

i) g cgia mfj.
ii) isyfis kw gagho
UJ jJ, jf itJ
bfhSj.
iii) iu
cfjKiw
F gagLJj.

trha

iv) czbghUf
kW
nahf
nkgLJj.

ghJfh
Kiwia

jhtu

gLj / trha brjiy ehF

iyfshf fyh.
i) ijnj kW el.
ii) tsj kW gghJfh.
iii) mWtilbrj kW cgia
nrlFfSF
vLJ
brYj.

g kfNiy vthW mff

brtJ?

iv) cg bghUfis nrj.

auf kW nkgLjgl jhtufis mKfgLJj

neh vw, cu VW bfhljfhd g is, cgju kW
mf kfN nghw gaDs gfis bfhl, nkgLjgl g uffis/
tiffis njbjLfgl ts Kiw _y cUthfyh.

gbgUffhd fhuf
mf kfN

xU VfUFlhd g kfNiy mfj.

nkgLjgl
ju

isbghUf ju gUF g ntWgL. nfhJik

ntF jik, gU tiff uj ju, vbz
Jf vbz ju nghwit.

c kW
cuw
fhuf
vjik

gcg, cfhufshY (neh, f, Ff

nghwit) cuw fhufshY (btg, F, ctjik
kW tw) FiwwJ. fhufis vF jik
thj auf jhtuf g cgia bgUF.

K Kiw
khw

FWa fhy K milj kW uhd K, mWtil

br Kiwia vjhFwJ. nkY mWtilbr nghJ
VgL Hig FiwwJ.

mf
jftik
jik

xnu g uf gntW jgbtg iy, gntW gFf

tsf Toajhf Uf ntL. mf jftik
bfhl a uff cUthFtJ g cg xU
iyjikia VgLj cj.

UgjF
ntsh
gf

caukhd kW
mf isf cila jik,
fh
eil tdgfSF
UgjFj gf MF.
Filjik
jhatif
gf
gghF.
UgjF gfis cila uffis cUthFtJ mf
isriyjU.
3

myF-1

ca
gf kW ff y nkgLjgl uff
1

1. fheil tdg 2. be 3.nfhJik 4.s kfhnrhs (ngfh) 5. nrhs

6. Nafh 7. kh 8. uhir

1.2. ClrJ nkyhik

njitgL jkf bgUCl
jkf vdgL. fhg, iAu#,
ct (M#), ieu#, ghgu,
fjf, bghlha, fha, bka
kW U Mait bgU Cl
jkf MF.
E Cl jkf
(iknuh jkf)
jhtu tsF Fiwj msnt
njitgL
jkf ECl
jkf vdgL. khfR, jhu,
khod, Jjehf, nghuh kW
Fnsh
Mait
ECl
jkf MF.
ClbghU
Fiwdh,
kjf
FiwghL
nehf
VgLwd.
mnj
nghW
bgU
Cl kW ECl jkf
FiwghL, ts, dbgUf cl
jhtuf braghL Kiwfis
ghJ, Rygkhf nehia VgL,
kfNiy Fiwfnth myJ kfNny
yhknyh brJLwJ.

gf mf kfN vgJ
clgL
braKiwfshd
nkgLjgl
ijf,
cuf
Lj,
ed
ijj
Kiwf
kW mWtil br Kiwfis
bghWjJ. jhtuf ts kW
nkghoF vzw ClrJf
njitgLwd.
jhtuf
fhW,

kW
kUJ
ClbghUfis
bgWwd.
jhtuf
ts
kW
dbgUfF Rkh 16 jkf
aikahjitahf csd.
jhtuf
n j i t nfg,
jkf
bgUCl
jkf
(nknuhjkf) kW ECl
jkf (iknuhjkf) vd nkY
tifgLjgLwd.
bgUCl jkf (nknuh
jkf)
jhtu
tsF
mf
ms

1.3. aif vU kW cuf gaf

(aif cu kW braif cuf gaf)
ClbghUf
Fiwghil
aif cu kW braif cufis
gagLJtj _y fyh.

bra 1.1
uL
bjhof
iu
gl. mtiw m kW M
vdbgal. m bjhobroF
gR rhz myJ ah mJ
bjf. M bjhobroF
kL bjf. tiw Na
x itJ 15-20 ehfSF
mt tsia ftf.
t vJ ntfkhf tswJ? V?

aif cu vgJ xU fk
bghUshF. jhtu kW yF
fbghUf ijfgL J
jahfgLwJ.
gagLjgL cbghUf
mogil
aif
cufis
flthW tifgLjyh.
4

cz Mjhufis nkgLJj
gRjh cu

1. kacu (bjhGcu myJ

fngh) kW kG cu
(btfngh)

rzig myJ bfhjtiu nghw

byT tif jhtuf tsfgL,
k nrJ Ug
cH
bragLwd.
J
k
ieu# kW ghgu tsij
mff cjwJ.

2. gRjh cu
bra 1.2
yF
ffshd
gR
rhz,
jhtuff,
L
ff, rhfil ff nghw
tiw nrfJ, njhl xU
F yehfSF ijw
brf. vd ilwJ?
jhtu kW yF ffis
iu ijgjfhf kGfis
gagL jahfgL bjhGcu
myJ aif cu, kG bjhGcu
myJ kG aif cu vdgL.

rzig

aif cuf gaf

 aif cu k iu
njitF wid mfwJ.
g
 aDs EQf v
ifia mff brwJ.
k
 jikia (ktsij)
nkgLJwJ.

kGcu

braif cuf
bjhrhiyf tf ahf jahfgL, jhtu ClbghUfshf
gagLjgL ntbghUf braif cuf MF. it ieu#, ghgu,
bghlha nghwtiw mwd. ey cly ts bfhl Mnuhakhd
nehaw jhtufis cUthFtjF it gagLjgLwd.
braif cuf tiff
ieu# cuf

vLJfhLf
ah, mnkha r~ng, mnkha
ienu nghwit.

ghgu cuf
(f rJf)

j Ngghng, o Ng ghng
(Kka Ng ghng).

bghlha cuf
(rhg rJf)

bghlha ienu, bghlha FnshiuL.

fy cuf

ienuh ghng, mnkha ghng, il

mnkha ghng(DAP).

braif cuf gaghL gf kfNiy mff brwJ. mnj

rka, J trha bryit mfwJ. braif cuf fiu
jik cila ntbghUfshjyh, gagLjgL ntbghUf
5

myF-1

ca
bgUks mf ghrgLbghGJ
fiuJ, moJbrygLwd.
it
jhtufsh
KGtJkhf
crgLtiy.

njitaw
jhtuf tsF
fhuzkhwJ.
j
jhtuf
iyfis
Xlij
ghwd. j isthf f
kW w cdfSF nghJkhd
x kW M# ilfhk
wJLwd.

j mfgoahd braif cu
Fsf, Vf, fhthf kW
MWfSF
moJbrygL,
Mfhajhkiu, Mfhf nghw
bra 1.3

mU cs braif cuf gagLjgl betaYF brW

kGf vifia ghf. braif cuf gagLjglhj,
g njhl cs kGf vifl jid xL
ghf. vd bjJbfhf? V?

aif cufSF braif cufSF ilna cs ntWghLf

aif cuf

braif cuf

1. aif cuf, yFf, 1. braif cu fjf, ghgu, ieu#

kjf kW jhtuf
nghw ClbghUf mla xU
ijdh njhW xU aif
jhJ myJ ntTLbghU
bghU.
2. aif cuf
MF.

fkbghUf 2. braif
MF.

3. aif cuf
jahf gLwd.

cuf

fkbghUf

taf 3. braif cuf bjhrhiyf

jahfgLwd.

4.
 aif cuf vyh Cl 4. it xW myJ mjF nkgl
bghUfis Fiwj ms
Fl ClbghUfis kL
bfhLsd.
mf ms bfhLsd.
5.
 aif cuf kF mf 5. braif cuf kF kF
ms kid nrJ, k
nrgiy.
jikia nkgLJwd.
6. aif cuf Fiwj ms 6. braif cuf fiu jik
fiu jik cilajh v
cilajh v crgLwd.
crgLtiy.
7. aif cuf Fiwj msnt 7. braif cuf v dh
fiuwd. it kUJ
moJ brygL. nkY, t
v uh moJbrygLt
is Fiwj fhyF kLnk
iy. vdnt, t ga l
tU. vdnt, tiw L L
ehfSF iyUF.
cgnahfgLj ntosJ.
6

cz Mjhufis nkgLJj
rahd
ms
kW
rahd
fhy
braif
cufis
ftdkhf
gagLjntL.
nkY,
tiw
KYkhf
gagLJt gaghoF KD,
Dkhd vrif eltoiffis
nkbfhtJ mta.

nkY mJ bfhnth
cUstUJ
bgwgL
cuf c-cuf vdgL.
c-cuf Mjhu ghOah,
ygRgh
(randhghOah)
kW irf MF. ccuf L JfjFj
tif
nkY
khRgLjhj
jhtu ClbghUf
MF.
it
k
jikia
nkgLJwd. iunrha kW
randhghOafshd
mddh
kW ehlh nghwit bghJthd
c-cuf MF.

braif cuf Fiwj ehfns

gymgit. Mdh, aif cuf
l ehf
gy bfhLwd.
jhtuf l eh kW Fiwj
eh njitnfg braif cuf
kW aif cufis eh rahd
j gagLj ntL.

1.4.  Ff kW
nehfUJ ghJfh
i s g f i s n a h
myJ
nr
cs
jhtu
cgbghUfisnah
jh
mF jhtu myJ yd
cf Ff vdgL. ij
ijFbghGJ, mWtil br
bghGJ, nrFbghGJ kW ga
gLJbghGJ Ff jhFtjh
g kfN milwJ. J nja
bghUshjhuF xU fbga H
MF.

F bfhfis bjj
(ilFnshnuh
vdgL. v.fh. D.D.T.
ilid
iuFnshnuh
<nj),
khyah nghwit.

ii) irbfhf
irfis mf cj nt
bghUf irbfhf vdgL.
v.fh. nghlh fyit.

1.4.1. F fLghL
Ffis
fLgLj
gyKiwf csd. Ffis
fLgLJt f bghJthd
Kiw Fbfhfis ga
gLJtJ MF.

iii) fisbfhf
fisfis
(njitaw
brof)
mfgagL
ntbghUf
fisbfhf vdgL. v.fh.2,4-D
(2,4-ilFnshnuh dh mo
my)

Fbfhf

bfhf,
irbfhf,
fisbfhf,
vbfhf
vW mt gagLjYF Vg
tifgLjgLwd.

iv) vbfhf
vf, Rblf kW m
fis nghw bfhF yFfis
bfhy gagL ntbghUf
vbfhf vdgL. v.fh.Jjehf
ghng, Mr nghwit.

i) bfhf
fis
bfhy
gagL
ntbghUf
bfhf
7

myF-1

ca
1.4.2. Ff

jhtufis vyh iyfY kW vyh ghffis jhfToa

Mgjhd Ff dfns MF. mit jhF Kiwf mogil
Ff _W tiffshf tifgLjgLwd.

i) bkY f
it jhtuf nt, jL kW iyfis foJ bkY jik
bfhlit. v.fh. btLf, fg f.

fU
cJisgh

igyh (fU
iy jJ )
f

fU jL
Jisgh

fLF mRt

gtz
g jhtuf y bghJthd a Ff
k

bfhfis
fygj
_y
nt
jhF
fis fLgLjyh. v.fh..
Fnshnuhiggh.

ii) cR f
it
jhtuf
gntW
ghff
brrhid
cR
wd. v.fh. iyjJ f,
mRt(jhtung) nghwit.

j
 L kW iyfis foF
kW
JisF
fis,
bfhfis j myJ
bjj _y fLgLjyh.
v.fh. khyah, nl kW
ijnahlh.

iii) JisF f
it
jhtuf
gntW
ghffis
JisJ,
cns
EiHJ jhtuRfis czthf
vLJbfhwd. v.fh. fU
Jisgh.

1.4.3. 
Fia
gLJ Kiwf

r
 hW cR fis,
bfhfis bjgj _y
fLgLjyh. v.fh. ilnjhna
kW bklhlh

fL

1.4.4. g nehf

gytifahd Ff
jhfij tU Kiwf _y
fLgLjyh.

ghOah, itu kW
Kjyhd
gytifahd
8

ir
jhtu

cz Mjhufis nkgLJj
nehf ekJ RWw gu
fhzgLwd.
ts
kW
bgUffhd rhjfkhd Niy
ilF bghGJ, mit bgU
gjhtufis jh mt
nehia VgLJwd. neh gu
mogil, jhtu nehf ehF
tiffshf tifgLjgLwd.

yfliy iy neh
1.

2.

3.

4.

ijf _y it ijf _y guwd.v.fh.be iy

gu nehf
neh, nfhJik fU neh.
k _y
gu nehf

it k _y guwd. it jhtuf ntf

kW jLfis ghwd. v.fh. yfliy
iy neh(ofh neh) .

fhW _y
gu nehf

tif nehf fhW _y guwd. it

iyf, kyf kW ff nghw jhtuf
midJ jiu nkghffis jhFwd. v.fh.
be bt neh, nfhJik JU neh.

_y gu
nehf

dh gu nehf, _y gu nehf vdgL.

v.fh. be ghOa thl neh.

1.4.5. F bfhfis gagLJtjfhd K vriff

 Fbfhfis
neuoahf
iffdh bjhlTlhJ. mtiw
ifahSbghGJ ugdh Md
ifiwfis gagLj ntL.
bjgh thgF, bjF
fU kw gFfis thdh
Cjnth, crnth TlhJ.
wj
bt,
fh
vir
W
bfhL
F bfhfis bjj
TlhJ. tiw gJiufgl
ms kLnk bjfntL.

Fbfhf
midJ
eR jik bfhl ntbghUfsh
Mdit. vdnt, it RWNH
khRghil
VgLJ.
vdnt,
msffkhf Fbfhfis
gagLJtij jf ntL.
gfis
FflUJ
ghJfhf fl jL Kiwfis
gw ntL.

fk F bfhf
nehvw
cs
g
tiffis gLj.
gRHKiw
kW
gL
Kiwfis gWj(xU y
mLjLj gUt btntW
tif gfis gLtj _y
Fl X Ff
mJL).
ikahd trha(gLtjF
K trha yij rahf
ik brj).
nfhil cH.

myF-1

ca
jhaf nr

fhuf fl ghfis
VgLJwd.

bgUghyhd gf MoF xU
Kiw kLnk mWtil bragLwd.
ML KGtJ czbghUfis
bjhlJ bgWtjfhf ghJfhghd
nr lFf it nrJ
itfgLwd.

f jhf.
ju Fiwj.
vil Fiwj.
Kis w Fiwj.
cgbghU wkhw.

jhatiff
myJ
cz
bghUf
trhfshY,
ahghfshY kW a cz
fHfjhY(FCI) nrJ itf
gLwd.

rijgLJ jik Fiwj.

vdnt,
cgbghUfis
nrF bghGJ mtiw midJ
HfUJ
ghJfhgJ
mtakhwJ.

nrFbghGJ jhaf kW
ijf gntW fhufsh mF
cgLwd. jifa mF
fhuzkhd fhuf

cg
bghUfis
d
gagLJtjfhf nrJ itF
bghGJ, ghJfhghd kW fLghL
Kiwfis
gagL
nrf
i) c
 fhuf
(f,
ntL. nrgjF K cg
bfhF yFfshd m
bghUf eF Rj bragLj,
kW v, gwitf, irf,
bt fhaitJ H
cf kW ghOah)
cyJj, ntbghUfis ga
ii) c
 uw fhuf (<ugj kW gL ifl _y Ffis
btg) MF.
bfhYj nghwit t mlF.
gU tL
fuh tL
m mJ

nr jhaf y Ff

1.5. jhtuf kW yFf

fydbgUf

bra 1.4
mU cs isyfSF
brW fisf, Ff
kW gf fhzgL nehfis
ghJ, dflf.

1.5.1. jhtuf fydbgUf

khWgl dhf bfhl uL
myJ mjF nkgl jhtufis
fy brJ, nkgLjgl uffis
10

cz Mjhufis nkgLJj
cUthF Kiw fydbgUf
myJ fydnrif vdgL.
fyd nrif _y UgjF
gfis cila xU jhtu ufij
cUthf Ko.
UgjF gfis bfhl
bgnwhfis
njbjLj
fydnrif
cslaJ.
gaDs gf gy uff gu
fhzgL. fyd nrif _y
midJ gaDs gfis xnu
uf bfhL tu Ko.
MO17

fyd nrif fl tif

f eilbgwyh.
i) tiffSilna
btntW
ilnaahd fy )

(uL
tiffSF

B 73

F1
nrhs fyd tif

ii) dfSilna
(xnu
ngd uL dfS
ilnaahd fy)

fydnrif braKiw
goiyfis cslaJ. mit

gy

i) bgnwhfis
njbjLj
ii) bgnwh jfy iii) kfujjh
f
iv) igLj,
fLj
kW FLj v) fy brj
vi) fyd ijfis mWtil brJ
jiyKiwfis
njhWj
F1
Kjad MF.

iii) ngdfSilna
(ntWgl
ngdfSilnaahd fy)
nkny cs _W tiff,
tiffSF
ilnaahd fy
gbgUf
mf
ms
nkbfhsgLwJ.

1.5.2. yFf dfy

dfy vgJ ku t
khWgl uL btntW M, bg
yFfis
izabrJ
a
rjfis
cUthF
brayhF.
Kiw yFf dbgUf
clbraaY, kuaY mogilahf
gagLjgLwd.
ahghu
neh fyd cg vgJ, ML,
khL, g nghw fheil tsY,
nfhts JiwY l fhykhf
gagLjgL tUwJ. ku t
khWgl
bgnwhfis
bfhL
dfy br nghJ cauf

fyd tif yFf cUthwd.

jnghija eilKiw fynfh
kW fy gdf dfy
_y cUthfgLwd.
yFf w gfis
fU
bfhL
mtilna
dfy brayh. mitahtd
1. neh v jik
2. ntWgl Niyfis jhF
jik
3. bghJthd njhw
4. ms kW tot
11

myF-1

ca
5. cg w

nkgl cfis njhWf

aY.

6. ey cl ey

dnj

7. dbgUfF Vw taJ

cg w gilj wj
yFfis dfy brtjfhf
njbjLF Kiwia dnj
vg.
jfhy
dnjKiw
Kija
braw
mogil
nkbfhsgLwJ.

btfy dbgUf
nfh ts Tl

sF dfy
Kiwf

btntW

cfy dbgUf
xnu dij rhj beUa
cwila uL cfSilna
eilbgW dbgUfij cfy
vg.

cfy KaJtf

br

1. Ugjf

tiffis
bfhl cfis cUthf
ku xj f gfis
btbfhzu
Kiw
gagLjgLwJ.
2. Ugjfhj xLF fis
bfhl cfis fla
nkY
mfis
jikgLj
Kiw
gagLjgLwJ.
3. cfy brtj _y xUKf
jik CFfgLwJ.
4. cfy vgJ dnjl
bjhlilaJ. nkY j _y

xnu dij nrj bjhlyh

U cfSF ilna eilbgW
fy.

m. Xdfy
xnu
dij
nrj
xnu
_jhijafis
bfhouhj
U
cfSilna eilbgW fy.

M. ntdfy
uL
ntWgl
df
Ugjf, nkgl gfisila
M,
bg
cfSilna
eilbgW fy.

. ntWgl wdfy
uL ntWgl wdfis
Ugjf nkgl gfisila
M,
bg
cfSilna
eilbgW
fy.
jdh
y
ntisf ajhf cUthd c
jh kW jij Ma Utif
df UgjFj gfis

xnu dF fheilfis fy
brj
12

cz Mjhufis nkgLJj
bfhljhf mikJL. jF
vLJfhlhf bg Fiuia, M
fGijia fy brjh cUthtJ
nfhntW fGij. Kiw cUthd
nfhntW fGij mj bgnwhfshd,
Fiu
kW
fGijial
wghdjhf,
gyKilajhf,
cl cWl fhzgLwJ. J
kLkyhJ fuLKulhd, kiyghfhd
gFf mf Rikfis vLJ
brY wD bfhLsJ. tif
fy uL tifgL.

njbjLfgl
bg
c
diHD
brYjgLwJ.
Kiw _y md wj
rjf cUthwd.

w jikf
1. Kiwyhd fyd cg
wj
gfis
bfhl
rjfis cUthfyh.
2. Kiw xU MyUJ
bgW J_y mf ms
bg yFf fUUwd.
vdnt
bghUshjhu

fdkhdjhf fUjgLwJ.

1. aif Kiw
j
_y
cgwid
mfF bghUL ehL dij
ma dij
izJ a
dij njhWfyh.

3. fyd ML, khL, nfhf

nghwit mf gh, iw kW
Kil Matiw jUwd.
4. nkY ciwiy itfgL
J lehfSF nrJ
itJ njitgL nghJ eho
bjhiyu
FuhkfSF
vjhf, ghJfhghf vLJ
bry Ko.

2. braif Kiw l
Kiw U gfisila
M c J nrffgL,
jFj
fUia
bfhL
bra 1.5

mUYs fheil kUJtkidF

nehfis g bjJbfh.

brW

fheilia

jhF

nkY mJ bfhnth
yd
bghUf

bfhG
%

uj
%

rfiu
%

jkf
%

gh

3.60

4.00

4.50

0.70

87.20

Kil

12.00

13.00

1.00

74.00

khr

3.60

21.10

f Fiwj
ms

1.10

74.20

2.50

19.00

1.30

77.20

1.6 fheil guhk

ML, khL, g, Fiu, nfh nghw yFf tsF njitahd
cz cg giz mikj kW dbgUf Matiw tF
trhaJiw xU F fheil guhkJiw vW bga.

fheil guhk gntW mrf

1.

yFfSF

njitahd

czit
13

mj,

2.

yFfSF

myF-1

ca
njitahd a Foiu tHFj,
3. yFfSF njitahd ciwl
mikj, 4. nehjL kW nehia
FzgLJj, 5. jFj Kiw
dbgUf brj.

ghJfhF
jikilajhf
UfntL. ngha btrK,
ey fhnwhlK foghf Uf
ntL. nkY yF ffshd
rhz, va czbghUf kW
W Matiw btnaWtjFa
tofh trfS UfntL.

1. fheil cz
fheil cz uL tifgL.
mit ehrJbghU kW ml
ClrJ bghU. Fiwj cz
rij
bfhl
ehbghUf
ehrJ cz mlF. ml
ClrJ cz, gU bfhil,
viz Jf, zhF kW
jha tiffS mlF.

fheil ey guhkj
fheil
ghJfh
vgJ
yFfis
nehjhFjUJ
jLJ, nehthgl yFf
nehia fLgL FzkhFtJ,
Mnuhakhf thH brtJ
vd gntW gFfshf fyh.
bgUghyhd nehf itu, ghOah,
ir
nghwtwh
VgLwJ.
bjhWneh
jhFjUJ
ghJfhf fheilfSF jL
nghLtJ mta.

2. ciwl (bjhGt)
bjhGt
Rjkhdjhf
yFfis btg, F, kiH,
nehthgLj, w Ccf
nghwt
jhFjfUJ,

gh ClrJ k
t.v

mls bghUf

bra

1.

fha

vY fLkhd kW guhk

2.

itl D

fha tsijkhwij Lj

3.

uj

jirf fLkhd kW brj

4..

bghlha

uj mGjij guhkj

5.

itl B2

brf tsijkhw

6.

itl B4

behf braghLf

7.

itl B12

uj tgQf K

btik u
btik u vgJ a nkgLjgl fheilfis
gagL mf gh cgia bgUFtjhF. nja ghts
nkghL fHf jiytuhf Uj lhl. V.Fa vgtiu
btik u jij vW TWthf. Vbd, tjh
KjKj nja ghts ts fHfij Jtdh. fHf
cyfnyna fbga ghcg l xiw cUthaJ.
mjF bts eltoif (operation flood) vW bga.
lhl. V.Fa
14

cz Mjhufis nkgLJj
1.7. gwit giz

nkyhik vgJ FR bghj,

tsj, ciwl mikj Rfhjhu,
nehjL, mf tjf nghw
Kiwf mlF.

gwit dfis Kilfhf,

iwfhf tsJ dbgUf
brtnj gwit gizahF. gwit
ts, nfh ts 90% vwh mJ
ifahfhJ.
Lf
tsfgL
nfh,
thJ, thnfh, wh, nfh
Kjadtiw tsJ dbgUf
brtnj gwit ts vdgL.
kf
bgUfF,
Fghf
rj
cz
jUtjfhf
gwit gizf Kilfis
iwia cg brwd.
gwitgiz
Kiwahd
a df
lfh, m,
fueh kW guh
Mait
a
d nfhfshF.

bt u
jFj Kiw nfh ts
_y rgfhyf Kil cg
mffgLsJ. jF bt
u vW bga.
kj
gaghoF
gagL
mogil
WF
nkgl
nfhdfis, iw cg
fhdit,
Kil
cgfhdit,
iw kW Kil cgfhdit
vd _W fshf fyh.

maehL df
isbks uh,
byAh, nuh
ukh kW
myhL, sh
yhh Mait dhfh Mait
Ma d
maehL d
nfhfshF.
nfhfshF.
Ma
df

nkY mJ bfhnth
btis byAh tif cynyna f mf Kilf bfhLF d.
nfh cg ah cyfms IjhtJ l twJ.

fydf eikf

nkY mJ bfhnth

1. f
 yd
nfhf
Kilfis Lwd.

irt Kil
nfhgizf cgahF
fUw
Kilf
v
mGL.
Mdh
fUwh
Kilf v bfLnghfhJ.
vdnt fUwh Kil cgia
kf
mf
Uwd.
bgil nfhfSF nrt
Jiz Kilfis cg
bra aY. Mdh Kilf
fUUfhJ. j tifahd
Kilf irt Kilf vd
TWwd.

mf

2. Kilf ms bgait.
3. mf iwia jUwd.

y Ka fyd tiffshf
HH- 260, IBL 80, B-77, IIS-82 nghw
dfis TwKo.

nfh tsgf
15

myF-1

ca
ClrJ k

czid mgj _y FiwghL

nehfis fLgLjyh.

Kil, nfh iw, f

mf ujij jUwJ. nkY
Kil Rzh, ghgu, nrhoa,
Vit B1, B12, D Kjad csd.

jeho gwit giz bjh

jHf muR nfh tsF f
KaJt
bfhLJtUwJ.
jeho nfhgizf ehkf,
gyl, brid nghw gFf
fwghf bragL tUwd.
nkY khy gntW gFfY
wghd gizf mikJ nfh
ts eilbgW tUwJ.
jHf
muR
rJz l rhL
FHijfSF
midJ
g
ntiyehfY xU ehisF xU
Kil tHFwJ.

gwitf ciwl
ah gwitf tsfhd
TLf mikgjF uL ntWgl
Kiwf nkbfhsgLwd. mit
m) muyhj ts Kiw
M) u tsKiw

gwit cz
gwitfSF
njitahd
czid Kakhf fyzthfnt
jahJ
tUwd.
z
jhaf, nrhahbkhir, , vY,
cz, nfhJik jL, fliy
zhF, gh, X, nrhs, yF
gFbghUf Mad fyUF.
jDl, Jjehf, U, br,
mnaho, bka, bra nghw
jhJfS fyfgLwd.

gwitfis jhF
mt fLghL

bra 1.6
mUYs gwitgizia
ghitL
mF
gwitf
vthW
tsfgLwd,
cztfgLwd
kW
dbgUf
bragLwd
vgij mJbfh.

1.8. ts

nehfS

eh, e nghw CDfsh

VgL fhr; ts gwitf
jhfgLtnjhL, bjhW nehfshY
jhfgLwd.
ah
nfhfhyuh, nfh mik, Ffhr,
T.B. kW f jhFj Mait
gwitfis bgJ ghF.

neh fLghL

rhjhuz bfil
MWf, Vf, Fs, Filf,
ghrdfhthf nghw lf
FRfis L tsJ mtiw
dbgUf br Kiw ts
vW bga.

gwitfSF VgL nehfis

ca
jL
eltoiffshd,
jikgLJj, jL nghLj,
Rfhjhukhd TLfis mikj,
<ujikia
mf
TLfis
Na x mfkhf gLkhW mikj
nghw Kiwf jLf aY.
jFj Kiw jahfgl rk

ts,
o
bjhY
a bghUshjhu Ka gF
twJ. flnyhu gFfYs
yrfzfhd dt kfSF
kLkyhJ, cehL gFfYs
kfSF
ngha
msF
ntiy thig, tUkhdij
mwd.
16

cz Mjhufis nkgLJj
tsfhd fhuf

Fsfnyna tsfgLwd.

3. ehwfh Fs

1. Fsf mik, kW mit

mikJs lfjik.

3 Kj 5 ehf tiu tsj s

FRfis tif Fsf
FRfns
20
ehf
tiu
tswd.

2. a kW Mjhuf.
3. k ClrJ jik.
4. btg.

4. tsF Fsf

ts tiff

s
FRfis
gagLwd.

m) Fsf tsj
aif
tsj.

cztJ

Fsf

1. it rW bgajhf
MHKilajhf UF.

M) u ts
braif
cztJ
cgia bgUFj.

tsf
mf

2. ehwfh
FsfUJ
bfhLtugL
FRf
tsJ
it Rkh 125 .
s
2 khj fhyF F
tsfgLwd.

) X d ts
xU Fs xU d fis
kLnk tsj.

3. it (Finger Lings) vdgLwd.

<) gy d f ts

4. U Fsf

gntW cz gHffis cila

fis xwhf xnu Fs tsj.

ehwhfh
kW
tsF
Fsfisl it ms bgait.
itfSF
FRfnshL braif
cztfgLwJ.
ts
ntfij mfgjF fk kW
fk cuf gagLjgLwd.
bjhW
gutiy
jLF
bghUL
Mogaho
kUJf
gagLjgLwd.
ngha

c) xUizj ts
trha
yf
fis tsj.

gfSl

Fsf tiff
f gntW ts iyF
VwthW btntW khahd Fsf
njitgLwJ.

nkY mJ bfhnth

Fsf tiff :
1. dbgUfFsf

a Jiw jftf

dbgUf
cWf
Kailj M, bg fis
dbgUf brtjfhf gF
tsJ tUwd.

1. bkhj cg - cyf
7tJ l.
2. fl cg - cyf
10tJ l.

2. FRbghF Fs

3.  c ts - bjHF
Mah 2 tJ l.

tif Fsf dbgUf

Fsf UJ nrffgL fUw
Kilfis bghf brtjfhf
gagLjgLwd. KilUJ
bghJ bttU s FRfS

4.  bjhJiw gF XuhoF 400 nfho %gh

ma bryht.
17

myF-1

ca
ts K milj f
mWtil bragLwd.

cz bghUf ClrJ

cz
yF
uj,
itl kW jhJf mf
fhzgLwJ. cz
cs
itl A fghit FiwghLfis
f wj fghitF bgJ
cjwJ. aho, ah, itl
B6, itl B12, itl D kW
ghgu, bghlha, U nghw
jhJfis bfhLsJ. kj
cl aifahd tsF bgJ
JizwJ. kj gaghoF
njitgglhj tiffS, f
ffS fheil kW nfhf
td cgF gagLjgL
tUwd.

ntiyfhu
nj

uh
nj

M nj

2.M njf
it
jFahdit.

dbgUfF

uh
njl
dbgUf
brtJ
itf ntiy.

izJ
kLnk

3.ntiyfhu njf
it kyL njf
uh
njia
ftJbfhSj, njnrfj,
Til fLj kW ghJfh nghw
gfis brwd.

1.9. nj ts
ma mogil nj, nj
bghU nghw bghUfis cg
br KiwF nj ts vW
bga. njf r_f mikl thG
cdfshF. njf FGfshf
J
jkilna
ntiyfis
gL bfhS wD cilait.
f cs kfujJffis,
utij jf czth
bfhwd.
njf
gntW
fUJ

utij
nrfwd. thW nrffgL
ut
njfsh
GfgL
tWigia
brwilwJ.
mF J njdhf khwgL d
njdilf nrJitfgLwJ.

nj df
m) cehL nj df
i) V ofh

bghJthd
a nj

ii) V lhnrlh - ghiw nj

iii) V nshah - Fo nj

M) maehL nj df
i) V bk~uh - jha nj
ii) V Mlnrh - bjMf
nj

njf
KaJt

xU njTo _W tifahd
njf fhzgLwd.

bghUshjhu

bghUshjhu njfsh
cg bragL njD, nj
bkGF KaJt thjit.

1. uhnj
xU nj To xnu xU uh
nj kLnk UF. j ntiy
KilLj.

1. njdhdJ ClrJ Fj X
czthF. xU nyh nj 3200
fnyh ria jU wDilaJ.
18

cz Mjhufis nkgLJj
nkY mJ bfhnth

tl eld

mir eld

njf br gkhw (eld Kiw)

nj 100 tisF Ugij tl eld bjwJ. mir
eld l bjhiyit FwJ. eld mirf nj, NaDF
vj ir csJ vgij FwJ. nkTa eld mirfis
sajfhf 1973 fh th Z vgt nehg gir bgwh.

nj bkGF

2. 
rfiu,
jhJcf,
itlf, kfujf kW
behf csd.

mHF rhjdbghUf, F Rf,

myfhuRf, ca bghUf,
Kfrtu Rf, f, kUJ jah,
bkGFt cg nghwtF
nj bkGF gagLwJ.

3. nj xU wj UehahF.
gh my bfhljh wj
xU gjgLJ bghUshf
gagLwJ.

1.10. cts
(Aqua culture)

4. cl gF fhzgL fis

FzgLJtjF, Uk, r,
Fl nghwtiw FzgLJ
tjF gagLwJ.

bghUshjhu KaJt
thj jhtu kW yF tiffis
fLgLjgl
Niyf
tsF KiwF c ts
vW bga. wh, f wh, f,
KJ, kof, eL nghwt
ts mlF.

5. ujYs nkhFnshid
mfgjF nj KagF
twJ.
6. ngf bghUfshd buho,
f,
nf
Kjat
jahF
nj
bgUks
gagLjgLwJ.
19

myF-1

ca
kL
m
rahd ilia njbjLf.

1. c
 aukhf mf isfSlD fhzgLtJ t Ugjf gfshF.
(vbz J tiff, gH kuf, fhff, td gf)
2. j
 htufSF
ClbghUfis
( ghiw, bjhY gok, , vkiy).

mgit

fhW,

kW

3. mddh xU (randhghOah, gR Mfh, gG Mfh, t Mfh).

4. 2
 ,4-D vgJ
fis bfh).

xU

(bfh,

ir

bfh,

bfh,

5. jhtuf nt, jL kW iyfis foJ, bkY (gU

fhzgL mJ, mRt, btL, iy jJ).

M
6. mltizia rahd il bfhL uf.
g bga

neh

neh tif

be

ijf _y guj

ntfliy

ofh (iy neh)

7. c
 yf kf bjhif e ehL ulhtJ l csjh, gf
kfNiy bgUFtJ mtakhdJ. g kfNiy eh vthW nkgLjyh?
8. i) C
 lrJ Fiwdh kjf FiwghL neh VgLwJ. J
jhtufY VgLkh?
ii) c
 f njhl cs jhtuf ts Fiwthf fhzgLnkahdh
mt tsia mff vd brf?
9.
 fltUJ bgU ClbghUf kW E ClbghUfis
goaLf.
jhu, Fnsh, nghuh, fha, ieu#, ghgu, bghlha, fjf,
Jjehf, U, ka.

20

cz Mjhufis nkgLJj

10. i) u m cstiw u M cstWl bghUJf.
u m

u M

1. kfujjh f

m. jhaf nrJ itj

2. braif cu

M. nghlh fyit

3. ir bfh

. fyd nrif

4. FCI

<. ah

ii) ClrJ Fiwghil f eh aif kW braif cufis

gagLJnwh.
m) t vJ jhtufsh v crgLwJ?
M) VbdW sFf.

- m
1. b
 raif l Kiw ciwa itj Jfis gagL bg cfis
fUjf brj eikf ahit?

- M
2. nfh tsF fkf f mta mthW gagL fkf VnjD
ehid FLf.
3. nj xU ey kUJ. nj kUJt gaf VnjD ehid FLf.
4. bghUJf.
1.

cfy

m.

Ugjf juf

2.

btfy

M.

ciwaitfgl J

3.

ntWgl wd fy

xirthd gf

4.

braif l

<.

nfhntW fGij

21

myF-1

ca
gF -

5.
 fl mltiz tir m- cs ehF brhfis ftf. t
xthj brhiy vLJ tir M- vGj. J cs _W brhf
bghJthd gid tir - Fl.
kh

1.

m, fueh, guh, byAh

2.

cfy, bt dfy,
ntWgl wdfy,
braif l.

3.

X d ts, gy d ts,
xUizj ts, u
ts

4.

V ofh, V lhnrlh,
V ~nshna, V
bkbguh

byAh

a gwit

nkY ma
jff
1. Economic Botany - Plants in our world 2000 - Beryl simpson
and Molly ogorzaly, Mc Graw Hill Publications
2. Economic Botany of Crop plants 2000 - A.V.S.S. Sambamurthy
and N.S.Subrahmanyam, Asiatech Publisher.
3. Economic Zoology - Shukula, G.S. and Upadhyay V.B. (1997)
Rastogi Publication, Meerut.
izajsf
http://www.biology-online.org
http://www.tnau.ac.in

22

myF

moikahjY eyth

myF-2

ca
2.1. moikahj
xU Fl braiy L, L
bra L fF moikahj
vW bga. j moikahj g
xUtid Mbfhlh mtDila
RfthF,
cl
eyF,
kdeyF kW rKjha thF,
nfL isF.
Ra
mogil
ghjh
MfAh xU kdij l
br nta bghUshf UJ
ujUJ _isF brW,
_is
jfhfkhf
nt
bghUfis khw mila brwJ.
Mdh, kUJt mDkyhk
mfms MfAhiy Fogt
fSila ka eu klyK,
fuY, kuY, W ufK
kW jaK ghfgLwJ. J
jhf mj kj kUJF,
kJghdF moikahwh. mJ
mtid ghgnjhL kLkyhk
rKjhaij ghwJ.

moikahjYfhd j eg
fhuzf

moikahj RH
gffd

btf
gLnghj

J _is
njhWwJ

gHfkhj

eilKiw
gLJj

2. b
 jhrhiyf
VgL
Ugjfhj
NHyh
y
kJgHf F Mshwhf.
3. f
 od
ciHF
dh
jfis js bfhtjfhf
kJ gHfF cshwhf.
4. t
 hif eif mw jik
nghij gHf bfhLngh
nrwJ.

2.2. moikahj tiff

2.2.a. kJ mUJj

1. k
 J mUj ntL vw Mir
gugiuahf
mj
kjl
fhzgLj.
2.
 y gagLjgl t thuf
mtfis moikahLwd.
3. c
 zf mGjK, VkhwK
kW rKjha mGjK moikah
jYF xU Kakhd fhuzkhF.
4.
 y kd m, ftdFiw
nfhshW nghw csa rhj
fhuzfsh kJ gHfF
moikahwd.

kJF moikahtjfhd rKjha

fhuzf
1. x
 j taJilatf flha xU
fhuz
24

, x kW kJghdf
fhzgL eRjik thj v
MfAh (C2H5OH vdh) fyj
bghUis kJthf mUJj cy
vyh gFY fhzgL X gHf
tHfkhF. < vw E (xU
br fhsh) dh rfiu kW
lhR bghUf behfgLtdh
MfAh jahfgLwJ. j
kJ iuigdhY, WFlyhY
crgL
uj
XlnjhL
fyJ Xo ka eu klyij
nrhtila brwJ.
kJ mUJtij g mtJ ekF
Mtij bfhLF mnj neu
mit Mwhikia bfhLF.

moikahjY eyth

rhjhuz fu

kJ mUJtf fil iy

kJ mUJtdh VgL ikf:

kJ mUJtdh cl bra
khWghLf
VgL
kj
j
fLghil Hwh vd Mf
TWwd. kJ uj XlnjhL
fyJ W _iisia ghwJ.
W_is
vYTL
jirf
ghfgLwd.

fu mH : ey lfhukhd
fu jh Hj brfis L
cg br w bgwJ. Mdh
W
fu
mHdh
ghfgl fuf jhf Hj
brfis
Jf
Kotiy.
cyf KGtY tUl xWF
fu mHdh 27,000 rhf
fwd. gy tUlfshf mfkhf
kJ mUjtJ fuiy fLikahf
ghF. kw fhuzfsh clhF

nkY mJ bfhnth
bjmbkfh
thfd
fS,
ngUJfS
v
MfAhiy vbghUshf bfhL
afgLwd. v MfAh
RWwij nfL mila itfhj
xU mUikahd vbghU.

fu mHdh
ghfgl fu
fu mHial kJ mUJtjh
VgL fu mH mf wig
VgLJwd.

kJ mUJjiy jLj
k
 J mUJjiy bjhlf iynyna
jLf vLf ntoa eltoiff
k
 Jdh VgL kaf, fu
gh kW kuz VgLj nghw
aisfis kfSF vLJ
TWj.

mnj rka v MfAh

tz Rf kW thZfSF
fiughdhf gagLwJ.
25

myF-2

ca
n
 rhgdhY, ntiyah VgL
mGjdhY
kJgHf
clhdh, nrhgiy, ntiy
jikia kh bfhs ntL.
k
 J gHfdh ghfglt
fSF csa miuf Twgl
ntL.
b
 gnwhfSF, MafSF
nehahf kJ gHfUJ
LgLjYFa
miuf
tHfgl ntL.

fbu ifj

nfho kW fhg nghw eR

bghUf fbu if fhzgLwd.

k
 UJ
_ykhf
nehahfSF
ir bfhLfyh. bgnrhil
nahig, itl B, kW
kdnrh
F
kUjhd
ndhjnah
Mait
kJ
gHfUJ Lgl gagL
kUJfsh.

mj eR jik thj fhiw eh RthF

nghJ, mit jaF bryToa
ujFHh cw gowd.

k
 Jdh ghfgl rKjha
kW kfis jdht bjhL
Wtdf bghWbgLJ khw
Kafyh.

j shF ujFHh cwij FWf

mila brtJ ghwd. jdh ja
RtUF bryToa uj ms FiwwJ.

2.2.(b) fbu ifj

ewhf
bgho
bragl
ifiyia
bka
jhdh
RUlgL fbu jahfgLwJ.
ifiy
fhzgL
f
Kakhd
moikahF
bghU
nfho. J ah uhj y
ahfSF, ayhj jikF
kW
rhF
fhuzkhwJ.
ifgJ, th ifiy bktJ
bgUghikahd ehLf rlF
wghdJ.

ifgdh VgL a
isf

j isthf shF vw bghU

ujFHh cw clhwJ.

uj Mrid vLJ brtjh Mr

ms FiwwJ.

jaF nghJkhd ujK, MrD,

bryhjjh ja jiria ghwJ.

jdh khuil VgLwJ.

ifdh khuil, ca uj
mGjK, ja - ujFHh
rgjgl ahF mjid
bjhlJ kuzK rgwJ.

Eiupu

ja
vyh ja nehfSF ifjny
fhuzkhwJ.
26

ifj ekJ Rthr ghij

nkgF fhzgL ah vw
bka iHfis nrjgLJwd.

moikahjY eyth
ifjdh VgL
nkhrkhd isf
fhWFHh W

thF W

czFH W
Eiupu W
uhj kh r

jajir
ew

vgkh

Mnuh
nuh

iuig

Wig
W

j ahf fh _ykhf
EiupuYF tU neh Uf,
f, iff kW clYF
nfL isF ntbghUf
cbrtij
jLJ
mj_y
nehUf
bjhWj,
Uk
kW Eiupu Wnehf Ma
ghfUJ cliy ghJfhF.
Eiupu cs fhW wiwf
(alveoli) ifjdh uju ghF
csh _R Lj Tl fodkh
Lwd.

brj kly
ifj
ja
vriy
clhFwJ.
iuig
Fzkhtij
jhkjgLJwJ.
Fnuh
neh
isfis
mfgLJwJ.
jig
j
ffis
clhFwJ.
fuiy ghJ iuig Wneh
clhtjF fhuzkhwJ.

fhf
ifj fhYF brY uj
FHhfis ghJ fh ujukhf
fhj tia VgLJwJ.

fiza
W

ff
ffSF brY f Ea
jJ
FHhf
ifjdh
ghfgLwJ.
ff uj
ciwj uj fof njh mjdh
f eikriy VgLJwJ.
mf ifojyh f nfL,
f ghit H VgL.

njh
ifgtf
njh
ntoa
ms M#id bgwhjdh j
ts jikia HJ Lwd.
xnu taJila iffhjtfis l
ifgtf IJ tUl mf KJik
njhwnjhL fhzgLwhf. njh
jdJ xU jikia HJ kr
fyj rhg w njhwkF.
r bfhl njh btFiu
RUffis njhWF.

vYf
ifgtf
vYf
bkikahwd.
(Osteoporosis).
vdnt v cil jikia
bgWLwd.
27

ca

myF-2

Wneh

ntbghU vgJ, e clYF

njitahd msit mahJ msF
gagLJtJ vW bghU. y
neuf kUJt Mnyhridgo
Kj
cgnahfgl
kUJ
mjJ bfhl ehl mfkhdjh,
L, L msF mfkhf
gagL d mnj kUJF kf
moikahFtij kUJF moikahj
vnwh. bjhlJ msF mfkhf
Fl
kUij
gagLJj
eKila eLeu kly nfil
iswJ.
uh,
nfhif
kW Xa nghw kUJf clYF
F
iswd.
tif
kUJfSF "nghij kUJf" vW
bga.

ifgdh
EiupuY,
Fu tisY,
th FY,
bjhilY, cz FHY kW
W igY Wneh njhWwJ.
WnehfSF fhuzkhd 60F
nkgl ntbghUf ifiy
fhzgLwJ. Eiupu Wneh
VgL wF 90% nk ifjh
fhuzkhwJ.

dbgUf kly
if Mf kW bgf
ts jikia FiwJ LwJ.

bgfSF
if
bgf
dbgUf
Ahnkhdhd vnuhid iyFiya
itwJ. vdnt, dbgUf cWF
brY uj ms FiwwJ.
bgnyha FHf neh bjhW
VgL ml cg ghfgLwJ.
ifj fUijF fhuzkhwJ.
KJikF fhuzkhd j if FWa
fhy khjlh ujukhf F
iyF bfhL brwJ. fUw
jh ifFnghJ FHij ts
jilgLwJ.
jdh FHij
_is ts jilgL mtf
mw FiwwJ. jh iffhk
ifgtfSF mU UjhTl
nkTa ff fwd. nkY
fUij KGikaw w, Vgl
th clhwJ.

kUij jtwhf gagLJt

dh VgL a isf
c
 ley FiwghL, v, bjhW
Vgl.
g, ffSF bryhUj.
M
 whik
w.

kW

ey

nfodh

f
 s, fg kW bfhiyf
rgjgl.
i
 fL bgWj, nghijbghU
flJjYF cshj.

kUij jtwhf gagLJt

dh VgL mFf
kd iy gh
k kaf kW fik

Mf

cl t, th cz kW nrh

ifj M dbgUf cW
klyij gy tf ghwJ.

ntiy kW go ehlik

2.2 (c) kUij jtwhf gagLJj

nghij kUJf
nghij gHfF moikahjiy
g mnghJ kUJ kUJtf
Mnyhrid ehnk gagLJ
28

bgh TWj, gz ULj

fl rl nuhjkhd kUJf
bjhlghd braf fLof
glh jlid cW

 jsntD
itUj.

nghij

bghUis

moikahjY eyth
m
 fhu
yhk
nghij
brofis tsj.
nghij bghUfis e lf
gJ itj, w kW
cgnahj.
nghij bghUfis kiwKfkhf
cg brj kW flJj.
flj xU Lf Koahj
Fw. mjF 20 MLf iw
jlid, %gh 2 yr tiu
mguhjK fglyh.
L, L nkTa Fw

fLofglh kuz jlid

Tl tHfglyh.

khztf ftf ntoaJ

t
 aJ xj FG miHF kJ mUj
kWj,
nghij kUJf f nkhrkhdit.
nghij bghU fyj ghdf
mUJtij jLf ntL.
n
 ghij
kUJf
cgnahf
glhnyh myJ fljglhnyh nk
mfhfSF bjagLJj.

2.3 nghij gHfij jLf eltoif

nghij gHfF moikaw iy vgJ KGikahf nghij gHfF
Mshfhj, myJ nghij gHfUJ KY LgL iyahF. kJ
mUJjiy, kUij jtwhf gagLJtij jil brtJ g F
Mnyhf gLwJ. ekJ eho y muR rhj WtdfS, muR rhuhj
WtdfS kWth ikafshf bragLwd. j kWth ikaf
kUJfshY, kndhjJt Kiw nghij gHfF cshdtf
FzkhfgLwhf.
Kjyh iy
ulh iy

nghijF moikahdtfis d fhQj

mtfis moikaha bghUfis gFjh brj.

_wh iy

nghijia mtf rhJ UgjF fhuz bghU

rgjgljh myJ csa rgjgljh vgij
khj.

ehfh iy

mtf cl eir nt kUJ ir _y eR f

brj.

Ijh iy

ir gy ehfSF bjhlUj.

Mwh iy

irF mtUila cl ey, kd ey, rKjha ey

kW ntiy br lf mtUila braghLfis
bjhlJ ffhj.

2.4. eyth
eyth vgJ clYF eik juToa czit cgJ, clYWfis
uhf aFtJ, kJghdkw, ifaw, kd mGj yhj th thtJkhF.
cynyna ekJ ah, kW ja neh mf cs ehlhf khW vW
TwgLwJ.

cl gUk
cl gUk vgJ mfkhf bfhG cl j cl gUJ fhzgL xU
29

myF-2

ca
iy. J cl eyij ghfToaJ.
cl gUkdhf Toatf mtf
jf sikgUtUnj jf
taJ xjtfisl cauF Vw
vilia l mf vil bfhltuhf
fhzgLwd.
nrhngjdK,
mwhl thif ffisTl
wgl brayhw Koahk nghtJ
clgUk
U
nkhrkhd
isfshF. rkuw czKiw,
clYiH
yhth,
kua
rgjgl fhuzfS, ehsyh
Ruf uw Rujik kW
clYF xthj kUJfis cgJ
cl gUkDfhd fhuzf.

cl gUkid, ja nehfis
jF tKiwf
1. cz gHfK, thKiw khwK.
e
 hrJ mf mla ffis,
fhfis, iufis cz
nrJbfhSj.
uh
ntfitj bfhGfsw ,
oahg kW L nghw
czfis czntL.
b
 fhil
tiff,
Kisj
jhaf kW mjj gUt
fhyf ilfToa ffis
cz ntL.

 , cl uj ciwjiy
jilbr
xnkfh-3-bfhG
my Ugdh thu U Kiw
id cz nrJ bfhs
ntL.

 uj bfhyuh msit
mffToa
khoiw,
Moiw
kW
bghj
bghUfis cz FiwJ
bfhs ntL.
f
 ha iwj gh kW gh
bghUf (be, btiz, ghnyL)
mf ms vLJ bfhtJ cl
gUkid VgLJ.
30

cl gUk
m
 f fnyhfis csla Jj
cz cgij jf ntL.
m
 f mla rhnyil,
mf c mla CWfh kW
mgsfis cz nrgij
FiwJ bfhs ntL.

 ifjiy, kJ mUJjiy
KY jfntL.

2. clg
b
 jhiyfh
ghgij,
f cgnahgij, f
isahLfSF
bryL
neuij FiwJbfhs ntL.
e
 ilg brj, isahLj,
XLj, to j, Jj
nghw clgfis brJ
cl mfgoahd fnyhia
FiwJ uhd uj Xlij cl
iyW bfhsntL.

3. kdmGj
czfis FLgjhfSlndh
myJ
egfSlndh
gJ
bfhSj, ngha ms f,
aifnahL irj bghGJnghF,
iria
uj,
njhlLj,
tzLj,
Lts
yFfnshL
isaho
kj,
FLgdnuhL g cyh brW
tUj Mait kdmGjUJ
LgLtjfhd tKiwf MF.

moikahjY eyth
kL
m
1. 
 nH tiuaglJ nghy Rtbuho e eho gy lf fhzgLwJ J
khahd glf vij czJwd?

- M
2. nghij bghU jL d #&khj 26 eh cybfF bfhlhlgLwJ.
mj eh kf k xU zit VgLj khfgLwJ.
mjfhf kfSF 5 brf tHl lL mjfhd sffS
tHfgl ntL.
3. nH
murh
bfhLfgLs
sgugLjglJ.

tiugl

ifjiy

jilbra

m) cikny j milahsF vij FwJ.

M) ifj VgL uL ahfis TW.
) kf k ifjiy ga z Vgl U thafis TW.

31

myF-2

ca

4. nH bfhLfgl go iyf msF mfkhf kJ mUJtdh VgL

isf. t Lglitfis g br.
fu jh Hj brfis Jf Koahj iyF
(1)
(2)

vgJ ghof Kakhd g. J

(3)
ia (4)
izF. jh
msF mfkhf kJ mUJtdh j urid VgLwJ.

-
5. ifjdh VgL a isfis, mtwh ghfgL cWfnshL
rahf bghUJf.
t.
v.

cWf

ifjdh VgL a
isf

1.

ja

ghit FiwJ KGikahf

ghit Hj

2.

Eiupu

jDila tsjikia
Hj

3.

brj bjhF

4.

fhW wiu ujukhf

ghfgLj

5.

njh

Mnuhnuh

6.

vYf

Monahnghnuh

7.

bg dbgUf
kly

Fiw urtF fhuzkhj

Fl MWt jhkjgLj

32

myF 3

kj cl cW
klyf mik
braghLfS

myF-3

ca
3.1. njh

njh, kj, yFfis btgFUJ _o ghJfhfToa cW MF.

ccWfis _oghJfhf, nehUf eik jhfhjthW UgjF
njh Fj mtakhwJ.

cnuhk
nknjh
vbz
Ru

eLnjh

z FHh
eu

monjh
R
cnuhkF

bfhG R
iu
jk
ait Ru

njh mik
njh,
_W
cslaJ.

Ka

gFfis

i) wnjh
ii) eLnjh
iii) mfnjh
i) wnjh
wnjh
njh
btgF.
it t cs Fthk va
brfsh MdJ. bt mLF
jilahd, bkj br nghw
wj wnjh brfsh MdJ.
mojs r
njh wnjhiy
eLnjhUJ wJ. wnjh
cs bkyndh irL vw w brf
njh wF fhuzkhwd.
mojs rF nH eu KoRf
fhzgLwd.
34

ii) eLnjh
J eL mLF.
it joj
kW r bfhljhf UwJ.
F eufS, uj FHhfS,
cnuhk FfS, ait RufS
kW g vw vbz RufS
fhzgLwd.
cnuhkij
mirgjF mulh igiy vw
UJthd jir F fhzgLwJ.
Ruf ujUJ aitia
J ait ehs tahf
btnaWwJ.
vbz Ru
g vw vbzia RuJ njhiy
UJthf, gsgsghf itJ
bfhwJ.
iii) mfnjh
njh mLF. it KGikahf
mongh
Rfsh
uggL
fhzgLwJ.

kj cl cW klyf mik braghLfS

njh gf

nkY mJ bfhnth

njh c cWig _o ghJfhwJ.

bgf
njh
w
mojs
r
fhzgL
bkyndhir
vw
w
mLFfsh
khfgLwJ.
bkyndhiro cg gugiuah
fLgLjgLwJ.
MdhY
btg, Na x, fhW kW
mHF rhjd bghUfdh njh
wij rW khw Ko

n
 eh
Uf
clYF
bryhjthW ghJfhwJ.
cl Hig jLwJ.
c
 l
btgiyia
gLJwJ.

xGF

N
 a x cjdh itl
ia jahwJ.
b
 jhLj, t, btg Matiw
czU cz cWghf ntiy
brwJ.

nkY mJ bfhnth

n
 jh, aitia ujUJ
J vLJ btna mD f
cWghf ntiy brwJ.

nkY mJ bfhnth

eh,
e
ifdh
njh
xU
gFia
oJ
GJ
Lnthnkahdh, mJ L giHa
totij milwJ. eLnjh
mogF fhzgL xU tifahd
ujjh mj rF fhuz.
kjf
KJikailnghJ,
mtf njh j ria
HJLwJ. vdntjh njh
RUff VgLwd.
bra 3.1
gntW yFf njh
khWghLfshd cnuhk, wF, ef,
kW brfis dfhz

Inuhaf midtU bky

wf yhjjh btisahf
fhzgLwhf.
bky
vw
w
Na
xUJ
kjid fhwJ. mjdhjh
btisafsh Na xia jhf
Kotiy.

3.2. jir kW vY kly

3.2.1. jir kly
mirfS, cl mirfS
yFf f Kakhd g.
FWiH kW iH nghwt
mirF jirf f Kakhd
fhuz.
jir mir mf
r
thjjhf
fhzgLwJ.
kj cl 700 Kj 800 jirf
fhzgLwd.
35

myF-3

ca
yFfS mt mirF gagL cWfS
t.v
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

yFf

mirF gagL cWf

mgh
guha
dh
kG
eru
f
gwitf
btsth

ngh fhf
FWiH (ah)
iH (shb#yh)
cly lh
FHh fhf
JLf
wFf
bglha

yFf cl jirf
mik, bra kW miklij
bghWJ jirf _W tifgL.
mit : 1. vY jirf
2.
ccW jirf 3. ja jirf
( tjirf ) ( taw jirf )
1. vY jirf
it jir ehfsh vYfSl
bghUsd.
jirf af
iria vYfSF flj jir
ehf cjwd. jirf jir
gly (facia) vD izRth
_lgLsd.

jir ehf
it jikila iz R
cWghF. it tYthd gilfis
nghW
vYfSl
bjhl
bfhLsd.
t Gw
VwFiwa O f w
ghas cilaJ. 10 l cs
jir eh 600 1000 nyh vilia
jhfyh.
jirr
iz Rth Md r
vYjir J X gly nghW
nghitahf
csJ.
gly
nkwkhfnth myJ MHkhfnth
mikUfyh. nkw cs r,
fL jsila mikghf njhYF,
jirF il UF. MHkhd
r bfhyh# iHfsh MfgL
raw
ciwahf
jirfis
RUF.
it jirfSF
ilahf
brW
vYfSl
izUF.
jir Ulf
kj cl IJ jir bjhFf
fhzgLwd.
1. jiyw jirf
2. fGJ gF jirf
3. cl gF jirf
4. nkif jirf
5. fh jirf

kh kW if jirf
36

kj cl cW klyf mik braghLfS

nkY mJ bfhnth
xU rJu br. gugs cs jir
3.5 .. vilia ftyJ.
y jirfS mt braghLfS
Kfghtidf
Kfghitidfshd
ghj,
mmilj kW difj
Ma braf 30F nkgl aF
jirfsh
fwd.
itf
aF jirfsh eilbgwhY eik
mahk eilbgWwJ.

{
fhth
(1737-98)
vw jh ehil nrj
csika nguha, U
rlf jid Cdh
bghUjgl
wJnghd
jtis fhf RUFtij
jbrayhf flh. jtis
jir
mirdh
clhF
rhu jir RUfF
fhuz vW fhth idjh.
rhu
jir
mirit
L vd fhth mW
rahf idUjh. Mdh
mj U ntWgl cnyhf
f Ljdh rhu
lgL, mj isahf eu,
jirfis RUf brjd.

_R Lj
_R LjYbfd ehF Ka
jirf csd.
cRthrkhdJ
nf, bt yh vY il
jirfsh fG. c yh vY
il jirfS, kh jirfS
bt Rthr jirfshF. cjujhd
_R LjYF cjwJ. W
jireh rdh MdJ. cjujhd
khgiwia
twiwia
wJ.

Ujiy
jir

jir gf

Kjiy
jir

Ujiy jir Kjiy jir

1. jirf
bghWghdit.

cl

afF

2. clYF mHif bfhLwJ.

3. tW gF fhzgL
bkikahd jirf theh KGtJ
xU au nghy aFwd.
bra 3.2

nkY mJ bfhnth

mUUF
kUJt
f kUJtkidF brW
gjgLjgL,
ghJfhfgl
gntW kj jirfis kW
cWfis ft.

jirf
aFnghJ
x
clhtiy. Mdh auf
aFnghJ x clhF. jirf
aFnghJ x clhFnkahdh,
idlUJ v vgo jf
Ko?
37

myF-3

ca
Ka jirf - mikJs lK, afK
v

bga
oua
KJF, fGJ jir
bllhLf
( njh jir )

mikJs l
KJ nkwK,
fG U wfS
njhgilf

3.

bgnlhuf
( kh jir )

kh

4.

yhok lhir
( KJF jir )

KJ w mfw
jir

5.

igbr
Ujiy jir

nkif KgF

iffis klFj,
tisj

6.

iu br
Kjiy jir

nkif gF

iffis Lj,
iffsh mGJj

7.

fh~ jir
fh jir

1.
2.

fQfhYF,
KHfhYF il
fh w

af
nkUJ Gj
ifia caJj
jiy ifia
mGJj, iff
cl FWfhf
Gj, glF XLj
nghw af

ghj K gFia
caj, jhj

3.2.2 vY kly
ekJ
cl
mfrlf
vYf,
FWbjYf
kW
fbkLf
mikJsd.
mfrl c midJ cWfS
mikJsd.
vYf nlh,
ajhfnth, jilahfnth myJ
xGfw totnyh Ufyh.
fghy
khTL
nkif
vY
L
tisa
bjhil
vY

kj vY TL

kj vY
kly
1. mR rlf
2. izW
rlf vd U
bgUthf
fgLwJ.
mRrlf
cliy
neuhf
itJ Uf mR
rlf
cj.
mRrlf
kilnahL,
AahL
vY,
38

f F
_F vY
nkjhil
jhil

kilnahL
KJbfY bjhlU, kh TL
mlF.
kilnahL
8 jiy vYfS, 14
Kf vYfS mlF. vdnt,
kj kilnahL 22 vYfsh
MdJ. kilnahL ghit, nfl,
Efj
kW
Rit
mjYF
fhuzkhd czWfSF Mju
mikfshsd. j kilnahL
jiy vYf, KfbtYf vw
Ufis
bfhlJ.
jiy
vYf vL vYfsh MdJ.

kj cl cW klyf mik braghLfS

it midJ jilahd vYf.
mirah_odh izfgLsd.
F _is ghJfhghf itfgL
csJ.

nkY mJ bfhnth

vyh yFfS jhilia

mirfToaJ. Kjiy kL nk
jhilia mirf ToaJ.

Kw Kj 10 iz yh
vYf khbgYl (Sternum)
izUF.
khbgYl
neuoahf izJs Kj 7 iz
yh
vYfS
cik
yh
vYf vdgL. 8,9,10 Ma yh
vYf izJ 7tJ yh vYl
bghUsJ. it bgh yh
vYf vdgL. 11,12tJ iz yh
vYf khbgYl izaiy.

fGJ KbsY

kilnaho
mow
kilnahL bgUJis csJ.
j tahf _is KFsUJ
jLtl njhsJ.

kh KbsY

kh vY
yh vY

L KbsY

UbtY

KJbfY

thKbsY

kj KJbfY bjhl
kj kh TL

kh TL myJ khgiw
kh To _W tifahd
vYf csd. mit KgF
khbgY, gF KJbfY
bjhlU, it uil gftho
izF yh vYfS MF.
kh TL 12 iz yh vYfsh
Mdit. it xbthW khK
vYl
izfgLsJ.

tF jF yh vYf vW
bga.
KJbfY bjhl
KbsYf
izJ
rW
tisJ S totKila KJbfY
bjhliu mikJsd.
cik
it
33
KJF
KbsYfis
bfhlit.
5
gFfshf csd.
39

myF-3

ca
mit 1 ) fGJ KbsY - 7,
2) kh KbsY - 12, 3) L
KbsY - 5, 4) UbtY - 5,
5) th KbsY - 4.
Mdh UbtYf 5 izJ
xU vYghf, th vYf 4
izJ xU vYghf kh csjh
KJbfY 26 vYfshyhdJ vd
fUjgLwJ.
izW vY kly

bgY
bjhil
vY
KHfh
K
fhbyY
fhbyY
kj fh vYf
xiw vY csJ. j gF
Kif
vYfSl
_likJ
izJsJ.
K
if
KifbaY (ulna) MubaY (radius)
vd U vYfSsd. kfL
vL a vYfisilaJ. it
ehF, ehfhf uL tirf
csd.
if rlf, csif
vYfshyhdJ.
if
IJ
ufSL. m X fil uY,
4 ufS mlF. xbthU uY
l u vYfsh MdJ. fil
u uL u vYfS, w
uf _W u vYfS
csd.

izW vY kly
njhgil, ifbaYfS kW
L tisaK, fh vYfS
mlF.
njh gilaik
ifbaYf
njhgilnahL
bghUs
gF
njhgil
vdgL.
njhgilaik
njhgilbaY (Scapula)
xU
njhgil
vY
nkif vY

LbgY, fhfS
L tisa
if vY
MubaY
ifbwYf
kj nkif vYf
fhiubaY
(Clavicle)
csd.
fhiubaY nk Xu dhL
F (ifbaY bghUJ F ) csJ.
jh nkifbaY (humerus)
bghU csJ.
ifbaYf
if nkif vY vw l
40

L
tisa
rhu
vD
UbtYghY,
Xiz
fhnr
vD
LbgYfshY
MdJ.
LbgYghdJ
a
myJ
ftL vY, a myJ L
izbgY,

myJ
bgY vw _W vYfshyhdJ.
tisa cs zF
mlhy
(acetabulum)
fhf
iza cj.
fh vYf
nk fh gF, bjhil vdgL.
cs fdj, l vY
bjhil vY myJ k vdgL.
btY
nk
Kid
LbgY
zF

kj cl cW klyf mik braghLfS

bghUJ jiygF csJ. mjDila
gF, fh vYfshd K
fhbyY (tibia) fh btbaY
(fibula) MatWl izJsJ.

3. it
c
cWfSF
ghJfhig jUwJ.
4. rlf
lbgaF
cjwJ.
5. bfhG
kW
fhaij
nrF lkhf sFwJ.
6. vY
kiP
uj
tgQfis cg br
lkhf sFwJ.
kj vYf vif
kj cl 206 vYf csd.
mit mR rlf 80 vYf,
izW rlf 126 vY
fSkhf csd. mR rlf jiy
vYf 28, KJbfY bjhl 26
vYfS, khgiw 25 vYfS,
1 AahL vY vd vYf csd.

KHfh X mfw, jilahd

KHfh Y (patella) vYsJ.
fQfh VG vYfsh MdJ.
fh KfhbyY, btbaY
fSl fQfh vYf lhy
vD gFah izJsd.
csfh gF csfh
vYfS, u vYfS csd.
it if csif vYf, u
vYfSF izahdit.
vYf gf
1. v
 Yf jirf iztjF
lkwJ.
2. m
 f rlf cl vilia
jhF.

nkY mJ bfhnth
vYfsw
cf
bkYlf (mollusca)

igy

3.3 cz (brj) kly

brj
brj vgJ bga, fyhd cz _y TWfis ujjhY, zuhY
crgl Toa va _y TWfshf khW nt f.

cz bga _y TW
1. fhnghiAonu
2. uj
3. bfhG

cz va gF bghU
FSnfh
mndh myf
bfhG my kW ruh
2. br bt brj

bghJthf
yFf
uL
tifahd brj fhzgLwJ.

czghij
gntW
Ruf RuF
behf czit
czghij itJ brf
brwd.
thW brYF
btna,
Mdh
cz
ghijFns eilbgW brj
br
bt
brj
vdgL.
(v.fh) kj.

1. br c brj
2. br bt brj
1. br c brj
mgh nghw xU br yFf
jf czit cz EFf
itJ brf brJ, brfhj
ffis btjSwd. j
tifahd brj br c brj
vdgL. v.fh mgh.

kj cz ghij
kj
41

cz

ghij

thia,

myF-3

ca
th
gf

c Ru
bjhil

ehF

czFH

Fu tis_o
fu

fhzgLwd. xbthU jhilY

16 gf fhzgLwd. mt 4
btL gf, 2 nfhiugf, 4 K
flth gf, 6 flth gf.
fil flth gf 20tJ taF
d KisF. vdnt, mgfis
Phdgf vg.

nkY mJ bfhnth
iuig
jig
fiza
bgUFl
WFl
Flth
kyth
kyFl

brj cWf

ky thia izF RUl,

jiryhd FHh MF. J wghd
gy gFfis bfhl 6 Kj 9 l
s bfhlJ.
mj czghij
th, cth, bjhil, czFH,
iuig,
WFl,
bgUFl,
kyFl, kyth vd gntW gFfis
cslaJ. mnjhL c Ru,
fiza kW fu Ru nghw
brj
bjhlila
RufS
izJ bragLwd.
th
mfw
thgF
Kwkhf
cjLfshY, gff jhilfshY
NHgL csJ. cth TiugF
mz vdgL. jiugF ehF
mikJ csJ. jhil tirahf
gf bghUjgL csd. th cz
GFt Ka gF twJ.
gf
kjfSF

32

gf
42

kj cl f fodkhd gF
gf vdhk
ehF
J Ritia ma cj gF. J
th mogF izfgL
csJ. eh E gF FWfyhf,
gUk Fiwjjhf fhzgLwJ.
nkgu gy Ea Rit mUf
fhzgLwd.
c Ruf
th 3 iz c Ruf
fhzgLwd. mit

nkyz
Ru
ehto
Ru
jhik Ru

c Ruf
1. nkyz Ruf
2. jhil Ruf
3. ehto Ruf
1. nkyz Ruf :- fhJF
mU mikJsd. itf bga
Ruf.
2. jhil Ruf :xGfw
tot bfhl Ruf jhilf
iz
l
wkhf
mikJsd.
3. ehto Ruf :fa
Ruf,
eh
mow
mikJsd.

kj cl cW klyf mik braghLfS

fu

nkY mJ bfhnth

iuig

1. bghDF vw itu
nehdh ghfgLtJ nkyz
Ruf.
2. _W iz c RufS
izJ eh xWF 1.5 l
ciu Ruwd.
c
Ruf
Ruwd. fhgit
mlsd.

ciu
c

fiza

1. ila ( mny ) vw beh,

onahod

2. igfhgnd vw c,

fu kW fiza

3. nfhiH,
4.
iynrhir
fhzgLwd.

vw

beh

nkY mJ bfhnth

ignyhu iuig. iuig Rt

iuig iu Ruwd.
iuig fl behf
fhzgLwd. mit,

gwh Fiwdh th cyJ

nghdh ngR tUtiy.

1. bg
2. bu

bjhil
bjhil, _F kW th
wkhf mikJsJ.
11 br..
s bfhl gF 7 Jthuf
csd. mit 2 c eh Jthuf,
2 nla FHf, th, Futis
kW cz FH.
czFH
J 22 br.. sKila jirgly
FHyhF.
gF bjhilia
iuigl izwJ.
j
cw Rt nfhiHgly bfhl
bka mLfhyhd va R
fhzgLwJ.
iuig
gF cz brkhd Ka
gFahF. czghij mfw
X ig nghw cWghF. iuig 3
gFfis bfhlJ. mit fhoah
iuig. ~[ iuig kW

3. iAonuh Fnsh my
iuig
Rt
cs
W
Ff fhzglToa w tif
brfsha M[o brdh
iAnuhFnsh
my
cg
bragLwJ.
WFl
iuigahdJ
vw Jis tna
wwJ. WFl _W
fgLwJ.
mit
d kW a MF.

ignyhu
WFl
gFfshf
onahod,

onahod
j s 22 br.. MF.
gFjh fu kW fiza
nghw Ruf cz ghij
izwd.
fu
kj
43

cl

bga

Ru

myF-3

ca
fuyhF. j vil VwFiwa 1500
uh. it uL rkkw fJfsh
MdJ.
j tyJ fJ bgaJ.
fu j iu Ruwd. j
gir fyj kr w ut. j
jfhfkhf j ig nrfukhwJ.
j ehs fiza FHhl izJ
onahod wwd.
j
bfhG brjYF cjwJ.
Mdh j j cfis, j
wfis ju brjYF cj
behf ilahJ.
j
nrhoa
isnfhny
j cfS
nrhoa lhU
isnfhny
%
j wfS
o

d
WFl I uL gF
sKilaJ
d. onahod
Jt a KoWwJ. WFl
RuF RubghU WFl uhF.
WFl fl behf
fhzgLwd.
1. Rnu, 2. khnl,
3. yhnl, 4. iyng
a
J RUl totKila FHyhF.
J W Fl I _W gF
sKilaJ.
j cw Rt
fhzgL u nghw f
Fl cRf vdgL.
it
xbthW 1 .. s bfhlit.
WFl VwFiwa ehF a
FlYf fhzgLwd. j
cgF bka uj FHhfS
z bfhl Flgh FHfS
fhzgLwd.
ilFl

nkY mJ bfhnth
mfgoahd bfhG fyj
czit cgjdh j ig
j ff clhF.

VWFl

wF Fl

fiza
fiza skhd, iy nghw x
CLUt Toa Ru. 15 br.. Kj
20 br.. sKilaJ. fiza, fiza
iu RuwJ. fiza ehs cs
Ruahf, ehsyh Ruahf
ntiy brwJ.
j nkw
yhffh Lf fhzgLwd.
cs Mgh brf FSnfhfh
vw Ahnkhid, lh brf
R
vw
Ahnkhid
Ruwd.
ehsyh
Ruahf
fiza
RufToa behf
1. o, 2. ifnkho,
3. fhgh bgonl, 4. mikny,
5. iyng
44

khL Fl

bgUFl
bgUFl
a bjhl, kyiH tiu
Ls gF 1.5 l sKilaJ.
bgUFl
_W
gFfis
bfhlJ. mit Kiwna f, nfhy
kW ky FlyhF (bul).
f
f fil xU KLig
fhzgLwJ. J 5 br.. sKilaJ.
j KLigjh Flth vW
miHfgL. J xU vr cWghF.
cz ghij gf
1. czit cbfhSj, 2. czit
brj, 3. cz cuj, 4. cz
jkakhj, 5. f btnaWj.

kj cl cW klyf mik braghLfS

s bgdh

khbrnyh kh (1628-1694)

khbrnyh kh 1628M ML
kh khj jh eho wjh.
mlho jJt gw mt
kUJtuhdh. ma M jid
<LgL bfhl mt fj
mf ehl cilatuhf fhzglh.
xL csaYF mojsltuhf
fUjgLwh.

cl braa vw ca
Jiwia Kj cUthat uh
ehil nrj s bgdh(1813-78).
kj clYF ria bfhLgJ
FSnfh vW, mJ fu
isnfh#dhf
khwgL
nrfgL
vW,
clYF
njitgLnghJ L Rnwhl
fyF vgij flUjh.
kUJf
clbraiy,
eu
klyij
vthW
khW
vgij mUjh.

gL jh brj Mfis
1669M ML btlh. tif
RfSF RthgjF
Eiupu
ilahJ vW, itf cl
gfthL Jisf _ykhf thkly
fhiw cGJ, EFHYf tahf
Rthwd
vW
sdh.
j EFHYF _RFH vd
bgalh.

nkY mJ bfhnth

Eiupu brfis mWit brJ

ghJ, mj a, bka Rt bfhl
jJf
Ugij
fljh.
jJfjh jkfis, iufis
izwd vW, mit ujij
jaij neh brYJwJ vW,
Rnwhl
bjhF
fjToa
midJ ntiyfis, jJfns
fJwd vgij btcyF
bjagLdh.

eh j cl
btg iyia
Fiwf
ehit
b t n a
bjhfbrJ,
ait nghw
iu btna
r brwd.
3.4 f f kly
f f

Vuskhd
cl
cSUf
mtUila bgaiu jh wd.
Rnwhl, z XlnjhL bjhlila
kha
Jff,
wnjh
RfhzgL kh mLF,
f fhzgL kha FHf
Mait
jF
cjhuzfshF.
f
kh
FHf
ieu# mla f bghUfshd
my kW iu kyUJ
btnaWwd
vgij
kh
flUjh.

tsij khwnghJ clhF

fbghUfis
F
f.
btnawgL
fbghUfis
moilahf bfhL cdfis
_W fshf fyh.
1. mndhbl[
mf msyhd oah f
(K f) jtis jiyuil
45

myF-3

ca
kW th f ieu# mla
f bghUfis mnkhahthf
bt jSwd.

md
Ru

f
bkLyh
bg
w

2. nahbl[
tsij
khw
ffis
ahthf
btjStJ.
(v.fh)
ghof, Kj - y thf,
flf kW e Mikf

jk

3. nfhbl[

Wwt

iu

tsij khw ffis

mykhf btjStJ. (v.fh) Ctd
kW gwitf.
f fF cj cWf
f f cWfshF.
yFf

f f cWf

1. mgh
2. kG
3. ehlhG
4. f
5. ghof

RUF EFf
be~oahf
Rl brf
kha FHf
Wuff

W ig

f f bjhF
ignahL izwd. Wufig
jfhfkhf
Wiu
nrJ
itwd. Wuf wt tahf
W btjsgLwJ.
beuh
Wuf VwFiwa xU a
Ea be~uhf mikJsd.
j
be~uhf
Wuf
mogil, bra myF MF.

kj f f bjhF Xiz
WufK, Xiz Wuf FHY, xU
W ig, W wt mlF.
Wuff
Wuf xU Kakhd f f
cWghF. it izahf mikj
mlj t w bfhl, mtiu
ij tot cW. it KJbfY
U gfY mikJ csd.
tsjt Wuf 12 br sK, 6
br mfyK 3 br gUkD bfhlJ.
Wuf
btgF
FJ,
cgF FJ fhzgLwJ. Fj
cgF KJbfY bjhliu neh
UF. brj Ruahd fu
tyJ Wuf nkny fhzgLtjh,
tyJ Wuf rW jhJ fhzgL.
Wuf nf vw iHfsh Md
rdh _lgLsJ.
Wuf
FHf
Wuffis
Wuf
46

kj cl fhzgL wff
cWfS, m btahF f
bghUfS
1. Eiupu
ujUJ fakyth ( CO2 )
kW iu btnaWwJ.
2. njh
aitia
btnaWwJ.
ait ah, my kW
yho my csJ.
3. fu
nkhFnsh ijfgLnghJ
clhF j wfis fu
btnaWwd. fu M
RH _ykhf ahit cg
brwd.
Wuf g
1. uj tsij khw nghJ
clhfToa ieu# mla

kj cl cW klyf mik braghLfS

TLbghUis ahthf bt
jSwJ.

2. jajh
btnawgL
uj 1/5 gF xbthU
lK Wufij milwJ.
mjhtJ 1.250 l ujij
Wuf bgWwJ.

2. cl kW vynuhiyL
fis rkiygLj cjwJ.
3. my

fhu
xGFgLJwJ.

rkiyia

4. ujY,
RfY
clhF CL fy mGjij
rkiygLj cjwJ.
5. shkh ut Ka gF
bghUshd FSnfh, kW
mndh
myfis
L
shkh W bfhs
cjwJ.

3. 5 Rnwhl bjhF
Rnwhl bjhF vgJ ja,
ujFHhf kW uj Mait
mla xU w tif bjhF.
ja RU tdh, uj cl
KGtJ R tUwJ. Rnwhl
bjhF U tifgL.
Rnwhl bjhF

wjtif Rnwhl
_oatif Rnwhl
1) wjtif Rnwhl bjhF

bg
bkLyh

Wuf btL njhw

nkY mJ bfhnth
 uj mGjij mogilahf

bfhL
Wuf
ntiy
brwJ.
1. xbthU
WufY
VwFiwa
xU
a
be~uhf fhzgLwd.
mt 4,50,000 be~uhf
g iy Ujh
kLnk c thH Ko.

jtif Rnwhl bjhF

jadh
mGjgl
uj
J uj FHhFS d
clFFS
mDggLwJ.
F jJf ilahJ. bgUghyhd
fQfhf tif Rnwhl
fhzgLwJ. clFF uj
XLtdh mj clF uj
clF vW miHfgLwJ. uj
mGj tif Rnwhl f
Fiw (c) fugh Rnwhl
bjhF.
2) _oa tif Rnwhl bjhF
tifahd Rnwhl bjhF,
uj ja RU,
jikah uj FHhF XL.
mjdh uj FHhF uj
mGj mfF. (c) kj
Rnwhl bjhF :
47

myF-3

ca
yFfS mt jafS
t.v

yFfS

ja miwf viff

1.

kG

8 iz gfthL jaf

2.

fugh

13 miwfis bfhl ja

3.

2 miwfis bfhl ja

4.

, y thtd

3 miwfis bfhl ja

5.

Ctd

3 miwfis bfhl ja
( bto miuFiwahf fgL
UF)

6.

gwgd

4 miwf bfhl ja

7.

ghof

4 miwf bfhl ja

nkY mJ bfhnth
Kjiyf
Ctd
tFig
rhjitfshf
UjhY,
mitfSF kL 4 miwfis
bfhl ja fhzgLwJ.

kfhjk
Eiupu
jk

nkbgUiu

ja
kj ja, clw, ehF
miwfnshL Toa jirah Md
cW.
J T totkhdJ.
jaij R uil Rtdh
Md ciw csJ. mjF bgfhoa
vW bga.
bgfhoa rF
ilgl gF bgfhoa utjh
uggL UwJ. J jaij
mUJ ghJfhwJ. Uja
kh miwF, uL EiupuYF
ilYs oahod vw gF
itfgL UwJ.
ja btL njhw
ja
Va
vW
miHfgL bka Rtiu cila
uL nk miwfS, bto
vW miHfgL joj Rtiu cila
48

bgU
iu

LA

RA

Eiupu
iu
<j
th

LV
RV
_j th

uL miwfS csd. ja
vnah btoFyh ilRt vw
thl Rtdh tyJ gF, lJ
gF vd fgLwJ.

nkY mJ bfhnth
y y Uja Rt
y 12 l ujij
RHy itF gy thjJ.

kj cl cW klyf mik braghLfS

janjhL bjhlila uj FHhf
1. tyJ va :m) nkbgUiu

iuf

M) bgUiu
) bfhnuhd iu
2. tyJ bto :m) Eiupu jk
uj)

ujij vLJ brY. Mdh

Eiupu jk kL ct mw
ujij vLJ brwJ.

(ct mw

bghJthf iuf ct mw
ujij vLJbrY.
Mdh
Eiupu iu kL ct iwj
ujij vLJ brwJ.
jJ FHhf

3. lJ va :- 4 Eiupu iuf
(ct cs uj)
4. lJ bto :- kfh jk.
ja fhzgL thf
1. _
 j th :- tyJ VaF,
tyJ btoSF il
fhzgLwJ.

brfSF
ilna
gu
fhzgL f Ea FHhf
jJf. Rnwhl bjhF fj
Toa vyh ntiyfS jJf
kLnk eilbgWtjh kw uj
FHhfshd jk, iuia l it
f KaJt bgWwJ.

nkY mJ bfhnth

2. <j th :- lJ VaF,
lJ btoSF (u
th)
il fhzgL.

72 x 60 x 24 x 365 x 80 vgJ
80 ML fhy thH Toa
kj ja Jo vif.

3. miuru th :- Eiupu
jk wgL lY, kfhjk
wgL lY fhzgLwJ.

kj uj

jkf

kjuj

jaUJ wgL uj
FHhfSF jkf vW bga.
bghJthf jkf ct iwj

m. shkh vw utgF
M. uj brf vw lgF
fhzgLwJ.
iu

jk

jJ gLif

49

myF-3

ca
jkF, iuF cs ntWghLf
t.v

jkf

iuf

1.

jaUJ ujij cl
cWfSF bfhL brwJ.

cl cWUJ ujij
jaF bfhL tUwJ.

2.

Eiupu jkia ju
vyh jkfY ct
iwj uj fhzgLwJ.

Eiupu iuia ju
vyh iufY ct
mw uj fhzgLwJ.

jDila Rt fodkhdjhf
r bfhljhf
fhzgLwJ.

jDila Rt bkajhf,
rawjhf
fhzgLwJ.

cl MH fhzgLwJ

cl nkgF
fhzgLwJ.

thf fhzgLtiy

thf fhzgLwd.

3.

4.
5.
shkh

shkh vgJ uj brYF

btna fhzgL utkhF. J 55%
uj fhzgLwJ.
shkh
fhujik bfhl bt kr w
utkhF. nkY, shkh ujf,
behf, Ahnkhf, ff kW
jkf fhzgLwd.
uj brf
uj 45% uj brf
fhzgLwd.
uj brf 3
tifgL.

cfU mwJ. it A]nkhFnsh

vw Rthr wia bgW Ugdh
t wKilajhf fhawJ.
j
A]nkhFnsh
th
gkhwF (ct kW faky
thit) flJtjF cjwJ. xU
fd l uj 5 a
uj tgQf fhzgLwJ.
j thfhy 120 ehf. itf
vYf t k{i# cg
bragLwd. it fuY,
kuY mfgLwd.

m. vnuhirLf
(tgQf) RBC
M. YnfhirLf
( btisaQf ) WBC
. uhnghirLf
( uj jLf )
m. vnuhirLf:- ( tgQf )
itf t wKila UwK
Fahd jLfshF. kj tgQ
50

uj tgQf
(RBC)

kj cl cW klyf mik braghLfS

M. YnfhirLf
(btisaQf ) WBC
btisaQf wkw, xGfw
tot bfhl kW cfU cs
brf.
tgQit izJ
ghFnghJ it vif
Fiwjit. Mdh ms bgait.
xU fd l uj Rkh 8000
btisaQf
fhzgLwd.
btisaQf 5 tifgL. mit :
nkhndhirLf, ~nghirLf,
nuh~f, <ndh~f kW
ngn[h~f.
btisaQf
thfhy 4 thuf.
itf
vYf kr k{i#Y, z
KoRfY cg bragLwd.
btisaQf neh Ufl
nghuho
cliy
nehUJ
ghJfhwd.

uhngh irLf
uj jLf
uj gf
1. brj czit cl vyh
gFfSF bfhL brwJ.
2. tsij
khwnghJ
clhF
f
bghUfis
f f cWfSF bfhL
brwJ.
3. ehsyh
Ruf
Ru
bghUfis
cl
vyh
gFfSF bfhL brwJ.

1. nuh~, 2. nkhndhir, 3. <ndh,

4.ngn[h, 5. nghir

4. cl
btgiyia
itJ bfhwJ.

uj btisaQf (WBC)

uhf

5. cl Rfis <ukhf itJ

bfhwJ.

. uhnghirLf ( uj jLf )
uhnghirLf
uj
jJ fhzgL. a cfU mw
brfshF. it 1 fd l
uj 2,00,000 Kj 4,00,000 tiu
vif
fhzgLwd.
cl fha VgLnghJ uh
nghirLf
ijtilJ
uh
nghsho vw behia RuJ
uj ciwjYF cjwJ.

3. 6 Rthr kly
Rthj
gy mff bghUf cl
ijtilJ
r
btlgL
fF Rthj vW bghU.
C6H12O6 + 6O2

6CO2 + 6H2O +
r 2900 .#&.

FSnfh + ct

bra 3.4

fakyth +

cgnahfgL
ct
msit bghWJ Rthj uL
tifgL.

xU J ujij Enzh
itJ ghf.
m
cs
tgQit,
btisaQit TJ ghJ
fLof

1. t Rthr ( fhW Rthr )

2. taw Rthr (fhww Rthr)
51

myF-3

ca
t Rthr
mf ms ria bfhLfToa
j Rthr KGikahd ct
iwj Niy fwJ. J
catif nkghL milj yFf
fwJ.
taw Rthr
j
Rthr
ct
mw
Niy fwJ. vdnt f
Fiwj ms rna btlgLwJ.
v.fh.ghOah.
_RLj
_RLj vgJ RthjUJ
ntWgl f. J Rthj Kj
gFahF. th kly ctia
c GJ fakythit btL
fF _R Lj vW bga.

bra 3.5

_R Lj................
xU lF f vjid
jlit _R Lf vgij
fzLf.
m. XUF nghJ vjid
Kiw ?
M. xU gofo
vjid Kiw ?

Va

wF

. cfSila
Kofis
eg KonthL xL
ghUf.
gfnghJ _RLj
vif foghf mfF.
Vbd gnghJ mfkhd
r njitgLwJ.
mjdh
ct njit mfgLwJ

yFfS mt fhzgL Rthr KiwfS

t.v

yFf

Rthr Kiwf

1.

mgh

va gut Kiw

2.

fugh

ounahf _ykhf

3.

fl btbs

Rthr ku (kyFl mU)

4.

br _ykhf

jtis

m) njh Rthr
M) thF Rthr
) Eiupu Rthr

5.

3.6.1. kj Rthr kly

Rthr kly bt eh Jthu MuJ ehF, bjhil, Futis,
_R FH, _Ris FH, kW Eiupu KowJ.
ehF btw _ ehJthu wwJ. _F bt
bjaToa X mik. ehghij btw w ehJthuY cw
bjhilY wwJ.
_RFH (fhWFHh) C tot FWbjYgh MdJ. mjDila cgF
nfhiHglyjh MdJ. nkY ahl Toa vy RfS cgF
fhzgLwJ.
52

kj cl cW klyf mik braghLfS

eh F

bkikahd mz

fhW

ehF
Futis_o

iAahL vY
ijuhL
FUbjY
fhL
FUbjY

_UJ _R FHYF fhW brY t

nkY mJ bfhnth
bjhil
gF
fhzgL FWbjY tisaF
fdh vW bga. RthjnghJ
ntW
VjhtJ
btbghUf
fdhit bjhLnkahdh gykhd
Uk tU.
Rthr gu
Eiupu fhzgL bkhj fhW
wiw btgu (Rthrgu)
80 Kj 100 rJu l.
mjhtJ
VwFiwa xU bl isahL
ikjhdF izahF.
Eiupu
kj Kakhd Rthr cW
Xiz EiupufshF. it T
_R FH
_R is
FH

fhW
wiw

Eiupu mik

totkhdit.
khgf ToD
itfgL csJ.
Eiupu
mogF cjujhdnjhL xo
fhzgLwJ. tyJ Eiupu _W
koid, lJ Eiupu uL
koid bfhL csJ.
Eiupuf uil Rtuh Md
ciwah NHgLsJ. mj ciwF
Suh vW bga. uL ciwF
il cs gF Su miw
vdgL. mj miw Su utjh
uggL csJ.
_RFH EiupuYF brw
uL _R isFHyhf wJ.
mit gy jlit sgL _R
is W FHyhf wJ. _R is
W FHf sgL fhWwiw
ehs Kotil.
j fhW
wiw
ehs
Ko
fhW
wiwf (alveoli) fhzgLwd.
Fjh th gkhw fwJ.
th gkhw va gut Kiw
fwJ. kj Eiupu VwjhH
300 aDF nk fhW wiwf
fhzgLwd.
Eiupuf xU
lF 12 Kj 15 jlit RU
wd.
53

myF-3

ca
Eiupu
jk

_R is
W FH

jir
bkikjir

Eiupu iu

fhW wiu ehs

jJf

fhW wiu

fhW wiu mj jJ tiyfS

Eiupu gf
1. uj cs fay thit J btna mDwJ.
2. nkY uj cs ntlhj iu Mah btna mDwJ.

nkY mJ bfhnth
ifdh ghfgL kjfis cW ftf. if mf
ms fhg nkhdhi[L csJ. mJ xU eRjik bfhl th. J
nkhFnshndhL cldoahf iztdh _R zw VgL w
VgLwJ.

54

kj cl cW klyf mik braghLfS

kL
1. fl izfis J Lgl thijfis fLo
m) ja,

bgfhoa,

Eiupu, __________ .

M) th,

c,

fu, __________ .

) njh, nehf clYF brtij jLF, btisaQf, _______.

2.nH bfhLfgLs thrffis J Lgl jir bgaiu vGJ.
cRthr

: nfnd kW btyh vY il jir

btRthr

: (1) __________, (2) __________

3. j cf

(1) __________

(2) __________

j wf

(3) __________

(4) __________

4. bu, yhnlh, iyng Mati behf.

FSnfhfh, R Mait __________
5. ekJ cl,
m) x, y kW z vgitf vd?
M) x- KaJtij vGJ.
) Y kW Z Ruf ahit?
<) mj Rufdh clYF VgL eik ahit?
6. fl yFfis mt af cWfnahL bghUJf.
t. v.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

yFf
mgh
ghua
kG
kG
eru

m)
M)
)
<)
c)

af cWf
shb#yh
nghfff
FHhfhf
ah
clylhf

7. tha (A) njhYF mo fhzgL bkyndhir vw wfsh kj

njh w khfgLwJ.`
 huz (B) kj njh wij braif mHF rhjd bghUfsh
f
khwKoahJ.
ilf
a) tha

A r fhuz B jtW

b) tha

A jtW fhuz B r

c) fhuz

A-ia sFwJ

d) fhuz

A-ia sfiy

55

myF-3

ca

8. nH bfhLfgLs mltiz rahf bghUjhjij fLo.

cWfS

behfS

1. c Ru

ilad

2. iuig

bg

3. fiza

Rnuh

4. d

khnl

9. J kj ja btL njhw.

1. gl fhzgL X-, Y- vdbtW TW.

2. mitf Ulij sF.

3. mitf gfis vGJ.

10. gl tiuJ ghffis F

m) 1 Kj 7 yh vYf bga vd? fhuz TW.
M) 8, 9, 10 yh vYf bgabud? fhuz TW.
) 11 kW 12tJ yh vY KaJt vd?
<) kh ToD fhzgL U cWfis TW.
11. mU fhzgL gl yFfis (B)
mitf btnaW ff (A)ia
rahf bghUJf.

nkY ma
jf
Manual of Zoology Vol.II - C
 hordata - M.Ekambaranatha Ayyar and
T.N.Ananthakrishnan,
S.Viswanathan
Printers and Publishers.
izajs
http://www.enchantedlearning.com
56

myF

jhtuf mik
braghLfS

myF-4

ca
4.1. jhtu brf

brf cdf mik kW bragL myFfshf fwd. it

cdf flik myFfshf csd. Enzh fLofgl
dnu cUst brfis fhz KojJ. br mik kW
brafis g m ma xU nt bra myJ brca
vdgL.
vyh cdfS xW myJ mjF nkgl brfsh Mdit. xnu xU
briy kL bfhoUF cdf xU br cdf vdgL. (v.fh)
shnlhnkhdh. gy brfsh Md cdf gy br cdf vdgL.
(v.fh.) bgUghyhd jhtuf kW yFf.
bra 4.1
btfha
xU W JL gFia bto, mj
njhiy bjLf. fzho eGt x J xU J
btfhanjhiy itf. xU J bk yij
btfhanjh nk nrf. mfkhd rhaij F
bghUL, ij fGt. xU J rid itJ,
_Liy bfhL _l. ij Enzh cW nehf.
btfhanjhYF xU tughf mikJs shkh rid NJ
fhzgLw kbwhU ciw brRt MF. ika cs mlahd tl
totgF cfU (a) vdgL. cfUF brrF ilgl
bghU irnlhshr MF.

jhtu br mik
brRt
brr
nfhif cW

iunghnrh
tHtHghd
vnlhshr tiy

gRff

nahy

thFnth

a (cfU)
brhubrhughd
vnlhshr tiy

iknlhfhah

miknyhsh

irnlhshr
jhtubr E mik (nfnaho br)
58

jhtuf mik braghLfS

jhtubr nfhs myJ brtf
myJ mWnfhz tot bfhlJ.
J
brRt
kW
nuhnlh
shil bfhLsJ. yF
brf brRt fhzgLtiy.
nuhnlh sh vgJ br
cs bkhj nuhnlhshrij
FwJ. J shkh r, cfU,
irnlhshr kW thFnth vd
ntWgLjgLsJ.
vnlhshr
tiyd,
iknlhfhah,
gRff, nfhif cWf, iungh
nrhf nghw gy br EQWf
irnlhshr bghJsd.

4.2. jhtuRf

ntWghL milj xU jbr

UJ njhait MF.
xU br cdf midJ
clbrafS
xU bryhnyna
bragLwd.
Mdh
gybr
cdf btntW
ntiyf
btntW bjhFfsh Md brfsh
bragLwd.
bghJthd njhw kW braf
Mat xJ fhzgLw
brfsh Md xU bjhF R MF.
gy Rf xW nrJ R bjhF,
RbjhFf nrJ cWfS
gy
cWf
nrJ
cdK
njhWwJ.
brf

jhtuf kW yFf cl
gy tifahd brfsh MdJ. j
brf, L L gFgilJ,

Rf

RbjhFf
cWf

cdf

jhtuR

MFR

iyj R

(Kailahj, gFgila
Toa brf )

E
MFR

(K milj, gFgila
ayhj brf)

gf
MFR

vaR

TL R
(flJj)

(ghJfh kW
jhFj)

il
MF R

ghuifkh

iry

nfhyifkh

59

uifkh

~nsha

myF-4

ca
4.3. jhtu braf (jhtuf
braghLf)
jhtuf ijfUJ KisJ,
tsJ, K milJ, dbgUf
brJ d kowd. jhtu braa
vgJ jhtuf vthW tha
braf eilbgWwd vgij
tF xU MF.
jhtuf vyh tha bra
fSF f
aikahj
xwhF. xU midJ fiu
ghdhF. xnrif, Rthj,
uhnghF, ntUJ iyfSF
flJj Kjat Ka gF
twJ. k cs jhtu
f eilbgW aghd gfSF
aikahjJ
MF.
k
fk cfis fiuj iy
bfhLsJ.
jhtuf kUJ iu
fk
cfis
ntf
_y cRwd. j fF
cRj vW bga.
jhtuf

crgLj
_W irf _y eilbgWwJ.
mitahtd.
(i) cj (ii) guj kW
(iii) rL gut
K gF

nt gF

bra 4.2
bfhSjgl xU CJgia
miw xU _iy itf.
CJg eWkz miw KKtJ
guwJ. F eWkz
br
mfkhd
lUJ
br
Fiwthd
lF,
rrkkhf
mil tiu guwJ.
cghf vW miHfgL.
v.fh. kufil, ijf Kjad.
jhtu
brf,
brRt
cghdhf csJ. J iu
cJ bfhL, guj kW
rLgut thyhf iu brYF
bfhL bry, xU brY tahf
bragLwJ.
ij
Kisj
cj
Ka gFtwJ. KisF
ijf
ijiwf
iu
cJbfhL
cwd.
jdh ijiw sW, KisntU
KisFUJ bttUwd.

(ii) guj
fiuj iy cs _yTWf
br mfkhd lUJ br
Fiwthd lF, rkiy VgL
tiu ilF lf vyh gu.
M#,
fayth
nghw
thf kW
fk cf
nghw ClbghUf, guj _y
brYF cns myJ brfSF
ilna guwd.

(iii) rLgut
fiugh
_yTWf
(
_yTWf) mj br mfkhd
lUJ br Fiwj lF
xU miuflJ r ( nj flJ
r) _y fljgLtJ rLgut
vdgL.

gF
MFRgF
nt gFf

(i ) cj
fiuahj y bghUf iu
myJ w fiughfis cbsLJ
bfhL cw f cj
vdgL.
jifa
bghUf
60

rLgutiy sF nrhjid
xU
cUisHif
vLJ
bfhL, mj njhiy f ntL.
j mogFia bto jilahf

jhtuf mik braghLfS

F^

rfiu
fiur

cFt uL
cslsd.

aFKiwf

(1) cgw cRj

rhanka
cUis
HF

cUisHF Mkhnfh nrhjid

ntL.
cUis
H
ikagF xU clw Fia
VgL mij rfiu fiuryh
ug ntL. rfiu fiur
Mug iyia xU F^ah Ff
ntL. ij rhanka bfhl
Kfit itf ntL.
J neuF wF cUis
H F cs rfiu
fiur w milJ mj klK
caUgij fhzyh. J vthW
fjJ? cUisH cUs
brf _y Kfit cs
rfiu fiur cs FF
brtnj jF fhuz MF. F
cUis H cUs brf
miu flJ rthf bragLwd.

(2) c cRj

cgw cRj
tsij khw Mw cj
yhk guj _y fk maf
crgL
f
cgw
cRj vdgL.

c cRj
tsijkhw Mw cjnahL
eilbgW fk maf cRj
f c cRj vdgL.

rhnww

kW
fk
cf
ntf cs ntf _y
crgLwJ. ntf _y
crgl uhdJ iryFHhfis
milJ
mUJ
iyfis
milwJ. j tifahd kW
fk cf fljgL f
rhnww vdgL.

rhnwwid
sFj.

nrhjid

_y

xU KG fhJig broia (ghr

jhtu) mj ntf nrjkilahk

bra 4.3
1. y uhir gHfis vLJ,
mtiw
br
mfkhd
rfiu fiur bfhl jo
itf.

jhtu

jif

2. y cyj uhirfis vLJ,

mtiw _f itf.
uL ffY eilbgW
khwfis ftf.

rh
nah
fiur

c cRj kW cgw
cRj.
ntfSF

rhnww nrhjid

k
61

myF-4

ca
vLJ bfhs ntL. ntf
cs
kJffis
Ftjfhf
ntfis fGtntL. nah
fiur myJ tik bfhl
rhD
bro
ntgFia
brUf ntL. j mikid
vjj ilW mgona J
neu itfntL.
J neuF, jL kW
iyf euf
t w
nfhLf fhzgLwd.
jo
FWF btL njhwid vLJ,
Enzh itJ ghjh
iry FHhf kL wnkUgJ
bjwJ. J, rhnww iryFHhf
tahfjh eilbgWwJ vgij
fhLwJ.

jo xU jilahd gfthL
ts iy MF. iyf
gf
m) x nrif - x Mw, CO2
kW tiw gagL
fhnghiAnu jahj.
M) Rthj
M#id
cbsLJ bfhL fay
thit (CO2) btLj.

cUthj
bghUshF.

vgJ

gRjhtuf
jahwd?

neilahd

vthW

cz

xnrif f jhtu
gRikahd iyf eilbgWwJ.
gR iyf gira kW Na x
t Kiy
fayth
kW Matiw izJ cz
jahwd.
tklyUJ
fayth
iy cs
WJisf _y
iyfSF EiHwd. Jisf
iyJisf vW miHfgL.
kUJ vLJbfhsgLwJ.
j ntf kW jL _y
iyfSF
fljgLwJ.
iyf
cs
gira
(Fnshnuh~) vW miHfgL
gR w xMwiy <wJ.
cz jahgjfhd ntidfis
fj njitahd Mwiy Nax
bfhLwJ.
gRjhtuf
NaxMw
cjl fayth kW iu

cz nkny brYj

) uhnghF mfgoahd
iu uhahf btnaWj.
<) cz nrj - y jhtuf
iyf nr cWfshf
bragLwd.
c) cly d bgUf - bkhLf
a jhtukhf cUthj.

4.3.1. xnrif
gRjhtuf midJ jrh
Cl cilait. it jfSF
ntoa czit xnrif _y
jhfns
jahJbfhwd.
xnrif
(Photosynthesis

Photo=x, synthesis = cUthFj)

vw brhYF x cjah
62

jL

Na
fay th
kW

ct

FSnfh
(cz)

jur

(nrfgl cz)

cz nH
brYj

jiH iy

nt

xnrif ffhd kh gl

jhtuf mik braghLfS

gagL gira JizbfhL
fhnghiAnuil jahF f
xnrif vW miHfgLwJ.
xnrifnghJ
ct
(M#) btlgLwJ.
xnrif
xLbkhj rkghL

xU jhtuUJ
iy
xiw gf. mjid 5 l
bfh _f bra. d
90% MfAh _f brJ
mjid
wHf
bra.
d ij fG y Jf
mnahoid
nrf.
VnjD
khw fwjh vd ghf. V
wkhwkilwJ?

Na x

6CO2 + 6H2O

bra 4.4

gira

xnrifF
bghUf

C6H12O6 (FSnfh) + 6O2

njitgL

1. x Mw, 2. gira, 3. fay

th, 4. .

xnrif eilbgW l
iyf
fhzgL
gRfff, Ka xnrif
EQWf MF. gRfff
cz jahf njitahd gira
wfis bfhLsd.

xnrifnghJ
M#
btlgLwJ vgij %F
nrhjid. (M FH kW d
M)
M#
thFf

nrhjid
FHh

xnrif bra Eg.

xnrif
f
uL
iyf eilbgWwJ. mitahtd

f
iAyh
isf

i) xid ii) Uid

xid
wf,
Na
x
Mw,

Matiw
<LgL
ATP
(mondh oiu ghng)
kW
NADPH2 ( nfhodikL moid
ilnahilL ghng xLf
Matiw cUthF
miljJ )
id xid vdgL.

U id
xid clhd ATP kW
NADPH2 Mat cjah fay
ththdJ (CO2) fhnghiAnulhf
xLf mil id Uid
vdgL. j id eilbgWtjF
x
njitiy.
vdnt,
J
Uid vW miHfgLwJ.

MFH kW d M
xU
f
cs

iAyh
jhtu
y
isfis
vLJbfhL
mj
J fzhodh Md diy
btlgl
iAyh
gF
d jL gF UFkhW
jiyHh fJ itf ntL.
d jLgF klF
Uf ntL. d joJ
uggl xU MFHhia
jiyHhf fJ itfntL.
fay th njitfhf xU
oif
nrhoa-ig-fhgndil
nrf ntL.
63

myF-4

ca
tikig Na x 4-UJ
6 k neu tiu itf ntL.
nghJ d cs iAyh
jhtu btlgl KidfUJ
th Ff bt tUtij
fhzyh. th Ff M
FHh cs iu Kf lbga
brJ nrfukhwJ. th M#
jhdh vd nrhfgl ntL. v
Fia M FHh thgF
mUnf bfhL brYnghJ, mJ
nkY ufhrkhf vwJ. j

_y j th M# jh
vgJ %fgLwJ. j M
xnrifnghJ
M#
btlgLtij %wJ.

xnrifia ghF
fhuf
xnrifahdJ gy fhufsh
ghfgLwJ. mitahtd Nax,
btgiy, fay th, gira
gus j, , fk cf kW
iy taJ.

4.3.2. uh nghF
fh brf

iyJis

gRff

(m)

(m) wj kW (M) _oa iy Jis

jhtuf yUJ mf ms
iu ntf _y cRwd.
js iu kLnk jfsJ
njitfhf gagLbfhwd.
va bgUgF uhdJ uhahf
jhtufsh HfgLwJ. thW
uhdJ jiuF nk fhzgL jhtu
gFfshd iyf kW gRikahd
jL _y HfgL f uh
nghF vdgL.

uh ngh tiff
uh nghF _W tifgL.
mitahtd
i) iyJis uhnghF
ii) o uhnghF
iii) gilJis uhnghF
64

(M)

bra 4.5
xU
bjho
jhtu
iyf
mogF
efir (s t w)
jlt. y l fJ, jltgl
efir bkJthf cbjLf.
thW cj xU efR
njhiy fzho eGt x
xUJ itf. njhiy
_Liyah _o, Enzh
cW nehf.
Enzh _y iyf
w cs brf kW
iyJisf
jlafis
fhzyh.

jhtuf mik braghLfS

iyJis uhnghF
iyf
kW
jLf
wnjh fhzgL a Jisf
iyJisf MF. it uL
Wuf
tot
fh
brfsh
NHgLsd. xbthU fhbrY
S
jik
bfhl
bka
btRtiu xU joj cRtiu
bfhLsJ. fh brf iwghf
cs iy (fh brf KGtJ
u Uj) btw Rtf c,
cw Rtfis Fa brtj
fhuzkhf iyJis wwJ. J
gf neu eilbgWwJ. u
fh brf cs Rs
brfSF brtjh fh brf
js milwd. jdh Fj
cRtf neuhtjh iyJis
_obfhwJ. iyJisf _y
eilbgW uhnghF iyJis
uhnghF vd miHfgLwJ.
uh ngh nghJ bgUks uhdJ
iyJisf _y HfgLwJ.

bra 4.6
js bfhJk
iyfis
vLJ,
mtiw
xU
gh
ig
L, y k neu
itUf. vd
fwJ
vgij
ftf.
o
_y
eilbgWwJ.
jifa uhnghF o
uhnghF vdgL.

gilJis uhnghF
gilJisf vgit bga
kutif
jhtuf
gilf
fhzgL a Jisf MF.
fFiwj ms uh nghF
kLnk
gilJisf
tahf
eilbgWwJ. jifa uh nghF
gilJis uhnghF vdgL.

o uhnghF

iyf _y uh nghF
eilbgWwJ vgij sF
nrhjid(k #ho nrhjid)

iy wnjh J fhzgL
bkGFR o MF. f
Fiwj ms uhnghF kLnk

xnu
ms
cauKila
kW
mfw
iyfisila
uL
bjho jhtufis vLJbfhs
k#ho

Jf

bjho

k#ho nrhjid
65

myF-4

ca
ntL.
bjho
cs
k
btna bjahjthW bjhofis
ug
jfodh
_lntL.
xU bjho jhtu iyfis
KGtJkhf L, fgl
gFf thriy jlt ntL.
uL bjho jhtufis eF
cyj k #hofdh _l ntL.
tikid y k neu mgona
itfntL.
vd
fwJ
vgij ftfntL.
iyf cs bjho jhtuij
_os
k#ho
Jf
Ugij, kbwhU k#ho
Jf
yhUgij
fhzyh. k#hoD Jf
UgJ, iyf _y uhnghF
eilbgWwJ vgij fhLwJ.

uh nghid ghF
fhuf
x,
btgiy,
fhW,
k fhzgL ms,
iyJisf vif kW
iygu Kjad uh nghid
ghF fhuf MF.

4.3.3. Rthj
vyh cdfS gy jkhd
ntiyfis nkbfhwd. jF
Mw njitgLwJ.
Rthj
fahdJ
czUJ Mw btlgL
fl
beUa
bjhl
bfhLsJ. c braghLfSF

njitgL midJ MwY cz

bghUf M#ndw miltj
_y ilwJ.
br
eilbgW
gntW
brafSF njitahd Mwiy
juToa
ca
M#ndw
f
eilbgW
lkhf
iknlhfhahf csd. cz
(fhnghiAnu) ijtilJ, gntW
braghLfSF njitahd Mwiy
btL f M#ndw
vdgL.
J
bghJthf
ca
M#ndw
myJ
Rthj
vdgL.
cz
M#ndw
kW
ijkhw milJ Mw btgL
cntidf
Rthj
vd
tiuaWfgLwJ.
RthjnghJ
btlgL
Mw
ATP
(mondh
iu
ghng) to nrJ itfgL,
njitgLnghJ br gntW
brafSF gagLjgLwJ.
ATP
mf
ms
Mwiy
bfhLsJ. vdnt ATP br
Mw ehza vd miHfgLwJ.

Rthj tiff
M# cs kW M#
yhj NH cz M#ndw
milwJ.
j
mogil
Rthj U tifgL.
(i) fhW Rthr
(ii) fhyh Rthr

fhW Rthr
jifa Rthr bghJthf vyh jhtufY eilbgWwJ.
M# Kiy FSnfh KGikahf M#ndw milJ CO2,
kW Mwiy btLwJ.
C6H12O6 + 6O2

6CO2 + 6H2O + 2900 KJ Mw.

FSnfh fhWs M#ndw ehF goiyf eilbgWwJ.

66

jhtuf mik braghLfS

1. isfh, 2. ig% my M#ndw, 3. bu RH,
4. vyuh flJ r.

fhyh Rthr
ghOah kW < nghw cdf M# yhj NH Rthjiy
nkbfhwd. J fhyh Rthr vdgL. j tifahd Rthj
cz KGikahf M#ndw miltiy.

<

C6H12O6 (FSnfh)

2C2H5OH + 2CO2 + 50 KJ Mw.

irnk (beh)

isfh, fhW kW fhyh Rthr cdf uoY eilbgW

xU bghJthd f MF.

Rthjiy ghF fhuf

ct, btgiy, , x, CO2,
kW FSnfh Kja fhuf
Rthjiy ghF y fhuf
MF.

kW fk cf MF.
iyf
jahfgl
cz,
nt, jL Kjyhd jhtu kw
gFfSF fljgLtJ flJ
bjhF kbwhU ntiyahF.

4.3.4. flJj

nkY mJ bfhnth

flJj vwh vd?

cynyna f caukhd uhrr

brnfhah ku uhdJ ku
c
cs
iyfSF
brtjfhf egKoahj 84 (275
mo) uij flf ntosJ.

flJj vgJ XlUJ

kbwhU
lF
bghUfis
bfhL brtij FF.
cdf
flJj
vgJ cd xU gF
crgl myJ cUthd xU
bghU cl kw gFfSF
fljgL xU ca bra MF.
jhtufY yFfY bghUf
fljgLtjF w Rf kW
cWf njitgLwd.

jhtuf flJj
jhtu
isj
tot
fhuzkhf,
jhtu
midJ
ghffS
RthjYfhd
M#id,
xnriffhd
fay thit guj Kiw _y
t klyUJ neuoahf bgW
bfhwd.
vdnt
jhtufSF
flJ
bjhF _y mfgL bghUf

jhtuf
uL
flJ
bjhFfis bfhLsd.
1. iry
2. ~nsha
jhtu bghUf fljgLj
uL gFfshf fgLwJ.
i) jhtu kW fk cf
fljgLj.
ii)
jhtu
cz
Ahnkhf fljgLj.

kW

kW fkf fljgLj
kUJ kW fkf
jhtu ntfdh crgL,
67

myF-4

ca

nt
iunrhbl
w

bgir

~nsha
iry

mfnjh
nt brY ghij

jL,
iyf
kW
kyf
nghw jhtu kw gFfSF
fljgLwd. kW m
fiuJs fkf ntUJ kw
gFfSF Utif iry brfshd
iryFHhf kW ouLf _y
fljgLwd.
blnlh~igLfY
ndh
bgfY
ouLf
jh
iu
flJ
Rf
MF.
Mnahbgf iryFHhf
kL myJ iryFHhf kW
ouLf iu flJwd.

cz kW
fljgLj

ju

bghUf

iyfUJ jhtu kw
gFfSF cz fljgL f
lbga
vdgL.
~nsha
_y czbghUf lbga
miltJ vgJ ryil FHhf
vd miHfgL. cUs brf
braghil rhJsJ.
iyf

iyilR
68

brf cz jahfgLwJ.
iy iyilR brfdh
jahfgl cz ~nsha
ryil FHhfSF brwd.
iyf
ryilFHhfSF
cz brwJ, J jhtu
ntf kW jL nghw kw
gFfSF ryil FHhf _y
fljgLwd.
kW fiuJs fk
cf
iry
vbghGJ
nkneh
kLnk
efwd.
nkY J iyf uhnghid
nkbfhSnghJ VgL Fiwj
mGjjhY, cau cr
gLtjhY fwJ.
~nsha cz nknehnah,
nehnah myJ gfthonyh
jhtu njitfis bghWJ
fljgLwd.
rfiu fljgLj

Jiz
br

ryilFHh
br

ryil
jL

cz fljgLj

jhtuf mik braghLfS

4.4 jhtuf czl

jrh cf
midJ cdfSF, ts
kW cl cWf flikF,
fhg mla TL bghUf
bjhlJ njitgLwd. mt
mwhl braghLfis iyUf
bra Mw njitgLwJ.
fk myJ fk TLbghUf
Mfuz miltj _y j
Mw
bgwgLwJ.
cdf
Cl bghUfis jf clYF
VW bfhtJ czl vdgL.
cdfSF
njitgL
ClbghUf midJ mit
vLJbfhl
cz
_ynk
ilwd.
cz
vLJ
bfhS
Kiwf cdf ntWgLwd.
Utifahd Cl Kiwf bghJthf
csd.

1) jrh Cl Kiw
2) wrh Cl Kiw

jrh Cl Kiw
jrh Cl Kiw, cd
jdF njitahd czit jhnd
jahwJ.
jkF
njitahd
czit jhnk jahJbfhS
cdf
jrhcf
vd
miHfgLwd. it fay th
kW iu Mw cjah gy fk
bghUfshf khWwd. fay
thit fk TL bghUfshf
khWtjF
jhtuf
vthW
Mwiy
bgWwd
vgij
bghWJ it,
1) xjrh cf
2) ntjrh
cf
tifgLjgLwd.
69

vd

myF-4

ca
xjrh cf
cz
jahgjF
Na
xUJ
ilF
Mwiy
gagLJ
cf
xjrh
cf vdgL. v.fh. gR fjf
ghOah, Cjh fjf ghOah kW
midJ gRjhtuf.

czit jhnk jahf ayhj

cf wrhcf vd miHf
gLwd.

wrh Cl Kiw UtifgL

1. kF myJ rhW
tif Cl Kiw
2. xL tif Cl Kiw

ntjrh cf

kF tif Cl Kiw

fk
TLbghUfis
jahgjfhf
ntMwiy
gagLJ
cf
ntjrh
cf vdgL. va fk TL
bghUfshd
iAu#,
fjf
mla TLbghUf, iAu#
r~igL, mnkhah nghwtiw
Mfuz mila brJ Mwiy
bgWwd. v.fh. ienuhnrhnkhdh.

wj myJ cuw fk TL
bghUfUJ
czit
bgW
jhtuf
kF
jhtuf
vdgL. v.fh. f, ehFil
nghwit
(irf), ngy
ro (ghOah) kW khndhnuhgh
(Mnahbg).

xL tif Cl Kiw

bra 4.7

khndhnuhgh (ifiy fhsh)

buho JL xiw vLJ,

bjJ, <ugL xU _lgl
bgoF y ehf itUf.
vd fhf?

wrh Cl Kiw
y cdfsh jfSF
njitahd
czbghUfis
jhfns jahf Kotiy. it
jf czfhf kw cdfis
neuoahfnth
kiwKfkhfnt
rhJsd.
jkF
njitahd
70

ehFil (fhsh)
xL czl Kiw xU
cd jdF njitahd czit
kw c (X) clUJ
bgW bfhwJ.

jhtuf mik braghLfS

y jhtuf kw
cUs
jhtuf
myJ yFfUJ
czit
bgW
bfhwd. jifa
jhtuf
xL
jhtuf vW miHf
gLwd.
vj
jhtuf
myJ yFfUJ
xLf
czit
bgW
b f h wdnth
mjhtu f
myJ yFf Xf vW
miHfgLwd.
xLf
Xia JisJ, cz kW
fkfis cRtjF y wghd
mikfis
bgWsd.
j
mikfSF
Ahnlhahf
(cR cWf) vW bga.

fFlh

(mikah Tj)

TL czl Kiw
tif ClKiw uL
ntWgl
cdf
nrJ
thwd. it xwhf nrJ
thGnghJ it Cl bghUfis
gkhbfhwd. nkY uLnk
gugukhf gadilwd. jifa
czl
Kiw
TL
Cl
Kiw vW miHfgLwJ. j
cdfSF TLf vW
bga. v.fh. iyf, iknfhiurh
kW iunrha.

v.fh. rhnjhnkhdh (ghOah)

brnfhnghuh bgrndlh
(ir)
iyf

fFlh (Mnahbg)

iunrha

begj (FLit jhtu)

nkY mJ bfhnth

Fnyah

ouuh (vW )

y jhtufsh xnrif _y cz jahf KowJ. Mdh

ieu# Fiwghlh ujij cg bra Kotiy. it W fis
oJ mtiw brf brJ ieu#id bgWtj _y j Fiwghil
t brwd. jifa jhtuf cQ jhtuf vdgL.
v.fh. begj, uuh kW Fnyah.
71

myF-4

ca
4.5. jhtuf mirf

xrhgir

jhtufsh lbga mila

Kokh?

x LjYF VwthW jhtu

ghf VgL mir xrhgir
vdgL. jhtu ghf xia neh
tsjh mJ ne xrhgir vW
miHfgL. jhtu ghf xia L
y tisjh J v xrhgir
vdgL.

jhtuf xnu l mt
ntf
_y
y
C
fhzgLwd.
vdnt
twh
xU lUJ kbwhU lF
efJ bry Kotiy. efU
w tWF iy. x, ,
ntbghUf kW bjhL cz
nghw
y
wlfdh
jhtuf Fl ghff myJ
cWf mirf VgL.
wlf
VgL mirf
fgLwd.

isth
Utiffshf

1. ir rhgir
2. bjhF mir
(l mir)

ir rhgirf
wlYF Vg, xU jhtu
VgL ts myJ mir ir
rhgir vdgL. tif mir
eilbgW ir, l iria
bghWJ mik.
jhtughf
ts
myJ
mir l iria neh
Ujh mJ nerhgir vdgL.
jhtughf
ts
myJ
mir l irUJ y
Ujh mJ vrhgir vdgL.
l

rhgir tif

xrhgir

<

rhgir

nt bghU

ntrhgir

rhgir

bjhL cz

bjhL cz
rhgir

x rhgir
bra 4.8
1. x CLUtToa fzho
#ho aghd iy tsU
xU
bjho
broia
vLJ
bfhs.
mj
ntf

neh jL nk neh
Ugij fhzKowJ.
2. bjho cs jhtuij
rhJ, bjhoia ilklkhf
itf. ntf iy vd?
jo iy vd? it uL
F
izahf
csdth?
iyah?
3. nj iy broia y
ehf itUf. y ehf
fJ bro vd khw fwJ
vgij ftf.

72

jhtuf mik braghLfS

rhgir
< irF VwthW jhtu
cWf VgL mir <
rhgir myJ rhgir vd
miHfgL. < irF neuhf

kfujFH

N
v
rhgir

ne
rhgir
rhgir
jhtu cW tsjh mJ ne
rhgir
vW
miHfgL.
jhtu cW < irF vuhf
tsjh
mJ
v rhgir
vW miHfgL. ntf vnghJ
< irF neuhf, neh
tswd. jL vnghJ <
irF vuhf tswJ.
bra 4.9
1. x CLUt Toa fzho
#ho
tsU
xU
bjho
broia vLJ bfhs. mij
wj bt itf. mij
ftjh vd bjwJ?
2. jL kW ntf neuhd
iy cs kbwhU bjho
broia vLJ #d tahf
kLnk x fToa Uliw
#dYF mUnf itf. mij
ftjh vd bjwJ?

ntrhgir
ntbghUf

LjYF

nt rhgir
Vwhngh jhtu cW tisj
ntrhgir
vdgL.
nt
bghUfis neh jhtu cW
tisjh mJ ne ntrhgir vW
miHfgL. mthW yhk jhtu
cW ntbghUSF vuhf tisJ
fhzglh mJ v ntrhgir
vdgL.
xU
rfiu
bghUdh
lgL, kfujFH N gFia
neh
tsj
ntrhgirF
xU ey vLJfhL MF. ky
Niyf cs K milj
NKo xU nt bghUis (rfiu
bghU) Nigia neh NjoF
RuwJ. j rfiu bghU
Niyf NKo nk kfuj
fis Ggo LwJ. j
lYF Vwhngh fUWj
vD
fia
elJtjfhf
kfuj kfuj FHyhf neh
tsJ, Niy NjoF
brW,
ky
Nig
cs
NYF brwJ.

rhgir
LjYF Vg jhtu
cW tisj rhgir vdgL.
jhtu cW iu neh tsjh mJ
ne rhgir vdgL. mthW
yhk
jhtu
cW
iuL
73

myF-4

ca

f xU bghU J gll
bghU J gl gWf gF,
mj
virial
bkJthf
tswJ. J gWfia bghUis
neh tisa brJ, mij neh
tsJ, bghUis R mjDl
xobfhwJ. g VW jhtu
gWf
Rtisj bjhL
cz rhgirF vLJflhF.

rhgir
y tsjh mJ v rhgir
vdgL. jhtu ntf vnghJ
iu neh brwd. ntf ne
rhgir bfhlit.

bjhL cz rhgir
g
VW
jhtuf
ej
jLfis bfhLsd. vdnt
twh J f ayhJ. gW
ff vd miHfgL g VW
cWfis bfhLsd.
gWff
vgit
VW jhtuf jLf
iyfUJ tsuToa,
iHnghw
mikf
gWff
bjhLj
kw bghUf gLtjh
czfis
bgWsd.

g
myJ
bka,
MF.
myJ
VgL
gW

bjhL cz rhgir

bra 4.10
1. A kW B vw uL fzho bjhofis vLJbfhs.
xbthY _ uLghf kiz ug.
2. A bjho xU a broia el.
3. mnjkhahd a broia B bjho el. nkY xU a k
ghlij kF itf.
4. A bjho cs kF dnjhW xnu khahf mf.
5. B bjho cs k mfhk Mdh k ijfgLs
kghl iu Cw.
74

jhtuf mik braghLfS

6. uL bjhofis y ehf mgona itUf.
7. y ehfSF wF uL bjhofUJ
nrjkilahjthW brofis njho vLf.

ftdkhf,

ntf

vd bjwJ?
 jho A cs bro nt neuhf csjh myJ tisJ
b
fhzgLwjh?
B bjho cs bro nt tisJsjh? V?

bjhF mirf (irrhuh l mirf)

l irF Jyf irF bjhl yhj, lYF
Vwhngh jhtu cW tisj bjhF mir vdgL.
bjhLjYF K

bjhLjYF

iknkhrh ofh (bjhlhRU)

cjhuz

y bjhF mirf tUkhW

1. bjhlh RU (iknkhrh ofh)

jhtu iyf _obfhSj.

1. eLfKW tisj

- bjhLj

2. nllah vw kr w
kyf fhiy ufhrkhd x
jfis j kW khiy
_o bfhSj. - x
3. m kyf fhiy ufhr
x
jfis
_obfhtJ
u jY. - x.
bjhlhRU
jhtuij
bjhll iyfis _obfhtJ
ts mir my. Mdh kyf
jf wgJ _LtJ ts
mir MF.

xU bghUis bjhLtjh VgL

JyfSF Vg jhtu cW ir
rhuhk tistJ eLfKW tisj
vdgL. jF wj vLJfhL
iknkhrh
ofh
(bjhlhD
jhtu) MF. bjhL cz f
jhtu iyfis eh e
ufsh bjhlh, mt iyf
_obfhL clnd bjhLwd.

2. xW tisj
x
Jyfyh
VgL
jhtu ir rhuh tisj f
xW tisj vdgL. gf neu
iyf kW kyf jY,
u mit _obfhtJ jF
75

myF-4

ca

nllah
vLJfhLf MF.
nllah
kyf
fhiy
ufhrkhd x wd. Mdh
x
kiwjJ
khiy
it
_obfhwd.

3. btgKW tisj
btgiy Jyfyh VgL
jhtu irrhuh tisj f
btgKW tisj vdgL. Fnuhf
jhtu kyf ca btg iy
kywd. Fiwj btgiy
_obfhwd.

4.6 jhtuf czf

i) xU fy s xia
ekJ ff brYdh, eh
jirahfnt
ffis
_o
bfhnwh.
ii) vghuhj jkhf xU Nlhd
guig eh bjhLnghJ, cldoahf eh
iffis vLJbfhnwh.
kjfS,
yFfS
x,
btg
Kjyhd
lfSF
cz ftf Mjyh it
vyh eilbgWwd.
iknkhrh ofh jhtu iyfis
eh bjhll clnd iyf
_obfhwd. jhtufSF vj
eu klyK yhj iy mit
LjYF Vwhngh vid
wd. vthW?
76

iknkhrh
ofh
iyf
mijsit (gUj iyaogF).
mijf mt brf mf
ms iu bfhLsd. mt
cns cs mGj fhuzkhf
midJ
mijfS
iwghf
csd
kW
iyf
J
wd.
mijf
mt
brfSF
ilna
bga
br
ilbtfis bgWsd.
bjhLcz f jhtuij
bjhll mijf UJ
btnaWtj fhuzkhf iyf
_obfhwd. mijf mt
iw jikia HJ, iyf
bjhtilJ, Ggo brwd.
bjhL
cz
jhtuf
iyfis ufsh bjhll, xU
l VgL rhjhuz brf
_y efwJ. j l
jhtu
AhnkhJ
idwJ.
jhtu
Ahnkhf
mij
xU gh cs brfUJ
mij kbwhU gh cs
br ilbtfSF iu efu
brwJ. j H iyia _o
bfhs brwJ. thnw midJ
mijfS
iwjikia
HJ
RULwd.
Ko
nkny cs midJ iyfS
JtL, bjhLwd. 15 Kj
30 lf H elj mij
brfSF L gu, iyf
iw jikia bgW, giHa
iyia milwd.

jhtuf mik braghLfS

kL
-m
rahd ilia njbjLf
1. jhtu br ij bgWsjh yF br UJ ntWgLwJ
(brr, vnlhshr tiy, shkh r, brRt).
2. xL jhtu (fhsh, f, fFlh, <).
3. jhtu jiu nk ghff UJ HfgLtJ (xnrif, uh
nghF, dbgUf, Rthj).
4. x Jyfyh VgL jhtu ghf af ( rhgir,
rhgir, x rhgir, bjhLjYW mir).
5. br Mw ehza (FAD, NADP, NAD, ATP).

- M
6. i) kj xU jrh cah myJ wrh cah?

ii) VbdW sFf.

7. rkghil uf

6 CO2 + ____________

C6H12O6 + ____________

8. jhtuf kUJ iu fkfis ntf

cRwd. cRj gFbgW irfis FLf.

_y

-
9. m) jhtuf jf czit jhnk jahJ bfhwd.

i) jhtuf cz jahF bra Kiw bga vd?

ii) fay th kW Matiw ju cz jahf njitgL

w bghUf ahit?

M) tiuglij cW nehf.

i) ghJ gl tiuJ fl ghffis Ff.

m) iyJis

M) gRff

ii) Ffgl xbthU ghf gia FLf.

77

myF-4

ca

10) cz bghU M#ndw kW M# xLf milJ va

_yTWfshf sfgL, Mw btgL xU cnt fna
Rthj MF.

m) fhW Rthr, fhyh Rthr ntWgLJf.

M) C6H12O6

<

____________ + 2CO2 + 50 KJ Mw

irnk

) Rthjiy ghF fhufis goaLf.

11) m) uh ngh tiffis fhL tl tiuglij uf.

1. iyJis
uh nghF
2.
3.

M) u AI u Bl bghUJf.
l (A)
< ir
nt bghU
bjhL cz

mir tif (B)

nt rhgir
bjhLjYW mir
rhgir

nkY ma
jff
1. Plant Anatomy 2008 - B.P Pandey, S.Chand publishers.
2. Plant Anatomy 1990 - A.Fahn, Pergamon publishers.
3. Fundamentals of Plant Physiology 2000 - Jain V.K, S.Chand publishers.
4. Text Book of Microbiology 2009 - A
 nantha Narayanan.R & Jayaram
Paniker C.K. Orient Longman
Publishers.
izajsf
http://www.en.wikipedia.org
http://www.sciencecentral.com

78

myF 5

yFyf

myF-5

ca

VwjhH 600 a tUlfSF Kdh yFf njhd. uL

a tifahd thG cf flagLsd. tW 12,72000 tif
cf KJbfY mwit, 62,000F Fiwthd cf KJbfYsit.

tifghoa
dflj tj bgaLj kW tifgLJj Matiw
g m ca xU tifghoa vdgL. ca tifghL
cdfis d fltjF Vbfdnt tifgLjgl cdfis
bjJ bfhs cjwJ.

nkY mJ bfhnth
yFfis
mt xj
jik kW
ntWghL
Mat
mogil
Kj Kj
tifgLat
ya
jijahd
mlho
Mth.
80

nkY mJ bfhnth

fbuh nda
vD oZ
jhtua mP jfhy
tifghoa jij
vd miHfgLwh.

yFyf
tifgho iyf
mik fhzgL xj jik kW ntWgho mogil yFf W
FGkfshf fgLwd. fnuh nda cdfis cyf, bjhF,
tF, Jiw, FLg, ngd, d vdjh.
nguuR

bjhF

jiuth jhtuf
gwitf

tF

f
Ctd
ghof

Jiw

unla
Uthf
mulhf
bkYlf

FLg

fl fisf
f
unahn#h

ngd

uhnahghL

KJbfYsit

Gf

Knjhf
gRf

xU br yF

gzhk ku

tifgho mogil myFf

MurkUila
UgfUila
yFf vd _W tifahf
fgLsd
(v.fh.)
mgh,
iAuh, kG.

iy:

brf
vifia bghWJ xUbr
c vW gybr c vW
Uthf fgLsJ.

4. clF: clF a mo

2. fUiy

mLFf : gybr
cfis
njh
fhzgL
mLFf mogil <uLF
kW KtLF cf vW
tifgLjgLsd.

3. rk

jik:

mikJsj
yFfis

buhnlhig
buho

tifghoa
myFf

1. mik

Flf

gil yFfis tUkhW

fyh.
m) clFawit clFaw
yFf v.fh. ehlhG

M) ngh clFilait bgh

njhwKila
clFbfhl
yFf v.fh. cUisG

cl cWf
mogil
rkuwuit,
81

myF-5

ca
) cikahd clFilait
- cikahd clF bfhl
yFf v.fh. kG

5. cl

btgiy:

yFf
cl btgiyia xGFgLJ
w mogil mtiw uL
tifahf fyh.
m) F uj yFf t
cl
btgiy
RWw
Niynfg
Tlnth
Fiwanth bra. v.fh. ,
jtis

2. Jislf v.fh. flgR

3. Flf v.fh. iAouh
4. jilGf v.fh. ehlhG
5. cUisGf v.fh. mfh
6. tisjirGf v.fh. kG
7. fQfhf v.fh. fugh
8. bkYlf v.fh. eij
9. Knjhf v.fh. eru

bjhF - nuhnlhnrhth

njiu
M) btg uj yFf t
cl btgiy Niyf
VgL
khwfis
bghUgLjhk xnu iyahd
cl btgij bfhoUF.
v.fh. gwit, kj
yFis KJbfY mwit,
KJbfYsit vD UbgU
fshf fyh.

5.1. KJbfYgwit
KJbfYgw c tiffis 9
bjhFfshf Jsd. mit
Kiwna
1. nuhnlhnrhth v.fh. mgh
82

ghunka
bghJthf
it
Enzh
_y
fhz
aY
xU
br
yFfshF. tif yFf
lbga, bghfhf, ah,
iH(shb#y)
Mat
_y
eilbgW.
czl,
yF Kiw czl, rhW

yFyf
czl, xL czl
vd tifgLjgLsJ. nuhnlh
nrhthf U rks Kiw, gy
s Kiw ghyh dbgUfK
iz Kiw, gh dbgUfK
brwJ.

(M, bg nfnkLf izj) vd

U KiwfY eilbgWwJ.

bjhF - Flf

bra 5.1
e FsUJ kh
vLJbfhs. mjDl xU
J bkj S nrJ fzho
eGt jah bra. Enzh
_y fzho eGtD cW
neh mghit fhz Ka
bra.

bjhF- Jislf
it VjhtJ xU fodkhd ghiw
myJ eij XLf nghwt
xobfhL
efU
wdW
iyJ thG aila, fl th
yFf MF. t cl gy
brfsh MfgL cl KGtJ
Vuhskhd JisfSl fhzgLwJ.
f
brfshdJ
Rfshf khwhk jsthd iy
fhzgLwJ.
cl
fhzgL
Jisf xUfhth nghw mikghf
kh fl cl KGtJkhf Rtu
t brJ cz kW M#
njitia
iwntWwJ. it
fh myJ Rzhdhyhd
c rl xid bfhLsJ.
dbgUf ghyh dbgUf
(bkhL Lj) myJ ghd bgUf

fl mnkhf
MurkUila th yFfshd
tF FL brhYgoahd
clF myJ iuig clF
vD xUF fhzgLwJ. cl
nkgF thiaR czf
vw RU jikila f
fhzgLwd. cz f

nkY mJ bfhnth

Mnuah flFs myJ

b# (ifnuhe shf)
vD xU tif Fl, cynyna
f mf eRw bfhl
yfhF. J 60 kjfis
bfhY msF jikia
bfhLsJ.
bra 5.2
Enzh
_y
iAouh
xid cWnehf. mj th,
cz cW, mojL Matiw
cW neh bjthf tiua.

fl gRf
83

myF-5

ca
EgF nlhLf vw
bfhL
brfS
mikJsd.
bfhL brf jhFjYF,
ghJfhF cjwd. dbgU
fkhdJ ghyh dbgUf Kiw
(bkhL cg myJ s gLj)
myJ ghdbgUf
Kiw
(nfnkLf _y) eilbgWwJ.

bjhF - jilGf
it
Ugf
rkUila,
Kglyfis cila, clFaw
yFfshF.
it
shnda
nghw Rjukhd yFfis,
ehlhG nghw xLfis
cslaJ. dij rhj
xLfSF CFf kW

sndah

nkY mJ bfhnth
kGit cHt eg vW
miHfgLtJ V?
kGit cHt eg vW
TWt. Vbd k tsij
kG jdJ thif Kiw fhuzkhf
mff brwJ. kiz JisJ
bfhL kGf brYnghJ k
nkyhf, nkk Hhf fyig
bfhL yij cGtjF rkkhf
khWwJ. j _y kYs
mff bghUf kWRH bragL
k Wf FiwJ jhtuf
vjhf nt%w ttif brwJ.

wj v.fh. mfh, ahidfh

nehia clhF ignya Gf.

cUis G

ehlhG

cRf nghw cg cWf csd.

tifia
rhj
bgUghyhd
cf M, bg dbgUf
cWfis xnu cl bfhl Ugh
cfshF.

bjhF - cUisGf

bjhF -tis jir Gf

kG

t
clyhdJ
cUL,
flfsW, o vD joj
ghJfh
ciw NHgoUF.
it Ugf rkUila, _tLF,
nghclF bfhl yFfshF.
RthrklyK, uj Xl klyK
yFfSF ilahJ. M,
bg vw ntWghoid bfhL
dbgUfkhdJ cfUWj _ykhf
eilbgWwJ.
cUisGfSF
84

kG cu g cfSF
bjkh? kG cu jahj
vj
yF
Ka
gF
twJ? kGf, milf
nghw yFf
cgLjgLdd. l cUis
tot bfhl a cl
flf csd. mjhtJ t
cl flfshf fgLsJ.
lbga cW ghuhnghoa, lh

yFyf
nghwtwh
eilbgW.
t
bjthd jiyghf bttUwJ
(brghnrr). clflf xj
mikilait (bklhbkr).

Eiupu, clgu nghw cWf

_y eilbgWwJ.

nkY mJ bfhnth
Uo

e
mil
c RufUJ RufgL
Uo vD beh ghof
uj ciwjiy jilbr
wgiljJ. vdnt yFf
ghof UJ ujij
cRnghJ ujkhdJ ciwahk
bjhlJ tJ bfhnlUF.
wid kUJt Jiw uj
ciwahj FiwghLfis FtjF
gagLJwd.
kL
uj ciwjiy jF kUJ
cgF gagLJwd.

bjhF - fQfhf
bjhFfS fbgaJ vJ vW
cfSF bjkh? f

nj

nkY mJ bfhnth
fQfhf
dij
rhj

bfhf
yF
tiffnyna
f
wghd
tifahF.
Jtiu
aDF nkgl tiff
flagLsd.

bjhF -bkYlf
t
clf
UJthf
flfsW
fsW
fhzgL.
t
clyhdJ
nko vW miHfgL bka
jirah NHgLsJ. nko
Rzhyhd fodkhd Xoid
RuwJ. jirahyhd fhf _y
lbgawd. ooa vdgL
brf _y Rthr eilbgWwJ.

tzJ
wj yFf bjhF vJ vW
cfSF bjkh? cdf
fbga
bjhF
fQfhf
MF.
f fwj yF
FGk MF. tif yFf
fhf gyfQfshf fgL
ifo vw xlh Mfgl
btrlij
bfhLsJ.
t wjbt uj Xl
eilbgWwJ,
TL
ffis
bgWsd.

e kof
bra 5.3
KJbfYgwitf
kh
fis
cW
neh
bjthd
gl tiua. eRjiks
KJbfYgwitfis goal.

RthrkhdJ brf, ouah

vdgL
RthrFHf,
jf
85

myF-5

ca
bjhF-Knjhf

tif
yFf
nk
njhyhdJ Rzhdhyhd Kf
nghw mikig bfhoUF.
tif yFf fl nuhl
kly
fhzgLtJ
t
jgl gghF.
it l
L l bgaUtjF FH fhf
vD mik cjwJ.
it
ghfwid bgWsJ.

eru

ah cdf gtif jik

a bgUehL caa gtifjikia bfhL, Vuhskhd jhtu yF
tiffis jdfnj bfhLsJ. 2000F nkgl tiffS, 182
tif UthfS, 453 Ctdthf, 1200 d gwitfS, 350 tifahd
ghofis bfhLsJ. cyfsha gtifjik ah 10 tJ
lij bgWsJ FljFjJ.

5.2. KJbfYsitf
KJbfYila yFf KJF gF KJbfY, mfrlK
fhzgL. tif yFf clF, _tLFgly, KJFeh, kW
eutl Mad fhzgL.

KJbfYsitf, KJbfYgwitfUJ vthW ntWgLwd?

t. v.

KJbfYgwit

KJbfYsit

1.

KJbfY ilahJ

bjthd KJbfY cL

2.

xU br kW gybr cfis bfhlJ.

gybr cf kL fhzgL.

3.

khWgl jikila gntW jkhd

bghfhf, firiHf, FW iHf
_y lbga eilbgW.

<id
fhf
lbga brwd.

4.

jnjh myJ xLahfnth thG.

jJ thG.

5.

cl cWf - cWklyf vait.

cW klyfS, cWfS
fyhd mikig, bga ms
tsia bfhLsJ.

6.

dbgUfkhdJ,
gh
dbgUf,
ghyh dbgUf KiwY eilbgW.

gh dbgUf Kiw kLnk

dbgUf eilbgW.

_y

nkY mJ bfhnth
bfhoa : ff vdgL f cynyna mf eR
jikilad. clYs eRigf erhdJ nrfgL
rtuf nghW Tikahd KfS mo mikJ UF.
vf jhFj nghJ myJ mahknyh fis bjhl
nejh Tikahd Kfis v cl brY eid
btgLJ. j _y vc wfnth braHfnth neL.

86

yFyf
KJbfYs cfis
1. f, 2. Uthf, 3. Ctd,
4. gwgd kW 5. ghof vd IJ
tFfshf fgLsd.

1. tF - f
it thG yFfshF.
j
cl
nkgFahdJ,
brfsh Md wrlij cilaJ.
mfrlkhdJ vY Rfshnyh (v.fh.
Rwh) myJ vYfshnyh (v.fh. fyh)
MfglJ. j cl glFnghw
mikilaJ. Rthr brf _y
eilbgW. brf U gfY
br_oah _lgoUF. ja
U
miwfis
bfhoUF

tyir nghj
fSF nkUJ Hhfnth,
UJ nkyhfnth ilklkhf fl
FWfhfnth, MWf nuhlF
vuhfnth brY w cL.
flf dK fl FWfhf
brwd. f tyirnghjiy
flUJ
dbgUfF
eUF brYj, eUJ
flUF brYj kW eUJ
flUF dbgUffhf m
thif RH nghJ brY
w mogil _W tiffshf
fgLwJ. jid mduhk,
nfhluhk, Muhk vd TWt.

f
(M,
bto).
ytif
f czFHh nkgF
mikabgUF fhWigf
vjhf jf cjwJ. it F
uj uhfshF. dbgUf
KilLj kW Fofis nghLj
vD tiff eilbgW.
Eiupu _yK (tsailj)
eilbgWwJ.
fUWj
cl
bt eilbgW. KilL
FRbghF (Kil L) wDila
yFf KGikahd cUkhw
eilbgWwJ.

rhykhl

nkY mJ bfhnth

tF U thf:

Uthf
RWw
VgL
khwfis
fl
wgiljit.
njh_y
Rthr
eilbgW
fhuzjh,
faf,
RWwNH khR, thGl VgL
jilf nghwtiw it vjhf
czUwd. RWw VgL Kj
mFfis Uthfsh fhl aY
vW ma mPf ewd.
my kiH, Xnrh gly gh, nta
NiynfL Ma fhuzfsh
Uthf y df flj 20
MLf mJld.

F uj tifia rhj
KJbfYila Y, yY thG
wgilj yFf U thf
vdgL.
tif
yFf
clyhdJ jiy kW cl vD
U gFfis bfhlJ. njhyhdJ
<ujikl tHtHghf fhzgL.
jakhdJ U Mfis, xU
btis
bfhL
_W
miwfis bfhlJ. dbgUf
fhy Rthr brf _yK
(jiyuil iy), njh kW
87

myF-5

ca
nkY mJ bfhnth

eR m jtisUJ (vbgnlhbg oiu

fy) jahfgL kUJ xU wj t thuahf
bragLwJ. kh~id xj gaDilaJ Mdh gf
isf mwJ.

njiuia jtis vthW ntWgLJth?

t. v.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

njiu
Filahd dfhf
fuL Kulhd (brhubrughd fhj
njh)
fFiwj neunk UF
elgJ nghw mir, a Js
nghw KiwY l bgaU
gf ilahJ
dfhf
uil
r
ilahJ

jtis
l dfhf
<ugjKila,
bkikahd,
tHtHghd njh
mf neu UF
jh FJ brY
nkjhil gf cL
dfhf
uil
r cL.

tF - Ctd
CJ brY wDila jiu
thG tif yFf clyhdJ
wnjh brfsh _lgL cy
jikilajhf fhzgL. brgiwna
brahf
csJ.
jakhdJ
_W
miwfis bfhlJ. gh, g nghw
yFf jfsJ nknjhiy mfW
wDilaJ. KilL FR bghF
tif yFf fUw KilF
FRf neuoahf tsailJ tUwJ.
a ehf gh (ehf)

cajit
f bkJthf Ctd -

fhyghnfh f uhrj Mikf

f ntfkhf Ctd -

nfhlhfh Fthd

cy ntfkhd gh -

Mfh fU khgh

cy skhd gh -

nfhLfSila kiygh

bga eRgh

uh#ehf

a Ctd

b#nfh

bga Ctd

nfhknlh ouhf
88

yFyf
tF - gwitf

nkY mJ bfhnth
kubfh gwitf kugil
fis bfhJtJ cgjfhf kL
Gf CJ brY
Xirid
mJbfhwJ.
bgF
gwitf
njh
mogF mikJs bfhGghyhd
mLF ciwaitF FUJ
gwitfis
ghJfhwJ.
J
btgfljiy
jLF
X
ciwahf gagLwJ. Mijf
RU wDila fsh
UoY
vts
ukhdhY
mtwh ntilahl Ko. tF
ff f mfykhf wF w
Ugjh mfkhd x fQF
bry VJthwJ.

Mij

wFf fhzgLj,
khWghlilj
Kd
fhf
(wiff),
myF,
kW
fhW
ua vYf(kho
ngh) Ma gfis
gwitf bfhLsd.
it
KilL
FR bghF, btg
uj tifia rhjJ.
gwit
Kilf
mf
ms
kr

ntljhf gwitf
ruzhya

J
gwitf
dbgU
fF a ms fwj
lkhf
fUjgLwJ.
e
jeho fhu khtl
(bridUJ
Rkh
75
u)
mikJs xU
uhkgFna ntljhf vdgL.
F
cehL
gwitfS
btehL gwitfS tUif jU
gwitdf
Kakhdjhf
fhku,
lhl,
bAuh,
vbu, wj myFila bfhF,
fuo _, btis I, o
u, fU wFila N, rhg
bgf nghwit mlF. etg
Kj ut tiuyhd fhynk
gwitf
ruzhyaij
fhz
rahd fhykhF.

fUit
(nrfgl
czit)
bfhljhf, lh Kilf
(Rzhdhyhd)
Xil
bfhoUF. t dfhf
elgjF, JtjF kW g
ogjF
VJthf
khwkilJ
fhzgL.

nkY mJ bfhnth
fhf kW mlfhif
nghw gwitfSF _isahdJ
mf ms eu brfis
bfhL bgjhf mikJsJ.
it kj ngR nghJ VgL
xid
mgona
U
brwd.
89

myF-5

ca
tF - ghof

btsthf vbuh w cL.

lhf

btsth

gho tifia rhj caiy

tif, KJbfYila cf, gh
cg br gh Rufis
bfhLsd. t njhyhdJ
cnuhkfsh
NHgoUF.
ait
RufS,
vbz
RufS njh mo fhzgL.
khWgl
gyikbfhlit.
wbr cl cgF tW
gFahdJ
khgf
gFUJ
cjujhd vD mik _y
ulhf fgLwJ. RthrkhdJ
Eiupuf
_y
eilbgW,
cfUWj _y Fof cUth
jh
clUJ
bttUtJ
t Ka gfshF.

btsthfisnghy w yFfS
vbuh w vW miHfgL
x jikia gagLJwd.
vbuh w vgJ xia vG
mj _y tUw vbuhia
bfhL jdF vnu cs bghUfis
czU
wid
FgjhF.
it bahia cLg mJ
RWw vbuhgij czJ
RWwYs gntW bghUfis
flwJ.
j
_y
mit
lij, uij, vYs
bghUfis mJ bfhSwd.
j_y btsthf jhf U
lF bry, yFfis KG
Uo ntilahl KowJ.

nkY mJ bfhnth
1. vFdh, shog nghw ghof KilL
wDilad.
2. fyfS, lhfS gho tifia rhjit.
3. Mf ahidf fbga cUtKila jiuth y
fhF, yyf fbga th ghofshF.
4. Fofis t RkF ffhUf xnujht 30 mo
uij flF wDilaJ.
5. U f bkJthf efU gho dkhF.
6. ghof btsthfSF kLnk gwF w cL.
bra 5.4
mUUF Uf fh rhiyF
gHftHffis bjJbfhf.
90

brW

mFs

yFf

yFyf
5.3. yFf gntW tifahd dbgUf Kiwf

fK Fo
ahid Fo
X c jid nghw s cfis cUthF w dbgUf
vdgL. dbgUf vgJ j dij iyWJ bghUL aifahfnt
mikj xwhF.

Kakhd dbgUf Kiwf

nuhnlhnrhth Kj gho tiu vyh cdfS j dij bgUF
w giljit. dbgUf ghyh dbgUf, gh dbgUf vd U
tifgL.
t.v

ghyh dbgUf

gh dbgUf

01

xnu xU c kL gFbgW.

uL cf gFbgWwd.
(M, bg) uLnk nfLfis
cg brwd.

02

nfLf
eilbgWtiy.

iz M, bg nfLf (J,
mlf)
izJ
fUKil
cUthwJ.

ghyh dbgUf

s Kiw dbgUf brwJ.

Kiw nghJ br eL
xU s VgL mJ cfUit,
irnlhshrij
uL
ghffshf wJ. thW xU
ghunka ulhf wJ.

ghyh
dbgUf
a
cf xnu xU c UJ
cUthwd.
xU c
KG
cl
myJ
clbrf
gFbgWwd. gy s Kiw,
U rks Kiw, mUj, H
l, nghf cUthj b#f
nghw gntW Kiwf mlcsd.

bra 5.5
mgh
U
Kiwia fzho
cW nehF.

U rks Kiw :- v.fh. ghunka

ghunka xU br c. J Urk
91

rks
eGt

myF-5

ca

cz fis cUthFwJ.
il cUthd l X RUf
VgL RUf nkY ailJ
nriAuh
jh
iAuhUJ
fgL xU j cahf tswJ.

b#f
b#f vgit flgRf
fhzgL
mfbkhLf
MF.
khahd bkhLf vj khWgl
NiyY tsU jikilad.
tifahd
b#f

RUf

cfU s

nr ghunka

ghunka U rk s gLj

b#_

gy s Kiw
bgUghyhd nuhnlhnrhthf
rhjfkw
Niy
nghJ
Kiw dbgUf brwJ.
Kj jh br cfU gy nr
cfUfshf
wJ.
xbthU nr cfUit
RY
irnlhshrK,
shkh
r
mikJ
nr brf cUthwd.
xbthU brY jahf
J j cahf tswJ.

Vuhskhd fhwiwf bfhl joj

btmLif U cw ifo
mLFfis
bfhLsJ.
jFj rhjfkhd NiynghJ
iknuhig vD Jis _y midJ
br ufS b#f
UJ btna xbthW
xU s flgrhf tswJ.

nghfS,
cUthfK

s h n k h o a
(knyah
xL)
mUj myJ bkhL
nghw
nuhnlhnrhth
Lj
xLf
bghJthf
iAuh mUj Kiw
fhzgL xU dbgUf
_y ghyh dbgUfij
KiwahF.
j KiwF
mUj
nkbfhwJ.
Kiw
ngh
cUthf
vW
nghJ iAuh xU Fl
l L L brgF bga. rhjfkw Niyf nghJ
eilbgWtjh clRt xU il nuhlhshr RU mijR xU
(mU) njhWwJ.
j il joj ghJfhghd ciw cUthwJ.
tsJ th gFia mijR jF TL cUthf() vW
92

yFyf
bga. rhjfkhd Niy nghJ
nuhlhshr giHa iyia L
milJ fiuJ s milwJ.

2. Ugjfhj gf vj tif
khwK s cfSF
fljgLwJ.

H l

gh dbgUf

flgRf, iAuh, shndah

kW eru f tif
H l fhzgLwJ. J mj
brf,
Rf
JfgLj
myJ
ghfgl gF L
tsj, xU a JoUJ KG cl
njhWj Ma fyhd Kiwfis
cslajhF.

vyh nkghL milj cfS,

y va cfS gh dbgUf
Kiw dbgUf brwd.
dbgUf cWf mogil
mtiw U tifahf fyh.

jhnd Jlhj

1. xU gh c :- xU c xU
tif dbgUf cW kL
fhzgL.
(jf myJ
mlf) v.fh. kj

y
cf
vflUJ
jid
ghJfhJ
bfhtjfhf
j cl xU gFia jhdhfnt
JoJ bfhS. v.fh. eru
af tsj, g th
tsUj.

2. Ugh
c
myJ
bAnkhbuhilLf - M,
bg
dbgUf
cUf
uL (jf kW mlf)
xnu c fhzgL. v.fh. ehlhG, iAouh

kj H l
nkghL milj cdf f
Fiwj msnt J fhzgLwJ.
mjF fhuz fyhd clyik,
w jik MF.

kj
H
vLJfhLf

lYF

iz
Kiw
dbgUf - ghunka
ghunkaf nghw
nkghL
milahj
cdf tifahd Kiw
xnwhblhW
izJ
cfU
bghUfis khw brj d wJ.

ghd bgUf gof

1. fhaf Fzkhj
2. mJ
myJ
wJnghd
ujbrfSF gyhf a
brf njhWj.
3. njh nk mLF
JfgLj.

brf

ghyh dbgUf eikf

bg

jf

mlf

J (n)

ml (n)

1. xnu xU c nghJkhdJ.
2. dbrfnsh,
njitiy.

fUWjnyh

fUKil (2n)

3. s cf bgnwhiu xJ
fhzgLwd.

fU

ikf
1. ntWghLf, wd cUthj,
gzhk ts ilahJ.

s c
93

myF-5

ca
nkghL milj cf M
bg cf gF bgWwd.
M dbgUf cWghd jf
J brfis, bg dbgUf
cWgha mlf mlbrfis

(Kil) cUthFwJ. J brY,

ml brY izJ fUKil
cUthwJ. fF fUWj
vW bga.
fUKilUJ fU
cUth K c clhwJ.

5.4. kj dbgUf
M dbgUf kly
M dbgUf kly Kjiy gh cWghd jfij, Jiz
dbgUf cWghd brd ig, nuhnl Ru, uh, M F Ma
cWfis cslaJ.

Jehs

Wig
JFH

uhnl Ru

nfhg Ru
W wt

vilo
jf
ijig
kj M dbgUf kly

X iz jff ijigD
twiuF btna fhzgLwd.
Vbd J br cUthfF
cl btgiyia l Fiwj
btgiy njitgLwJ. xnthU
jfK gy tisfis bfhl
J EFHfsh MdJ. Jnt
J briy cUthFwJ. thW
M d bryha J br
cUthFj J bryhf vdgL.
jfYs
ilpL
brf
M
dbgUf
Ahnkhdhd
Mnuh#id cg brtnjhL
J bryhfij fLgL
ulh iy gh gfshd jho,
ir tsj, cl Ko tsj,
fdj Fu itf njhw
fhuzkhwd.
jfYs brnlh brf
94

(jh brf) cUthF JfSF

Cl mwJ.
cUthd Jf J ehsij
milJ W fhthia milwJ.
J W, J brtjF xU bghJ
ghijahf mikJsJ. J ehs
ghij fhzgL brd ig,
nuhonu Ru jf Rufis
nrgjh Jf brk vdgL.
nfhiH(utkhf) bghUshf khWwJ.
J J brfSF ClkgnjhL
Jfis el bry cjwJ.

Kj J br mik
J jiy, fGJ, eLghf,
th
vd
ehF
ghffis
bfhlJ.
jiy xiwika
iybfhl cfU, KgF
iAahnlR,
nuhonaho
behfis bfhl mnuhnrhK
fhzgLwJ.
fGJ gF

yFyf
mik,
nrik
brnahf
fhzgLwd. eLgF RU tot
iknlhfhahit bfhLsJ.
thgF Fiwj ms irnlhshr
ij bfhLsJ. J J ut
Clf bry gagLwJ.

nkY mJ bfhnth
Jf
Jtf
brkdhf nrJ itfgLwj.
f Fiwj btgiy ut
ieu# _ykhf ciwj iy
gy Mlf nrfyh. mitf
cUsitfshfnt
UF.
j Jfis nrhjid FHh
FHijfSF,
braif
lF gagL.

jiy
eLcl

fhth Matiw bfhLsJ.

mlf
28 ehSbfhU Kiw
(khjlh
RH )
mlij
cUthFtnjhL bg dbgUf
Ahnkhdha
<nuh#id,
nuhb#onuhid RuwJ.

th

nkY mJ bfhnth
KjKj
Jit
flJ tiujt Ml th
tAh (1632 1783).

bg dbgUf kly
fUig ~gl

ml ehs
Msh

lf

go
y
fUig
br
nah

bg d bgUf bjhF kly

J
mlfij,
Jiz
dbgUf
cWfshd
fUig
ehsf, fUig, br, fy

xnth mlYs gh
brf mlij cUthF KiwF
ml cUthf vW bga. fUig
xU clw fdkhd RtUila,
jirahyhd igahF. fUig _W
mLFfis bfhLsJ. Fjh
fUKil
gfgL,
ClgL
tsfgLwJ.
fy fhth
vgJ brif, dbgUf
Jthuij izF xU eh
jirahyhd FHyhF. J fy
nghJ jQfis bgWtnjhL w
FHhahf bragLwJ. <nuh#
Ahnkh mlbr cUthfF
JiztnjhL
ulh
iy
gh gfshd khgf ts, Ko
tsj,
bgdFa
Fu
MatF fhuzkhwJ.

kj ml mik
kj ml vbyj tifia
rhjJ (fU cz mwJ ). fhof
Jffis,
fUjLfis
bfhlJ.
ml gy ml
rfsh NHgLsJ.
95

myF-5

ca
1. i
 tl r :- mlij
xo fhzgL bka xF
jikila r.
2. n
 rhdh bgYlh :- itl
rF mLjgoahf fhz
gL joj xF r.
3. b
 fhnuhdh nuonalh :- bt
gF fhzgL, gh
brfsh cUthd joj ciw.

khjlh RH
xU bg gUtkilj fhyKj
khjlh wjukhk F fhy
tiu (fgfhy fyhf) 28 ehfSF
xUKiw bg dbgUf cW
VgL khwF khjlh RH
vW bga. ml btpLF wF
ml bgnyha FHh bfhL
tugL
fUWj
eilbgWwJ.
fUWj
fHiyba
fUig
vnlhbkOa
Rt
cJ
ujK
fUig
R
btnawgLwJ. jF khjlh
vW bga.
J _W iyf eilbgW.
~ghFsh iy myJ bgUf
iy ( 5 Kj 14 ehf )
oa iy myJ K khjlh
iy (15 Kj 28 ehf)
khjlh iy (1 Kj 5 ehf)

1. ~ghFyh iy:l

RuF FSH vdgL

ghfis L Ahnkhdh
iy lgLwJ. iy
Kjyh iy ml gh br
tsJ, Kailj uh~a
ghf
btoJ mlij
gnyha FHYF mDwJ.
jF ml LgLj vW bga.

2. oa iy :iy
lUJ
LH
vdgL oid Ahnkhdh
lgLwJ.
ml mQ btnawF wF
uh~a gh cilj gF
fhg oa vD ehsyh
Ruahf khWwJ. J nuhb#onuh
vD fg fhy Ahnkhid RuwJ.
j Ahnkh vnlhbkOaij
jofbrJ, fUig fUw mlij
bgWtjF jahgLJwJ. ml
fUwhlh ml kW fUig
Rt cilJ khjl RH nghJ
btnawgLwJ.

3. khjlh iy
nuhb#onuh,
<nuh#
Ahnkhf
Ru
Fiwj
cl vnlhbkOa fUig
cRtUJ
btnaw
bgW
mf ms ujnghF VgL.
J bkr myJ khjlh MF.
j Ko fh oakhdJ
XU tLthf mik, mtikF
fhg Mf vW bga.

5.5. fUWj
ml mQ J brY xWl xW fyJ fUKil cUthtJ
fUWj vdgL.

fUWj tiff
uL tif fUWj
m) bt fUWj :- dbrf iz clYF btna eilbgWwJ
(v.fh.) jtis, Knjhf.
M) cfUWj :- dbr iz clYF eilbgWwJ. v.fh
Ctd, gwit, ghof
96

yFyf
fUWj eilbgW j.

fUWj

ml mQ btnaw nghJ Kj mlkhdJ

btgL ml ehs Jis gF tahf EiHJ
Myh gFia tjil. gF fUWj fG.
XU jQ ml mQ nk ciwaha nrhdhbgYlhiu
JisJ bfhL cEiH. iw J iu xU
fUr njhWtjh xWF nkgl jQf c
EiHtJ jLfgL L.

5.6. fU ts

sbgUf

fUWj

fUnfhs
ml
LgLj

fUgj

mlf

s bgUfY fUgjY
fUw Kil fUKil vdgL.
fUWj fj clndna kiwKf
f MugkhwJ. fUts
Kj iy sbgUf vdgL.
s bgUf Ko mj fU
shLyh vdgL. mj bt
wRt Clglykhf kh fUig
gfgLwJ. jF fU gj vW
bga. gj fUit R btfU
rfshd Mah, mylh,
nfhah kW fUig Mait
cUthwd. Mah ut Clfij
cUth
fUFbfhLwJ.
J fU cyuhkY, mUJ
ghJfhwJ. nfhahD mylhR
jh nr iz RnthL izJ
fhzgLwd. J fUF th
gkhwij
fJtnjhL
kL
kyhk ieu# mla ffis

fUUJ btnaWwJ. jhia,

nria izf gagL jhnr
izR
mylhdh
cUthwJ.

fU ts gntW iyf
fUts fhy
kj fU ts nghJ Kil
fUw ehUJ FHij wF
eh tiu cs fhy 9 khjf MF.
fU, fUigD UF fhy
fUts fhy vdgL.
fUts j xgJ khjf
_W
iyfshf
fgL
xbthW _W khjf bfhl
gFfshf fhzgLwd.

Kj gUtfhy
j iy nghJ xU br fU
97

myF-5

ca

kj fUts
Kil L L sgL fUthf
khWwJ. cW cUthf _y
gntW cWf cUthdwd.

ulh gUtfhy
fU ntfkhf tsailwJ. Rthr,
uj Xl klyf tsailJ
bragl JtFwd. jirfS
vYfS ewhf cUthfgLwJ.

_wh gUtfhy
fU
sthY,
vilY
f
ntfkhf
tsJ
ts
KGikailwJ.

FHij w
FHij wF yehfSF
Kd
Jtiu
fUigD
nknehUj
FHij
jiygF neh U fy
fhth
fGJgFF
nkny
mikwJ. FHij w Jtfkhf
Mnlh Ahnkh brayh
fUig uhf RUf JtFwJ.
nghfnghf j RUf ntfkhf,
mofo elwJ. J urt t
Mug iyahF. jid bjhlJ
fUig
bjhlahf
mfkhf
RUFt _y Mah vw
gFl cilJ g fyfhth
_y btnaWwJ.
FHij w fil iyahf
fgig
tWgF
jirf
iuthd, mGjkhd RUf
isthf FHijahdJ tilj
fyfhth tahf btna
jsgLwJ. iy Jtiu
jhia
nria
izJ
bfhoUj izR (bjh
98

bfho) mWfgL FHij jik

gLjgLwJ. y lf fJ
bjh bfho gly fUigUJ
mWJ wF bfho ahf
btnaWwJ.

gh Ruj
FHij wF Kj Kiwahf
jh gh RuUJ RuF gh
gh vdgL. J uj, gntW
ClrJf,
Mogaho
(EQ
v
bfhf)
Matiw
bfhLsnjhL
FHijF neh v wid
cUthFwJ. l Ahnkhdhd
nuhyho gh Rujiy LwJ.

jh gh wf

 J
RjkhdJ,
fyglkwJ
nehbjhyhjJ (UfswJ),
v ilfToaJ.

 jhf wj FHijF
btgiy ilwJ.

Vw

F
 Hijia
itu,
ghoah
bjhWfUJ
Mugfhy
ghJfhwJ.

 uhkwf jhgh itu
ftF f brhL kUjhf
fnehfSF
KjYj
irF gagLwJ.
j
 hgh fnyh k 70/100ml
Mf csjh FHij njitia
KY brwJ.
j
 hgh UF nynlhbg
vw uj Fl kW Rthr
bjhUJ
FHijia
ghJfhwJ.

yFyf
nkY mJ bfhnth
nrhjid FHh FHij
fUWjiy fU Kj fhy tsia xU braifahd
Clf f mj mij xU jh fUig F KGikahd
FHijbgW fF nrhjidFHh FHij vW bga. jid
l ehil rhj bl~blh kW vt Mnah KjKiwahf
btfukhf cUthdhf.

5.7. FonghL yFf

FonghL yFf neuoahf
Fofis
<W
s
cf
M#id
czit
neuoahf
jhnr iz R tahf bgW
bfhtnjhL f bghUis mj
_y f brwd.

5.8. KilL FR bghgit

xLila Kilf xlw Kilf

KilL
FR
bghF
wDila cf fU cz iwj
Kilfis
Lwd.
yth
yFf
XLila
Kilfis
Lwd.
j
XL
fUit
ghJfhgnjhL fU cyJ nghfhk
Uf gagLwJ. Kilf
fUWjYF
dnu
bt
lgLwd. v.fh. Ctd kW
f.

5.9. s cf K cahf
khWj
KilUJ bttU, FRf
j jhia xUgiy. s c
clyikY clbraY gntW
khWjfSFgL K cahf
khWtjF cUkhw vdgL.

f cUkhw
f
nknjh
uhd
ilbtf
cJ
Kc
njhWtjF njh cj vW bga.
yhth mLjLj U iyfSF
nloah vW bga. thW f
bjhl tsiyF lh vW
bga.

nkY mJ bfhnth
njhYjYF
Ahnkh

nkY mJ bfhnth
xnth ngu D y yFf
fU jh tWF UF
KilF cUth s cahf
bttUwd.
it
Kil
fUzhY cztfgLnk ju
jh nr izRth my.
v.fh. a ghf

gagL

f mt _is
fhzgL eu Ru brf
vilnrh myJ #]itd
Ahnkhid Ruwd. it
njhYjiy fLgLJwd.
99

myF-5

ca
ts cUkhw tiff
KGikaw cUkhw - btL thif RH

KilUJ bttU (wiff yhik, dbgUf cWf

yhik) cf ju j jhia xUwJ. f mLjLj
njhYjYF wF K cahf khWwJ. jF KGikaw cUkhw vW
bga.

Kil s c K c
v.fh. btL, nk <.

s c
Kil

K c

btL thif RH

KGikahd cUkhw - tzJ thif RH

KilUJ bttU s c KY khWgl s cahf UJ
gntW khwfSF wF jh iyia milwJ. s c yhth
vwiHfgLwJ. j yhth ntfkhf iyfis cL tsailJ
ms bgajh mLj iyna TLG cUtij milwJ. iy
jidR FT vw xU Til mikJ bfhL XbtLwJ. J
ehfSF wF KG cahf ToUJ btnaWwJ.

Kil yhth TLG Kc

(v.fh.) tzJ, gL

Kil
yhth

Kc
TLG
tzJ thif RH
100

yFyf
kL
gF - m
1. cdf cWf mikJ UF
cdfis rk iy tifgLj.

Kiwia

rk

vnwh.

2. Ctd f gwitf ghof Uthf.

nkny bfhLfgLs yF tFfis gzhk mogil tirgLj.
3. ghof Kil vbyj KilahF (fU mwJ) fU tsUnghJ
jh mjF vthW cztwh?
4. y cdf M, kW bg dbgUf cWf fhzgLwd.
mjifa yFfSF vd bga? cjhuz bfhL.
5. fUw bgfSF khjlh RH WL. FHij wj wF L
mJ JtF. Ka gFtF Ahnkh bgaiu, mj gia
FLf.
6. FHij wF jUth bgf fodkhd t mtgLwhf. mj
tF fhuzkhd Ahnkh bga vG mj KaJtij TWf.

gF - M
7. yrfzfhd cdf cy thwd. mit gyfshf
tifgLjgLsd. jifa tifghL V njitgLwJ?
8.

yFf

efU cW

ghuha
f
jtisf
gwitf
ghof

fhf
uilr cs fhf
wFf
JLf
FWiHf

m) nkny bfhLfgLs yFfis mj l efjYF gagL

cWnghL bghUJf.
M) yFf efU cWig yFf thG NiyF Vg Ugij
sF.
9. btsthf u bttuToa cd. mit KG UoY gwF w
bgwit. vthW U gwwd vgjF sf bfhL.
10. gwit Kilf XL ciladthF. fU cilajhf fhzgLwJ.
XL kW fU Mat gif Fl.
11. bgUghyhd gwitf gwF w bfhlit. gwgjfhf mt cl
fhzgL khWghLf FLf.

101

myF-5

ca

12. kGf k tsij mfgLJwd vgjfhd sf bfhL.

13. jf, clYF
fhuzfis TW.

btna

ijigD

fhzgLwd.

mjfhd

14. nkghL milj cdf ulh ghg cWfsh ntWgL

fhzgLwd. kj MfSF, bgfSF btnjhw
fhzgLw ntWghLfis TW.
15. dbrfshd JfS, mlfS xdWika
cfUfis bfhLsd. mjfhd fhuz TWf.

iy

bfhl

16. tsU R jh-nr iz R _y jhnahL bjhl itJ UwJ.

mj jh-nr iz R gif tf.
17. kj fUtsfhy mndfkhf 9 khjf. mJ 3 gUtfhyfis bfhlJ.
Kjhyh gUtfhy fU VgL tskhwfis t.
18. jhgh xU guz cz vgij bjgLJ.
19. ts cUkhwnghJ f njhYwd. njhYgjfhd bgaiu,
mt KaJtij TW.

gF -
20. bfhLfgLs mltiz gFfis mjnjhL iz.

gF A
ehlhG
gG
eru
ghua
ko

gF B

gF C

G cu
KGnjh
cl mir
XL
bfhfS cRf

Rzhdh Md Kf
xL
bkikahd cly
fk cu
iH

nkY ma
jff
1. Developmental Biology - Arumugam.N, Saras Publications.
2. A Manual of Zoology, VolumeI& II - E
 kambaranatha Iyar, E.K.and
T. N . A n a n t h a k r i s h n a n ,
Viswanathan & Co.
3. Invertebrates - Barnes, R.D.,W.B.Saunders Publications.
izajsf
http://www.worldanimal.net
http://www.animaltrial.com

102

myF

brfS RfS

myF-6

ca
6.1. nuhnfnaho kW nfnaho brf

fyhd flik mogil,

Fghf cfU flik
mogil brf U tiffshf tifgLjgLsd.
1) nuhnfnaho brf
2) nfnaho brf

brRt

iungh
nrhf

nuhnfnaho brf
firiH

ghOaf
kW
randh
ghOaf (ygRghf) brf
bjthd cfUit bgUgiy.
vdnt, it nuhnfnahobrf
vW miHfgLwd.
t
o.v.V(o M ngh my)
cfU rdh NHgoUgiy.
it
rdh
NHgl
br
EcWfis
bgUgiy.
nuhnfnaho brfis bgWs
cdf
nuhnfnaho
cdf myJ nuhnfnahLf
vW
miHfgLwd. it
nkghL milahj
cdfshf
fUjgLwd.

o.v.V.
br
r

fhN

nuhnfnaho br (ghOah)
ku bghUf cfU rdh
NHgLsd.
rdh
NHgl
br
EQWfshd
vnlhshrtiy, nfhifcWf,
iknlhfhaf,
fff
kW thFnthfis bgWsd.
nfnaho
brfis
bgw
cdf nfnaho cdf
myJ
nfnahLf
vW
miHfgLwd.

nfnaho brf
midJ jhtuf (ghOah
kW randh ghOah ju) kW
yFf
brf
bjthd
cfUit
bgUgjh
it
nfnaho
brf
vW
miHfgLwd.
t

nuhnfnaho brfSF nfnaho brfSF ilnas

ntWghLf
nuhnfnaho brf

nfnaho brf

1. bghJthf J ms aJ
(1-10 iknuhl)

1. x
 L ghif J ms
bgaJ (5-100 iknuhl)

2. j cfUbghU cfU
rdh NHgoUgiy.
vdnt bjthd cfUit
bgUgiy.

2. j cfU bghU cfU

rdh NHgoUgjh J
bjthd cfUit bgWsJ.

3. xU Fnuhnkhnrhik kLnk

bgWsJ.

3. xWF nkgl Fnuhnkhnrhfis

bgWsJ.
104

brfS RfS
4. nahy fhzgLtiy.

4. nahy fhzgLwJ.

5. rdh NHgl br E
cWfis bgUgiy.

5. rdh NHgl br E
cWfis bgUF.

6. br gF, sj myJ

bkhL mUj _y
eilbgWwJ. iklho
kW aho br gFf
fhzgLtiy.

6. iklh kW ah tifahd
br gFf eilbgWwd.

7. iunghnrhf ait.

7. iunghnrhf bgait.

6.2. gy br cdf
cfSF bjkh?
1. xU br cd vwh vd?
2. xUbr
cdF
vLJfhL jUf.
3. gy br cdf vwh
vd?
jfsJ cl gy brfis
bfhLs
cdf
gybr
cdf vW miHfgLwd.
v.fh. bgUghyhd jhtuf kW
yFf.
gybriy mik
cdf
nkghL milj
iyia
FwJ.
gybr
cdf gy tifahd brafis
brtjfhf gy tifahd brfis
bgWsd.

cd xU mogil myF br
vd tiuaWfgLwJ. thW
br c mogil myfhf
fwJ.

nkY mJ bfhnth
E
 nzh
jhtu
briy g mj vgJ
KoahJ. 1665 uhg A]
br vW bgalh.
M
 l th t Ah(1674)
jhnd
totikj
va
Enzh _y ghOah,
nuhnlhnrhth Kjyhdtiw
Muhjh.
u hg bus midJ brfS
cfUit bgWsd vgij
fljh.

6.3. br - c mogil myF

 ,
br
cns
fhzgL cUs bghUSF
nuhlnlhshr
vW
bgalh.

nkghL
milj
cdf
cWfis bfhLsd; cWf
Rfshyhdit;
Rf br
fshyhdit kW brf _y
TWfUJ njhWwd. Uj
nghY
vyh
cdfY
br xU braghL myF MF.
midJ
ca
brafS
br braghilna ikakhf
bfhLsd.
yF
brf
shkh
rid
bfhLs,
cd xU mogil myF br
vd jhtubrf brRt kW
shkhrid
bfhLs,

TL
Enzh

thAh
Enzh

105

myF-6

ca
br ms, tot kW vif

btntW cdf kW cl btntW ghff brf ms,

tot kW vif mf ms khWghL fhzgLwJ. bgUghyhd
brf FWfs fFiwj ms iknuhlfisna bfhLsjh,
it Enzh kLnk bjwd. brf nfhstot, ftot,
l, gynfhz myJ xGfw to fhzgLwd. brf tot mit
braToa Fl gia bfhL zfgLwJ.
brf vif, cW myJ cl msl bjhlilaJ. vdnt,
a cdf Fiwj vif brfis, ahid, y,
Myku nghw bga cdf vzw brfis bfhLsd.

br E mik
br cs
cbghU
nuhnlhshr
MF.
J
eF mikj Tk nghw
x
CLUtToa miu ut, gytifahd
ntbghUf
_yTWfsh
Mdit.
t bgUghyhdit
ujf,
fhnghiAnuLf,
bfhGf, my nghw fk
_yTWf MF. nuhnlhshr
bghJthf c aa js vW
miHfgLwJ.
xU

jhtu

br,

br

Rtiu

nuhnlhshil bfhLsJ.
yFbrf br Rt fhzgLtJ
iy. nuhnlhsh vgJ br
cs bkhj nuhnlhshrij
FwJ.
J
shkh
r,
cfU kW irnlhshr
vd
ntWgLsJ.
gntW
br
EQWf
irnlhshr
bghJ
fhzgLwd.
jhtu
brf
yF brfUJ gy tf
ntWgLwd.

iknlhfhah

iynrhnrh

nfhif cW
brhubrhughd
vnlhshr tiy

nahy

tHtHghd
vnlhshr tiy

brnahf

shkh r
iunghnrh

irnlhshr

EFHf
yF br E mik
106

brfS RfS
jhtu brYF yF brYF ilna cs ntWghLf
jhtu br

yF br

1. jhtu br btgF
brYnyhdh Md cWahd
brRtiu cilaJ.

1. yF br brRtiu
bgUgiy.

2. yF briy fhoY jhtu

br bgaJ.

2. jhtu brnyhL xLnghJ yF

br aJ.

3. jhtu br br
bgUgFia
MuJbfhLs bga
thFnthfis bgWsJ.

3. yF br bghJthf thFnthfis

bgUgiy. mthW bgUjh,
it ms f adthf csd.

4. nkghL milahj jhtuf

brf kLnk brnuhnrh
fhzgLwJ.

4. midJ yF brfS
brnuhnrhfis bgWsd.

5. nfnaho jhtu brf

kLnk iynrhnrhf
fhzgL.

5. midJ yF brfY
iynrhnrhf fhzgLwd.

6. jhtu brf fffis

bgWsd

6. fff fhzgLtiy.

7. bgUghY lh (jur)
nr bghUshF.

7. isnfh# nr bghUshF.
KiwgLJwd. vdnt, J
njflJ r myJ miuflJ
r vW miHfgLwJ.

6.3.1. brr kW br Rt
brr (shkhr
shkh bykh).

myJ

br cs midJ bghU
fis NJ fhzgLw bka
Ea cUs r brr
vW miHfgL. J brYF
xU
viyahf csJ. brr
jik bfhlJ. bjhlahd
uil mLF bfhG _yTWf
kW uj _yTWf brr
UwfY fhzgLwd. nkY
brRt bghJ csd.

gf

shkhr
Fl
y
bghUfis kL njbjLJ
brYF
cnsnah
myJ
brYF btnanth EiHtij
myJ
btnaWtij

 J brYF xU viyahf
mikJ fhafUJ briy
ghJfhwJ.
x
 nu br gy EQWfSF
ilna
mUfhik
cs
brfSF ilna bghUf
kW brf fljgLtij
mDkwJ.

J
mUfikj
brfSF
ilnaahd y fk izfis
mwJ.

brRt
brRt jhtu brf kLnk
fhzgL.
J shkhrF
btna cs cWahd, ghJfh
mLF MF. jhtu
brf
107

myF-6

ca
brRt fhzgL jikah yF
brUJ ntWgLwJ. bgUghyhd
jhtu
brRtf
brYnyh[h
Mdit.
brRt
_W
mLFfis
bfhLsJ. mitahtd, iljL,
KjikRt kW ulh iy
Rt.
iljL vgJ uL
mUfUnf cs brfSF ilna
cs
bka
bk
nghw
mLfhF. Kjik Rt vgJ
br KjKj njha Rt
MF. J iljoF cwkhf
njhWfgL mLfhF. ulh
iyRt vgJ KjikRtUF
cns fhzgL joj mLfhF.

br Rt gf
1. brRt brYF xU Fl
totij bfhLwJ.
2. brYF cWia bfhLwJ.
3. brYF cns cs nuhnlh
shrij
fhafUJ
ghJfhwJ.
4. brYF iw jikia
jUwJ.

6.3.2. irnlhshr
cfU fyhf brYF mikj,
RRghd, Xus x CLUtToa
xnu jik bfhl bfhHbfhHghd
kW miu ut nuhnlhshr
irnlhshr vd miHfgLwJ.
brrF

fhzgL
irnlhshr
Tk
nghW
csJ. J vnlhshr vdgL.
vnlhshrF, cfU rF
ilna cs gF ut to csJ.
J vnlhshr vdgL.
fhnghiAnuLf, bfhGf,
ujf, mndh myf, fkf
kW
Ma _yTWfis
irnlhshr
bgWsJ.
108

brtsijkhwf eilbgwToa
lkhf J csJ. gytifahd br
EQWf
irnlhshr
bghJsd. xbthU tifahd
br EQW br Fl
ntiyfis brwd.

irnlhshr gf
irnlhshr, brYF cnsna,
behf, Cl bghUf kW w
c_yTWf gut JizwJ.
ujf,
nahilLf,
bfhG
myf
Kjyhd
gy
tifahd c_yTWf cg
irnlhshr eilbgWwJ.

6.3.3. br EQWf
xU
br gyjugl brafis
nkbfhwJ. mitahtd
1. fyhd
_y
TWf
cgahj kW mt ijj.
2. Mwiy cg brj.
3. y Fl bghUfis Ruj
nghwitahF.
br
j
braghLf
gytifahd
brEQWfsh
nkbfhsgLwd.
j
br
EQWf
rdh
NHgLsd. br braghil
g mJ bfhtjF,
br
EQWf
mikigg
RUfkhf bjJ bfhtJ mta.

vnlhshrtiyd
vnlhshr tiyd xU
fyhd kW rdh NHgl,
EFHhf kW iHfis bfhl,
xnwhblhW izfgl bjhF
MF. J irnlhshr KGtJ
gu fhzgL. J shkhr
kW cfUr bjhlahd
mikghF.
vnlhshr tiy
d U tifgL.

brfS RfS
m) b
 rhubrhughd
tiyd

vnlhshr
(RER

Rough

Endoplasmic Reticulum)

M) t
 HtHghd
vnlhshr
tiyd (SER Smooth
Endoplasmic Reticulum)

bldh

m) brhu brhughd vnlhshr

tiyd
(EbghU
bfhl vnlhshr tiy)
it ujij cg br
brf
fhzgLwd.
j
tifahd
vnlhshrtiy
brhubrhughd
Rtfis
bgWsd. Vbd iunghnrhf
vnlhshrtiy
rl
izfgLsd.

M) tH tHghd
vnlhshr
tiyd (EbghU mw
vnlhshr tiy)
bfhGig cg br brf
fhzgLwd. j
Rtf
UJthdit kW iunghnrhf
j rl izfgoUgiy.

gf
v
nlhshrtiy
br
tsij khw gfSfhd
bga guig mwJ.
b
rhubrhughd vnlhshr tiy
uj cg
Ka gF
twJ.
t
HtHghd
vnlhshrtiy
OuhLf(fyQf),
Ahnkhf
kW bfhGf
(Lf)
cg
gF
bgWwJ.

nfhifcW
clyf

myJ

nfhif

nfhifcW
Kj Kj
fhnyh fh vgtuh tf
glJ. J jL nghw gFfshd

Ff

(btf)

nfhif cW
bldhf,
tiynghW
xnwhblhW
izfgLs
FHf,
btf
(E
Ff)
kW
wgFf
thFnthfis
(fhWigf)
bgW fhzgLwJ. jhtu brf
nfhifcWf
oonahnrhf
vW miHfgLwd.

gf
1. nfhifcW
iynrhnrhf
cUthf gF bgWwJ.
2. brRt
kW
brr
cgF J fhuzkhf csJ.

iynrhnrhf
gytifahd brF behfis
bfhl, rdh NHgl a
EFf iynrhnrhf MF.
it bryf brkhd bjhFghf
(intracellular
digestive
system)
bragLwd.
vdnt,
it
brF igf vW miHf
gLwd. vnlhshrtiy kW
nfhifcW
t
izj
bradh it cgahwd.
iynrhnrh r a nejh
iynrhnrh cns cs behf
KG brmikig brf brJ,
109

myF-6

ca
br mit VwLL. vdnt
iynrhnrhf
jbfhiyigf
vW miHfgLwd.

gf
1. br GFj (vnlhir
lh) vw f _y brD
<fgl Jffis
brkhd
brt gF twd.
2. uj
btisaQf
iynrhnrhf nehfis, ma
Jffis
mJ,
aifahf
cliy ghJfhg gfhWwd.

nkY mJ bfhnth

gf

ngh
kW
Jf

30S Jiz myF

40S
Jiz myF

60S
Jiz myF

70S iunghnrh

tif
iunghnrh
aJ.
nkY 30S kW 50S vw uL
Jiz
myFfis
bfhlJ.
J nuhnfnaho
brf
fhzgLwJ.
tif iunghnrh 40S
kW
60S
Jiz
myFfsh
MdJ.
J
nfnaho
brf
fhzgLwJ.

iunghnrhf

50S Jiz
myF

m) 70S iunghnrhf

M) 80S iunghnrhf

_ milj kW uj
br EQWf ij
iynrhnrhf gF bgWwd.
vdnt it mF gil uf
myJ
Juthsf
myJ
br
thf
vbwyh
miHfgLwd.

iunghnrhf
vgit
myf (RNA)
ujfsh
Md
a

Jiz myFfis bfhlJ - xU

a Jiz myF kW xU bga
Jiz myF. uj cg bghGJ
gy iunghnrhf J M.v.V
cl izJ
ghiunghnrhf
myJ ghnrhf vw mikig
cUthFwd. uL tifahd
iunghnrhf csd.

80S iunghnrh

nghw
mikf MF.
it
irnlhshr
jJ
brhubrhughd vnlhshrtiy
wgu xo fhzgLwd.
xbthU
iunghnrhK
uL
110

iunghnrhf
uj
cg
Ka gF twd.
vdnt,
it br uj bjhrhiyf
vW miHfgLwd.

thFnthf
xiw rdh NHgl ut
ua igf thFnthf MF.
it jhtu brf fhzgLwd.
nkY it y nuhnlhnrhtf
cz
Ffshf
RUF
Ffshf
fhzgLwd.
jhtu
brf
br
bgUgF
thFnthfdh
MufgLsd. thFnthiy
R fhzgL bjthd ciw
nghw r nlhndhsh vdgL.
jhtuf
thFnthf fk
bghUf,
rfiuf,
mndh
myf
kW
fiuj
f
bghUf nghwtiw bfhl br
rhdh uggLsd.

brfS RfS
gf

btr

i) thFnthf fk cfis
Cl
bghUfis
nrJ
itwd. nkY jhJ bghUf
kW Cl bghUf mlia
mfwd.

cr

ii) br iwjik kW
crgLj tWfhf br
rLgut
mGj
(Mkho
mGj) xnu uhd iy UFgo
brwJ.

o.v.V

iknlhfhah

nl

iknlhfhaf

gf

iknlhfhaf
cUil
myJ
cUis
totkhd
br
EQWf
MF.
xbthU
iknlhfhah
uL
rfdh
NHgLsJ.
btr
bjhlahdJ.
cr nl vdgL gy cw
kofis(f) bfhlJ. j
nl
iknlhfhah
cgFia
KGikaw Kiw
wd.
cgF jsbghU
(kh) vdgL xnu khahd
mlj bghUfsh uggLsJ.
Rthj
f
Ka
gF tF F1Jff myJ
Mnrhf vW miHfgL
F^jiy
tot
clyfis
nl bgWsd.

i) ATP nghw
Mw F
TLbghUfis
iknlhfh
af cg brwd.

iknlhfhaf
jsbghU
Rthj
bghGJ
cz
Mfuz
mila
njitahd
behfis
ATP
_yTWf
to
Mwiy
btgLJtjF
njitahd
behfis
bgWsJ.
vdnt,
iknlhfhaf br Mw
iyaf vW miHfgLwd.
iknlhfhaf
ujf,
bfhGf kW js DNA it
bfhLsd.

ii)
gira,
irnlhFnuhf,
OuhLf kW mndh myf
nghw
cnt
bghUf
cgF njitahd ilpL
bghUfis
iknlhfhaf
mwd.

fff (shoLf)
jhtu brf kL fhzgL
jL tot myJ Kil
tot
EQWf
fff
MF.
fff
_W tifgL.
mit
bt
fff
(nfhshLf),
tz
fff (Fnuhnkh shLf) kW
gRfff (FnshnuhshLf).

1. bt fff
it
jur, bfhGf kW
ujf to czit
nrJ
itF wkw fff MF.

2. tz fff
it
gira
fyhd kw
wfis bgWsjh kr myJ
t w fhzgLwd. gy
kyf kW ffSF it wij
mwd.
111

myF-6

ca
3. gRfff
it x nrif wahd
giraij
bgWs
gRik
w fff MF.
xbthU
gRffK
uil
rdh
Md
ciwia,
jsbghUisa
bfhLsJ. cr fff
KGsF
nykyhfshf
mikJ fhzgLwJ. y gFf
nykyhf joJ, ehzafis
mL itfglJ nghw mik
fhzgLwd. it uhdhf
vW miHfgLwd. xbthU
uhdh
ijyfhLf
vW
miHfgL jLtot rdh Md
igfis bgWsJ. uhdhf
cw gira fhzgLwJ.
jsbghU ijyfhLf mw
gF nuhkh vW miHfgL.
xnrif gFbgW vzw
behfis nuhkh bgWsJ.

btr

uhd

brnahf vW miHfgL
xU n#ho a clw Jffis
bfhLsJ.

gf
br gF bghGJ, o
ehf(RUF ehf) njhWt
Ka gF twJ.

6.4 cfU (a)

cfU br Kakhd ika
mik MF. J irnlhshr
bghJ
fhzgL
mlahd
cUiltot
mik
MF.
iunghnrhf

Fnuhnko
nahy
nah
shr

cl
(k)

a
ciw

cfU (a)
cfU uil
rdh Md
ciwia bgWsJ. J cfU
ciw myJ a ciw vW
miHfgL.
nahshr
myJ arhW (nfnah)
vdgL jsbghUis a
cr
NJsJ.
a
nuhkh
ijyfhLf ciw
ciw
gy
Jisfis
bgW
gRff
fhzgLwJ. Jisf ah
Jisf vW miHfgLwd.
brnuhnrh
nahshr uL jkhd
yF
brfY
y
ah mikf fhzgLwd.
nkghL
milahj
jhtufY
i) nahy kW ii) Fnuhnko.
brnuhnrh
fhzgLwJ.
nahy vgJ uj kW
nuhnfnaho brfY nkghL
milj
jhtu
brfY
J RNA brJ fhzglToa xU
fhzgLtiy.
cfU
xU nfhstot gF MF. iunghnrh
lkhf
J
csJ.
JUt
J fhzgLwJ. J cUthF
112

brfS RfS
nahshr xW myJ
mjF
nkgl
nahyf
fhzglyh.
Fnuhnko vgJ ku bghUshd
DNA (o M ngh my)
kW uj bfhl
bka
iHfsh Md xU tiynghw
mikghF. brgF bghGJ it
joj fWnghw Fnuhnkhnrhfshf
RUFwd.
Fnuhnkhnrhf
fis bfhLsd. xbthU
D xU cd xU ghuga
gF fhuzkhdJ.
f, bgnwhflUJ mLj
jiyKiwF
ghuga
gf
fljgLtjfhd brfis DNA
_YTW to bgWsd.

gf
i) cfU
br
midJ
tsijkhw
brafis
fLgLJwJ.
ii) b g n w h f l U J
nrfSF ghuga gf
fljgLtij fLgLJwJ.
iii) br gFig fLgLJwJ.

6.4.1. Fnuhnkhnrhf
ghuga
gis
bfhl
nghW
RUa
Fnuhnko
iHf Fnuhnkhnrhf MF. it
brgF nghJ kLnk bjthf
bjwd.

XbthU
FnuhnkhnrhK
FnuhnkoLf vW miHfgL
uL xj mikfis bgWsJ.
uL
FnuhnkoLfS
xU
Fl

izwd.
jF
brnuha
vW
bga.
brnuha
mikJs
Fnuhnkhnrh gF Kjik RUf
MF. Fnuhnkhnrh KidgF
Onyha MF.

Fnuhnkhnrhf tiff
brnuha
mikUF
Kiwia bghWJ, Fnuhnkhnrhf
ehF tiffshf csd.

1. bklh br Fnuhnkhnrh
brnuha
Fnuhnkhnrh
ika mikJ, uL fufS
bgUghY rkkhd s fhzgL.
J My vGJ
v
tot
Fnuhnkhnrh MF.

2. rbklh br Fnuhnkhnrh
brnuha
Fnuhnkhnrh
ika
UJ
rW
y
fhzgLtjh,
j
xU
fu
kbwhU fuij l Filahf
fhzgLwJ. J My vGJ J
tot Fnuhnkhnrh MF.

3. mnuh br Fnuhnkhnrh
brnuha
Fnuhnkhnrh
Kid gFF mUnf fhzgLtjh,
xU fu f Filahf kbwhU
fu f skhf fhzgLwJ.
J xU nfh
tot Fnuhnkhnrh
MF.

brnuha

FnuhnkoL

fuf

brnuh
a

brnuha
ifdnlhnfh
fuf
FnuhnkoL

Fnuhnknrh mik

Onyha

bklhbr

rbklhbr mnuhbr

Fnuhnknrhf tiff
113

Onyhbr

myF-6

ca
4. Onyh br Fnuhnkhnrh

brnuha Fnuhnkhnrh xU Kid fhzgLwJ. vdnt, xU gf

xU fu kLnk fhzgL. J xU nfh tot Fnuhnkhnrh MF.

o.v. V. (DNA) mik

moid

bgUghyhd
cdfY nkghL milj
cdfY DNA kubghU MF. DNA gy a
ij
nahilLfsh MdJ. xbthU nahilL
xU IJ fhg rfiu, xU ghng bjhF kW xU
ieu# fhujh MdJ. ieu# fhuf U tifgL
- f kW of. moid kW Fthid Fthid
fshF. ij kW irnlh ofshF.
DNA mik thr kW vgtfsh irnlh
btlglJ. o.v.V. xU <iH mikghF. uL o.v.V
iHfS xiwbahW R, uil RUshf csd. KJbfY
RU KJbfYghf rfiu kW ghng _yTWf
csd. ieu# fhuf rfiu _yTWfSl
o.v.V mik
izfgLsd.
uL
gh
nahilL
iHfS Fl izfshd f kW
ofSF ilna cs iAu# izfsh izfgLsd.
uL iHfS v izahf vbu irf brwd. (mjhtJ 5'
Kj 3' kW 3' Kj 5' Kid vd vv irf brwd) uL iHfS
tyR ir xWbfhW fhzgLwd. DNA _yT l
20 A MF.

6.5. br gF tiffS
xU ijia vLJ, mij cilJ
J ghngh. ijF cns
bro iy. thnw xU Kilia
vLJ cilJ ghjh mj
cns nfhFR iy. Mdh
xU ij k ijfgL,
CwgL bghGJ, xU bro njh
kukhf tswJ. njnghW Kil
milfhfgL bghGJ, nfhFR
njhWwJ. J vthW rha
vgJ
g
eh
viwfhtJ
Unwhkh?
jhtuf
myJ
yFf
xiw
bryhd
irnfhoUnj
114

njhWwd. j irnfh gy
Kiw gFgilJ xU jhtu myJ
yif
njhWwJ.
j
fF ts vW bga. J
brgF _y eilbgWwJ.
cUst Ka gfS
xW dbgUf mil w
MF. dbgUf f, brgF
_y
brf
vifia
mfgij cslaJ. Vfdnt
cs brf UJ brgF vw
f _ykhfjh a brf
njhWwd.
ts,
bgUf
kW cl uhfF brbgUf
mta.

brfS RfS

Viklh vgJ xU va Kiw

br gFghF. J neKf brj
vW
miHfgLwJ.
cfU
L xU RUfij mj ika
njhWwJ.
RUf
bkJthf
cneh brW Ko cfUit
uL nr cfUfshf wJ.
ij bjhlJ irnlhshrY
RUf VgL uL nr brf
njhWwd. tifahd brj
bghJthf
nuhnfnahLf
fhzgLwJ. v.fh . ghOah, mgh.

J
UtgF
UJ
ika
neh o ehf (RUF
ehf) njhWwd. a
ciw kW nahy kiwa
Muwd.

ikaiy(bklhiy)
brnuha

neKfbrgF (Viklh)

xWbfhW izahd uL
FnuhnkoLfis bfhLsJ.
uL
FnuhnkoLf
izJs brnuha
MF.

br Rt
a
ciw

nahy

Fnuhnkhnrh

brf _W tifahd Kiwf

gFgilwd. mit neKfbrgF
(Viklh),
kiwKfbrgF
(iklh)
kW Fw gF
(ah).
xbthU
tifY
irnlhshr gFgiltjF Kd
cfU gF mil.

iliy

kiwKf brj (iklh)

kiwKf brj cly brf
eilbgWwJ. J xU bjhlahd
bra MF. J ehF iyf
eilbgWwJ. mitahtd Kjiy
(nuhiy), ikaiy (bklhiy),
WKiy
(mdhiy)
kW
Wiy (Onyhiy)

nuhiy

FnuhnkoL

RUF
ehf

iliy

bklhiy

mdh iy

Mug Onyhiy

Ko Onyhiy

nr brf

xU br iklho brgFF
cgLtjF K gFgiltjF
jid jah gL bfhwJ.
j
iy
iliy
vW
miHfgLwJ. myf
uogiltj _y Fnuhnko
bghUf uogilwd.

Kjiy (nuhiy)
F
nuhnko
tiy
RUL
l iHnghw mikfshd
Fnuhnkhnrhfshf njhWwd.

xbthU

iklh (kiwKf br j)

FnuhnkhnrhK
115

myF-6

ca

a
ciw
kiwJLwJ.

KY

F
nuhnkhnrhf
Filahf
jokdhf khWwd.
F
nuhnkoLf
brnuha
fSl
br
ikaF
efwd.

ilna br ika brjL

njhWtj _y irnlhshr
gF eilbgWwJ. vdnt, iklh
brgF Ko xnu khahd
uL nrbrf njhWwd.

ah (Fw gF)

cdf
dbgUf
brf eilbgW xU tifahd
brgF ah MF. nfLf
cUthf
nghJ
f
fhzgLwJ.

x
bthU Fnuhnkhnrh br
nuhaU ulhfwJ.

6.6. brf
kW
mt
NHYilna
eilbgW
bghUf ut / gkhw.

b
rnuhaf
ehfSl izwd.

WKiy (mdhiy)

x
bthU
FnuhnkoL
brnuhaiu
bgW,
Fnuhnkhnrhkhf khWwJ.

xU
xU

o
ehf
RUFtjh
j Fnuhnkhnrhf xW xU
JUtij neh kbwhW v
JUtij neh efwd.

Wiy (Onyhiy)
n
r Fnuhnkhnrhf JUt fis
brwilwd.

nahy kW a
ciw L njhWwJ. vdnt,
br U JUtfY uL
nr af njhWwd.
o ehf kiwwd.
c
fU j gF cfU
gF
(nfnahifd)
vW
miHfgLwJ.

irnlhifd
gF)

(irnlhshr

irnlhshr
gFgiltJ
irnlhifd vdgL. jhtu
brf, uL nr cfUfSF
116

irnlhshrF
mjF
btna cs RWwF ilna
shkh r _y gntW tf
bghUf gkhw bragLwd.
r tahf fljgLtJ Mw
njitaw fljyhfnth myJ Mw
njitahd fljyhfnth Ufyh.

Mw njitaw flj
xU
ma
myJ
_yTW
br mfkhd lUJ br
Fiwthd lF xU r _y
gu xU va guj KiwahF.
j flj vj j MwY
gagLjgLtiy.
Mw njitaw flj _W
Kiwf eilbgWwJ. i) rL
gut ii) va gut iii) vjhfgl
gut.

i) rL gut
U gffY cs fiubghU
br ntWghlh shkh r
_y _yTWf c, bt
lbga eilbgWwJ. br
mfkhd lUJ br
Fiwthd lF xU r _y
_yTWf fljgL f
rL gut vdgL.

brfS RfS
brYF cns _yTWf
brY
f
vlhkh
(crLgut) vdgL. br
UJ _yTWf btna brY
f v[hkh (btrL
gut) vdgL. jhtu brf
msffkhd
v[hkh
eilbgWtjh, irnlhshr mj
shkh rl nrJ RU,
brRtiu L y fhzgL.
j f shnkhiy (ck
RUf) vW miHfgLwJ.

ii) va gut
ct, fayth nghw
th _yTWf brr _y
bgna vw fl ujf
cj yhknyna brYF cns
EiHwd.

iii) vjhfgl gut

J xU wghd Mw njitaw
flj fahF. maf myJ
_yTWf
iuthf
rid
flwd. r cs Fl
bgnaf
t
fljiy
vjhFwd. va gutiynghnw,
jF vjj MwY njitiy.
J br r
irnyna
eilbgWwJ.

Mw njitahd flj
Mw njitahd flj vgJ
Mw cjah xU bghU r
tahf lbga miltjhF. J
vbghGJ br rF vuhdJ.
( mjhtJ br Fiwthd lUJ
br mfkhd lF) j
Kiw
fiubghU
_yTWf
mt nt br myJ nt
rF vuhfnt efwd. j
KiwF Mw njitgLwJ. y
rujf fl _yTWfshf
bragL
fiubghUis
r
kWgfF flJwd.

bgUgF flj (Bulk Transport)

brf

bjhlJ

r tahf bga _yTWfis

cbsLJ bfhwd myJ
btnaWwd. vn[hirlh
vw
f
_y
bga
_yTWf
btjsgLwd
kW
br btwUJ
vnlhirlh vw f
_y bga _yTWf cbsLJ
bfhsgLwd.

vn[hirlh
fl
_yTWf
_ykhf
bghUf
btna
fljgLj
vn[hirlh
vdgL. J
bghJthf RuF brf myJ f
f brf fhzgLwJ.

vnlhirlh
shkhr
cwkhf
koJ
myJ J brW xU EF
myJ thFnthiy njhWgj
_y vnlhirlh eilbgWwJ.
J uL tifgL.
1.~ngnfhirlh
(br
GFj)
2. ndhirlh (br mUJj )

~ngnfhirlh (br GFj)

bghUf l to vLJ
bfhsgLwd.
f
gFbgW brf ~ngnfhirLf
vW miHfgL kW it
~ngnfhiro vW TwgLwd.
( v.fh. uj btis mQf ).

ndhirlh(br mUJj)
bghUf
ut
to
vLJbfhsgLwd
(v.fh.
mghL. nuhnlhnrhtf kW
Wuf brf.) ndhirlh
jhtufY eilbgWwJ.

6.7. Rf
jhtu Rf tiff, mik
kW gf
bjhlahd gzhk tsah

shkh
117

myF-6

ca
jhtuf
mik
ff
mfJsJ. catif jhtuf
ntf, jL, iyf kW kyf
gntW
brafis
brwd.
btntW ntiyfis brtjfhf
jhtuf
brf
gytifahd
Rfshf ntWgLsd. (4.2 cs
mltizia ghf).

MF Rf
bra 6.1

(bgUghY xU iy jhtuf)
fhzgLwd. fQilgF
milt it Jiz wd.

iii) gf MF Rf
jL kW ntf gfthL
gF fhzgL MF Rf
mlF. it jhtu ghf
FWfsit mff brwd.
(v.fh. fh nfa kW thFyh
nfa.)

MF R brf gf

xU a bro tsia
cW nehf. J neuhf tswJ.
bghGJ jo EgFia
bto, nkY mj tsia
ftf.

M
 F Rf brf nfhs,
Kil, gynfhz myJ brtf
to fhzgL.

t brRt bkaJ, S
w bfhlJ kW brYnyh[h
MdJ.

jL Eia btoa wF bro

tsu Muwjh?
jhtu ts y Fl
lf kLnk eilbgW. Vbd
mjgFf
jh
gFgil
Rfshd MF Rf csd.
MF Rf xnu khahd
K milahj brfsh Mdit.
it gFgilJ a brfis
njhWwd. MF Rf
bjhlJ
gFgilJ,
jhtu
nghF
tsY
gUk
mfgY
cj
wd.
Ul mogil MF
Rf _W tifgL.

it
br
ilbtf
beUfkhf mikJsd.
m
lahd irnlhsh rij
bga cfUit bfhLsd.
E MFR

il MFR

i) E MF RR
E
MF
R
jhtu
jLf kW ntf Ef
fhzgLwJ. J jhtu ghf
sij mfwJ.
gf MFR

ii) il MF Rf
it iyf
f
nghw
fQilgF

mogFY
jhtuf
mogFY
118

MFRf Ulij fhL

jo btL njhw

brfS RfS
iyj Rf
bra 6.2
x
U jhtu jLgFia
vLJ, bka FWFbtoid
vLfntL.
b
ka FWF btLguf
J rh~u rha nrf.
xU FWF btLguid kL
fzho eGt x itJ,
xU J r nrf.

wnjh
o
w
njh

_
Liy
bfhL
_o
Enzh cWnehf.
gytifahd brfis mit
mikUF Kiwfis cW
nehf.

w
njhyo
njh
bu
FHh

m) midJ
brfS
xnu
khahd mik csdth?
M) vjid tifahd
fhzgLwd?

brf
~nsha
nfa

MF Rfdh cUthfgl
brfSF vd newJ?

iry

MF Rfdh cUthfgl
y brf gFgil jikia HJ
iyj Rfis cUthFwd.

(bkLyh)

tWF Fl tot kW
g cL. it gy tifahd
gfis brtjfhf gy tiffshf
ntWghL milJsd.

Nafh jo
FWF btL njhw
m. ghuifkh
M. nfhyifkh

iyj Rf uL tifgL.

. uifkh

1. va Rf
2. TL Rf

va Rf
mik kW bra xJ
fhzgLw,
xnu
khahd
brfsh Md R va R vdgL.
J _W tifgL.

ghuifkh
ghuifkh
brf
bghJthf
brilbtfSl Toa bka
Rt bfhlit. it cUs
brfshF. it bghJthf jhtu
midJ cWfY fhzgL.
119

myF-6

ca

fhzgL. it bghJthf U
iy jhtu jo wnjhYF
nH
uL
myJ
mjF
nkgl mLFfshf fhzgL.
ntf J fhzgLtiy. J
iyfh kW ky fhY
fhzgLwJ. ghuifkhit nghW,
nfhyifkh xU cUs R
MF. nfhyifkh Ka g
cWia bfhLgJ kW s jL
nghw tsU cWfSF tis
jikia bfhLgjhF.

br
ilbt

ghuifkh
it Kil tot, nfhs tot,
brtf tot myJ cUis to
fhzgL. brRt brYnyh kW
bgo bghUfsh MdJ.
bghJthf
ghuifkh
brf
czit nrgY czbghUf
kW fk cfis flJtY
gfhWwd.

nfhyifkh
nfhyifkh brf FWFbtL
njhw gynfhzto fhzgL.

uifkh
J xU cuw R MF. brf
Rtfis bfhL joJ
fhzgL.
it
cWfSF
tikia bfhLwJ. J uL
tifahd brfis bgWsJ. mit
1) iuLf 2) ehf.

1) iuLf
iuLf vgit fbrf
MF. it bghJthf bfhilf
ciwfY, ngfh kW rnghlh
nghw
ff
rijgFY
fhzgLwd.

2) ehf
it l iHf MF. iHf
KGtJ va Ffis bgW
fhzgL.
fod ciw
a
thFnth

nfhyifkh
nkY t Rtf uw joig
bfhLsd.
mf
brYnyh,
bA-brYnyh
kW
bgo
bghUf go fhuzkhf j
jof VgLwd.
jof

brf

nfhzf
120

TL iyj Rf
iry
iry ClbghUf, kW
fk cf jhtu nkneh
flJt cj wd. J
nt, jL, iyf, kyf, ff
tna l brf izJ xnu
bjhlahd FHh nghw mik
fhzgLwJ. iry ehF tifahd
brfsh MdJ.
m) ouLf, M) iry FHhf,
. iry ehf, <) iry ghuifkh

brfS RfS

t
u
i

la

tuila F

irnlhshr

a
ouL
iry
FHh

iry ghuifkh
iry eh

iry brf tiff

m) ouLf

<) iry ghuifkh

ouLf l, Kid kGa,

FWfyhd brf MF. it
goj
ulhiy
Rtfis
bgWsd.
blnlh~igLfY
ndhbgfY itjh iu
flJ TWf MF.

iry
Rl
izJ
fhzgL ghuifkhbrf iry
ghuifkh
vdgL.
iry
brf J kLnk cUsJ.
it czbghUfis lh kW
bfhG to nrwd. it
iu flJtY Jizwd.

M) iry FHhf
iryFHhf
Kidf
Jisfis bgW fhzgLwd.
xw J xwhf mikJ l
FHh nghw mik csd. it
Mnahbgf
iry
fhzgLwd. it , fk
cfis flJwd kW jhtu
clYF tikia bfhLwd.

~nsha
~nsha
cz
bghUfis
iyfUJ
jhtu
kw
gFfSF flJwJ. J ehF
tifahd brfsh MdJ.
m) ryil FHh TWf
M) Jiz brf

) iry ehf

) ~nsha ehf

iry Rl izJ fhzgL

uifkh
ehf iry ehf
vdgL. it jhtuF TLj
Mjhuij bfhLwd. it fil
ehf vW miHfgLwd.

<) ~nsha ghuifkh

m) ryil FHh TWf

ryil
FHh
TWf
~nsha flJ TWf MF.
121

myF-6

ca

~nsha
ghuifkh

Jiz br

ryil FHh

ryil jL

~nsha R
it ryil FHhf, ryil brf vd Utiffshf csd.
ryil brf blnlh~igL fY ndhbgfY csd. Mdh
ryil FHhf Mnahbgf csd.

M) Jiz brf
Jiz brf vgit bka Rt bfhl, l w tifahd ghuifkh
brf MF. it ryilFHh TWfSl izJ fhzgLwd.
it
irnlhshrij bjthd cfUit bfhLsd.
it
Mnahbgf cz bghUfis flJt ryil FHhfSF
cj wd.

) ~nsha ehf
~nsha
Rl izJ fhzgL uifkh ehf ~nsha
ehf vdgL. it gh ehf vW miHfgLwd. it jhtuF
TLj cWia jUwd. ~nsha ehF tif brf ~nsha
ehf kL cuwit.

<) ~nsha ghuifkh

~nsha Rl izJ fhzgL ghuifkh ~nsha ghuifkh
vdgL. it lh kW bfhGid nrwd.
122

brfS RfS
kL
- m
rahd ilia njbjLf
1. b
 r Mw iya (gRff, a, iknlhfhah,
iynrhnrh).
2. thFnth ciw
nlhndhsh).

(brr,

r,

shkh

bykh,

3. nuhnfnahLf eilbgW bghJthd brgF (kiwKfgF,

neKfgF, Fw gF, kiwKfgF kW Fw gF).
4. bghUf
ut
to
cbfhsgLtJ
(~ngnfhirlh,
vn[hirlh, V t vnlh irlh, ndhirlh).
5. iry brf cUs R (FHhf, ouLf, iry ghuifkh, iry
ehf).

- M
6. bfhLfgLs
ilaf.

glij

cW

neh,

fl

dhfSF

(M)

(m)

i) gl FfgLs (m) kW (M) ghffis FLf.

ii) xbthU ghf xU gia vGJf.

7. ~nsha xU cz flJ R. J nH bfhLfgLs ehF brfsh

MdJ. uL brf lgLsd. lgLs brfis uf.

i) ryil FHh TWf

iii) ~nsha ehf

ii) _______________
iv) ______________

8. glij cW nehf.

(m)
(M)

i) gl sfgLs Rit fLof.

ii) glij ghJ tiuJ (m) kW (M) ghffis FLf.

123

myF-6

ca
9. mltizia uf.
Fnuhnkhnrh bga

Fnuhnkhnrh tot

bklh br
__________________

J tot Fnuhnkhnrh

mnuhbr
Onyh br
10. fl TWfis goJ mtiw U mikf.

i) nfhif cW thr kW vgtfsh KjKj sfglJ.

ii) yF brf brRt fhzgLwJ.

-
11. m. flt ma fiybrhfis vGJf.

i) jdJ cl gy brfis bfhl c.

ii) xnu xU bryh Md c.

iii) bjthd a bfhl brfis bgWs c.

M. nfhol lij uf.

i) irnlhshr gF vgJ _______________ MF.

ii) nuhnfnaho brf eF bjthd______________bgUgiy.

12. gl bjhlghd dhfSF ilaf.

(m)

(M)

i) g
 lij ghJ tiuJ m Kj tiu FfgLs
ghffis FLf.
ii) jo nghF tsF fhuzkhd gF vJ?
iii) ulh iy tsF fhuzkhd gF ahJ?

()

iv) fQil gF F fhuzkhd gFia FLf.

nkY ma
jff
1. Plant Physiology 2004 - Salisbury F.B and Ross C.W, Wadsworth
publishers.
2. Cell Biology, Genetics, Molecular Biology, Evolution & Ecology - 2008
- Agarwal V.K and Verma P.S., S.Chand Publishers.
3. Life Science 1990 - Silver Burdett K Ginn Publications.
izajsf
http://www.sciencecentral.com
http://www.botany.org
124

myF

c -
nta RH

myF - 7

ca
7. c - nta RH
xU Mw Fj
iyahd
bjhFig
cUthFtjfhf,
c
nfhs
cUs
kW
cuw
gFbghUf
xnwhblhW iyahd ilbra
wd. cnfhs gntW
gFbghUfSilna eilbgW
bghUf kW Mw lkhw
jifa ilbra mlF.

cdfSF
mj
RWNHYF
ilna
cs
bjhlfisga ca
Niya vdgL.

midJ
cdfSF
fhg, t(iAu#), ct
(M#), ieu#, fjf, ghgu,
bghlha kW fha mf
ms njitgLwd. jifa
ClbghUfis
it
fhW
(thbt),
(nfhs) kW
k (ynfhs) MatUJ
bgWwd.

Niy
aikahj
cslaJ.

ts
kW
bgUffhf
cdfsh UJ bgwgL
Cl
_yTWf
c-
ntbghUf vdgL. j c ntbghUf cdfsh
gagLjgL,
mt
wj
clyf
kW
fbghUf
ijfgLbghGJ
RWw
lgLwd.
it
L
kWgaghL kW kWRH gF
bgWwd.
cuw NHYF (k, ghiw, fhW,
) cdfSF ilna eilbgW
_yTWf myJ gFbghUf
RH Xl c- nta RH
vdgL.

7.1 cUs kW cuw

fhuf ilid
aa
fhufis
w
cdfis
csla,
yFf kW jhtuf thG
RWwnk RWNH vdgL. vdnt,
cdfis R UgJ kW
ghfToaJkhd
xbthW
RWNH mlF.
126

cdfS mit thG l

aa RWwK nrJ cUthF
xU Niy Tlikng Niy
bjhF vdgL.
bjhF
uL
gFbghUfis

1. cuw gFbghUf ( aa
myJ cuw)
2. cUs
(cUsit)

gFbghUf

cuw gFbghUf
fhW, , k, x kW btgiy
Mait
RWNH
cuw
gFbghUf MF. vdnt, ekJ
RWNH cuw gFbghUf
eik midJ cdfis
gyjf
ghf
Kawd.
cdf ts, bgUf kW
iyUj Mat Ka
gF
twd.
gRjhtuf
xnrif tjF x, kW
fayth Kjad njitgLwd.
yFf cthH cz, kW
ct nghwit njitgLwd.

cUs gFbghUf
kj
cl
midJ
cdfS
RWNH
cUs
gFbghUf
ml
F. jhtufS yFfS xiw
bahW rhJsd.
xiwbahW rhUj vgJ
cdf cthH, ts kW
dbgUfF
xiw
xW
rhUF Kiw MF. cjhuzkhf
njf
mt
czfhf
kyf cs kfujfis

c - nta RH
ctid
thbt
btLwd. thW jhtufS
yFfS xiwbahW rhJsd.

7.2. RH

jhtuf kW yFfSF
ilnaahd ilbra

njJfis rhJsd. kyfnsh

kfujnrifF
njfis
rhJsd.
midJ cdfSF cz
cgahsf gRjhtuf(jrh
cf)
MF.
it
cz
jahgjfhf
Na
Mwiy
<Jbfhwd. jhtu cf
jhtufis czthf vLJbfhS
bghGJ Mw jhtu cfSF
khwgLwJ. C cf jhtu
cfis
cbfhSbghGJ
Mw
CcfSF
khw
gLwJ.
ijgitf
_y
mff fbghUf kW wj
bghUf
ijfgL,
Mw
RWNH lgLwd. vdnt,
gRjhtufsh
bgwgl
Mw
xU tir ukkhf wrh Cl
cfSF khwgLwJ. J cz
ria cUthFwJ.

Ka e
kj
kW
yFfsh
Rthj
bghGJ
ct
vLJbfhsgL
fayth
btlgLwJ.
jhtuf
x nrif bghGJ j
faythit
vLJbfhL

RWNH
xU
Ka
gFbghU MF. J midJ
cdfSF f aikahj
xwhF. fbga njlfshf
(iyf)
sf
Toa
bgUflf UJ Mah
nkffis njhWwJ. kw
iyfshd MWf, Vf kW
Fsf UJ Mah
nkffis
njhWwd.
nkff cs uh F
milJ kiHahf bghwJ. kiH
MWf _ykhf brW W
fliy milwJ.
RH jhtuf kW yFf
_ykhf
eilbgW.
jhtuf
k myJ njff UJ
iu
c
mfgoahd
iu
uhngh
_y
uhahf
fh (tkly) nrwd.
kufsh btnawgL Rs
fhiw FubrJ mtiw RY
xU Fiwj btgiyia zg
gFbgWwJ.
yFf
njlfUJ
czl
nrJ iu vLJbfhwd.
it j iu Rthj _y uh
to tklynfh myJ f
f _y ut to knfh
U
mDwd.
ghof
mt clUJ iu ait
to btnaWwd.
cdf
w
kW
ijdhY

RWNHYl
nrfgLwJ.
uhnghF
kW Rthj clhd uh,
nkffis
njhWwd.
jhtuf kW yFf gagLJ
tif kiHahdJ iu k
nrwJ.
127

myF - 7

ca
Na

jh
tu
ti
ff

(Xi

U
lf

J
U
J)
k

U J
bgU
fl
U
J
uh

ngh
F

kiH nkff

nkf njhWj

Mahj

gothj
ji

un

CLUj

gu

t
go l
f
j gh
M
Jg
iw g j
uj
uj

y
jo
RH

bgUfl

nkY mJ bfhnth
e cl _ uL gF mlsJ.

 nahf 97% bgUflf, 2% gKfLf(ice caps) kW 1%
yjo twh MdJ.
2
 0 l od a 125,000,000 fhyf iu nH mD ( 1 fhy
vgJ 4.5 lUF rk).

7.3. ieu# RH
cdf uj kW
myfis jahf
njitahd
Ka fk ieu# MF.
tkly
78%
ieu#id
bfhoUjhY, mnkhah, mndh
myf myJ ienuLfshf
khwglhj tiu j ieu#id
cdf neuoahf gagL
bfhs
ayhJ.
kUJ
bgwgL j TLbghUf
Niy bjhF _y RH kW
kWRH milwd.
aa kW ca braf
_ykhf j mikf xUJ
kbwhwhf ilkhw milJ xU
Fl iyahd ms ieu#id
tkly iyUfbr
bra ieu# RH vdgL.
128

ieu# RH fl iyfis
cslaJ.
i) ieu# iyWjgLj
ii) ieu# jkakhj
iii) mnkhahthj
iv) ienulhj
v) ieu# btnaw

ieu# iyWjgLj
ieu#
iyWjgL
bghGJ, d fhuzkhf ieu#,
Mi[Lfshf
Mfuz
bragLwJ.
j
Mi[Lf
kiH fiuJ
gotfshwd.
ca
ieu#
iyWjgL
bghGJ mn[hnlhghl, iunrha
nghw
ieu#id
iyWJ
ghOaf kW ehlh nghw
ygRghf thiy ieu#id

c - nta RH

jhtu

cz

f f
w kW
yF
mGFj
w kW mGFj
mnkhah

ijgitf
j
th
h
a
h
k
n
m

ieu#
btnaw

ca iyghL

v
b
v ghU
j

tkly ieu#

ienulhj
k cs
ieu# Fs
aif ieu# RH

mnkhahthf ienuLfshf
khWwd.

ieu# jkakhj
jhtufsh vLJbfhsgl
ienuLf, uj kW
myf nghw fkbghUfis
jahf gagLwd. yFfsh
gagLjgL
jhtuujf
kW w ieu# TLbghUf
yd ujfshf khwgLwd.

mnkhahthj
yd ujf ah,
my
myJ
mnkhahthf
btnawgLwJ.
jhtuf
kW
yFf
wFbghGJ,
mt
ujf
ghOaf
kW irf braghodh

ijfgL mnkhahthf bt
nawgLwd. mnkhah cUthF
j f mnkhahthj vd
gL.

ienulhj
braKiwbghGJ ienuh
ghl
kW
ienuhnrhnkhdh
nghw kth ghOafdh
mnkhahthdJ ieiuLfshf
ienuLfshf khwgL, d
it jhtuf ntf _y
crgLwd.

ieu# btnaw
Nnlhnkhdh nghw kth
ghOaf k cs ienu
mafis
thieu#dhf
FiwJ tklyF U
mDwd.

ieu# RH gFbgW cf
braghL

cd bga

ieu#
iyWjgLj

iunrha, mn[hnlhghl, ehlh

mnkhahthj

mnkhahthF ghOaf kW irf

ienulhj

ienuhnrhnkhdh kW ienuhghl

ieu# btnaw

Nnlhnkhdh
129

myF - 7

ca
7.4. fhg RH
RWNH f Kakhd
fk fhg MF. midJ
fk TLbghUfS fhgid
bfhLsd. fhg _W Ka
Mjhuf i) fhYs fay th
(CO2 ) kW flf fiuJs
fay th ii) nkgu
cs fhgnd ghiw kW iii) gok
vbghUfshd
yf
kW
bgnuha. x nrif vw f
_y
Mw
iyWjgLj
Ka fkkhf gFbgWtjh, J
Mw XlJl beUfkhf bjhl
bfhLsJ. fhg tkly
njhWthUJ
cgahsf,
Efnthf kW ijgitfSF
lbga milwJ.

tkly cs fayth
cd
cyfF
mjhtJ
gRjhtfSF
xnrif
_y
fhnghiAnuLf
(cz)
jahgjfhf
EiHwJ.
jhtu cfsh jhtu cz
vLJbfhsgL
d
a
kW
bga
CcfSF
mDggLwd.
xbthU
czliyY
Rthr braghLf faythit
iuthf tklyF U
mDwd. wj fkbghUf
ij, gok vbghUf vj kW
vkiy
braghLf
_ykhf
fayth
tklyF
UwJ.

xnrif

mGFj

tkly
fay th

Rthj

gRjhtuf
xnrif _y CO2 I
fkTLbghUfshf
fLwd.

fh
b

hj
tk

go

m
h
Rt
v

yFf jhtu
bghUfis
yF
Rfshf
khWj

f gila jhtuf
gotfshd yf,
bgnuha kW
aif th

fhg RH
nkY mJ bfhnth
fhg RH yho, fhg kWRH mila Koahk, cf cthH
Koahj is VgL.
130

c - nta RH
tkly
ct O2

fk _yTWf
C6 H12 O6

xnrif

Rthj

CO2

H 2O
ct RH

7.5 ct (M#) RH
midJ
cdfSF,
Rthf ct njitgLwJ.
ct xU gFbghU MF.
J tkly cs fh 20%
csJ.
Rthj _y ct cd
cyif
milwJ.
J
cz
bghUfis
Mfuzkila
brJ Mw kW fay thit
cg brwJ. bghUf vjY
ct gagLjgL fay th
cUthwJ.

xnrif bghGJ cz
jahf jhtuf faythit
gagL ctia btLwJ.
ct,
ieu#Dl
nrJ
ieu#
Mi[Lfis
njhWwJ.
j
ieu#
Mi[Lf mndhmy kW
uj cgfhf jhtufsh
vLJbfhsgLwd.
j
TLbghUf d va _y
TWfshf sfgL tkly
ctia btna, RWNH
xU rkiyia jf itwd.

131

myF - 7

ca
kL
- m
rahd ilia njbjLf.

1. k, ghiwf, , fhW Mait bjhl bfhLs, cdfis

jh fToa nkgu ___________ (Xnrh nfhs, knfhs,
cnfhs, t vJ iy).
2. fbga njl (MW, V, Fs, fl).

- M
3. nH bfhLfgLs cdfis bfhL FiwjJ uL cz
rfis mikf.
(f, , , kh, e, Ka).
4. Kj iz cs bjhlid mJ, Lgl izfis uf.
i) ieu#id F ghOah

ii) ienulhF ghOah

iii) ieu#id iyWJ ghOah

Nnlhnkdhdh

-
5. m. jhtufS yFfS xiw xW rhJsd.
i) j Tiw f VWbfhfsh?
ii) sf TWf.
M. c kW cuw bghUfis goaLf.
fhW, kh, , eh, kj, k, x, jhtu.

nkY ma
jf
Plant Ecology 2008 - Shukla R.S and Chandel P, S.Chand Publishers.
izajs
http://www.wisegeek.com

132

myF 8

khRghL
Xnrh ijtiljY

myF-8

ca
8. khRghL Xnrh
ijtiljY

nkY mJ bfhnth
fU Eiupu neh yf
Ruff
ntiybrgtf,
mFs
fhg
Jffis
Rthgjdh Eiupu Wneh
clhwJ.

tsJ tU iwa NH eh
Rjkhd
fhiwjh
Rth
nwhkh?
Rjkhd iu Fo
nwhkh? nfhil fhy VgL
fLikahd btgij eh jhf
Kokh vw nffSF g
vd? jfhd fhuzf vd?
jfhd fhuz khRgLjny MF.
khRgLj vgJ vd? J
kjdh
cUthdjh
myJ
aifah cUthdjh? jfhd
fhuzfS, isfS vd?
ghl jfhd ilfisfhd
Kanghkh?

8.1.1. fhW khRgL

aif
ekF
ilF
fh
jik
khRWnghJ
mjid fhW khRgLj vnwh.
fhW
khRgLjYF
thfS,
EJffS fhuzkhfyh.

fhiw khRw br bghUfS

mt isfS
1. Jff

tiuaiw

EJff vgJ fh jJ
bfhoUF W Jf todhyhd
f, R, bfhf, jhtuf
kfuj f, nghf, kW
EQf
MadthF.
EJffsh VgL khR kjDF
Rthr kly nfhshWfshd MJkh,
Eiupu nehf, uhj r nghw
nehfis cL gQwJ.

khRgLj vgJ eh thG l

aa, nta kW ca
gf
VgL
Ugjfhj,
cfSF
F
isF
khwnkahF. khwkhdJ y,
, fhW vd vyh lfY
fhzgLwJ. thW Niy
khRghoF fhuzkhd bghUf
khRgLJ bghUf vdgL.

2. fhg nkhdhi[L

8.1. khRgho tiff

ijgot
vbghUf
rahf
vfglhjdh
fhg
nkhdhi[L
clhwJ.
J
uj M#id vLJbrY
wid FiwJ yFfSF F
iswJ.

khRgLj vgJ fhW khRgL,

khRgL, y khRgL kW x khRgL
vd ehF tifgL.
khRf
aifahnth
myJ
kj
braghLfdhnyh clhf TL.

gG w fhW
134

khRghL Xnrh ijtiljY

3. iAnuh fhg

fhW khRWtjh VgL isf

yf
kW
bgnuha
bghUfis
vFnghJ
it
cUthwd. iwj tabtf,
rJ yf nghw lfYs
k fhzgL EQf
btLwd.
nj
nghw
iAnuhfhgf fhW khRgLtjF
fhuzkhwd.

nkTa Kjiy ghfis

bjhlJ fhW khRgLj fhuzkhf
if, g nrj gif kly
VgLwJ.
Na xffsh
iAnuhfhg, ieu# MirLf
Mat VgL urhad khwf
jhtuf
giraij
mJ
xnrif msit ts
jij btFthf FiwwJ.
J kL kjDF jhf Koahj
msF ffY, bjhilY
vr VgLJwJ.
gif
fhuzkhf
RWw
bjthd
ghit ghfgLwJ.

4. fjf ilMi[L
vbz
Rf
iyafUJ, fjf fyj
jhJfis tWF nghJ, fjf
ilMi[L tkly fywJ.
jhtuf
giraij
Hf
brwJ.
jhtuf Rf
mF fhuzkhwJ.
kj
MJkh nghw Eiupu nehfis
clhFwJ.

5. ieu# Mi[Lf
nghFtuJ ber Fj efu
fhW brgG wkhf khw fhudkhf
J sFwJ. J ja kW
Eiupu ghig VgLJwJ.

my kiH
rg ilMirL ieu# MirL
nghw ntbghUf mf ms
gagLJnghJ mit Mah nkny
brW kiH bgnghJ kiH nuhL
fyJ my kiHia njhWwJ.
my kiH fllf jikia,
jhtufis,
ydfis
bgUks ghwJ.
kiz
myjikilajhf khWwJ.
Rzhdh
flgl
ghugaf folf
ijj

k cs cdf
bfhygLtJ, Niy
kly ghfgLtJ

k my jik
milj

mykhj

H2SO3

H2SO4

my kiH
HNO3

H2CO3

HNO2

mykhj

folf mJ
nghj

mkhd
kj ey
bfLj

MWfS, FsfS
my jikailj
yjo
zhFj
ydf XLf
gyd milj

my jik fhuzkhf
th jhtuf, yFf
wj

135

myF-8

ca

btgLJ if oF
gHfij
bghJ
lf
fol jilbrayh.
5. Vuhskhd kufis bjhrhiy
tshffY, rhiy XufY
tsg _y fhW khRgLjiy
bgUksF Fiwfyh.

8.1.2. khRghL
Ugjfhj
bghUf
nrifah VgL aa,
nta
khwfdh
kj
th iu gagLj Koahj iy
VgLkh mjid khRgLj
vnwh.

my kiHah ghfgl iy

nkY mJ bfhnth
1984 org 2, 3 Ma ehf
nghgh Uj a fhigL
fbg cubjhrhiyUJ
btahd eRjik Fj MIC,
nj Inrh randL vw th
gyhufzfhd cfis g
thaJ.
D Vuhskhndh
Rthr,
eu
nfhshWfshY,
ja nfhshWfshY w Fiw
ghLfshY ghfgLsd.

khRgLjYF
Ka
fhuzfshf bjhrhiyfUJ
btnaW Rffglhj ff,
LfUJ btnaW ff,
vbz ff, trha kW
bjhrhiy
gFf
UJ
btnawgL
eR
bghUf
nghwit fhuzkhwd.

khRWjYfhd fhuzfS
mt isfS

fhW khRgLjiy
fLgLJtjfhd eltoiff

1. bjhrhiy ff

1. fhW khRgLjiy fLgLj

bjhrhiyf
tofof,
goj Kiwf Mat
_y EJf btnawij
fLgLjyh.
2. thfdf
fha
kW
fjf fyfhj vbghUfis
gagLjyh.
3. ku rhuh Mw tiy rhj
Na r, ir, miy
ir nghwtiw gagL
ku
vbghU
gaghil
Fiwfyh.
4. Wnehia clhF bgnrh
ig nghw eR thit
136

khRgLtjF Kjik fhuahf

sFtJ
bjhrhiyUJ
bttU
Rffglhj

vbz nr
iya
bgnuh iya

uhnghF
Mahj

ji

ua

uh

jh

a
ik

KG

d
ah

ik

KG

gF

gF

khRghL Xnrh ijtiljY

ff,
bgUghyhd
fduf
bjhrhiyUJ
bttU
Mbr, fha, jhu, Fnuha,
ghjur, Jjehf, f nghwit
MW, Fs, V nghw iyf
neuoahf fywJ. tifahd
j eRbghUf fyJ m
kj gaghoF gagLj Koahj
msF khRgLjgLwJ.
bjhrhiyf UJ au
fis FgjF gagLjgL
btnawgL mf btgiyila
iyf neuoahf fyF
nghJ jhtufSF, yFfSF
F iswJ.

2. nk k m
trha yfUJ btnaw
gL bfhf, urhad
cuf fyj kW uhkwf
fhzgL a bjhrhiyf
UJ btgL mff, mdff
TLbghUfS khRgLjYF
fhuzkhwd.

flU, fKffS khRgLjgL

flth kW fiunahu cd
fSF, bgUif iswJ.

4. rhfil ff
LfUJ
btnawgL
rhfil
ff
mf
msF
mff
bghUfis,
olb#Lfis bfhoUwJ.
mff bghUf fhuzkhf
ClrJ
ms
mfwJ.
ClrJ mf fhuzkhf
jhtuf brJ tsJ
nkgu
KGtij
_LwJ.
j isthf ct ms
FiwwJ. J th yFf
wF fhuzkhwJ.
jid
nuhnf vg.

nkY mJ bfhnth
#gh dhlh gF 1952
dhlh neh vw xUj neh
fLofglJ.
jF Ka
fhuz mj gF mikJs xU
bjhrhiyUJ btnawgl
ghjur
ghOahfsh
ij
bkF vw erhf khWtnjahF. ij
cl fis kj cQnghJ
if, fhf, cjL kW kh Ma
gFf
czaW
nghd,
brLjik, ghitFiwghL,
kdiygh VglJ.
jF
dhlh neh vW bga.

3. vbz ff
vghuhj jkhf VgL gJf
fhuzkhf fj vbz fgf
kW vbz zWf VgL
ffdhY vbzahdJ fl
bfhlgL
fl
nkguig
mRjgLJwJ. j fhuzkhf

nkY mJ bfhnth
D.D.T.fhuzkhfiyfVgL
nt bgUf bkJthf xnth
iyY mfwJ. j D.D.T.
gwitf mlehsf Kil
cUthFnghJ cgahF fha
fhgndil jilbrJ njhKil
vdgL v cil jikila
bka
XLila
Kilf
cUthwd.
it
milfhF
fhyf cilJ dbgUf
jilbragLwJ.

Jehw
fyF
jik

tl goj

khRgLj is
mf
S
ahf
guj

137

ca
ct
jLghL

myF-8

ca
khRWjiy jLF Kiwf
1. bjhrhiy ffis iy
f LtjF K mtiw
Rf iyaf _ykhf
Rff ntL.
2. msF
mfkhf
ga
gLjgL bfhf,
fis
bfhf
kW
urhad cuf gaghil
fLgLj ntL.
3. Ff
bgUfij
fLgLj ca fLghil
gagLjyh.
4. rlgoahd eltoiffis nk
bfhL khRWjiy jLfyh.
5. kf k khRgLj g,
ikahd mta g
z VgLj ntL.

y
khRWjYF
Ka
fhuzfshf
kj
braghLf
mikwd.
f bghUf
nrif, isriy bgUFtjF
trhf
gagLJ
urhad
bghUf,
Ruf
bjh,
efu
kakhFj Mad jF fhuzkhF.

y khRWjYfhd fhuzfS
isfS
bjhrhiy ff kW fd
cnyhf ff, eRjik thj
mff,
mdff
TLbghUf
kW mQ ciyfUJ btnaW
fR jik bfhl ff,
yid khRgLJwJ. md
iyafUJ
btnawgL
EJff bfhl fly ash (gwF
rhg Jff)
kW mQFL
bto MatwhY y khRgLwJ.
Lff mf ms mff
bghUfis bfhoUgjh mit
mG knzhL nrwd.
vagL kUJtkid ff
fhzgL nehUf kjUF
fbga
msshd
if
iswJ.

nkY mJ bfhnth
jiy rL gut
Rjkhd Foiu bgWtjF
Jnt rahd tahF. ml
mfkhd ut J mGjij
gagL
ml
mfkhd
gFYs iu J vLgjhF.
F Mw gagLjgLwJ.
j mik gagLjgL
rthdJ iu kL jDns
bry mDkF. lbghU
bry mDkgiy. vdnt J
fl UJ cig J e
bgWtjF jFj KiwahF.

bfhf,
fis
bfhf, fk cuf nghw
ntsh
ntbghUf
Foiu
khRgLJtJl
k
ntgig kh cfSF gh
VgLJwd.

y khRWjiy fLgLJj

8.1.3.y khRghL
kj braghLf fhuzkhf
k cg w FiwJ,
yjo jik khWtjh VgL
Ugjfhj
khwfis
y
khRgLj vnwh.
138

y khRgLjiy jLf jFj

thf Kiw ffis tifgLj
Ka gF twJ.
sho,
cnyhf, jfu lghf nghwt
tifghL mbghUfis nrfJ
kW RHF cgLj ntL.
kWRHF
cgLJnghJ,
kWgaghoF
cgLJnghJ
VgL
RWNH
khRghoid

khRghL Xnrh ijtiljY

fLgLj
ntL.

eltoif

VgLj

y
bghUfis
M#
Kiy vfntL. ntW
y bghUfis M# mw
Niy vfntL.
a kufWfis eL, k
mkhdij jLJ k tsij
nkgLjyh.

8.1.4. faf khRghL

mQ FL btoj

nkY mJ bfhnth
uZah
brndh
mQ
ciy gJ cyf ms Vgl
mQ ciy gJf f
nkhrkhdJ. kuzij clhf
Toa
mQff
bttJ
tklyij ghjJ. brndh
gF thj kf #gh
nuhkh gF kfis l mf
ms ghfgld.
jhf
wj FHijf Fiwl wjd.
D gy ijuhL Wnehah
ghfgld.

mQfU ciy
faf bghUfshd nuoa,
njha,
nua
nghwt
gaghlh fhW, , y Mait
khRgLwd.
tif faf
bghUf nuhlhf, vyuhf
Matiw btgLJwJ.

faf khRfis jLF Kiwf

1. mQfU ciyUJ faf
bghUf bttUtijjLf
ntL.

isf
f
 af
cdf
khwij JLwJ.

2. faf ff ghJfhghd
Kiwf mwgLj ntL.

 luha 90 vYf goJ
vY Wnehia njhWwJ.

3. mQ iyaf mQfU

ciyf
mikgij
gJ
Vglhtz mikfntL.

m
 naho - 131 vY ki#,
ku,
z
KoR
Maitfis
jh
uj
WnehF fhuzkhwJ.

4. fLghLl
mQFL
nrhjidfis fj ntL.
139

myF-8

ca
8.1.5. x khRghL
kjDF
w
cfSF
CW isF Ugjfhj mf
xia x khRWj (x iur)
vg. x msit blg vD
ms mslyh. 120 dbF nkgL
xdh kjDF F iswJ.

nkY mJ bfhnth

gGJghg
_y
x
msit fLgLjyh.
x
bgUf gaghL, glhR
btoj
nghwtiw
fLgLJt _y x khir
bgUksF Fiwfyh. mf
Xirdh
VgL
id
kfSF vLJiuF jkhf
z
urhufis
nkbfhsyh.

b# Mfha khd

- 145 db

efu nghFtuJ

- 90 db

nkY mJ bfhnth

Jilgh

- 85 db

rhjhuzkhf ngRj

- 60 db

x_yf

Niy nfil fLgLJ

tjfhf a muR gntW rl
fis gntW fhyf iwnt
csJ.

bjhrhiy aF vuf,
nkhlh thfdf, u kW
khdfsh clhF x, xbgUF
rhjdf, fLkhd auf, L
cgnahf bghUf, glhR btoj
nghwit x khRgLj Ka
fhufshF.

t 1974 ML ghJfh
rl, 1980 ML tdrl, 1981
tUl fhW ghJfh rl, 1986
ML RWw NH ghJfh
rl, 1988 tUl nkhlh thfd
rl Mad Fl jFjit
MF.

ghf

8.2. btgkakhj

mf ms VgL xahdJ
uj ehsfis RUf brJ
jaJoig, _R Ljiy
(Rthrij)
ghF.
jiyt,
fik,
vr
nghwit
VgL kj Mf brafis
FiwF. 130 dbF nk clhF
xdh
brgiu,
cbr
kiHf ghfgL jfhf,
uju fhJnfshjik VgL. x
khRWjdh
g
khztf
ftdij VgL.

cyfs mf btgkhd ehshf

1998 tUl iy khjij TWwd.
flj 50 tUl fhy ah
btgiy f mfkhf czuglJ
1998 tUljh. f mf btgkhd
9 tUlfis flj 100 MLfSF
1988 tUlF wF Phf
flJsd. JUt gFYs
gfof btg ca fhuzkhf

x khRWjiy fLgLJ tf
1. rhiy
Xuf
kufis
tsg _y x msit
Fiwf aY.
2. aufis,
thfdfis

nkhlh
Kiwahf
140

gkiy cUFj

khRghL Xnrh ijtiljY

ntfkhf cU tUtjh fl kl
caJ tUwJ.
khahd
khwf VgLtjF vd fhuz
vw nfF ilF xnu g
cyfsha btg ca vgnj.
cyfsha btg ca vgJ
btgkiljiy, nkgu
VgL ruhr btgiy cait
FF. khahd Ugjfhj
btgiy kW fhyiy khwF
gRik y thfsh VgL gRik
y isf Ka fhuahf
csJ.

btgij, U mD
mft
ffis,
c
d mtiw ugwJ. j
fhuzkhf thf xU fzho
o fzhof vgo btgij
btna
lhk
jf
itJ
bfhwdnth mthnw btgij
jf
itJ

btgij
mfwJ.

8.2.1. gRik y is
fhW
kly
cs
y
thf Na btgij c
mgona jfitJ bfhtjh,
btgiy cawJ. jF
gRik y is vW bga. jF
fhuzkhd thfis gRik y
thf vd TWwh. fhgil
Mi[L, nj, ieu Mi[L,
FnshnuhSnuhfhg nghw thf

gRik y

gRik y

gRik
y
vgJ
mf
btgiy tsU wDila gRik
jhtuf tsfhf fzhoah
cUthfgLs xU L nghw
mik.

btgkilj

g cUFj

fl kl caj

jhtuf
VgL khWghL
ghiytd
cUthj

fiunahu bts

JUtij neh
fhLf tyir nghj

kiHbgh VgL
khWghL

fl Xj

iy fhLf
twL nghj
141

nkhrkhd fhy
iy

gtifff
VgL khWghL

myF-8

ca
gRik y thf
fhg il Mi[L
thf
Kakhf
CO2
jh mf ms ljl 31%
msF fhzgLwJ.
ijgot
bghUfis vj, tdf mj,
yFf Rthj, vkiy btoj
fkbghUf
k
mGFj
nghw fhuzfsh CO2 btgL
thklyij milwJ.

nj
Figf
fhzgL
fk
ff mGF nghJ fheilf
czbghUf brF nghJ, CH4
th cgahwJ.

ieu# Mi[L
ij gok vj, bjhrhiyf
bragLj, cGj nghw ntsh
braghLf Matwh ieu
Mi[L btahwJ.

khwf fHyh. j fhuzkhf

y gFf mf btgkhf
D
y
gFf
mf
Fuhf khw TL.
k
 iHbgh jikah VgL
khwf fhuzkhf y lf
mf kiH bgJ bgUbts
Vglyh.
jF nekhwhf y
gFf kiHna yhk tw
Vglyh.

 btgkakhdjh gfS,
tdfS,
F
isF
fshY,
neh
jhFjyh
ghfgL bga ms H
Vglyh.
k
 nyah,
blF,
kW
uh
gu nehf, btg mfkhd
gFfSF bgUks gutTL.

 btgkiltjh cy y
Ka cdf maTL,
jdh cy gtif jik
Fiw.
btgkiljiy bgnuha
bghUf gaghil Fiwgj
_yK,
tdguig
mfg
_yK Na Mw, fhW Mw, d
rhu Ma Jfjf Mw
tsfis gagLJtj _yK
Fiwf Ko.

cUF g JUt fuo

Fnshnuhnshnuh fhg
Frhjd bgof, Ffyf,
fiughf
Mat
Fghdhf gagLjgLwJ.

btgkakhj isf
f
 l btgkiltjh kl
caU, ciw gfof cU
fl klij nkY caJ.
a
fhuzkhf
cy
gyehLf gy gFf uh
_fofgL.

 btgkilj fhuzkhf fhy
iy
fbga
vghuhj
142

nkY mJ bfhnth
v ndh is:- btgkhj
fhuzkhf HF kW ka
g flgFf fhyiy
VglToa X xGfw fhyiy
khwij v ndhis vnwh.
tifahd
v ndhisf
Kfhy vnghjhtJ is
X ma isthf UjJ. Mdh
jnghJ
J
f
mfkhf,
ukhf VgL xU iyahd
khwkhf khlJ.

khRghL Xnrh ijtiljY

btgkakhjiy FiwgjF
vLf ntoa eltoiff
1. Frhjd bgof, F%of,
btg_of
Mat
gaghil
Koj
msF
Fiwfyh.
2. nkhlhthfdfgaghil
FiwJ ir gagLjyh.
3. mf
Mw
wbfhl
bghUfis thFj ntL.
4. FL gfSF gyhf CFL
gfis gagLJtj _y
rhuij fdgLJtnjhL
mf btg cUthtij jLf
Ko.
5. aif tsf gaghil
Koj
msF
FiwJ
kWgaghoF cgL, W
kWRH brayh.
6. bt
gaghil
Koj
msF Fiwfyh.
7. njitaw neuf rhu
gaghil Fiwf.
8. kufis elyh.
9. kwtfSF Mw nr
mtaij vLJTwyh.
10. L cgnahf bghUfSF
gagL
Mw
msit
gnrhjid brantL.

Mw nr sFf
rhjhuz sFfisl Mw
nr sFf Fiwjms
btrij
jjhY
iy
mfUjhY btgij Fiwthf
btna dhFtiy.

Xnrh
cUthfgL
ms,
ijfgL ms rkkhf Ugjh
thdbt
Xnrh
bkhj
ms iyahf UF. jtWjyhf
kj jfhy braghLf midJ
aif rkghil khlJ.
braghL
Xnrh
glyij
bkajh csJ (Xnrh bghj).
uhnlha
Xnrh
ms
Fiwtij Xnrh gly ij vd
TWnwh.

Xnrh gly nfL

fhuzf
th
kly
cUthF
Fnsh
kW
nuh
TL
bghUfshjh j Xnrh bghj
VgL bfhoUwJ. bghJthd
Xnrh
Fiw
bghUfshd
FnshnuhSnuhfhgf,
ij
nuhikL,
ieu#
MirLf
nghw
bghUf
Frhjd
bgof,
F%of,
Eiu
bghUf, bjhrhiy fiughf
MatUJ
Vuhskh
btnawgLwd. Jnt Xnrh
bghjYF fhuzkhF.

isf
1. kjDF njh w Wnehf,
fiu neh, nehjilfis
gh nghwit VgLwJ.
2. jhtuf isriy ghJ
cgia FiwF.
3. w Cjh ff jhf :
jhtu jit cf m,
FRf, W yhthf
Matiw ghF.

8.3. Xnrh gly ijtilj

tklyYs uhnlha
fhzgL Xnrh gly NaUJ
btnaW F isw w
Cjh ffis tofo cfSF
F
Vglhtz
jLwJ.
143

myF-8

ca
jLj
Xnrh gly HF fhuzkh
UF, bghUf cg, gaghL
kW thkly btnaw
Mait Fiwfgl ntL.
nt
bghUfis
kW
RH <LgLj ntL. Na
ffUJ
jfhJ
bfhs
ntL.

8.4. iwa ma vbz f

jnghija Ka NH ghF
fhuzkhd vbz f g
cfSF bjkh? Fghf f
mik fhy bknfh tisFlh
gFY, mbkf gFY Vgl
vbz ff, RW NHYF
fbga Mgij VgLaij kwf
ayhJ.

vbz f eidj fl gwit

vbz f vgJ kj
bragho fhuzkhf RWw
Fghf
iyf
lgL
iAnuh fhg mla bgnuha
bghUfshF. tif bghUf
frh vbz, vbz fg
fUJ, fl gF mikJs
vbz
zWf
UJ
neuoahf fl fyF

vbz fdh VgL

Niy jhf
vbz
f
fhuzkhf
yY, Y Vuhskhd khwf
VgLwd.
j
fhuzkhf
144

aa, nta kW ca
khwf VgL cf bgUksF
ghfgLwd.
vbz
f fhuzkhf fl nkgu
Fljf msF X fUgly
VgLwJ.
thW VgLw
vbz gly fl ghFiy
(Viscosity) ghfgL yFf
lbgaU jik ghfgLwJ.
vbz ff nkny
jgjh Na x CLU
jik FiwJ flth jhtufS,
jhtu
jitfS
xnrif
bra Koahk ghFshwJ.
flth
jhtu
cgahsf
ghfgLtdh
flth
cdf midJ ghfgLwJ.
th
gwitf
wFf
vbz fdh ghfgLtjh,
mitfsh wgl gwf Kotiy.
jdh mitfis bfhW Q
yFfl
khobfhwd.
gwitf
mitf
wFfis
mydh njFnghJ vbz
cbrwJ. J Wuf gh,
fu gh, tsij khw
FiwghL MatF tnfhYwJ.
vD yJ vbz
gly gotjh mj cl btgiy
FiwwJ.
frh
vbzUJ
bttU bg, blhY nghw
iAnuh fhg Mf WnehF
fhuzkhwd.
nkY jdh jiyRw, jiyt,
th, jaJo mfkhj kW
gwhFiw nghwit VgL.

vbz fit jLF Kiwf

jFj ghJfh VghLf brtj
_y gJ fhuzkhf vbz
f VgLtij jLf Ko. fl
czfis czF gagLJ
Kd mt vbz bjhW

khRghL Xnrh ijtiljY

Uwjh vW gnrhj ntL.
vbz
fit
vbzia
cbfhS
ghOah
_yK,
my cbfhS ghOah _yK
RjgLj Ko. tif braYF
ca vW bga.

tiff
csd.

xU

ghJfhgw

iy

vbz
fit
mfw
gagLJ ca Kiw
Mnlhnkhdh ghOahf gF
msgajhF.
Dr. Mdj nkhf
rug
vgt
Nnlhnkhdh
ghOahit ku bgha _y
kh vbz fit mfWtjF
gagLj Ko vd fljh.
bknfh tisFlh
fj viz f

Kig vbz f (MfL, 2010)

Nnlhnkhdh ghoah

rg fj vbz f
bknfh tisFlh gF fj
vbz f cyfs Vgl
bga vbz fthF. J fl
mokl cs vbz zWf
btoj VglJ.
vbz
f Rkh 2500 rJu ik msF
guJ flgF fbga mit
VgLaJ.
vbz f
fhuzkhf flth cfS, o
Jiw, RWyh Jiw f bga
ms ghfgLsJ. M#
Fiw kW bgnuha bghUf
eRjik
fhuzkhf
bknfh
gF cs 400F nkgl d

2010 MfL khj Kig fl

gF MSC uh kW MV fah
vw 2 vbz fgfS nkh
gJFshaj fhuz Rkh
400 l msF frh vbz
mufl
bfhlglJ.
J
mgFYs RWNHYF fl
gFYs rJy jhtufSF
bgUghig VgLaJ.

RWNH ghJfh
jdht bjhL Wtdf
C.P.R. RWNH f ika,
brid.
J
bghJkfl
RWw
nfofhd
zit
f
bgUks VgLJwJ. Wtdkhd
RWNH rkjgl rlfis
cUthFtjF RWNH thf
fF,
RWwNH
ga
z
cL
gQtjF
bgUks cj tUwJ. Jf
ty Mw cgfSF, mj
KndwF bgJ ghLgLw J.
145

myF-8

ca
brid aif Mtyf fHf

J fUjuff, Kfhf, tdyFf Miza kW nja

fhfSF kfis To brYj, onah fhf nghwt _y
bghJkfl RWwNH ga zit, Mftkhd jid
fis VgLJwJ. nkY RWw nfL, tdf m Matiw
MjJ miffis rkwJ.

MSSRF (M.S. Rthehj Muh Wtd)

vjjkhd yhg nehf, Muh <LgLs M.S. Rthehj
Muh Wtd 1998 ML WtglJ. Wtd cz gwhFiw,
flnyhu ghJfh, c bjh Ega, gYjik Matiw KW
bragL tUwJ.

kL

- m
1. glhRfis btogJ, xbgUfis u neuf gagLj jil
bragL UwJ. x khRgLtdh VgL U a isffs FL.
2.  ehis idL tif 10.10.10 mW u 10 kas sFf
KGikahf mizfgld. j bghU Tw.

- M
A
gof vbghU, fhg
nkhdhi[L, uj

B
fjf oiu Mi[L,
my kiH,
id df
mfgLj

C
gh Na x
clhF fU_l
ghit w

3.
m) nkny Twgl flf bghJthf fhzgLtJ vJ?
M) gh - Na x clhF fU_l ijnghW U izfis
cUthF.
) fl A, B cs fUJfis izJ xU a F vGJ.
4.  iyf rhfil fygdh mfUK nuhnfrD VgLwJ.
J vthW iyf Niy klyij ghwJ.
5. x khRgLjdh VgL a isfsh sF Rtbuhof ghfgl
U nfh thafis (Slogan) jahf.
6. btgkiltjh gUtiy Vuhskhd khwf ftij cznwh.
mt UkhWghLfis FLf.
146

khRghL Xnrh ijtiljY

7. xU gf kuf eLtJ, kWgf msF mfkhf kuf btlgLtJ
fwJ. it uoF il vthW rkiy VgLjyh?

-
8. Na Mw, uhw kW fl miy Mw Mait kurhuh Mw _
yfshF. khRgLjiy Fiwg t gF g F tiuf.
9. vbz fgf gJfshY, vbz tsfis M brtjhY
fl vbz f mofo VgLwd. jdh flth cdfSF
VgL isfisg F tiuf.

nkY ma
jff
1. Elements of Ecology - Clarke G.L., John wiley & sons, Newyork.
2. Fundamentals of Ecology - O
 dum E.P., W.B.Saunders Company,
Philadelphia.
izajsf
http://www.ecology.com
http://www.nationalgeographic.com

147

myF-8

ca
y jhtuf kW yFf ma bga,
bghJthd bga kW j bga
t.
v

ma bga

bghJthd
bga

j bga

1.

uhfh Xynuah

Cabbage

KilnfhR

2.

irakh
blunfhndhnyhgh

Cluster bean

bfhjtiu

3.

muh iAnghah

Ground nut

yfliy

4.

xiurh rilth

Rice (Paddy)

be

5.

thbryh %uh

Spinach

griyiu

6.

Fnuhlnyah #ah

Sunn-hemp

rzig

7.

Ifhah uhbg

Water hyacinth

Mfhajhkiu

8.

oof tnf

Wheat

nfhJik

9.

ng ghrhdh

Balsam

fhJig

10.

cFnyah ghtyhl

Bladderwort

cFnyah

11.

bfhahu rilt

Coriander

bfhJk

12.

luh[hf m~nd

Dandelion

nllah

13.

fFlh ~bs[h

Dodder plant

mikah Tj (myJ)
rljh

14.

khndhnuhgh ~nshuh

Indian pipe

ifiy fhsh

15.

mfhf nfg

Mushroom

ehFil

16.

ma gh

Onion

btfha

17.

begj fhahdh

Pitcher plant

r jhtu

18.

brhyhd ognuhr

Potato

cUisHF

19.

Fnuhf rilt

Saffron

FFk

20.

ouhuh gkhia

Sundew plant

vW
(NagJ jhtu)

21.

iknkhrh ofh

Touch-me-not plant
(Sensitive plant)

bjhlhRU
(bjhlhQ)

22.

mgh nuhoa

Amoeba

mgh

23.

ghua fhnll

Paramoecium

ghua

24.

iAouh tnf

Hydra

iAouh

25.

xah b#Fnylh

Jelly fish

behF

26.

bgsndlh mbkfhdh

Cockroach

fugh

27.

crndah ghuh~o

28.

igyh Fnshnghrh

snail

e eij

29.

ybkl ybkl

Freshwater mussel

e ko

30.

Moa %bg

Star fish

eru

31.

eh#h eh#h

Cobra

ey gh

32.

ghnth iulhl

Peacock

33.

ilnlh Mgh

Own

Mij

ahidfh nehU

148

tlhu
bga
vd?

myF 9

eik NJs
gUbghUf
ikahditah?

myF-9

nta

fhW uggl g x iw, fhW yhj g iwial

mf. iw mfF fhuz g uggl fhnw MF. UJ
fhWF iw cL vgJ bjthwJ. nj nghW kz, m, f nghw
bghUfSF Fljf iw cL. vdnt, Fljf iw, gUkid
bgWs bghUf midJ gUbghUf vd miHfgLwd.
ml fhzgL midJ
gUbghUfS _W iyf
csd,
mit, uL tiff
tifgLjgLwd.

til gfis bgWsd.

k
iy
_yTWf
xGfhd flikl Wfkhf
izfgLsd.

1. aa iy mogil
k, k, kW th vd

k
kf tiuaWfgl totij
bgUgiy. mit itfgLs
fy totijna bgWsd. it
Fljf fdms cilait.
jkhd mGjjh RUf ayh
jik cilait. btggLJ nghJ
kfis l mf ms tilJ
th
iyF
khwkilwd.
t ml kfis l
Fiw.

2. ia mogil jk, nrk

kW fyit vd tifgLjyh.

gUbghUf aa iyf
k
midJ kfS tiuaWf
gl
totij,
fdmsit
bgWsd; btgiyia bghWJ xU
k tot khwkiltiy.
mf mGj iyY RUf ayh
jikia bgWsd. bghJthf mf
mlia, btgjh jsnt

th
thfS

k
150

t i u a W fgl

th

eik NJs gUbghUf ikahditah?

totikig
fdmsit
bgUgiy. mit itfgLs
fy totijna bgWsd. nkY
js mGjjhY it mfms
RUf aY jik cilait.
btggLJ nghJ kfis l
mfms tilJ thiyF
khwkilwd. bghJthf t
ml f Fiw.

eik Rs gUbghUf
midJ ikahditah?
gUbghUfis
tifgLjyh

tUkhW

x
 nu tif gF bghUf mla
a bghU.

 uL myJ mjF nkgl Jha
bghUf fyit.
a bghU x aig, mj
gf kW ia Mat
_y zfyh.
w, kz, ml, cUFiy,
bfhiy
Ma
gf
xU
bghU
aa
gfshf
fUjgLwd. xU bghU ia
khwhj iy, mj aa
gf msjagLwd.
ntid fGnghJ xU bghU
ia khwkilwJ. rhwhf, th
iy cs jkfshd iAu#,
M#Dl izJ vw
nrkij cUthFwJ.
iAu# + M#

thgho
iAu#D
M#D
l
bgUjhY,
iAu#, M# Mat
gfUJ gf KY
ntWgLwd. eh mwhl th
vbfhS bghUfshd RthF
fhW, fhfSF gagLjgL
vbghUf Mait mayh
fUJgo ikahf iy.
xU bghU ikaw iy
fygl iy xwy. ikaw
iy vgJ fygl iyUJ
ntWgLwJ. mayhf fUJgo,
ik vgJ xnu xU gF bghUis
kL
bfhLs
bghUis
FgjhF.
ikahd
bghU
vgJ
jjik bfhl gUbghUis
cslajhF.
aiy cs xU bghU,
midJ iyfY xnu jkhd
gfis bgUF.

9.1. fyitf
a
midtUF
bjj
xU a bghUSF rhwhF.
a midJ khfS xnu
bfhiyia bgUF. Mdh
fl xU a bghU my. Vbd
fl c kW gy bghUf
fiuJsd.
thW xnu tifahd Jffis
bfhLs
bghUf ikahd
iyYs bghUfshF. Mdh
xWF nkgl tifahd Jffis

(m)
(M)
()
(<)
m) jkYs mQf M) jk _yTWf ) nrk_yTWf
<) mQ, jk, kW nrk - fyit
151

myF-9

nta
bfhLs fl , jhJf, k
nghw bghUf fyitahF.
jkf
VnjD
xU
j
mogil
aghf
fyJsitna
fyitahF.
abghUf VJ cUthtiy.

bra 9.1
tU bghUfis jk,
fyit, nrk vd tifgLJf.
(i) ik

(ii) bg

(iii) M# (iv) fhW

(v)
U + rg bgurigL

nkY mJ bfhnth

F bgurigL vgJ nrk,

fyit my. bgurigL nrk
mj gF bghUfshd U,
rg
Mat
gfis
bgUgiy.

xU
bghU
ajik
mj
aa
gfUJ
magLwJ. rhwhf tkly
mGj,
bfhiy
1000C,
ciwiy 0oC, ml 1.0 /br.3
bfhl wkw, kzkw, Ritaw
k vgJ a MF,
xU ikahd bghU jk
iynyh,
nrk
iynyh
Ufyh.

9.2. fyitf gf
fyitF
nrkF
cs
ntWghil
bjJ
bfhs,
U kW rg mla
fyitia
rhwhf
fUJnth.
F US rgU nrJ
fyitia cUthFwJ.
fyit
gf,
m
mls gF bghUf g
fisna bgWsd. vLJfhlhf,
U,
rg
nrj
fyit
gf
U
kW
rg
gfis bgWsd. fyit
mU fhjij itF nghJ,
U fhjjh ftugLwJ.
fyitia vL nghJ rg
vJ
rgilMirL
ththf
khWwJ. U kW rg
tilnaahd
ntidia
fUJf.
152

lJ - rg kW U
tyJ - bgurigL
bra 9.2

xU fh z fhg
rngL, kbwhU
z
nrhoa FnshiuL kW fhg
rng cfS itfgLsd.
Jhikahd
bghU
kW
fyitia flf.

eik NJs gUbghUf ikahditah?

fyitfSF rhWf

KbghU fyitf
- t
_W gF bghUf csd.

rhwhf - Jha11.19% (iwrjj)

iAu#D,
88.81%
(iwrjj)
M#D csd. nrkf cs
jkf khwh iw jf
bjhFig lj myJ khwh
j _y tiuaWfyh.

fhW, fl Mait jkK

iy, nrkK iy. Mdh xU
fyit.

lj (myJ) khwh j

U bghU fyitf - it uL
gF bghUfis cslaJ.

xU Jha bghU khwhj iafis

bgWsJ. Mdh xU fyit khWgL
iafis
bgWsJ.
rhwhf,
rfiu nrj fh rfiu
ms
Fiwthfnth,
mfkhfnt
Ufyh.
rfiu
xU
gF
bghUshF. JnghW fh 0-5%
<ugjK fl 3.5% -30% tiu
c Ufyh. thW xU fyit,
xF nkgl a bghUfis
gF bghUfshf bfhoUF.

xU
a nrk, vKiw
jahfglhY,
m
cs
jkf xU Fl khwh iw
jjh ToUF.
fyit tiff

xU fyitia cUthf fhuzkhf

cs
bghUf,
mfyit
gFbghUf myJ TWf MF.
bra 9.3
eik
Rs
fhW ikahdjh?
fhuz jUf.

vLJfhLf

k k

ehzaf,
cnyhffyitf

k k

fl

th k

if (fhYs
fhg Jff)

k k

urfyit

k k

Ul MfAh
fyj fyit

k th

thth gu
ftugl f

k th

nrhlh ghdf

th th

fhW

bra 9.4

nkY mJ bfhnth

xU fzho Ftis
gfofSl
Toa
gHrhW itfgLsJ.
vjid gUbghU
iyikf csd?

f gagLJ bg
cs vGJ gFahd uhig
fhgD, fkQ fyj fyit
MF.

nrk vgJ ahJ?

xU fyitah? myJ nrkkh?

nrk vgJ uL myJ mjF

nkgl jkf khwhj iw j
fyJs bghU MF. nrkf
xnu jkhd aa gfis
nta gfis bgWsd.
xU nrk cs xbthU jkK
khwhj iw rjjij bgWsJ.

nH FlgLs fhuzf
mogil xU nrkkhF.
xUgojhd ailaJ.
 bfhiy, ciwiy kW
ml
nghw
agf
xU Fl khwh kfis
bgWsJ.
153

myF-9

nta

 gf m mls
gF bghUfshd iAu#
kW M# gfUJ
ntWgLwd.

 xU Fl khwh iw
jij bgWsJ. cs
jkfshd H kW O iw j
1 : 8 MF.

fhW xU fyitah?
nrkkh?

myJ

nH FlgLs fhuzfsh
fhW xU fyitahF
fhW
khwh
iaid
bgUgiy. lF l mj
ia khwkilwJ.
xU Fl l cs fh
iaig ngh, m mls
TWfis mnj j fyJ

braifahf
fhiw
cUthf
aY. mthW
cUthF nghJ
Mw khw vJ ftiy.
k fhiw d thiy toj
nghw aa KiwF cgL
fh cs TWfis jjna
f aY.
kfhW
xU
Fl
bfhiyia bgUgiy, k
fhW -196 O C Kj -183O C btgiy
viyF bfhwJ.
fhW xU nrkkhf UFkhdh,

UJ
btnawgL
fhW, eik
NJs fhW
ia ntWglTlhJ.
Mdh
RthjnghJ, bttU fh,
rhjhuz
fh
Ugij
l
M# ms Fiwthf csJ.

bra 9.5
tUtdtiw fyit kW nrk vd tifgLJf.
i) cnyhf fyitf ii) if iii) gHrhW iv) gh (v) fh (vi) rhjhuz c
(vii) fhgil Mi[L (viii) g T (Ice Cream)
cGfgL RthrfhW

btlgL RthrfhW

78 % ieu#

78 % ieu#

20 % M#

16 % M#

0.03% fhgilMi[L

4 % fhgilMi[L

f js <ugj

Fljf ms <ugj

fhia
th
ieu#
M#
Mfh
fhgil Mi[L
ah
a

bra 9.6
M vgJ jiytia
Fzkhf
cj
kUjhF.
vKiw jahfglhY
60% fhgD,
4.5%iAu#D,
35.5%M#D iw rjj
mlUF.

iw rjj
75.50 %
23.20 %
1.0 %
0.046 %
fFiw
f Fiw

M xU fyitah? nrkkh?
154

eik NJs gUbghUf ikahditah?

9.2.1 fyitF nrkF cs ntWghLf
fyit

nrk

jkf
VnjD
xU
j
mogil aghf fyJsd.
a bghU vJ cUthtiy.

jkf Fl j mogil
nta Kiw izJ a
nrkij cUthFwd,

fyit,
iyahd
cUFiy,
bfhiy kW ml Ma
gfis bgUgiy.

nrkf,
bfhiy
bgWsd.

fyit
gf
m
mls gF bghUf
gfis xJsd.

nrk gf m mls
gF bghUfsha jkf
gfUJ ntWgLwd.

fyit xU gojhd iynyh,

gygojhd iynyh Ufyh

nrkf xU gojhd iy aig

kL bgWsd.

tofLj,
fhjjh
j
nghw aa Kiwf _y xU
fyit cs gF bghUfis
jjna f aY.

aa Kiw _y xU nrk
cs jkfis jjna f
ayhJ.

iyahd
kW

cUFiy,
mlia

bra 9.7
FLst aa kW nta khwf vit? vgij
FLf.
i) U JUoj ii) gfo cUFj iii) ij KisJ broahf tsj
iv) cnyhf mYaij jflhf khWj v) bkGFt vj

9.3. fyitf tiff

uL tifahd fyitf csd.
mit,
i) xUgojhd fyit
ii) gygojhd fyit

9.3.1 xUgojhd fyit kW

mt tiff

miHfgLwd. _W tifahd
xUgojhd fyitf csd.
k iyikyhd xUgojhd
fyit - cnyhf fyitf
k iyikyhd xUgojhd
fyit - fyj MfAh
th iyikyhd
fyit - fhW

xnu xU
aa iyikia
(phase) bfhLs fyit xUgojhd
fyit MF. xU Fl xUgojhd
fyit, xnu tifahd gid
bgUF. btntW xUgojhd
fyitf, gf ntWgLwd.
xUgojhd fyitf fiurf vW

c
fiur

155

ml
Fj
nj

xUgojhd

ml
Fiwj
nj

myF-9

nta
bra 9.8

bra 9.9

Ul xU J ik
fyfgLwJ. J
xUgojhd fyitahf
khWkh?
myJ gygojhd
fyitahf khWkh?

fhg
rng
c
fiufgl fiur xU f
vLJ
bfhsgLsJ.
fyit xUgojhd fyitah?
gygojhd fyitah? fhuz TWf.

9.3.2 gygojhd fyit kW

mt tiff
gygojhd fyitf xWF
nkgl iyikfis bgWsd.
xU Fl gygojhd fyit, xnu
tifahd gid bgUgiy.
xnu
fyit
cs
btntW
iyikfis
neilahf
f
_ykhfnth
myJ
Enzh
cjahnyh
fhzyh.
gygojhd
fyit cs iyikf xnu
aa iynyh myJ btntW
aa iyfnyh Ufyh.

bra 9.10
xUgojhd kW gygojhd
fyit vd tifgLJf.
i) nj ii) ik iii) gHf
fyit ( Fruit Salad ) iv) rfiu
fiur

k - k gygojhd fyit - rfiul c fyj fyit

k - k gygojhd fyit

- gfol nrj fyit

th iyik gygojhd fyit

- if fyj fhW

gUbghU tifgLJj -

sf tiugl

gUbghU
a bghUf

fyitf
khWgL ia.
aa Kiwf v
bjLf aY.
aa iy khf iy.
xUgojhd fyit

khwhj ia.
aa Kiwf v f
ayhJ.
Fl aa khf csd.

gygojhd fyit

xU fyit
f
 yit KGtJ
ntWgL
khwhj iaf.
iaf.
gF
bghUfis
gF bghUfis
ja ayhJ.
jayh.

156

jkf
x
 nu tifahd
mQfis
bgwit.

nrkf

 uL myJ
nkgl
jkf
Fl iw
j csd.

eik NJs gUbghUf ikahditah?

9.4. fyit gF
bghUfis j
bjhW
bjhnl
bghUfis
bjLF Kiwfis mtiw
JhikgLJ Kiwfis kf
gagL tUwd. jnghJ,
nta
bjhTlf
gagLjgL
vbghUf,
cuhit
jLF
bghUf
kW y nta _ybghUf
Mait vbz Wtdfsh
frh vbzUJ bjLf
gLwd.

5. d : xWl xW fythj
U utf mla fyit
UJ mtiw
jjahf
bjLj.
6. gjfkhj : uL kf
mla fyitUJ gjfkhF
aila
kij
kL
bjLj
7. wgF Kiw : gu ftugL
jik ntWgL bghUfis
bjLj.
bra 9.11
x
 U f rkms rhjhuz
cig ikjh khit vLJ
bfhf.

jhJf UJ cnyhffis,
mnyhffis
bjLg
Rufbjh KagF twJ.

m
 Jl iu nrJ
eF fyFf. kh
c Ul VgL
fiuwfis
ftf.

kUJf jahF Wtdfsh,

aif kW braif kUJf
bjLfgL
JhikgLj
gLwd.
M Tl, xU fyit cs
gFbghUf gntW Kiwf
jjna fgLwd. mt
y aa Kiwf tUkhW,
1. bja itJ Wj : k
fiuahj aila bga Jff
mla kij mkUJ
bjLj.
2. tofLj : k fiuahj a
bfhl fa Jff mla
kij,
mkUJ
bjLj.
3. thiy toj : v MahF
k
fiuJs,
v
Mahfh jiks kij
bjLj.
4. d thiy toj : bfh iyf
mf ntWghL cila uL
myJ mjF nkgl kfis
jjna bjLj.

 J neu kh,
f moghf gotij
ftf. U bghUfis
j
jna
gjF
bghUjkhd Kiw xid
FLf.

9.4.1. gjfkhj Kiw

fyitia j
v Mahfhj jik cila
k bghU UJ v
MahF a cila k
bghUis J vLgjF Kiw
gagLwJ.
k iy UJ xU bghU
neilahf th iyF khWtJ
gjfkhj vdgL.
ca
btg
iy,
v
MahF k _yTWf
xiw L xW y brtj
157

myF-9

nta
isthf k bghU th iyF
khw milwJ.
rhjhuz
c
mnkha
FnshiuL c fyj fyitia
fUJnth. uL kiy
cf MF. rhjhuzc btgjh
v
MahF
agwJ.
mjhtJ
gjfkhF
jikawJ.
mnkhaFnshiuL c gjfkhF
ailaJ.
vdnt
gjfkhj
Kiw
mnkhaFnshiuil,
rhjhuz cUJ bjLfyh.

2
1. k _yTWf
Mahj
2. mnaho goff
Mahj

bra 9.12
x
 U fh z rhjhuz
c kW fu fyj fyitia
vLJ bfhf.

 fh zij jh
WJf.

3. cy gfo gjfkhj
(fhg il MirL gfo
tot)

 fh z J xU
diy jiyHhf fJ
itf.

gR

 d jL ghf wid
gdh milf.

jiy Hhf
fJ
itfgl
d

fh zij btggLJf.

mnkha
FnshiuL goff

 F VgL aa khwij
flf.
mnkha
FnshiuL M

nkY mJ bfhnth

gjfkhF
kfshtd

rhjhuz c
mnkha FnshiuL
fyit

a i la

fu
ehj
bgrh my
mnaho
mnkha FnshiuL.

158

eik NJs gUbghUf ikahditah?

9.4.2. x
 Wl xW fythj kf
mla fyitia bjLj

d
kbziz

milgh

9.4.3 xWl
xW
fyF
aila kf mla
fyitia bjLj
xWl xW fyF aila
kf
mla
fyit
UJ mkfis jjna
bjLf
bghUjkhd
Kiw
d
thiytoj
MF.
Kiw mogil jJt, U
kf bfhiyf FiwjJ
25oC btgiyyhtJ ntWgoUf
ntL'' vgjhF.

xWl xW fythj kfis

d
cjah
jjna
fyh.

4
1

kbziz, U
fyj
fyitia fUJnth. it uL
xWl kbwhW fythj kf.
vdnt d cjah kfis
f aY. ml Fiwj k
nk mLY, ml mfkhd k
mLYkhf wJ.
bra 9.13
k
 bziz U fyj
fyitia vLJ bfhf.
fyitia d CWf.
d
thgFia
milghdh _oLf.
10 lf fyitia eF
FYLf.
15 lf jh diy
WLf.
kfilna
VgL
khwij flf.
nk mLF kW mLF
kfis ftf.
U mLFf njhWtj
fhd jJtij FLf.

6
7

3
5

1. TFLit
2. bg, blhY fyit
3. r vFHh
4. Fgh
5. Fgh cns Fj brYj
6. FghUJ Fj btnaWj
7.thiy to k
8.btgiykh

b
 g kW blhY Ma
U kf mla fyitia
fUJnth.
U kfS xWl xW
fyF ailait.
d
thiytoj
Kiw
U kfis jjna
fyh.
bg k bfhiy 353 K
blhY k bfhiy 384 K
U
kf
bfhiy
ntWghL 31 K MF.
159

myF-9

nta
bra 9.14

t
 hiy toF FLit, MfAh kW Ma kfis vLJ
bfhf.
th gF xU btgiykhia bghUJf.
gf FHhl xU Fghid izf.
fyitia eF btggLJf.
M
 fAh Kj Mah btnaWwJ. Fghdh MfAh
Mia FJ kkhf nrff.
FLit kLnk vUgij fhf.

jk, nrk kW fyitia flj

gUbghU

iy
v

M
v

xU iy csjh?
gygojhd fyit

xUgojhd fyit

iy
v

M
v

khWgl iaig
bgWsjh?

iy
v

abghU

M
v

va bghUshf f aYkh?
jk

nrk

160

xUgojhd
fyit (fiur)

eik NJs gUbghUf ikahditah?

kL
- m
rahd ilia njbjLJ vGJf.
1) e
 h gagLJ bg cs vGj cj gF uhig vD bghUsh
MdJ. j uhig __________ nrj fyitahF. (fhgD fkQ,
fkQ ieu#D)
2)
 a vgJ xU nrk. iAu# 11.19% kW M# __________
vw iw j csJ. (88.81% , 31.81%)
3) e
 hza vgJ k k nrj fyit tif if vgJ __________
nrj fyitahF. (th k, k th)
4)
 y bghUfS mtWl bghUjhj izbghUfS bfhLfgLsd.
rahf bghUJf.
m) fhW

th th

M) fl

k k.

) Fghd

k th

<) ur fyit

k k

5) g
 UbghUfYs gFbghUfis gntW tifahd Kiwf
ikgLjgLwd. k fhiw __________ vw aa KiwF
cgL f Ko. (d thiy toj, thiy toj, gjfkhj)
6)
 U JUoj vgJ nta khw. J nghW gfo cUFj
vgJ __________ vdyh (aa khw, nta khw).

- M
7)
 a bghU xnu khahd Jffis bgUF. fl vgJ a bghUsh?
iyah? - fhuz TWf.
8) n
 rk vgJ uL myJ mjF nkgl jkf, khwhj iw j
fyJs bghU MF. nrk gf uoid TWf.
9) x
 nu xU iyikia bgw fyit xU gojhd fyitahF. xWF nkgl
iyikia bgWsJ gygojhd fyit MF. nkfl TWfis eF
J tifF X cjhuz vGJf.
10)
 l iy cs fuij fhWgLgo itjh mJ th iyF
khLwJ. J xU aa khw. khw bgaiu TWf. cfSF
bjj cjhuz xW TWf.
11) m) k
 bziz U fyj fyitia f __________ Kiw cjwJ.
(thiy toj, d)
M) r
 hjhuz c mnkha FnshiuL fyj fyitia f __________
cjwJ (gjfkhj, wgF Kiw).

161

myF-9

nta

12) A
 vw k bfhiy 353K. B vw k bfhiy 384K. it
uL xWl xW fyF jik cilait. it uil d
thiy toj'' Kiw fyh. kfis f Kiwia ifahs
fhuz TWf.

-
13. fyit jkf VnjD xU j mogil fyJsd.
m) fyit, nrkUJ vthW ntWgLwJ?
M) fyit tiff ahit?
) xbthU tifF X vLJfhL jUf.
14. m
 l cs midJ bghUfS _W iyf csd. mit k,
k, th MF.
m) k bghU tiuaWfgl totij bgUf fhuz TWf.
M) k bghU gf uoid TWf.
) xU kbghUis Nnldh til. V?

nkY ma
jf
General Chemistry (Second Edition) - Jean B.Umland & Jon M.Bellama

izajs
http://www.tutorvista.com

162

West publishing company

myF 10

mQ mik

myF-10

nta

f xid vLJbfh. mjid gy TWfshf cilJ, xbthU Tiw

eF brJ Ea Jffshf khWf. xbthU JfY mQf
mlsd. mQf vj xU JfS iy. mQfis f ayhJ
vd K fUjglJ. Mdh, jnghJ xbthU mQ mjD a Jffis
cslaJ vd mayhf flJsd. mQ csik rhj
Mf, mjifa a mogilJf Ugij cWbrwd.
mayhf a mQ bfhiff, ma vthW ts
milJ tUwJ vgjF wj rhwhf sFwJ. gy mayhf
a fLofSF jj Ezit gagLsd. Vfdnt,
bjfgl bfhiff, a Mf isthf gy khwfSF
cgLjgL a bfhiffshf tiuaWfgLwd. mbfhiff nkY
a fLofSF mogilahf mikwJ. J.J. jh[ mQbfhif,
mQf eLiy jikia sa nghJ, mbfhifah mQ
cs mQfU ga fUJfis sf ayiy. mQfU ga a
bfhifia, 1909M ML vd UjnghL mKfgLdh.

10.1 mQfU fLo

nkY mJ bfhnth

UjnghL braghL
xU bka cnyhf jfo J
Mgh ffis Hbr nghJ VgL
khwfis UjnghL M brjh.

vd UjnghL
(1871-1937)
vd UjnghL
vD
oZ
aayh
Mgh
Jffis gagL
faf M _y
mQfis ga M <Lglh.
UjnghL ``mQfU aa
jij
vd
miHfglh.
mQmik Muhfhf 1908M
ML nehg gid bgwh.

M
 gh Jff vgit A&a
maf He2+.
xU Mgh Jf iw, X
vyuh iwiangh 8000
klF mf.
Mgh Jff irntf
VwFiwa 2 x 10 7 /beho.
brYjglJ. bgUghyhd Mgh
Jff jfoD nenfhL ghij
CLU brwd. y Mgh Jff
ruhrahf 900
nfhz yf
miljd. f mjhf 20000 Jff
xW kL cnyhf mQfU J gL
1800 nfhz yf miljJ.
j
MUJ,
mQ
ikagF
a
cUts
mf ne Rikila cfU
lbgWsJ vd fljh.

10.2. Ujngho nrhjid

1
4.5 x 10-5 br. jok cs bka
2
jfjfo Cnl, MghJffiw
3
1. CLU brYj
4
2. Xus yf miljit
Mgh Jf
3. mf ms yf miljit
fiw
4. 1800 nfhz ms Ugglit

xU jfmQ J Mgh Jff nkhJtij FF tiugl.

mQ ikagF mQfU fhlgLsJ.
164

mQ mik
10.3. %jnghL mQbfhif

bra 10.1

%jnghL bfhifgo,

%jnghL M,

X mQ fa ml
mfKs
neRik
bfhl
mQfU
csJ.
mQ
bgUgFahd
btl
mQfUit
R
vyuhf
l bgWsd. j vyuhf
mQfUit R ntfkhf efUtjh,
it mQ bgUghyhd fdmsit
Muwd. j vyuhf
mQfUit Rs ilbt
mntf aFwd.

1) bgUghyhd Mgh ff vj
gh cnyhfjfil
CLU brwjF fhuz ahJ?
2) xU y Mgh Jff kL
yf miljjF fhuz ahJ?
3) mQ
cUtsnthL
xLif,
mQfU
cUts ajh? bgajh?
nkY mJ bfhnth
xU Eh xU Kid fiy
fo, jid R mfiw
xU Wt RWtjhf fUJnth.
f ntfkhf RwgL nghJ, mf
fdmsit
f
Mugij
fhzyh. Jngh mQfUit
R
vyuhf
ntfkhf
aFnghJ mit mf fdmsit
Muwd.

cfU

vyuhf

10.3.1 tuf
fhj bfhifgo, ntfkhf
a
bfhoUF
vyuh
bjhlJ Mwiy Hf ntL.
thW Mwiy Hgjh, vyuh
mQfUit RtU ghij RU
W mQfUD H ntL.
thW fjh mQ mj iy
jikia Hf neL. Mdh mQ
iy jik cilaJ. jdh
%jnghL bfhif mQ iy
jikia sf ayiy.

ngh (1885-1962)
blkh
cs
nfhg
nAf ngh 1885 M ML
mnlhg 7M nj wjh. t
xU wj fhgJ uU Mth.
khbrl
gfiyfHf
UjnghLl
gahdh.
ngh bfhif, ed aayhd
Fthl bfhifF mogilahf
mikjJ. 1922 aaYfhd
nehggir bgwh.

cfU

vyuh

165

myF-10

nta
10.4. ngh mQbfhif
%jnghL
mQkh
Ujf nkbfhL, ngh
a
mQkh
bfhiffis
cUthdh.
X mQ vyuh iyahd
tlghij mQfUit R
tUwd.
tl
ghijf
MLf myJ Mw klf
vd miHfgLwd.
Xnu tlghij vyuhf
R tUif Mwiy Hgnjh
Vgnjh iy.
tl ghijf 1, 2, 3, 4 myJ
K, L, M, N vd bgalgLwd. j
vf Kjik Fthl vf (n)
vdgL.
M cUts ajhf UF
nghJ, mj MwY Fiwthfnt
UF.
_whtJ
Mw kl
(M - M)
ulhtJ
Mw kl
(L - M)

n = 1 (K M)
n = 2 (L M)

n = 3 (M M)

M
vyuhf cfUit RtU
ghij M vdgL.

10.5. uhf fLo

1932 n# rh vD
mayh bga cfUit, Mgh
fuh jhdh. nuhlhfSF
izahd
iw
cs
Jff
btnad. JffSF Rik
VJ iy. it uhf vW
miHfgld.
bga + Mgh f fhg + uh

nkY mJ bfhnth
uhf
vif
=
iwv
nuhlhf
vif (mQ v)

uhf waf

Kj Mw
kl (K - M)
cfUUJ
bjhiy
mfF nghJ, Mo MwY
izahf mfwJ.
xU Mw kl (n) lbfhS
vyuhf mfgr vif
2n2 MF.
vyuh Mwiy cR nghJ,
Fiwj Mw klUJ ca
Mw klF jhwJ.
ca Mw kl UJ
Fiwj Mw klF vyuh
lbgaUnghJ Mwiy bt
LwJ.
166

uhf Rikaw Jff,

mjhtJ eLiyahd Jff
iAu# mQit ju, Vida
mQf cfU uhf
l bgWsd.
xU uh iw, VwFiwa xU
nuhlh iwF rk.
uhf
vif
ntWgL xnu jk mQf,
Inrhnlhf vdgL
uhD
mQ
bghUshfnt fUjgLwJ.

gF

10.6. mogil Jff

waf
xU

jk

kW

nrk

mQ mik
aa,
nta
gfis
mt
mls
mQ
mogilJffis bghWJ sf
aY. xU mQ mogil
Jffshtd,

bra 10.2
 11 nuhlhf, 11 vyuhf
A
kW 12 uhf csd.
 15 nuhlhf, 15 vyuhf
B
kW 16 uhf csd.

nuhlhf : it neRik
cila Jff. it xU mQ
cfUD csd.

 4 nuhlhf, 4 vyuhf
C
kW 5 uhf csd.

vyuhf : it vRik
cila Jff. Jff cfUit
tlghijf R tUwd.
uhf : it eLiyahd,
Rikaw Jff. Jff
cfUD csd.

10.6.1. cfU mik

vyuhf iw, ff Fiw
MF.
vdnt
wffjfJ.
Mfnt X mQ fu iw, mj
cfU iwiana rhJsJ.
X mQ cfU uL TWfis
bfhlJ.
mit
nuhlhfS,
uhfS MF.


v
A, B kW C
jkfis flf.

10.7. mQv kW iw v
mQ v
X mQ nendw bgw
nuhlhfS,
v
ndw
bgw vyuhfS csd vgJ
ekF
bjjnj.
bkhj
mQ
RikawJ,
Vbd
nuhhfS,
vyuhfS
rk
vif l bgUgjh
MF. btifna mQv
vdgLwJ.

nuhlhf neRikila
Jff,
xj
Rikia
bgUgjh
nuhlhf
xiwbahW yF jikia
bgWwJ. fa cUts bfhl
iyahd
cfU
uhf
xWF nkgl nuhlhf
lbfhs ayhJ.
uhJf, cfU cs
nendw
bgw
nuhlh
JffSilna
y
yF
iria Fiwgj _y, cfU
cs
Jff
midij
csla iyahd cfU cUthf
fhuzkhwJ.
nuhlh
uh
cfU

Ma

X mQ mQ viz,
cfU cs nuhlhf
vif (myJ)
cfUit
R
tUw
vyuhf vif vd
tiuaWfyh.
bra 10.3
FLs
jkf
mQ vfis Fl aYkh?
i) bga ii) fhg iii) ieu#
iv) ah v) bka

iw v
X mQ iw mj cfU
iwia bghWnj mikwJ vgij
eh
bjUnwh.
XuyF
iwahf, f vil Fiwj jkkhd
167

myF-10

nta
iAu#
mQ
mQiwna
mogil myfhf fUjgLwJ. X
mQ cfU nuhlhfS,
uhfS Ugjh, X mQ
cfU cs nuhlhf kW
uhf
viff
TLjny, mtQ iw v MF.
iw v( A ) = nuhlhf
vif + uhf
vif

nkY mJ bfhnth
vil Fiwthd mQf cfU
iyjikF, xU nuhlhDF
xU uh vw j nghJkhdJ.
vil mfkhd, fdkhd mQf
cfU
iyjikF,
nuhlhf
vifia
bghWJ
mf
vif
uh j mikwJ. vdnt
xU cfU iyjikF
uh-nuhlh
jnk
mogil fhuzkhf mikwJ.

bra 10.4
tU mltizia brf.
d

mQv nuhlhf vif

nghu

nrhoa

11

ghgu

15

ah

10

uhf
vif

mQv, iwvfis FLj

nkY mJ bfhnth

xU Fpo nk cs v,
iw viz cs v
mQviz
FLwd.
rhwhf,

Fnsh
d
mQiw
kilaJ. Vbd Fnsh-35
cs mQf 75% - K kW
Fnsh - 37 cs mQf 25%K csd.

ieu# jk mQv 7, iw
v 14 v iw viz mQ
viz 7N14 vd Flyh.

vdnt Fnsh mQ
ruhr mQiw =

{ }{ }

75 x35
25 x37
+
= 35.5
100
100

bra 10.5
tUtdtW vjkf
xnu vifyhd uh
fis bgWsd?

10.8. Inrhnlhf
mbkf mayh T.W. r,
btntW lfUJ nrffgl
by (fha) khf mQiw
btntwhf Ugij flJ
awh. xnu jk mQf
midJ
xnu
jkhf
iy
vgijna bra vLJiuwJ.

1. a 3Li7
2. fhg 6C12

3. ieu# 7N14
4. bga 4Be8
5. M# 8O16
168

mQ mik
xnu jk mQf midJ
ntgf xUj iyY,
mt
mQiw
kf
ntWgLwd vgJ bjthwJ.

bra 10.6
(i)  FlgLs Inrhnlh
f
cs
uhf
v ifia fzLf.

xj mQv kig ntWgl

iw v kfis bfhl xnu
jk mQf Inrhnlhf
vW miHfgLwd.

(m) 1H1, 1H2, 1H3 (M) 17Cl35, 17Cl37

(ii) fzLf KoUJ
mtbjd?

nuhlh
uh

jk

Li

Inrhnlh

iAu#

nuhoa
oOa
ooa

6
Li
3

Fnsh

a Inrhnlhf

fhg

Inrhnlhf waf
xnu
jk
Inrhnlhf,
mt
iw
vf
kL
ntWgLwd.

nua

uhf
vif
ntWgLtjh, mt iw vfS
ntWgLwd.

FpL
1H

1H

2 (myJ)

1D

3
1H
3
1T

Fnsh - 35

17

cl35

Fnsh - 37

17

cl37

fhg - 12

6C

12

fhg - 14

6C

14

nua - 235

92U

235

nua - 238

92U

238

bra 10.7
nuh jk uL tifahd
Inrhnlhfis bgWsJ.

xU jk Inrhnlhf xj
nta gfis bgWsd.

nuh - 79 (49.7%) ,

vD
ntgf
Inrhnlhf J khWgLwd.

nuh- 81 (50.3%) v,

nuh
mQ
Inrhnlhfis
bfhLs
mQiwia fzLf.
jk mQf, d mQiwfis
bgWsd.
uh
vyuh
nuhlh

nuhoa mQ
(rhjhuz iAu#)

(myJ)

ooa mQ
(fd iAu#)

169

ooa mQ
(faf iAu#)

ruhr

myF-10

nta
Inrhnlhf gaf
kUJt
Jiw
gy
jk
Inrhnlhf gagLjgLwd.
ujnrhif
neh
ir,
U-59 Inrhnlh gagLwJ.
KfGJfHiy
neh
irF, mnaho-131 Inrhnlh
gagLjgLwJ.
nfhgh-60 Inrhnlh, Wneh
ir gagLwJ.
f
kUjt
Inrhnlh gagLwJ.

ghgu-32

fhg -11 Inrhnlh

_is
Ezh irF gagLwJ.
bra 10.8
bfhLfgLs
y
jkf
ruhr
mQiw
kfUJ, vjk Fiwj
vif
Inrhnlhfis
bgWsJ vd flf.
Fnsh

35.5

iAu#

1.008

M#

16.0

10.9. mQf
mik

vyuh

xbthU mQ nuhlhfS,
uhfS mla nendw
cs cfUit bfhLsJ vgJ
eF bjjnj. v ndw cs
vyuhf Fl tlghijf
cfUit R tUwd. it
MLf
vwiHfgLwd.
cfUF mUfhik cs tl
ghijUJ mit 1, 2, 3, 4 myJ
K, L, M, N vd bgalgLwd.
xU tlghij lbfhS
mfgr vyuhf vif
2n2 vw thghlh fzlgLwJ.
n vgJ tlghij vif.
170

n = 1 v, Kj tlghij MF.

lbgW
vyuhf
2
vif = 2 x 1 = 2 MF.
n = 2 v, ulhtJ tlghij
MF. lbgW vyuhf
vif = 2 x 2 2 = 8 MF.
n = 3
v _whtJ tl
ghijahF.

lbgW
vyuhf vif = 2 x 3 2 = 18
MF.
Kj
tlghij
KGtJkhf
vyuhfsh
uggl

ulhtJ
tlghij
vyuhf
ug
MuwJ.
JnghW ulhtJ tlghij
ua _whtJ tlghij ug
MuwJ. Mdh,
_whtJ
tlghij KGikahf u Kdnu
ehfhtJ tlghij vyuhf
ug bjhlFwJ. J Fthl
vf
rhj bfhif _y
sfgLwJ.
thW
cfUit
Rs
xbthU MoY vyuhf
uggLs
vifia
FLtnj
vyuh
mik
vdgL. jkf kW mt
nrkf bgUghikahd gf
vyuh mikigna rhJsd.
jkf
vyuh
mikig
fla, mQ Kjik Fthl
v kig bjUj ntL.
Kjik Fthl v vgJ
X mQ lbgWs bkhj
tlghij
myJ
MLf
vifia FgjhF.
rhwhf,
nrhoa mQit fUJnth.
nrhoa jk mQv = 11
vdnt nrhoa mQ
bkhj vyuhf = 11

cs

mQ mik

gL

y jkf kW
vyuh mik

vyuhf
vif
2
2n = 2 x 12
= 2 vyuhf
2
2n = 2 x 22
= 8 vyuhf
jKs vyuh
=1

1 ( K -M)
2 ( L-M)
3 ( M-M)

mt

vyuh
g

vyuhf

jk

mQ v

Mf
(g)

iAu#

2,1

2,2

2,3

2,4

vyuh
mik

(H)

vdnt nrhoa mQ vyuh

g 2, 8, 1 MF.

ieu# vyuh g (2,5).

-

(He)

(Li)

nkY mJ bfhnth
jkf
vyuh
mikF rhwhf gagLtJ
mQwkhiy M MF.

bga

(Be)

bra 10.9
nH FlgLs jk
f vyuh gfis vGJf.
jk
a
nghu
q
bka
ghgu

mQ
v

nghu

vyuh
g
K
L
M

(B)

3
5
9

fhg

12

(C)

15

171

myF-10

nta

ieu#

2,8,3

2,5
mYa

2,6

2,7

ghgu

(F)

ah

10

2,8

rg

2,8,5

11

16

2,8,6

17

2,8,7

18

2,8,8

(S)

2,8,1

Fnsh

(Cl)

(Na)

bka

15

(P)

(Ne)

nrhoa

14

2,8,4

(Si)

(O)

13

(Al)

(N)

M#

vyuh
mik

vyuh
g

jk

mQ v

vyuh
mik

vyuh
g

jk

mQ v

y jkf kW mt vyuh mik

12

2,8,2

Mfh

(Ar)

(Mg)
172

mQ mik
10.9.1. izw vyuh
izw

kW

X mQ bttlghij
lbgWs vyuhf nt
izf
gF
twJ.
j
vyuhf izw
vyuhf vdgL.
X mQ cs bttlghij
myJ M, mtQ izw
tlghij myJ izw M
vdgL.
izw
Mo
lbgWs vyuhf izw
vyuhf vW miHfgLwd.
izw
vyuhf
vifia FL vk,
mjk izwid fzl
gagLwJ.
X
mQ
kbwhU
mQl iz w, mtQ
izwdh zfgLwJ.

sf :
a mQ (mQ v = 3)
vyuh g
(n =1 ) K M = 2 vyuhf

bttl vyuhf vif = 1

vdnt,
a mQ izw = 1 MF
X mQ bttlghij
cs vyuhf vif, m
KGikahf lbgW vyuhf
vifF mUfhik U,
(Fghf L MLF 8 vyuhf)
mQ izw tU thghL
_y fzlgLwJ.
izw = 8 - izw vyuhf
rhwhf,
q mQ (mQ v = 9)
vyuh g
n

vyuhf
g

L
bttl
ghij
7 vyuhf csd. k KG
vifahd 8-F mUfhik
csjh,

(n =2) L M = 1 (jKs vyuh)

izw = 8 - 7 = 1 MF.

bttlghij L MF.

bra 10.10
izw vyuhfis, izwid fzLf.
jk

mQv

iAu#

nghu

fhg

bka

12

mYa

13

izw
vyuhf

173

izw

myF-10

nta
kL
- m
rahd ilia njbjLJ vGJf.

1) x
 U Mw kl cs vyuhf mfgr vifia
fzl cj thghL 2n2 (n = 1,2,3.....) v Kj Mw kl cs
vyuhf vif __________ MF.
2)
 nuhlhid fljt nfhLO. J mQ cfU csJ. J
__________ jik cilaJ ( v , ne, eLiy ).
3)
 J xU cg mQ Jf. J mQ cfUit tlghij R tUwJ.
J v Rik cilaJ. jid fljt bga J.J. jhr. j Jf
bgaiu TWf.
4) 3 Li7 vw jk cs uhf vif 4 v 8O16 vw jk
cs uhf vifia fzLf.
5) X
 mQ cfU vgJ uL TWfis cilaJ.
kbwhW __________ ( uh, vyuh ).

xW nuhlh.

6) X
 mQ cfU cs nuhlhf kW uhf vifna
iw v vdgL. tU jk nuhlhf vifia
fzLf.
jk
nrhoa (Na)

iw v
23

nuhlhf
vif
?

uhf
vif
12

7) 17
 Cl35 - vw jk mQ v 17. iw v 35 v jk cs
nuhlhf vifia TWf.
8) K
 fGJfHiy nehia FzgLj
(mnaho - 131, ghgu - 32, U -59).

cj

Inrhnlh

__________

9) x
 U mQ bttlghij cs vyuhf izw vyuhf
vdgL. S jk vyuh g 2,7 v j izw k
ahJ?
10) nrhoa vyuh g 2, 8, 1 v jDila izw k vd?
11) X
 mQ nuhlhfS vyuhfS vif rk. Mdh it
v v Rik cilait. uh Rik mwJ. jdh mQ
jik vgo UF vd f.

174

mQ mik
- M
12) mQ cs vyuhf iyahd tlghij R tUwd.
m) nkfh Tiw Tat bgaiu vGJf.
M) j tlghij bga TWf.
13) 7N14 - vw jk vyuh g K = 2 v L To Uf ntoa
vyuhf vifia TWf.
14) 17
 X35 vw jk xU th. j mQ v 17. iw v 35. cs
vyuhf, nuhlhf kW uhf vifia TWf.
15) kUJtJiw gy jk Inrhnlhf gagLjgLwd.
m) ujnrhif nehia FzgLJ Inrhnlh vJ?
M) f kUJt gagL Inrhnlh vJ?
16) fl jkf vyuh gfis TW.
jk
nghu
bka

vyuh g

mQ v

5
12

2
-

17)
 fl mltizUJ, izw vyuhfis iz wid
vGJf.
jk
fhg
mYa

iz w
vyuhf

mQ v

izw

6 (2,4)
13 (2,8,3)

18) x
 j mQ vQ khWgl iw vfis cila xnu jk mQf
Inrhnlhf MF. iAu# Inrhnlhfis TWf.

175

myF-10

nta
-
19) KGikahf us tl ghijfis bgaLf.
jk

mQ v

ieu#

ah

10

bka

12

rg

16

Mfh

18

KGikahf us
tlghijia bgaLf

20) bghUJf
(i)

ne ml mfKs gF

izw

(ii)

eLiy Jf

mQv

(iii)

bttlghij

cfU

(iv)

bttlghij cs
vbyuhf

izw tl

(v)

nuhlhf vif

uh
nuhlh

nkY ma
jf
Advanced Inorganic Chemistry - Satya Prakash, G.D.Tuli,

S.Chand & Company Ltd.

izajsf

http://www.shodor.org
http://www.chemguide.co.uk.

176

myF 11
H H

Cl

Cl

H H

O O
H H

Cl

Cl

O
O

ntrkghL

myF-11

nta
11. ntrkghL

jhtuf mtF njitahd czit (fhnghiAnuil) xnrif

_y jahwd. xnrifF i) Nax ii) fhg ilMi[L iii)
iv) gira Mait aikahjit MF. xnrif fit RUfkhf,
rkghL to tUkhW Flyh.
fhgilMi[L +

Nax

gira

fhnghiAnu+ M#

thW ntidf rhj gufis bjhFJ, RUfkhf bjgJ

ntrkghLf MF. xU ntidFa ntrkghil vGJtjF,
mid <LgL bghUf, id _y cUthF bghUf
Matiw eF mUj ntL.

11.1. m
 a kW ma
bjhFf tiff

Hgjh, nrhoa mQ +1 ndw

bgw nrhoa maahf khWwJ.

xU jkUJ
kbwhU
jkF
vyuhf
gkhwgLtjh, ndw bgw
maf
cUthwd.
nrhoa
nghw
mf idw
cila
cnyhf mQ, mnyhfjik bfhl
q mQl
iz nghJ,
xU mQUJ kbwhU mQF
ngha vyuhf l bgatjh,
mtQfSF
f mUfhik
cs kj thfis nghw iyahd
vyuh mikig bgWwd. X
mQ cs vyuhfsh VgL
bkhj v ndw, mtQ
cs cfU nendwF
rkkhf
Ugj isthf,
xU
vyuhid HF mQ xU ne
ndw bgw maahf khWwJ.

nrhoa mQ vyluhid Hj

nrhoa
mQUJ
ma cUthj.

nrhoa

nrhoa
mQ mQv 11
vdnt nrhoa mQ cfUit
11 vyuhf
R
tUwd.
nrhoaF f mUfhik cs
kj ththd ah mQv 10
MF. vdnt ah nghw vyuh
mikig bgw, nrhoa mQ xU
vyuhid HwJ. ndwkw
eLiy mQUJ xU vyuhid
178

braiy tUkhW Flyh.

Na
(nrhoa mQ)
11 nuhlhf &

(nrhoa ma)
11 nuhlhf &

11 vyuhf

10 vyuhf

Na

Na+

e-

Na+ + e-

ne ndw bgw Na+ nghw

maf
ne maf vdgL.
bghJthf, cnyhff nemafis
cUthFwd.

q mQUJ
ma cUthj.

qiuL

mnyhff,
vyuhfis
VFnghJ mafshf khWwd.
mnyhfkhd q mQv9, mj
beUa vyuh mik cila
kjththd ah mQv 10
j vyuh mikig bgw, q
mQ X vyuhid Vf ntL.
Rikaw, eLiyjik cs
q mQ, X vyuhid Vgj
_y - 1 ndw bfhl qiuL
maahf khWwJ.

ntrkghL
q vyuhid Vw
braiy tUkhW Flyh.
F +
eF
(qmQ)
(qiuL ma)
9 nuhlhf &
9 nuhlhf &

mabjhFf. it xnu myfhf

bragL jiks, btntW jk
mQf mla mQf bjhF
MF.

nrhoa
rng
nrkij
fUJnth.
nrk
nrhoa
9 vyuhf
10 vyuhf kW rng Ma uL bjhFf
csd. nrhoa rng nrk xU
gFahd nrhoa, mQ iy. khwhf
+eF
F
nrhoa maahF. Mdh rng xU
gymQ ma bjhFahF.
v ndw bgw F
nghw mabjhFf
maf v maf
vdgL.
nemyJvndwbgwXuQ
bghJthf mnyhff v mafis ma myJ gy mQ mabjhFf
cUthF ailad .
Mait
mabjhFf
vd

XuQ maf
xnu xU mQUJ cUthF
maf XuQ maf vwiHf
gLwd.
nrhoa ma( Na+ ) xU XuQ ne
ma mF.
qiuL ma (
ma MF.

F-)

xU XuQ v

gymQ ma bjhFf
it
xWF
nkgl
mQf mla ndw bgw

tiuaWfgLwd.
nrhoa iAuhi[L vw fhuK,
r myK idgL cUthd
nrknk nrhoa rng vdyh.
nrhoa iAuhi[L + r
my nrhoarng +
nrhoarng
nrkYs
nrhoa cW, fhukha nrhoa
iAuhi[oUJ
cUthtjh
fhu cW myJ fhubjhF vW,
r
myUJ
rng
bgwgLtjh,
rng
mycW
myJ
mybjhF
vW
miHfgLwd.

gy mQ ma bjhFf

bra 11.1
FLs XuQ
f thghil vGJf.

vma

1. nuhikL ma 5. mnahilL ma

xiw izw
ma bjhFf

2. FnshiuL ma 6. Mi[L ma
3. qiuL ma 7. ieiuL ma

uil izw
ma bjhFf

4. iAiuL ma 8. rigL ma
nkY mJ bfhnth
bgUghikahd XuQ v
maf bgaf-"IL" vw
bdhLl Kowd.

Kik izw
ma bjhFf

179

myF-11

nta
nkY mJ bfhnth

xU nrk bgaUJ, m nrk mls ne kW

maf viffis Tw ayhJ.

xiw izw cila gymQ

ma bjhFf
bga

thghL

uil izw cila gymQ

ma bjhFf
bga

thghL

igrng ma

HSO4

fhgnd ma

CO32-

igrig ma

HSO3 -

Fnuhnk ma

CrO42-

Fnshnu ma

ClO3 -

ilFnuhnk ma

Cr2O72-

Fnshiu ma

ClO2 -

khfnd ma

MnO42-

raidL ma

CN-

bguhi[L ma

O22-

iAuhi[L ma

OH-

rng ma

SO42-

iAngh Fnshiu
ma

ClO-

rig ma

SO3

ienu ma

NO3

jnahrng ma

S2O32-

ieiu ma

NO2 -

bgFnshnu ma

ClO4 -

bgkhfnd ma

MnO4-

2-

Kik izw cila gymQ

ma bjhFf
bga

bra 11.2

FLs
nrkf
mls
ne
kW
v
mafis jf.

thghL

nghnu ma

BO33-

ghng ma

PO43-

nkY mJ bfhnth

1. t ienu

gymQ ma bjhFf cs
nrkf majik bfhlit
MF.

2. bka rng
3. mYa Mi[L
4. by ienu

bra 11.3

5. bghlha fhgnd

FLs maf gymQ

ma bjhFfis flf.

6. nga FnshiuL
7. rng

1. FnshiuL ma

8. fhg ienu

2. Fnshiu ma

nkY mJ bfhnth

3. Mi[L ma
4. iAuhi[L ma

mnkha ma vgJ xU
gymQ
mabjhF
cila
ne ma MF. J NH4+ vd
FlgLwJ.

5. ghigL ma
6. ghng ma
180

ntrkghL
khWgl izw cila ne maf
thghL

bga

thghL

bga

Au+

nfhL (I) (or) Mu

Au3+

nfhL (III) (or)M

Ce3+

a (III) (or) u

Ce4+

a (IV) (or)

Co2+

nfhgh (II) (or)

nfhghl

Co3+

nfhgh (III) (or)

nfhgho

Cr2+

Fnuha (II) (or) Fnuhk

Cr3+

Fnuha (III) (or)

Fnuh

Cu+

fhg (I) (or) Fu

Cu2+

fhg (II) (or)F

Fe2+

U (II) (or)bgu

Fe3+

U (III) (or)bg

Mn2+

khfR (II) (or)khfd

Mn3+

khfR (III) (or)

khf

Pb2+

by (II) (or) sg

Pb4+

by (IV) (or)s

Sn2+

o (II) (or)nld

Sn4+

o (IV) (or)nl

bra 11.4

nkY mJ bfhnth

FLs ne maf
bgafis vGJf.
1. Fe2+

3. Fe3+

2. Hg+

4. Hg2+

xnu
tifahd
uL
_yTWf izJ _yTW
uilia cUthFwJ. bkFu
_yTW
ma Hg22+ vw
uilahf kLnk fhzgLwJ.

ntFpLfS izwfS
izw = 1

izw = 2

izw = 3

izw = 4

nuh (Br)

nga (Ba)

nghu (B)

fhg (C)

Fnsh (Cl)

fha (Ca)

mYa (Al)

f (Si)

q (F)

bka (Mg)

iAu# (H)

M# (O)

mnaho (I)

rg (S)

a (Li)
nrhoa (Na)
bghlha (K)

nkY mJ bfhnth
bgUghikahd gy mQ ma bjhFf bga bdhLf
- "I" myJ - "V" vd Kotilwd.
181

myF-11

nta
11.2. ntFpLf kW ntrkghLfis
FWFbgUf Kiw vGJj.
xU nrk iaig, FpLf
_y FLtnj ntthghL MF.
nt
thghil
FLtjF,
nrk
gF
bghUfsha
jkf FpLf kW mt
izwfis
bjUj
mta. xU jk mQ izw
kng mj mQ Kakhd
gFahF.

mtF ne gf Fl
ntL.
izw vkfis U
mafSilna FWF gkhw
brJ, mkfis v v ma
FpLf tyJ gf vGj
ntL.
ma bjhFfshf U,
mjid
milFF
vG,
milF btw tyJ Xu
gfkhf FWF gkhw brj
viz vGj ntL.

ntthghil
vGJ
nghJ
gwgl ntoa fUJf
nrk
gF
TWfsha
maf Fpil xWbfhW
mUfhik vGj ntL.

uL maf FpLf
tyJ Xu xnu kila
vf U mtiw Fl
njitiy (bghJ fhuid
lntL).

ne ma Fpil lJ
gfK, v ma myJ ma
bjhFf Fpil tyJ gfK
vGj ntL.
FpLFa

izw

k
1Mf
U,
mkig Fl ntoaiy.

izwfis

vLJfhLf
1. nrhoa FnshiuL

2. bghlha nuhikL

3. iAu# FnshiuL

Na

Cl

Br

Cl

1+

1-

1+

1-

1+

1-

NaCl

KBr

HCl

4. Mi[L

5. nga Mi[L

6. mYa Mi[L

Zn

Ba

Al

2+

2-

2+

2-

3+

2-

BaO

ZnO

7. nrhoa ghng
Na
1+

(PO4)

3-

Na3 PO4

Al2O3

8. mnkha fhgnd 9. fha iAuhi[L

NH4

CO3

Ca

OH

1+

2-

2+

1-

(NH4)2 CO3
182

Ca(OH)2

ntrkghL
vfSfhd KbdhL bgaf
KbdhL bga

nkhndh

il

oiu

bluh

bglh

bA[h

bAlh

Mlh

ehdh

blfh

10

vj id

bra 11.5
FlgLs nrk
fSFa nt thghil vGJf.
1. nrhoa iAuhi[L
2. nrhoa fhgnd
3. fha iAuhi[L
4. mnkha rng
5. ghgu oiu FnshiuL
6. rg bArh qiuL
7. fhg (II ) ienu
8. nfhgh (II) FnshiuL
nkY mJ bfhnth
JfhW fLofgLs 13
a nrkf 91% nrkf
fhg mla nrkf MF.
(xU a vgJ gJ yr).

11.3. ntidfis
vGJtjfhd mKf
kjdh nkbfhsgl
ntid vj id''

bjwJ. bghUf M#Dl

iuthf iz idna vj
id MF. vj id fG
nghJ, x MwY btg MwY
btgLjgLwd.

Kj
vd

xU ntid gnfF
idgL
bghUf,
is
bghUf
bgafSFa
FpLl, mid fit
bjF bjhlng ntrkghL
vd tiuaWfgLwJ.
xU id ftjF K vLJ
bfhsgL
bghUf
idgL
bghUf MF.
xU id fj , cUthF
bghUf id isbghUf
MF.
FlidgLbghUfUJ
cUthF isbghUfis m
FpL _y FlgLwJ.
xWF
nkgl
idgL
bghUf iztij, xWF
nkgl
id
isbghUf
cUthjiy (+) FpL_y Fl
gLwJ.
id ftjF rhjfkhd g
jidf mF nkghfnyh,
ghfnyh Flgl ntL.

thW xU ntkhw fit,

rkghL to RUfkhf bjgnj
ntrkghLf vdgL.
183

myF-11

nta
fk nrkfis bgaL Kiwf
fknrkf

mnyhf-mnyhf
izj nrkf

cnyhf-mnyhf
izj nrkf

xnu xU
ne ma
cilait

xWF
nkgl
ne ma
cilait

(i) jktir mltiz

lgf cs jkf
bgaf Kj lbgWj.
(ii) jktir mltiz
xnu bjhF jkf
gF jk bgaiu

cnyhf bga

v ma bga
rhWf
mYa MirL (Al2O3)
nga FnshiuL (BaCl2)
fha fhgnd (CaCO3)
bka rng (MgSO4)

nemaf iz wf
nuhk vfsh
milFl FLj
rhWf
fhg (I) MirL (Cu2O)
fhg (II) MirL (CuO)
U (II) FnshiuL (FeCl2)
U (III) FnshiuL (FeCl3)
o (II) MirL (SnO)
o (IV) MirL (SnO2)

Kj FLj.
(iii) jk mQf
vifia nuf
KbdhL bga
FLj.
rhWf
fhg nkhdhirL (CO)
fhg il MirL (CO2)
rg il MirL (SO2)
rgoiu MirL (SO3)

nrhoa ienu (NaNO3)

btik o (IV) MirL (SnO2)

fUik - o (II) MirL (SnO)

184

ntrkghL
11.4. xU ntrkghil
vGj njitgL Ka
gjidf
1. idgL
bghUfis,
is
bghUfis bjJbfhl
rkghil vGj ntL.
2. idF bjhlila jkf
FpL kW nrkf thghil,
mt bgafSF Fl
ntL.
3. FpL
kW
thghLfis
njitahd
vfsh
bgU,
UwK rk brf.
4. thghil vfhuz bfhL
khw TlhJ. a bghUfis
nrfnth, Uw bghUfis
fnth TlhJ.
5. mF
U
gffY
cs xbthU tif mQf
vif rkkhf csdth
vgij cW brJ bfhf.
6. rk brtjF gagLjgl
vf midij bghJ vzh
tFJ,
Fzff
kig
jhfyh. myJ RUfyh.
7. isbghUf gothf Ujh

neha mFia ( ) mj
thghoF tyJw FLf.
8. isbghUf ththf Ujh
nkneha mFia ( ) mj
thghoF tyJw FLf.

ntrkghLfis rk brj
2H2 + O2

2H2O

rkghoid rk brj
Kiw tU gofis cslaJ
1. idgL bghUf kW is
bghUf rahd FpL kW
thghLfis bjJ bfhl,
rk braglhj rkghil vGj
ntL.
2. mF U gffY cs
btntW tif jkfSFa
mQfis jf vfsh bgU
rk brf
3. <uQ iy _yTWf cs
idgL kW is bghUfis
rk
br
nghJ,
mt
mQiyfis fU bfhnl
rk bra ntL.

rhW 1
Ul Fnsh idj
rk braglhj iy

Fe + Cl2

Cl mQit rk brj

Fe + 3Cl2

2FeCl3

Fe mQit rk brj

2Fe + 3Cl2

2FeCl3

FeCl3

rhW 2
nrhoa fhgndLl iAnuhFnsh my idj
rk braglhj iy)

Na2CO3 + HCl

NaCl + H2O + CO2

Na mQit rk brj

Na2CO3 + HCl

2NaCl + H2O + CO2

H,Cl kW O mQfis rkbrj :

Na2CO3 + 2HCl
bra 11.6

2NaCl + H2O + CO2

xU nrhjid FHh 3 nrhoa iAuhi[il vLJ bfhf.

mjDl 5 j iAnuhFnsh myij nrF nghJ cUthF
cig ca rkghL _y flf.
185

myF-11

nta
sf 1

rg il Mi[Ll, M# idJ rgoiu Mi[L cUthj

id

+
rg il Mi[L M#
2SO2

rg oiu Mi[L

O2

2SO3

sf 2

bra 11.7

FLs
glij
Tjh brJ,
A kW B
Matilna cs id
rkghil vGJf.

iAu#Dl Fnsh idJ

iAu# FnshiuL cUthj id

H H

Cl

Cl

Cl

H2

Cl

H
Cl2

2HCl

sf 3
iAu#Dl
M#
izJ cUthj id

H H

O O
H H
2H2 + O2

O
O

bra 11.8
FlgLs rkghLfis rk brf.

1. N2 + O2
2. CaCO3 + HCl
3. Na + H2O
4. KClO3
5. N2 + H2
6. NH3 + O2

NO
CaCl2 + H2O + CO2
NaOH + H2
KCl + O2
NH3
N2 + H2O

2H2 O

11.5. ntrkgho
magLgit

_y

11.6. n t r k g h o U J
maglhjit

 idgL
bghUf
isbghUf

kW

id bghUf aa iy
btg khw

_yTWf vif

idFa Niyf

nkhf vif

brf

xL iwf

idfhd fhy

xL fdmsf

Inrhnlhf rhj gu
186

ntrkghL
nkY mJ bfhnth

2 iAu#
mQf

bgUghikahd ntidf
k
iynyna
fwd.
rhwhf,
midJ
ca
idf,
a
khwf,
bjhrhiy gagL idf
kW
nta
Mtf
fjgL bgUghyhd idf.

M# mQ

cfU

vyuh

_yTW
2H2 + 02

2H20

nkFl ntrkghoUJ,
FLs gufis mayh.

rkgho _y FLs
guf magliy.

i) idgL kW is bghUf

i)
 idgL bghUf kW is
bghUf a

id, idgL bghUf

iAu#D, M#D MF.
id _y cUthF is
bghU.

ii) _yTWf vif

id uL iAu#
_yTWf,
xU
_yTW
M#Dl izJ uL
_yTWf
iu
jUwd.
vdnt uL _yTWfYkhf
bkhj
ehF
iAu#
mQfS, uL M#
mQfS csd.

iii) nkhf vif

iAu#, M# kW
Mat nkhf xL
vif j 2 : 1 : 2 MF.

iv) iwf xL k
iAu#, M# kW
Mat
xL
iwf
4 : 32 : 36 mjhtJ 1 : 8 : 9 vw
j mikwJ.

v) fdmsf xL ms
iAu#, M# kW
Ma id bghUf fd ms
2 : 1 : 2 vw jkhF.

iAu#, M#
Mat
aa
Flgliy.

kW
iyf

ii) btg khw

xU id btg khwJl fG
a bfhlJ. mJ rhj gu VJ
iy.

iii) idFa Niyf

id fH njitahd btgiy,
mGj nghw rhjfkhd Niyf
ga gu VJ iy.

iv) br
iAu#, M# kW
Mat brf bjhlghd gu
VJ bjfgliy.

v) idfhd neu
id ftjF MF fhy ga
gu Flgliy

VI) Inrhnlhf
iAu#,
M#
jkf Inrhnlhf
gu VJ maKoaiy.
187

Ma
rhj

myF-11

nta
aif fG nt idfis bjJ bfhf.

kiHfhyf d VgL nghJ y nt idf fwd. th

kly cs ieu#D, M#D idJ ieu# il Mi[L
cUthwJ.

N2

2O2

2NO2

th kly cs M# izJ Xnrhdhf khw milwJ.

3O2

2O3

thW cUthF ieu# il Mi[L xU myjik cila Mi[L

MF. it kiH JfSl nrJ my kiHia cUthFwd. my kiH
jhtufSF nfL isF ailaJ.

kL
- m
rahd ilia njbjLJ vGJf.
1) n
 rhoa mQ ne maahf khW jik cilaJ. j mQ v 11 (2, 8, 1 )
v nrhoa ne ma cs vyuhf vif __________
(9, 10, 1 2)
2) X
 mQ vyuhid HFnghJ ne maahf khWwJ. Fe2+ vw U
ma HJs vyuhf vif __________ (2, 3, 0).
3) x
 U nrk vgJ my kW fhu bjhFfis cilaJ. rng vw
nrk cs fhu bjhF __________ ( ma, rng ma, uL).
4) g
 y mQfis bfhl ma, gy mQ mabjhF
flt gy mQ ma bjhFia tlL fhLf.
Cl- , O2- ,

Na+ ,

NH4+
188

vdgL.

ntrkghL
5) X
 mQ vyuhid Vwh mJ v maahf khW. flt XuQ
v maia tlLf.
CN- ,

PO43- ,

I- ,

NO2-

6) X mQ vyuhid Hjhnyh myJ Vwhnyh mtQ maahf khWwJ.

Au3+ vw ma 3 vyuhfis __________ (VWsJ, HJsJ).
7) xU ntid <LgL bghUfSF idgL bghUf vW bga.
2Fe + 3Cl2

2FeCl3

id <LgL idgL bghUf bgafis FLf.

8) x
 U nrk iaig FpLf _y FLtJ ntthghL MF. nrhoa
fhgndo rahd ntthghil fLoJ vGJf.
Na2(CO3)2, 2NaCO3, Na2CO3
9) n
 rhoa izw 1. Fnsh izw 1. v nrhoa FnshiuL
nrk ntthghoid vGJf.
10) x
 U rkgho idgL bghUf mQf vif id
is bghUf mQf vif rk. fl rkghoid
rk brLf.
NH3

N2 + H2

-M
11) Na

Na+ + e-

Cl + e-

Cl-

m) nrhoa cnyhfkh? mnyhfkh?

M) CI- ma bgaiu vGJf.
12) x
 U nrk vgJ mybjhF kW fhu bjhF nrjJ. fl
nrkf cs my bjhFia kL FLf.
m) K2CO3

M) BaCl2

13) bghUJf :
Cl-

gymQ v ma

Cr2+

XuQ v ma

NH4+

XuQ ne ma

PO43-

gy mQ ne ma

14) fl nrkf cs v maf bgafis FLf.

m) NaCl

M) KNO3

189

myF-11

nta
15) bghUjhjtiw vLbjGJf.
m) NO3- , NO2- , MnO4- , ClM) BaCl2 , NaNO3 , MgSO4 , Cu2O

16) x
 U ntrkghoid vGJtjF njitahd Fiuf jtwhf nH
bfhLfgLsd. jid rahd Fiuahf kh vGJf.
m) rkghil rk bra thghil njitnfg khaikfyh.
M) isbghU gothf Ujh nkneha mF (

) l ntL.

17) bfhLfgLs maf gy mQ v mafis kL FLf.

FnshiuL ma, qiuL ma, ghng ma, rng ma.
18)
 S mQ v 9. J X vyuhid VW SiuL maahf khWwJ.
jfhd fhuz vdthf UF vgij J cf giy TWf.
19) Zn jk izw 2. M# izw 2.
v Mi[L nrk nt thghil jUf.
20) m
 Ya Mi[o nt thghL Al2O3.
mYa iz wfis vGJf.

M# kW

-
21.
 fD M#D izJ SiO2 vw nrkij jUwJ. fltF
nrkf thghoid vGJf.
i) fhg kW M#
ii) f kW Fnsh
iii) fhg kW rg
iv) fha kW ieu#
v) mYa kW S
22. jkf, nrkf vd tifgLJf.
(i) Br2

(ii) HF

(iii) P4

(iv) NH3

(v) S8

nkY ma
jf
General Chemistry - Jean B. Umland & Jon.M.Bellama

West publishing company

izajsf
http://www.visionlearning.com
http://www.chymist.com

190

myF 12

jkf
Mtjd tifghL

myF-12

nta
12. jkf Mtjd tifghL

xU gHfil, gy tifahd gHf Uwd. mit midJ,

xnu Fayhf itfgLsjh? mit Kiwahf 1) gHf tiff
2) mt cUts 3) w matiw bghWnj mL itfgLsd.
ijna tifghL vnwh. J nghW nta Wfzfhd jkf
fLofgLs iy mtiw Kiwahf gf mogil
tifgLJtJ mtakhwJ. j_y eh jkf gfis g
mtJ vjhwJ.

12.1. Mtjd mltiz tuyhW

WF mfkhd jkf flagLsd. mjkfis gaDs
tif tirgLJ bghUL, mt aa kW ntagf
mogil fhuzkhf mikwd vd mayhf fUd. xU bjhFia
rhj jkf xj aa kW nta gfis bgWsd.
rhwhf, nrhoa Ul mntfJl idwJ. Jnghnw bghlhaK
Ul f ntfkhf id w bfhlJ. U jkfS tiu
nghW btik wij bgWs bkikhd cnyhffshF. nj nghW
UoaK aK xj gf cilad vd mDkhfyh. fhyngh
gy mayhf, jkfis mt aa kW nta gf
mogil tifgLj Mf nkbfhld. j isthf Mtjd
bfhif cUthdJ.

jkf tifghL
yhtha jk tifghL
1789M ML yhtha Kj
Kj jkfis cnyhff kW
mnyhff vd uL fshf
tifgLdh. xbthU Y
gy yFf Ujjh, Kiw
Ufukhdjhf mikaiy.

nlhgd jk tifghL

mnj tir cs Kj kW
_whtJ jkf mQiwf
TLj ruhr kF njhuhakhd
izkig bgf ntL.

rhwhf,
a, nrhoa, bghlha Ma
jkf mQiwf Kiwna 7,23
kW 39 MF. Kik tir,

Li
(7)

Na
(23)

K
(39)

1817M ML n#hAh c~fh

nlhgd
mayh jkfis
Kik mLFfshf tirgLdh.
xbthU mLY ika l
bgWs
jk
mQiw,
UgffY cs jkf
mQiwf ruhr kF rkkhf
UFgo tirgLdh.

nlhgd FiwghL

ntgf
xWgl
jkfis
Kik
tirahf
tifgLjyh.
mjgo,
xU
Kik tir ika l
bgWs
jk
mQiw,

Fl vif mla
jkfis kLnk bfhifgo
tirgLj
aY.
midJ
jkfis
Kik
go
tirgLj ayiy.

192

ika cs nrhoa jk
mQiw, Kj
kW _wh
jkfshd a, bghlha
Mat mQiwf TLj
ruhrF rkkhf Ugij fhzyh.

jkf Mtjd tifghL

y jktifghL

bra 12.1

1863M ML, #h y
mayh
a
bfhif
mogil
jkfis
tir
gLdh. mQiwf VWtir
jkfis tirgLJ nghJ,
Kj jkK vlhtJ jkK xnu
khahd gfis bgUgij
fljh. VG jkf xnu
tir lbgW tif bkhj
49
jkfis
tirgLdh.
Kiw yo vk vd
miHfglJ.

fha

40

uha

88

nga

137

Fnsh

35.5

nuh

80.0

xU
Fl
Kiwik,
jkf tir gLjgLnghJ,
xj aa kW nta
gfis bfhl jkfS
xnu tir miktnj Mtjd
khw vdgL.

rhwhf,

jk

mQiw

mnaho
127.0
mltiz
bfhLfgLs
jkfis mQiwF Vg Kik
go tirgLJf.

jkfis
mt
mQiwf
VWtir
tirgLJnghJ, ir fU
xwhtJ irFpLl vlhtJ
FpL xUgij nghW, vlhtJ
jk Kj jk gfSl
xJsJ.

FpL

jk

1
[

3
f

4
k

5
g

6
j

Li

Be

Na

Mg

Al

Si

Cl

Ca

Cr

Ti

Mn

Fe

y tifgho FiwghLf

bghlha gf
nrhoaJl xJsJ.
bka
gf
bgaJl xJsJ.

bra 12.2

y fhy kj thf
flagliy.
fhy,
ah kj thit, q kW
nrhoa
jkfSF
il
itFnghJ, xgjhtJ jk Kj
jkJl xJsjhf mikjJ.
Jnghnw Mfh kjth, Fnsh
kW
bghlha
jkfSF
il lbgWif xgjhtJ
jknk Kj jk gfSl
xjikwJ.

xj
gila
jkf
bgafis FLf.
jk
mYa
f
ghgu
rg
Fnsh
193

xj gila
jk

myF-12

nta
nyhj nka jk tifghL

1864M ML nyhj nka mayh, btntW jkf mQ iwf

kfis mt mQgUkfSl bjhlgL tiugl tiujh. xj
gfis, izwfis bfhLs jkf tiugl x
kbwhW Ugij fljh. vD mtuh gaDs guf vJ mf
ayiy.
bkl, Ua ehL ntayh Mth. mtuJ fhy tiu fLofgl
jkf midij mt Fl xir gf
mogil KjKiwahf tirgL xU mltizia
cUthdh. Jnt, jk tir mltiz vd bga bgwJ.
mtuJ mltiz, nta jw thj bfhifahf
fUjglJ. j mltiz, a jkf fLofSF
CWnfhyhf mikjJ.
bkl (1834-1907)

12.2 bkl jk tir mltiz

Groups

II

III

IV

VI

VII

VIII

Oxide :
Hydride:

R2O
RH

RO
RH2

R2O3
RH3

RO2
RH4

R2O5
RH3

RO3
RH2

R2O7
RH

RO4

Periods

H
1.008

Li
6.941

Be
9.012

B
10.81

C
12.011

N
14.007

O
15.999

F
18.998

Na
22.99

Mg
24.31

Al
26.98

Si
28.09

P
30.97

S
32.06

Cl
35.453

4 First
Series

K
39.10

Ca
40.08

--

Ti
47.90

V
50.94

Second
Series

Cu
63.55

5 First
Series

Rb
85.47

Second
series

Ag
107.87

6. First
series
Second
series

Zn
65.39

--

--

Y
88.91

Zr
91.22

In
114.82

Sn
118.71

Cs
Ba
132.90 137.34

La
138.91

Hf
178.49

Au
196.97

TI
204.38

Pb
207.2

Sr
87.62
Cd
112.41

Hg
200.59

As
74.92
Nb
92.91
Sb
121.76
Ta
180.95

Cr
52.20

Mn
54.94

Se
78.96

Transition

Series

Fe
55.85

Co
58.93

Ni
58.69

Ru
101.07

Rh
102.9

Pd
106.4

Os
190.2

Ir
192.2

Pt
195.2

Br
79.90

Mo
95.94

Tc
98

Te
127.90

I
126.90

W
-183.84

Bi
208.98

bkl jk tir mltiz

R - vgJ bjhFYs jk

12.3 bkl jktifghL

UZahit rhj o thndh bkl ntayh 1869M ML
Xus KGikahf midJ jkfis KjKiwahf tir gLdh.
mtuJ fUJ mogil, jk tir mltizia cUthdh.
194

jkf Mtjd tifghL

y
jkf
gfis
mt mQiwfis KTona
bkl
mDkhJ
za
brjh. fhyf mjkf
fLofgL, mt gf,
bkl
zj
gfSl
xUjd.

jkf aa gfS,
nta
gfS
mt
mQiwf
mogil
Mtjd khw milwd.
bra 12.3
bkl mltiz l
bgwhj jkf mQ iwf
44,68 kW 72 MF. jkf
bgaf ahit? it vbjj
bjhFfis
rhjit?
j
mltiz kjthfSbfW
j bjhF xJfgLsjh?

rhwhf,
IV A bjhF f jk
fhl oUjh. l
bgw ntoa jkF <fh f
vdbgalh. mtuJ fhynyna
d fLofgl b#kha
vw jk <fh fh gf
xUjJ.
J nghnw, <fh nghuh, <fh
mYa Ma jkfSfhf
lgl
fhlf,
mtuJ
fhynyna d fLofgl
jkfshd nfoa kW nfa
Matwh iw bragld.
bkl mltiz fhahf
lgoUj gJ lf, vL
fhlf
a
jkf
fLofsh uggld.

bkl jk tir mltiz

gf
ntWgl sKs ilklkhd
tirf gy jkf mikjhY
xj gfis cila jkf
xnu bjhF
l bgUgij
bkl mUjh.
bkl mltiz vL
bjhFf brFjhf mikJsd.
xj gfis bfhl jkf
fhy
fLofglh,
mtiw mltiz l bgwjf
tif bghUjkhd fhlf
lgoUjd.
D fLofgl ntoa
jkf gy Ugjhf bkl
fUdh.

tir gLjgl jkf

yt
mQiwf
jtwhf
fzlgoUjd.
mj
iwkf rbragld. rhwhf,
13 vd jtwhf fzlgoUj
bga mQ iw 9 vd
rbraglJ.

1871 bkl za
brj k

1886 b#kha
flagl
mslgl k

1. mQiw

njhuakhf 72

72.59

2. xgl

5.5 br-3

5.47br-3

mlahd rhg w

mlahd rhg w

4. MirL thghL

EsO2

GeO2

5. FnshiuL thghL

EsCl4

GeCl4

gf

3. w

195

myF-12

nta

bkl
jk
tir
mltizia
gagL
FLs jk Mi[Lf
thghil vGJf.

4. I Kj VIII tiu cs xbthU

bjhF
A kW B vd
cbjhFfshf fgLsd.
5.
 ilklkhf bkhj VG bjhlf
l bgWsd.
6. K
 j _W bjhlfS Kiwna 2,8,8
jkf j uggLsd.
it
FWbjhlf
vW
miHfgLwd.
7. e
 hF,
IJ
kW
MwhtJ
bjhlf
Kiwna
18,18,32
jkf j uggLsd.
8. V
 HhtJ bjhl, KGikahf ugglhj
bjhl MF.
9.
 d
fLofgL
jkfSfhf ca fhlf
lgoUjd.
10. y
 hjidL jkij bjhlJ
tU
gdhF
jkfis
bfhLs bjhl yhjidL
tir vwiHfgLwJ.
11. M
 oa jkij bjhlJ
cs
gdhF
jkf
csla
bjhl
MoidL
tir vwiHfgLwJ.
12. y
 hjidLfS, MoidLfS
uL
tirfshf
bkl
mltiz
moghf
jahf itfgLsd.

1. a 2. nghu 3. nrhoa
4. bga 5. fha

Uaikfgl
bkl
mltiz FiwghLf

Uaikfgl
bkl
Mtjd
mltiz
waf

1. mQiw
mfKs
y
jkf,
mQiw
Fiwthd
jkfSF Kdh mltiz
l bgWsd.

bra 12.4
bkl
jktir
mltiz bjhFf I kW
II rhj jkf bgafis
FLf.
bjhF

IA

IB

II A

II B

jkf
nkY mJ bfhnth
bkljktirmltiz
cs Fiwf rbragL a
jktir mltiz cUthfglJ.
jF tot jk tir mltiz
vW bga. J vyuhf
vifia ugFtif
mikfgLsJ.
jkf
aa
gfS,
nta
gfS mt mQvf
mogil
Mtjd
khw
milwd.

bra 12.5

1. j
 kf
mt
mQ
iwf VWtir tir
gLjgLsd.
2. b
 rFjhd tirf bjhFf
vd,
ilklkhd
tirf
bjhlf vd miHfgLwd.
3. b
 khjkhf
xgJ
brFjhd
bjhFf csd. mit I Kj VIII
tiu kW {a bjhF vd
vlgLsd.
196

rhwhf,
Mfh (39.9), bghlhaF (39.1)
KdhY,
nfhgh
KdhY

(58.9),

fYF

(58.6)

bla (127.9), mnahoDF

(126.9) KdhY lbgWsd.

197

I
A
B

Zn

20

90

227 Ac**

81

204.38 Tl

57

138.9 La*

49

114.82 In

39

88.91 Y

31

69.72 Ga

21

44.96 Sc

13

26.98 Al

10.81 B

III
A
B

90

91

232.04Th 231

58

Pa
92

238.02U

60

140.12Ce 140.91Pr 144.2Nd

59

88

87

*
Lanthanides

80

226Ra

79

200.59Hg

56

137.34Ba

48

112.41 Cd

38

87.62 Sr

30

65.39

40.08Ca

12

24.31Mg

9.012Be

II
A
B

223Fr

196.97Au

55

132.9Cs

47

107.87Ag

37

85.47Rb

29

63.55Cu

19

39.10K

11

22.99Na

6.941Li

1.008 H

7 **
Actinides

Groups
Periods

84

209 Po

74

183.84 W

52

127.90 Te

42

95.94 Mo

34

78.96 Se

24

52.20 Cr

16

32.06 S

15.999 O

VI
A
B

85

210 At

75

186.2 Re

53

126.90 I

43

98 Tc

35

79.90 Br

25

54.94 Mn

17

35.45 Cl

18.998 F

VII
A
B

76

190.2 Os

44

101.07 Ru

26

55.85 Fe

77

192.2 Ir

45

102.91 Rh

27

58.93 Co

VIII

69

78

195.2 Pt

46

106.4 Pd

28

58.69 Ni

86

222 Rn

54

131.30 Xe

36

83.90 Kr

18

39.95 Ar

10

20.18 Ne

4.003 He

0
(ZERO)

94

244 Pu

62

95

243 Am

63

96

247 Cm

64

97

247 Bk

65

98

251 Cf

66

99

252 Es

67

100

101

257 Fm 258 Md

68

102

259 No

70

150.4Sm 152.0Eu 157.3Gd 158.9Tb 162.5Dy 164.9Ho 167.3Er 168.9Tm 173.0Yb

83

208.98 Bi

73

180.97 Ta

51

121.76 Sb

41

92.91 Nb

33

74.92 As

23

50.94 V

15

30.97 P

14.007 N

V
A
B

Uaikfgl bkl jk tir mltiz

93

237Np

61

145Pm

82

207.20 Pb

72

178.49 Hf

50

118.71 Sn

40

91.22 Zr

32

72.61 Ge

22

47.90 Ti

14

28.09 Si

12.011 C

IV
A
B

103

260 Lr

71

174.9Lu

jkf Mtjd tifghL

Uaikfgl bkl jk tir mltiz

myF-12

nta
2. I n r h n l h f S F
mltiz
ca
l
xJfgliy.
3.
IA kW VIIA bjhF
jkf gfSl iAu#
xUgjh, iAu#DF xJfgl
l cWahfgliy.
4. ntgf
khWgL
aila
y
jkf
xnu
bjhF l bgWsd.

rhwhf,
fhu
cnyhffsha
nrhoa,
bghlha, ehza cnyhffsha
fhg, t. MatWl nrJ xnu
bjhF l bgWsd.

midJ cnyhffS rhjhuz btg,

mGj iy kf MF.
btg kW rhuij flJ
aig
cnyhff
bgWsd.
cnyhffis jflhf, fahf
khwyh. ntgf cnyhff
xWbfhW ntWgLwd.
nfhL,
shod
nghw
cnyhff, UlD M#DlD
idtiy. j fhuzkhf,
nyhff Mguzf bra
gagLwd.
Uoa
cnyhf
Ul iu id wid,
fhWgLgo wJ itjh g
v gig bgWsJ.
wiy

cl itfgLsd
fhu
cnyhff
nrhoa
bghlha

ehza
cnyhff

shod

fhg
t
nfhL

nfhL

mnyhff
cnyhff gfis bguhj
jkf mnyhff MF.

nkY mJ bfhnth
kr
btik
t
fUik

fha X cnyhf. j
cUFiy 29.8C. Mfnt, kj cl
btgiy cUF ailaJ.

- rg
- ghgu
- nuh
- fhg

12.3.1. cnyhff kW mnyhff

jk tir mltiz l
bgWs jkfis,
cnyhff

cnyhf nghf

mnyhff
c
 nyhf nghf
vd tifgLjyh.

cnyhff
a
cnyhff,
gsgsghd
wgu cilait. bkFia ju
198

cnyhff y gfis,
mnyhff
y
gfis
bgWs jkf cnyhf nghf
vdgL. w cnyhffis nghnw
it kf MF.
rhW f, b#kha.

jkf Mtjd tifghL

12.3.2. cnyhff kW
mnyhff agf
1. aa iy
bkFia
ju
Vida
w
cnyhff midJ kf.
mnyhff k, k kW th
Ma _W iyf fhzgLwd.

2. ml
cnyhff
bghJthf
mf
mlia, mnyhff Fiwj
mlia bgWsd.

4. cnyhf gsgs
a
iy,
cnyhff
gsgsghd wguig bgWsd.
gu J gLw xfiw
yf miltj isthf U
jikia
bgWwd.
g
cnyhf gsgs jik vdgL.
mnyhff jifa gsgsghd
wguig bgUgiy. vD
js gsgs jik bfhl
mnyhf uhig MF.
bra 12.7

3. flJ w

 U,
fhg,
mYa,
bka Ma cnyhff
a gFia vLJbfhf.

cnyhff eF btgij,
rhuij flJ ailait.
mnyhff
btgij
rhuij jsnt flJwd
myJ flJtiy.

 t
njhwfis
ftJbfhf.

eF

k
 z fhjjh xbth
wguig
eF
njJ
ikahFf.

 nghJ
ftf.

wguig

m
 t
gsgs
jik
nfg, mt bgafis wF
tir FLf.
bra 12.6
x
 U fhg cnyhf
jh WJf.

jil
fhgjL

m
 j xU Kid, bkG
cjah xU F^ia WJf.
g
 l fhosgo, r
sdh
cnyhfjil
btggLJf.

 J neu, F^
Gtij fhzyh.

bkGF
r
vFHh

nH

mjFa fhuzij FLf.

199

F^

myF-12

nta
7. Xir cUthF a

nkY mJ bfhnth

cnyhf gu J mfis
VgLJnghJ
Fljf
Xiria cUthFwJ. g Xir
cUthF a vdgL. cnyhff
aif gig bgWsd.
mnyhff jifa Xir cUthF
aig bgUgiy.

c
 nyhff mf flJ
w gilaJ t MF.
m
 nyhff uhig
flJ ailaJ.

kL

m
 iw btgiy kkhf,
f Fiwj cUFiy cila
cnyhf bkF MF.

bra 12.9

5. jflhf khW a
ca mGj ir isthf,
cnyhffis bka jflhf khw
aY. mjifa gig mnyhff
bgUgiy.

 U,
fhg,
cnyhffis
vLJbfhf.

mYa
jjahf

X
 cnyhfij U fah
moJ mtila brf.

6. fahf khW a

vGggL xia ftf.

cUa iy cs cnyhffis
njitnfw
totf
bka
ffshf khw aY. gid
mnyhff bgUgiy.

x
 bthU cnyhf Xir
jikia FJbfhf.

bra 12.8

x
 bthU cnyhfkhf braiy
L L brf.

8. fodjik

c
 nyhff
gugsit
FiwJ sij mfkhFtj
_y,
mtiw
ffshf
khwyh.

mf
mlia
bgWs
jkf
fodjikilajhf
UF.
cnyhff
bghJthf
fodkhdit.
vdnt,
mf
cUFiyia bgWsd. (bkF
ju) mnyhff Fiwj ml
cilajh, mt fodjik
Fiw.
vdnt
mnyhff
bkikahditahf UF.

 U, bka, by, fhg,
mYa
kW
fha
Ma cnyhff gf
mogil
vnyhfij
bka ffshf khw aY?
nkY mJ bfhnth

12.3.3.cnyhff kW

3
 300C I l mf cUFiyia
bgWs cnyhf ll MF.

mnyhff nta
gf

 f vilFiwj cnyhf
a. iw rgh
iwia nyhf bgWsJ.

1. M#Dl id (vj id)

(i) cnyhff

 f mf vil cs cnyhf
Ma. nyhf,
iwia ngh 22 klF mf
iw bfhlJ. nkY, Uig
ngh 3 klF mf iw cilaJ.

cnyhff fh vJ, mt
Mi[Lfis jUwd.
bka, fh vJ bka
Mi[il jUwJ.
200

jkf Mtjd tifghL

2Mg + O2

2MgO

(ii) mnyhff
250C btgiy, rg fh
bta yw Rthiyl vJ,
rgil Mi[il jUwJ.
S + O2

SO2

ghgu fh vJ, ghgu

bglhi[lhf khWwJ.
4P + 5O2
bka fh vj

fhg fh vJ, fhg

nkhdhi[lhf,
fhgil
Mi[lhf khWwJ.

mYa fh vJ mYa
Mi[L glyij cUthFwJ.
4Al + 3O2

2P2O5

2C + O2
C +O2

2Al2O3

2CO
CO2

bra 12.10

FlgLs Mi[L
fis, my, fhu Mi[L vd
tifgLJf.
1. nrhoa Mi[L
2. Mi[L

mYa cnyhf gu J
mYa Mi[L gly cUthj
f bka iHtot U,
fh vJ U Miril
jUwJ. id btg MwY,
x MwY cUthwd.
4Fe + 3O2

2Fe2O3

3. mYa Mi[L
4. fhgil Mi[L
5. rgil Mi[L

2. Ul id
(i) cnyhff
nrhoa,
bghlha
nghw
cnyhff
Fj
Ul
maJl idJ iAu#
thit btLwJ.
2Na + 2H2O
2K + 2H2O

bka iH tot U fh vJ
btgMw, x Mw,
Ma uil jUj

2NaOH + H2
2KOH + H2

bka,
U
Ma
cnyhff uhl idJ
bka
Mi[il,
U
Mi[il jUwd. iAu#
th btnaWwJ.
201

myF-12

nta
Mg + H2O

4. FnshDl id

MgO + H2

i) cnyhff

uh
3Fe + 4 H2O

nrhoa, fha Ma cnyhff

FnshDl idJ, mt
FnshiuLfis jUwd.

Fe3O4 + 4 H2

uh
m Y a
uhl
bkJthf
idJ
mYa
iAuhfi[il, iAu#id
jUwJ.
2Al + 6 H2O

2Al (OH)3 + 3 H2

uh

Ca + Cl2

ii) mnyhff
uhl fhg idJ, fhg
nkhdhi[il
iAu#id
jUwJ.
CO

uh

CaCl2

rg FnshDl idJ,
rg nkhndhFnshiuil jUwJ.
S2Cl2

5.iAu#Dl id
(i) cnyhff
nrhoa,
bghlha,
fha
nghw
Fl
cnyhff
iAu#Dl idJ mt
iAiuLfis jUwd.
2Na + H2

+ H2

2NaCl

ii) mnyhff

2S + Cl2

fhg, f, t, nfhL nghw

cnyhff Ul idtiy.

C + H 2O

2Na + Cl2

Ca + H2

2NaH
CaH2

3. myfSl id

(ii) mnyhff

nrhoa, bka, mYa

Ma
cnyhff
j
iAnuhFnsh
myJl
idJ,
iAu#
thit
btLwd.

rg, iAu#Dl idJ

iAu#rigL thit jUwJ.
J mGa Kil beoila th
MF.

Mg + 2HCl

MgCl2 + H2

2Al + 6HCl

2AlCl3 + 3H2

H 2S

fhg,
iAu#Dl

Kiy idJ, mbro

thit jUwJ.
2C + H2

bra 12.11

C2H2

12.3.4 braw tirf

x
 U MFHh 10 j
iAnuhFnshmyij
vLJbfhf.
m
 jDl
xU
a
JUtiy nrf.

S + H2

va lbga idf xU
jk kbwhU nrk cs bjhU
jkij lbga brwJ. mf
idw cila cnyhff, Ul
miw btgiynyna idJ,
UJ iAu#id lbga
brwJ.

fG ntkhwij ftf.

202

jkf Mtjd tifghL

miw
btgiy,
nrhoa
akhf Ul idwJ.
2Na + 2H2O
fha,
idwJ.
Ca + 2H2O

2NaOH + H2
Ul

bkJthf

Ca(OH)2 + H2

bka, Ul idtiy.
Mg + H2O

id iy

nkFl idf mogil,

Ul
id
cnyhff
braw tiria Na >Ca> Mg vd
Flyh.
bra 12.2

cnyhff braw tir

bghlha ( K)
nrhoa ( Na)
fha ( Ca)

nyhff
Ul id
wd.

bka ( Mg)
mYa ( Al)
khfR ( Mn)
( Zn)
Fnuha ( Cr)
U ( Fe)
f ( Ni)

nyhff
j
myfSl
id wd.

o ( Sn)
by ( Pb)
fhg ( Cu)
t ( Ag)
nfhL ( Au)

nyhff
j
myfSl
idtiy.

12.3.5. braw tir gaf

1. Ul id jik cila
cnyhff,
tir
Kj
lbgWsd.
2. tir
nkgF
cs
cnyhff, j myfSl
idwd.
3. tir gF
cnyhff
Ul idtiy.
4. tir gF cnyhff j
myfSl idtiy.
5. tir
ikagF
cs
cnyhff, j myfSl
idwd.
6. nkgF
cs
cnyhff
mt
gF
cs
cnyhffis lbga br
w cilait.

12.3.6. cnyhf fyitf

cnyhf fyitia cUthFtJ
xW ed bjh Eg my.
gHfhyUnj
cnyhffyit
gagLjgLsJ.
Mukhu
MLfSF Kng, jfSF
njitgL
Mjf
kW
fUfis cUthf, ffSF g
fhgiu
gagLjKo
vgij
kf mUjhf. .K. 3500,
bkikahd cnyhfkhd o, fhgUl
nrJ fodkhd cnyhffyitia
jahJsd. Jnt, btfy vd
miHfglJ. J fhg kW o
Ma cnyhffisl nkikahdJ.
cnyhf fyit vgJ uL
myJ mjF nkgl cnyhff
cUa iy, Fl j
fyJ cUthfgl xUgojhd
fyit MF.

nkY mJ bfhnth
jk
tir
mltiz,
xU
bjhl
lUJ
tykhf
cnyhff braw FiwwJ.
nkY, jk tir mltiz
xU bjhF, nkUJ Hhf
cnyhff braw mfwJ.

cnyhf fyitf ia
uL tifahd cnyhffyitf
csd.
203

myF-12

nta
(i) lbga cnyhffyit

(ii) ilbt uggl cnyhffyit

lbga cnyhf fyit

tif cnyhffyitf, X mQ Uj l y neuf kbwhU
mQth MufgLwd.

10% Ni - 90% Cu

90% Ni - 10% Cu
= Ni

= Cu

ilbt uggl cnyhffyit

tif cnyhffyitf, a cUts bfhl mnyhffshd
H (iAu#), B (nghu), C (fhg) kW N (ieu#) nghw jk mQf
cnyhf gof mik X tirF mLj tirF ilgl ilbtfis
Muwd.
- nk tir Fe
- ulhtJ tir Fe
- fhg

cnyhffyitf tiff
cnyhffyitfis uL fshf tifgLjyh.
b
 gu cnyhffyit t Ka
gfhf U cnyhf lbgWsJ.
b
 gu myhj cnyhffyit t
U cnyhf fjsnth myJ
yhknyh Ufyh.

cnyhffyit waf
1. cnyhf
mfwJ.

fod

jik

2. cnyhf fyit cs Mjhu

cnyhf tikia mfwJ.
3. mkhdij
nkgLJwJ.

jLF

gig

4. wij khW ailaJ.

5. mRf
thF
nkgLJwJ.

jikia
204

nkY mJ bfhnth
U,
mYa,
f
kW nfhgh Ma cnyhff
mla cnyhffyit mnfh
MF. it fhjf jahf
gagLwd. rhjhuz fhjij
l mnfh 25 klF mf
fhj jik cilaJ.
nkY mJ bfhnth
urfyit
vgJ
X
cnyhffyit MF. l
bgWs cnyhff bkF xU
cnyhf MF.

jkf Mtjd tifghL

12.3.7. cnyhffyitf gaf
bga

gFbghUf

gaf

jis

fhg

Mf, #d kW fj rlf
jahf .

btfy

fhg
o

iyf
jahf.

gwhR

o
by

rhjdf kW Fo FHh cg
bjh
cnyhffis
cUfhk
izf.

JUofhj
v~F

U
fhg
Fnuha
f
ll

ghyf, fllf, L rhjdf kW

rika ghuf cUthf.

ouhY

mYa
fhg
khfR
bka

Mfha
khd
rhjdf,
nkhlh
thfdf, fg fL bjh kW
Mf jahf.

kW

au

ghff

12.3.8. nendh ma
1 Kj 100 nm mss mQf, _yTWf kW bghUf rhj many
nendh ma MF.
1 nendh l = 10 -9 l

nendh bjhEg

 fa cUtss, mjhtJ 1 nendh l msyhd bghU mikfis
cslaJ
x
 U nendh l vgJ xU l s xU a ( 10-12 ) xU myF cs
sF rk MF.
s njhuhakhf gJ mQf bjhlahf cs sF rk MF.

nendh bjhEg nehf

xU bghU cUts xU y nendh l msF jhfgLnghJ,
mbghU wgugs mfwJ. wgu mf, mbghU id
Cfwid nkgLJwJ.

nendh bjhEgjh VgL gaf

r
 hjhuz ffis l iuthf bragL, wthj cUts a
ffis totikfyh.

 ffa gfis (FHh bghf) jahgj _y kUJt Jiw
gagLjyh.
205

myF-12

nta

 cg fyf brawid nendh cUts bghUf _y gklF
mffyh.
Fiwflf jahY, c bjhEgJiwY Ka gF twJ.
x
 U Fl miys bfhl x fiu nendh bjh Eg Kiw btg
Mwyhf khwyh.
Wnehia FzgLJt gagLwJ.
M
 ilf jah bjh, iHf fiw v wid nkgLj
gagLwJ.
czbghUfS, fhffS bflhk ghJfhf gagLwJ.

kL
- m
rahd ilia njbjLJ vGJf.
1) j
 kfis Kj Kj cnyhff kW mnyhff vd tifgLat
__________ (nlhgd, ytha, bkl).
2) y vk mogil vj U jkf gf xJ fhzgL
vd mltizUJ fLof.
1

Na

Mg

Al

Si

5
P

6
S

7
Cl

8
K

3) bkl jk tir mltiz jkf __________

mogil VWtir tifgLjgLsd (mQ iw, mQ v).
4) ehza cnyhffS xW __________ (fhg, nrhoa, f).
5) miw btg iy kkhf cs cnyhf __________ (bkF, nuh, o)
6) f

mf vil bfhl cnyhf Ma. J U iwia ngh
__________ klF mf iw cilaJ ( 22 , 3, rgh ).
7) cnyhff
kW
mnyhff
y
gfis
bgWsit
cnyhf nghf vdgL. ________ vgJ xU cnyhf ngh MF
(f, Mfh, mnaho).
8) uf. Mg +

O2

9) c
 nyhf nrhoa Ul idJ nrhoa iAuhi[il jUwJ. cl
btgL th __________ (O2, H2, Cl2)
10) iAu#Dl rg id J iAu# rigL vD thit jUwJ.
th __________ cilaJ ( mGa Kil beo, a kz).
11)
 fl cnyhffis mt bra w tir VW tir tifgLJ.
Na, Ca, Mg.
206

jkf Mtjd tifghL

12) btfy vgJ __________ nrj cnyhf fyit MF.
(fhg kW o, t kW o, fhg kW t)
13) M
 fha khd rhjdf bra cj cnyhf fyit __________
(gwhR, jis, ouhY)
14) c
 z bghUfis fhffis bflhk ghJfhf gagL ed
bjh Eg __________(nendh bjhEg, c bjhEga,
ku bgha)

- M
15) b
 kl jk tir mltiz, brFJ tirfshf, ilkl
tirfshf fgLsd.
m) brFJ tir bga ahJ?
M) ilkl tir bga ahJ?
16) bkl mltiz iAu#DF xJfgl l cWahfgliy.
jfhd fhuzij TWf.
17) bghUjhjtiw tlL fhLf.
m) ehza, jis, fhg, Mguzf
M) nuh, fhg, iAu#, mYa.
18) cnyhf fyit vwh vd? cjhuz jUf.
19) 2
 Na + Cl2

2NaCl.

m) idgL bghU ntbgaiu TWf.

M) Cl2 - th w vd?
20) 
 iwa ed ma xU gFna nendh ma. j nendh ma
nehf g FLf.

-
21) bkl jdJ jk tir mltiz jkfis ilkl tirfshf,
brFJ tirfshf mikjh.
m) ilkl tir bjhlf vifia FLf.
M) brFJ tir bjhFf vif ahJ?
) Kj bjhl cs jkf vifia TWf.
<) KGikahf ugglhj bjhl vJ?
c) yhjidLfS MoidLfS mltiz vF itfgLsJ vd TWf.

207

myF-12

nta
22) fltF ila.
m) cnyhff Xir vG ailaJ.
vGtiy. fhuz TWf.

Mdh mnyhff Xir

M) vj cnyhfij f bka jflhf fahf cfsh khw aY

vd TWf.
) bghJthf cnyhff flJ w cilaJ. mf flJ w
cila cnyhf bgaiu FLf.
<) cnyhff bghJthf fodkhdit.
bkikahdjhf csd. fhuz TWf.

Mdh mnyhff bghJthf

23) fltF ila.

m) mYa, fhWl idtjh cUthF gly ahJ? jfhd
rkghil vGJf.
M) nrhoa Fj Ul idJ nrhoa iAuhi[il jUwJ.
Mdh bka Ul id tiy. jfhd fhuz TWf.
) P
 2O5 vgJ myjik cilajh? fhujik cilajh? vd TWf.
24) fltF ila.
m) iyf bra gagL cnyhffyit vJ?
M) nendh bjh Egid gagLJtj nehf vd vgij TWf.
) gwh fhzgL iaid vGJf.

nkY ma
jf

Text Book of Inorganic chemistr - P.L.Soni

Sultan Chand & Sons.

izajs
http://www.chymist.com

208

myF 13

ntizf

myF-13

nta
13. ntizf

xU khiy cs kyf dh izfgLsd. mthW

iyba midJ fis xUizgJ ayhj xwhF. F
gF f midij izgnj MF. J VwFiwa xU ntizF
rkkhdJ.
nt nrkf lbgWs _yTWf cs mQf, mtilna
y ft irah xUizJ csd. iyahd _yTW cUthtjF
mQfSilna cUthF irna ntiz vd miHfgLwJ.
nkY mJ bfhnth

uL myJ nkgl mQf

izJ iyjik bfhl
_yTW
cUthtjF,
mQ
filna y ft irna
ntiz vdgL.

13.1 vk
g l mayh,
mQf
izJ
_yTWf
cUthtij jkf vyuh
mik
mogil
sdh.
mtuJ
fUJgo,
kjthf
kLnk iyahd vyuh mikig
bgWsd. Vida w mQf
midJ iyaw myJ gF
msnt ua vyuh mikig
bgWsd.
1916, .v. iz w
vyuh bfhifid btl.
jF vk vW bga.
mQfilna
vyuh
gkhw fhuzkhfnth, vyuh
gL
_ykhfnth
xbthU
mQ j btTo vL
vyuhfis bgWwd. thW
mQf, j btvyuh To,
vL vyuhfis bgW is
vk vwiHfgLwJ.

iyahd
vyuh
mik
bfhl
jkf,
mt
btTo vL vyuhfis
bgWsd. mit kj thf MF.
Ne ( mQ v 10 ) = 2,8
Ar ( mQ v 18 ) = 2,8,8
bra 13.2
FLs jkf iy
ahd vyuh mikig bgwhjit.
mt vyuh gkhdfis
FLf.
jk

mQ v

vyuh
g

nrhoa
fhg
q
Fnsh
nkY mJ bfhnth
xbthU mQ cUthF
izig sf mt
izw
vyuhf
thghil gagLdh.

bra 13.1
tUtdtW, vjkf
vyuhfis gL myJ
gkhw brtj _y vkF
cgLwJ?
1. a,
2. Mfh
3. a,
4. Fnsh
210

thghL

vyuh
g

izw
vyuhf

(1)

Be

(2,2)

(2,3)

(2,4)

(2,5)

ntizf
13. 2 ntiz tiff

nkY mJ bfhnth

mayhsf fUJgo, _W
tifahd ntizf csd.
mit,
maiz

v-v
mafSilna
njhW ft irna iy
a ft ir MF. J
T ft ir vW
miHfgLwJ.

rfiz
<j rfiz

13.3. maiz kW rfiz nrk cUthj

1. maiz cUthj
A kW B Ma uL mQfis fUJnth. A-mQ xnu xU izw
vyuhid bgWsJ vd, B-mQ 7 izw vyuhfis bgWsjhf
bfhnth. mjhtJ A-mQ btTo xU vyuh mfkhf,
B-mQ btTo xU vyuh Fiwthf csd. A-mQ, BF xU
vyuhid tHFtj _yK, B-mQ, A-lUJ xU vyuhid VW
bfhtj _ykhf, U mQfS iyahd vk vyuh mikig
bgWwd. nghJ A ne maahf B v maahf khWwd. U
mafS iya ftah izJ, ma nrkij cUthFwJ.
jid tUkhW Flyh.

+
+

A +

B
B-

A+ +
+

(OR)

(OR)

+
A + B-

A B+

vyuh gkhw isthf cUthF ne ma(+) v ma

(-) xWbfhW iy a ft irah iztj _y cUthF
iz ma iz vdgL. ma izig bgWs nrkf,
ma nrkf vdgL.
bra 13.3
vyuhid tHF mQ ne maahf, vyuhid VF mQ v
maahf khW ailad. tU jkf vit ne maia
v maia cUthF?
1. a, 2. nrhoa, 3. S, 4. Fnsh
maiz cUthf njitahd gjidf

i) izw vyuhf vif

A -mQ 1,2 myJ 3 izw vyuhfis, B-mQ 5,6 myJ 7 izw
vyuhfis bgUf ntL.

ii) fu Mw Fiw
iyahd ma nrk cUthF nghJ mj fu Mw k Fiwa
211

myF-13

nta
ntL. mjhtJ xU mQUJ
kbwhU
mQF
vyuh
gkhw
fGnghJ,
Mw
btlglntL.

iii) vyuh Js ftir

iz A kW B Ma U
mQfS,
vyuhid
ftU
ir ntWglntL.
A-mQ, vyuh J Fiwj
msnt ft iria bgWsjh,
vyuhid
HwJ.
B-mQ,
vyuh J mf ft iria
bgWsjh vyuhid VwJ.

nkY mJ bfhnth
izYs izvyuhf
Js ft irna v
jik cUthf fhuzkhwJ.
iz izvyuhf J
mf ft ir bfhl mQf
mf vjik bfhlit
MF. iz izvyuhf
J Fiwj ftir bfhl
mQf Fiwj vjik
bfhlit MF.

rhW 1
nrhoa FnshiuL cUthj
xU nrhoa mQ, xU Fnsh mQ izJ nrhoa FnshiuL
_yTiw cUthFwJ. nrhoa mQ vyuh mik = 2,8,1 (mQ v=11)
Fnsh mQ vyuh mik = 2,8,7 (mQ v=17) nrhoa mQ, mj xU
izw vyuhid Fnsh mQF tHFtj _y, U mQfS
iyahd vk vyuh mikig bgWwd. vdnt, nrhoa mQ (Na),
nrhoa ne maahf (Na+) Fnsh mQ (Cl), FnshiuL v maahf
(Cl-) khWwd. U mafS iya ft irah izJ,
xU manrkij jUwd. kiy, xbthU Na+ maia R
6Cl- mafS xbthU Cl- maia R 6Na+ mafS csd.

2,8,1
nrhoamQ

2,8,7
Fnsh mQ

2,8
nrhoa neua

nrhoa FnshiuL gof mik

212

2,8,8
FnshiuL vua

ntizf
rhW 2
bka FnshiuL cUthj

mQf

mQ v

vyuh g

bka

12

2,8,2

Fnsh

17

2,8,7

bka 2 izw vyuhfis, Fnsh 7 izw vyuhfis

bgWsd. bka mQ, mj uL izw vyuhfis xU vyuh
j uL Fnsh mQfSF tHFtj _y _W mQfS j
btTo iyahd vk vyuh mikig bgWwd.
vdnt, bka mQ, Mg2+maahf, uL Fnsh mQfS
uL Cl-mafshf khWwd. it iy a ft irah,
bka FnshiuL MgCl2 vD ma nrkij cUthFwd.

2,8,2
bka mQ

2,8,7
Fnsh mQ

2,8
bka neua

2. rfizf cUthj
G.N

bfhifgo,
uL mQf mtilna
vyuhfis gL brtj _y,
mt btTo, iyahd 2
myJ 8 vyuhf cs mikig
bgWwd. A, B Ma U mQf
xbthW xU izw vyuh
j bgUgjhf fUJnth. U
mQfS xWbfhW mUnf
tUnghJ, xbthU mQ xU
vyuh j gL brJtjh
cUthd U vyuhfS uL

AX

2,8,8
FnshiuL vua

y fhg rng
btik nrhoa FnshiuL
t nfhgh FnshiuL

mQf
bgWwd.

ma
nrkf

bttl

(OR)

gLF cshd U vyuhfsh VgL iz rfiz vdgL.

iz, vyuh iz iz vW miHfgL. rfgizig
bgWs nrkf rfiz nrkf vdgL.
213

myF-13

nta
rfiz cUthf njitahd gjidf
izw vyuf vif

iz U mQf A kW B Mait j btTo 5,6 myJ 7

izw vyuhfis bgUfntL. jdh U mQfS 3,2
myJ 1 vyuh izia gLbrJ iyahd vk vyuh mikig
bgWwd.

rkms vyuh ft ir
iz mQf A- B- vyuhfis VwjhH rkms ftGj
ntL. mjhtJ uL mQf vjik VwjhH rk.

rkms vyuhfis gLj

izFshd vyuh izf Js U mQf A kW B-
ftir VwjhH rkms Uj ntL.
nkY mJ bfhnth
mQfilna mf vif izf cUthF nghJ mf
vifyhd mQf iyahd vk vyuh mikig bgWwd.

rhW 1
iAu# _yTW cUthj
iAu# _yT uL iAu# mQf csd. xbthU iAu#
mQ xU izw vyuh j bgWsJ. iAu# mQf xbthW
xU vyuh j gL brtj _y uL iAu# mQfS iyahd
vyuh mikig bgWwd.

+
iAu# mQ

iAu# mQ

iAu# _yTW

rhW 2
Fnsh _yTW cUthj
xbthU Fnsh mQ(2,8,7) VG izw vyuhf j bgWsd.
xbthW xU vyuhid gL brtj _y, uL Fnsh mQfS
iyahd vyuh mikig bgWwd.

+
Fnsh mQ

Fnsh _yTW

Fnsh mQ
214

ntizf
rhW 3
_yTW cUthj
M# mQ (2,6) MW izw vyuhfis bgWsJ. xbthU
iAu# mQ xU izw vyuh j bgWsd. M# mQ
uL vyuhfis, xbthU iAu# mQF xW j gL
brwJ.

+
_yTW

M# mQ
iAu#
mQf
H

nkY mJ bfhnth

jj
vuhf
vgJ
iz gFbgwhj vyuhf
MF

_yTW

rhW 4
mnkhah _yTW cUthj
ieu# mQ (2,5) IJ izw vyuhfis bgWsJ. xbthU
iAu# mQ xU izw vyuh j bgWsd. ieu# mQ _W
vyuhfis, xbthU iAu# mQF xW j gL brwJ.
jj vyuh
uil

ieu# mQ

iAu# mQf
215

iz vyuh
uil
mnkhah _yTW

myF-13

nta
mf cUFiy

rfiz

ne (+) kW v (-) mafS

ilna Wfkhd ft ir
csJ. ca btgiy kL
iria Kf njitahd btg
ilgjh, btgiy caUnghJ
kLnk, maf af bgWtjF
nghJkhd Mwiy bgWwd. vdnt,
t cUFiy mf.

jj uil vyuh

iAu#
mQ glgl
vyuh

fodjik behWFjik

ieu#
mQ

ieu#
cfU

tikahd
ft
ir
fhuzkhf, it mf fodjikia
bgWwd.
mfkhd
btir
brYjgLnghJ kLnk maf
efJ, xnu Rikila maf
xWbfhW mUfhik tUwd.
jdh yFir VgL sw
rhakhwJ.
vdnt,
behWF
jikia bgWwJ.

iAu#
cfU

N
H

ir

H
mnkhah _yTW
sWj

bra 13.4
thghil gagL,
tU
nrkf
cs
rfizf vifia
fzLf.
1. Fnsh, 2. mnkhah
3. q

13.3.1 m
 a nrkf bghJthd
gf
miw btgiy kf
manrkf cs vv mafSilna tikahd
iya ftir Ugj
isthf, maf jirahf efu
ayhJ. vdnt, nrkf miwbtg
iy k iynyna csd.
216

nkY mJ bfhnth
btg jhfty bghUf ca
btgiyia vbfhS jik
cilad. t cUFiy ff
mf.
cnyhffis,
mt
jhJfUJ
bjLg
bghUf gagLwd. y
btg
jhfty
bghUf
manrkfns MF.

ntizf
fiu jik

ma
h
fiug
Vw

ma
gofij
Ul
nrFnghJ, Kid jik
bfhl _yTWf, gof
mik cs + kW mafis gj _y,
fiua VJthFwJ.
bra 13.5
uL ffis vLJbfhf.
xU f iu, kbwh
kbzbz vLJbfhf.
uL
ffY
nrhoa
FnshiuL cig js nrf.
uoY VgL fiuwfis
xLf.

m
fiu a

Vwgh

Fiwj cUFiy
kiy,
_yTWfSF
ilna tik Fiwj ft irna
csJ. btggLJ nghJ k
_yTWf
aFtJ
nghnw,
_yTWfS
jirahf
aFwd.

rhuij flJ a

fodjikaw kf

k iy, maf l
bgaUtiy. vdnt, k iy
it rhuij flJtiy.
cUa iynyh fiufgL
iynyh
maf
af
fhzgLwJ. vdnt, it cUa
iyY fiufgL nghJ
kLnk rhuij flJwd.

goff xU _yTW tir,

mLJs tir iyUJ
v efU ailaJ. vdnt,
rfiz nrkf bkikahd
kfshf
Ugjh,
v
cil jikia bgUwd.

ma idf ntf mf
manrkf
idf
<LgL nghJ ne kW v
mafSilna id fwJ.
vdnt, it ntfkhf idf
<LgLwd.

13.3.2 rfiz
nrkf
bghJthd gf

fiughf fiu a
fkfiugh
_yTWf,
nrk
_yTWfSilna
tik Fiwj ft iria
v
Kaowd.
vdnt,
nrkf Kidjikaw fk
fiughfshd bg, blhY
Mat fiuwd.
nkY mJ bfhnth
xU
iz,
vyuh
izf rkkhf glgoU,
miz Kid jikaw
iz MF. khwhf, vyuh
izf rkkhf glglhj
iy Kid jikl Toa
izf cUthF.

miwbtgiy
thf,
kf myJ kf
_yTWfSilna tYtw ir
Ugjh, rfiz nrkf
thiynyh kiynyh myJ
bkikahd
kfshfnth
Uwd.
217

myF-13

nta
bra 13.6

bra 13.7

FLs fiughfis
Kidjik cilait, Kid
jik mwit vd tifgLJf.
1 . bg,
2.
4. Fnshnuhgh

3. <j,

fljh a
rfiz nrkf ne(+)
manah v() manah iy.
vdnt, cUa iyY fiur
iyY Tl it rhuij
flJtiy.

_yTW idf ntf Fiw

rfiz nrkf <LgL
idf
nrk
_yTWf
KYkhf
khw
milwd.
ndw bgw maf VJ

n
 rhoa
Fnshiuil
bkGif vLJbfhf.
uL ff , lg
vbz Ma fiughfis,
jjahf vLJbfhf.
nrhoaFnshiuL
cig
U
ffY
cs
fiughfSl
nrJ,
fiuwfis FJbfhf.
mLJ
Jngh
bkGif,
jahf vLfgl U
fiughfSl
nrJ
fiuwfis FJbfhf.
uL
bghUf
fiu
wfis xLf.
yhjjh, nrkf
Fiwj
ntf id <LgLwd.

13.4. maiz kW rfiz nrkf ntWghLf

maiz

rfiz

X
cnyhf
mQUJ,
mnyhf
mQF vyuhf lbgaUtjh
maiz cUthwJ.

mnyhf mQfilna vyuhf

glgLtjh rfiz cUthwJ.

ne (+) kW v (-) mafSilna

iya ftir fhzgLwJ.

_yTWfSilna tik
ftirna fhzgLwJ.

mir
jik
irggwJ.

mir jikawJ. Mdh irg

cilaJ

cilaJ.

Mdh

Fiwj

nrk gf
miw btgiy kf.

miw btgiy thf myJ

kf myJ bkikahd kf.

cUFiy, bfhiy mf.

cUFiy bfhiy Fiw.

fodkhdJ, behWF jik bfhlJ.

fodjikawJ.
jik bfhlJ.

Kids
fiughf
fiu.
Kidtw fiughf fiutiy.

Kidtw
fiughf
fiu.
Kids fiughf fiutiy.

cUa iyY, fiur

rhuij flJ.

cUa iyY, fiur

rhuij flJtiy.

maf
idf
id ntf mf.

iyY
gnfgjh,

218

iuthf

_yTWf idf
id ntf Fiw.

cil

iyY
gnfgjh,

ntizf
13.5. <j rfiz

nkY mJ bfhnth

xU
rhjhuz
rfiz,
izFshd uL mQfS
vyluhfis
rkkhf
gL
brwd. y nrkf, xU
mQth kLnk rfizF
njitahd uL vyuhfS
tHfgLwd. iz <j
rfiz vdgL.
xU rfiz, izF
njitahd uL
vyluhfS
uL mQf VnjD xU
mQth kLnk tHfgoU,
miz <j rfiz vdgL.
nrkf
<j
rfiz
nrkf vdgL.
A kW B Ma uL mQfis
fUJnth.
A-mQ
gLF
cshfhj uL vyuhfis
B-mQ
uL
vyuhf
Fiwthf bgWsjhf bfhnth.
A-mQ
uL
vyuhfis,

uL vyuh izf
glh,
uiliz
cUthwJ.
_W vyuh
izf glh, Kiz
cUthwJ. it gizf
vdgL.
1. f
 hgilMi[L
O=C=O
(uL uilizf)
2. M
 # O=O (xU uil
iz )
3. ieu# NN ( xU Kiz)
B-mQF
tHFwJ.
B-mQ
uL
vyuhfis,
A-mQ
lUJ bgWwJ. A-mQ uL
vyuhfis
tHFtjh,
mJ
< mQ vW B-mQ uL
vyuhfis Vgjh, V mQ
vW miHfgLwJ.

rhW
mnkha ma ( NH4+ )
mnkhahl (NH3) iAu# ma (H+) izJ mnkha ma
cUthwJ. mnkhah _yT cs ieu# mQ, _W iAu#
mQfSl izUj iyY, ieu# mQ izF cglhj
uL vyuhf csd. j vyuhfis ieu# mQ, iAu#
maF tH, mnkha ma cUthFwJ.

iAu# mQ

mnkha ma

mnkhah mQ
219

myF-13

nta
nkY mJ bfhnth

rhjhuz btg mGjiy fhgilMi[L thiy UgjF

mt Kid jikaw gng fhuzkhF. uhdJ k iy
UgjF mt Kid jikna fhuzkhF.
bra 13.8

rg oiu Mi[o(SO3) mik,

nrk cs <j rfizf vif vd?
< mQit, V mQit FLf.
bra 13.9
fhgnkhdhi[L xU th MF. nrk xU <j rfiz nrk.
fhgnkhdhiro mik
< mQit, V mQit FLf.

13.5.1 <j rfiz nrkf gf

rhuij flJ w
nrkf maWtiy. vdnt, it m flf MF.

fk fiughf fiu jik

nrkf jsnt fiu. Mdh Kidtw fk fiughf
fiu ailait.

cUFiy kW bfhiy
it gF msnt Kid jikia bgUwd. vdnt, rfiz
nrkfisl mf cUFiy, bfhiyia ma nrkfisl Fiwj
cUFiyia bfhiyia bgWsd.

vk UJ ntWgL nrkf
xU y nrkf vk vyuh mikig bgUgiy. nrkf
cs mQf vk vyuh mikig l Fiwthd vifnyh,
mfkhd vifnyh vyuhfis bgUwd.

i) ika mQit R ehF vyuhf cs nrk.

bga il FnshiuL (BeCl2 )
bga

Fnsh

17

2,2

2,8,7

mQ v
vyuh g
izw vyuhf
220

ntizf

Fnsh mQf xbthW vk vyuh mikig bgWsd. Mdh,

bga mQ ehF vyuhf bfhl bttl Milna bgWsJ.

ii) ika mQit R MW vyuhf cs nrk.

nghu oiu qiuL (BF3 )
nghu

2,3

2,7

mQ v
vyuh g
izw vyuhf

_W q mQfS vk vyuh mikig bgWsd. Mdh

nghuh bttl M MW vyuhfisna bgWsJ.

bra 13.10
ghgu mQv 15. mj vyuh git FJbfhf.
Fnsh mQv 17. mj vyuh git FJbfhf.
xU
ghgu
mQ,
IJ
Fnsh
mQfSl
izJ
ghgu bglhFnshiuil cUthFwJ.
vk vyuh mikig bgWs mQit FLf.

kL

- m
rahd ilia njbjLJ vGJf.

1. v
 k go, kj thf aif iy jik cilait. jF
fhuzkhf miktJ, bttlghij cs _________ vyuhf
(vL, VG, MW).
2. ntid, vyuhid HJ ne maia cUthFtJ _________
(Fnsh, a, S).
3. bka mQ v 12 v mj vyuh gkhd, _________
(2, 2, 8 / 2, 8, 2 / 8, 2,2).
4. jk X, mj bttl ghij 6 vyuhfis bgWsJ v,
rfizig cUthf X gL vyuhf vif _________ (3,2,6).
5. mf bfhiy cila nrk _________ (NH3, NaF).
221

nta

myF-13

6. v
 yuhf rkkhf glgLtjh VgL iz
( Kidw iz, Kidyh iz, ma iz ).

_________

7. rfiz nrkf gf mogil, jtwhd Tiw njbjLf.

m) fodjik, behWF jik mwit.
M) _yTWf gnfF idf ntf mf.

- M
8. NaCl xU ma nrk. xU ma iz vthW cUthwJ?
9. midJ jkfS vyuhfis gL brnjh, gkhw brnjh j
btTo vL vyuhfis bgWwd. vyuh mikUJ,
vyuhid HF kW gL br jkfis flf.

X = 2, 7

Y = 2, 8, 1

10. M
 gCl2 xU k iy nrk. gof iy J rhuij flJtiy.
cUa iy kLnk rhuij flJtjF fhuz ahJ?

-
11.

Na

(2,8,1)

Cl
(2,8,7)

Na+
(2,8)

Na+Cl-

Cl-

(2,8,8)

nkFl id, nrhoa FnshiuL cUthjiy FwJ. id

mogil ilaf.
m) Na UJ ClF lbgaU vyuhf vif vd?
M) Na+
)

Cl-

kW

Cl-

mafSilna cs ft ir ahJ?

F mUfhik cs kj th ahJ?

<) Na+ , Clc) Na+

mafSilna cs iz tif ahJ?

maYs vyuhf vif ahJ?

12. i
 eu#, iAu# mQfSilna
mnkhah _yTW cUthwJ.

vyuhf

glgLtjh

m) mnkhah xU rfiz _yTwh? ma _yTwh?

M) N, H mQfSilna cs rfizf vif ahJ?
) mnkhah _yTW rhuij flJkh?
<) mnkhah _yT mikig tiuf.

nkY ma
jf
Essentials of Physical Chemistry - B.S.Bahl,G.D.Tuli,Arun Bahl.

izajsf

S. Chand & Company Ltd

http://www.beyondbooks.com
http://www. visionlearning.com
222

myF 14

msL fUf

myF-14

aa

msL fUf

fzD, mtdJ jij oF njitahd ieyh

fiw thFtjfhf filF brwd. mtf khiy 5.05.00
kF il L wgL, 5.23.39 kF filia miljd.
mjhtJ mtfSila oUJ filF bry 18 l
39 dhof njitglJ. fhy ilbtid fz
jdJ vyf(ol) fofhu _y mjh. wF mtf
filfhuiu ghJ UgJ l sKs fiw jUkhW
nfld. filfhu, vyf (ol) juh cjl
375 uh fiw msJ bfhLjh.
UJ msLj vgJ ekJ mwhl th xU gF vgJ
bjthwJ. eh ghl xbthU aa ms vthW
msjagLwJ vgij ghngh.

224

msL fUf

14.1. a msLf ga fUJ

aa vgJ Kiwahd msLf mogil
mikjJ MF. bghUfis Jakhf msgJ
mta.
V msLf Jakhf Uj ntL?
eh ekJ tofSF bgnuh unghJ
Fl xnu bjhifF y lf msLf
U yffY (vLJfhlhf 1.9 l) ntWy
lf _W yffY (vLJfhlhf 1.92
l) mikJsJ. jifa Ja msoid
dQ fUf _ynk msl Ko.

14.2. sij msLj

bta wsit

Mtff vj xU bghU
sij
msl
a
l
msnfh
gagLwJ.
l
msnfhiy bfhL msl Toa
fFiwj s 1 .. MF. J l
msnfh wsit vdgL.

bta Kjik msnfh

xU (K.nfh.) kF
bta msnfh xU
(bt.nfh.) kF cs ntWghL
wsit (LC) vdgL.

vLJfhlhf
1
mFy
(2.54 br.) sKs bghUbshiw l
msnfhiy bfhL msLnghJ
2.5 br.. vnwh myJ 2.6 br.. vnwh
mslyh. Mdh J JakwJ.
jnghJ uhR ehL mP a
bta mtf totikj bta
msnfh vw Jiz msnfhiy
gagL nkfl f a
msfis Jakhf msf aY.
bta msnfhiy, msnfhYl
nrJ gagL 0.1 .. myJ 0.01
br.. msF rahf msfKo.

wsit
xU fUia bfhL msl
Toa f Fiwj ms mj
wsit vdgL.
bra 14.1
cfSila g aa
Mtf gagL btntW
mlf kW nthlf
wsitia fLof.

wsit (LC)

= 1 K.nfh. 1 bt.nfh.

= 1 mm 9/10 mm

= 0.1mm = 0.01cm
bra 14.2
cfSila ef xUthu
tsU msit fLof. xU
eh kW xU kneu mj
tsia fzl.

14.2.1. bta ms
fU
bta
jJtij
mogilahf bfhlJ.
bta
vgJ caukh, mGjkh myJ
msf Ffgl fUfSl
izfgl efU xU W msnfh
MF.
b
 ta ms br.. kW .
msLf Ffgl xU bka,
skhd cnyhfgil csJ. J
Kjik msnfh vdgL.
c
 nyhfgil
lJgf
Kid nkneha kW
225

myF-14

aa
neha jhilf msnfhYF
brFjhf
bghUjgLsd.
it iyahd jhilf vdgL
b
 ta msnfh iyahd
jhilfSF tyJ w, Kjik
msnfh J eG brY
tif
bta
msnfh
mikfgLsJ. j lJ
Kid nk kW neha
jhilf
bghUjgLsd.
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)

nehF jhilf
nk nehF jhilf
MH fgh.
Kjik msnfh
bta msnfh
iy W

it aF jhilf MF.
b
 ta msnfh cs UF
xid
gagL
jid
efj,
iyahf
Xl
bghUj Ko.

 neha jhilf bghU
btw msfis msl, nk
neha jhilf cw msfis
msf gagLwd.
b
 ta msnfhYl iz
fgl bka gil clw
bghUf MHij msl
gagLwJ.
braKiw 14.3

bta ms

bta ms wsit
fzLj
Kjik msnfh xU br,
xbthW 1 .. sKs 10 rk
ghffshf fgLsJ vf.
bta cs 10 rk f
(bt.nfh.) Kjik msnfh cs
9 fSF (K.nfh.) rk.
10 bt. nfh. = 9 K. nfh.
~ 1 bt. nfh. = 9/10 K. nfh.
1 K. nfh.

= 1 ..

wsit = 1 K.nfh. - 1 bt. nfh.

= 1 .. - 9/10 ..
= 1/10 .. = 0.1 ..

mslgL ms, rahd msitl

mf v neiH vd, rahd
msitl Fiw v viH
vd TwgL.

bta ms RiH fhz

jhilf xiw xW bjhLgo
itf ntL. bta msnfh
R
Kjik
msnfh
Rl bghUUjh fU
iH iy vdyh.

neiH

~ 1 bt. nfh. = 9/10 ..

cfSila ef khjF
2 tstjhfbfhL, xU
eh, xU k neu kW xU
lF mj tsia
fzLf.

= 0.01 br..

iH
mslgL
msL
rahd
kUJ vts khWgLsJ
vgnj
iH
vdgL.
226

bta msnfh R,
Kjik msnfh RF
tygfkhf
mikjh,
fU
neiH csJ vdyh. RUj
(ZC) vF cilaJ.
vLJfhlhf bta ms
nfh
n-MtJ

Kjik
msnfh VnjD xU l
xUgjhf
bfhlh,
RiH = + (n x wsit)

msL fUf

iH iy

neiH

viH

viH
bta msnfh R, Kjik nfh RF lgfkhf
mikjh, fU viH csJ vdyh. R Uj (ZC) neF cilaJ.
vLJfhlhf bta msnfh n-MtJ Kjik msnfh VnjD
xU l xUgjhf bfhlh, RiH = - ( 10 - n ) x wsit

Kjik nfh xU l
xUF bta msnfh
it bta x VC fhf.

cUis sij msLj

Kj
wsit
fzLf.

bta
kW

ms
RiHia

s fhz ntoa cUisia

jhilfSF ilna cWahf
oFgo itf.

t.
v.

cUis
rahd
s
= MSR + ( VC x LC ) ZC

cUisia btntW iyf

oFgo itJ msLfis vLJ
mltizgLJf.

bta RF K cs
Kjik nfh msit (MSR)
FJ bfhf.

Kjik nfh
ms (MSR)
br..

g bragl cUis s
= MSR + ( VC x LC )

bta
x
(VC)

fzlgl
ms
OR = MSR +
(VC x LC) br..

Ujgl
rahd ms
OR ZC
br..

1
2
3
mltiz fil g ruhr, cUis rahd s MF.

vyf (ol) bta ms

jnghJ, vyf (ol) bta ms cs, vfhoia bfhL
v msLfis flayh.
bra 14.4

vyf bta ms
227

cfSila toa myJ

ka cz lgh fdmsit
bta msia bfhL
fzLf.

myF-14

aa

14.3. iw kW vilfis msLj.

kUJf mil m mls btntW kUJ bghUf
iafis ghF nghJ jkf ms uh Ugij fhzyh.
jifa msLfis dQ (vyf) juhRfis bfhnl ma Ko.
eif filf 0.001 uh Ja jik bfhl vyf juhRfis
fhzyh.

iw

vil

bghU cs gUbghUf
ms, bghU iw vdgL.
iwahdJ lF l khWglhjJ.
iw
S.I.
myF
nyhuh.
iwahdJ
btntW
tifahd
juhRfis gagL mslgLwJ.
mtW y tUkhW

bghU J bragL <a

ir
k
bghU
vil
vdgL. vilahdJ lF l
khWglToaJ. vilahdJ RU
juhR _y mslgLwJ,.

rhjhud juhR
i l j s
gilia gagL
bghUf iwahdJ,
l F iwfSl
xL msl rhjhuz
juhR gagLwJ.

RU juhR
bghU vil RU
juhR _y mslgLwJ.
RU bjhflgL
bghUdh, RU VgL
id
bfhL
vilahdJ msfgLwJ.

kUJt vil ms

U jL juhR
tif
juhRf
filf
bghUf iwia msf ga
gLjgLwd.

aa juhR
Mtff bghUf iwia
uh msF Jakhf msf
J gagLwJ.

228

J kjf vilfis msL

tjF gagLjgLwJ. tif
ms cs RUyhdJ, kj
f vilF Vg mKfgLwJ.

vyf ( ol) juhR

bghUf vilfis
ntfkhf, Jakhf
msl
jnghJ
vyf
(ol)
juhR gagLjgLwJ.
tif juhRf
ms
(strain
gauge)
(sF Vg jil
cz)
jJt
mogil
bragLwd.

msL fUf
vilnkil

f mf vils yh kW
ouFf
vilfis
kh
jJtid gagL msl
vilnkilf gagLwd.

ka vilms

gHfhyf,
neukhdJ
Na fofhu, fofhu, kz
fofhu kW msf Ffgl
bkGFtid
gagL
mslglJ.
u
neuf
thd
UF
f
iyid
bfhL
neukhdJ
ffglJ. nkfl midJ
KiwfS Jakwit.

Na fofhu
Na
cFnghJ
kW
kiwnghJ bghUdh cUthF

gS dh (crane) cajgL
f mf gSthd bghUf
vilfis,
ka
irfis
gagL msl ka vilms
gagLwJ.

14.4. neuij msLj

H s khWgLtj mogil
Na fofhu bragLwJ.

fofhu

1984M
ML
x
ngho P.T.ch 400 l jil
Xlfhd btfy gjfij
xU dho xU gF fhy
ms ( 1 / 100 dho) jtw lJ
mtUF xU ngH myth?
jifa 0.01 dho fhyid
vj msl Ko?
jfhy
vyf
fofhuf
(ol),
mQ
fofhuf kW Fth fofhu
f bfhL a fhy ilbtf
Jakhf msfgLwd.

tif
fofhuf
uhd
ms xU fyUJ btgL
iu bfhL kbwhU fy bkJthf
uggL msit bfhL neukhdJ
mslgLwJ. fy cw
FfgL
msf,
neuij
Fwd.
229

myF-14

aa
kz fofhu

cq neu kW l neu

J
fofhu
nghnw bragLwJ.
UF gyhf kz
gagLjgLwJ.

cq
neukhdJ,
Na
iyia bfhL fzlgLtjh
lF l khWgLwJ. xU
Fl
l,
thd
Na cr iyia milnghJ,
ml neukhdJ egf 12 vd
mslgLwJ. J cq neu
vdgL.

vua fofhu
fnah
Cr
fLoghdJ,
Cr
fofhufis totikf
cjaJ.
iffofhu
kW
a
tif
fofhuf cs kiH
nghw RU J
bghUjgLs rkbr
rfu
cjah
rahd neu mslgLwJ.

Fth fofhu

bjhiyit
rhuhk,
ehL
KGtjF xnu uhd neuij za
bra xbthU ehL xU Fl
f nuifia nj brwJ.
ah l neu Hnf 82.50
nfhz rhyikj fnuifia
bfhL
fzlgLwJ.
j
neu ah l neu (IST) vd
miHfgLwJ.

Fth gof fofhuf wj

brawD,
Ja
jik
bfhlit. Fth goff ca
mbt mw Toait.
tfis bfhL neukhdJ
gof fh mik (LCD) _y
fhfgLwJ.

yh
l
neukhdJ,
ruhr neu (GMT) vd
miHfgLwJ. IST k GMT
kig l 5
kneu K
mikwJ. mjhtJ yh neu
egf 12 k vwnghJ, ah
neu khiy 5.30 vd UF.

mQ fofhu

cyfgl
tl
kW
bj
JUtfSF
ilna
tiuagL
fgid
nfhLf
fnuiff vdgL. xU eh
xbthU
k
neuF
xW
vw tif, xWbfhW 150
nfhz
ilbtyikj
24
neu klyfshf
nfhs
fgLsJ.

f mf Jajik bfhl
fofhufshf
jnghJ
mQ
fofhuf
gagLjgLwd.
a
mQ
VgL
uhd
m f
m o g i l
fofhuf
bragLwd.

yhJ eho cs
vDl mikJs uha M
iya tahf brY f nuif,
M tnaahd 00 Kjik
fnuifahf
fUjgLwJ.
ah ef fhiy 7.00 k vwh
mnj ntis yl egf 12.00
vd, #gh jiyefukhd nlh
nah u 9.00 kahf UF.

230

msL fUf
msL fhuf FpLf
a msf
fhu

bga msf

FpL

fhu

FpL

10

bl (deci)

10

blfh (deca)

da

10

bro (centi)

10

bAnlh (hecto)

10

(milli)

10

nyh (kilo)

10-6

iknuh (micro)

106

bkfh (mega)

10-9

nendh (nano)

109

fh (giga)

bra 14.5
cdJ egf vilfis, 100 gja uij flf mtf
vLJbfhl neufis tU mltiz brf.
t.v.

bga

vil ()

neu ()

kL
- m
1 ) 5 x 107 s F rkkhdJ k
m) 0.5 s

M) 5 s

) 50 s

<) 500 s

2)b
 ta msia bfhL, cUistot FHh x cw lid
msLtjF gagL bta ms ghfid fltUJ
bj brf.
(MH fgh, iyW, cw jhilf, btw jhilf)

-M
3 ) fltiw bghUJf.
t. v.
1.
2.
3.
4.

fU
rhjhuz juhR
kUJt vil ms
aa juhR
vyf juhR

gagL l
eif fil
Mtf
kUJtkidf
mfho

4 ) xU bta ms, 1 Kjik nfh F, 1 bta F cs

ntWghL 0.1 ... J vjid FLwJ.
231

myF-14

aa

5 ) bta msia bfhL 250 gff bfhl x ma jf

cs xU jh jokid fla fjh iHwh. mt jid vthW
jf Kiw brUgh vgjid sFf.
6 ) bfhLfgl mltiz
msil fzLf.

bta

ws = 0.01 br..

t.v.

MSR

VC

1
2

3
3

20
25

msLfis

bfhL

rahd

RUj = iy

fzlgl ms (or)
MSR + (VC x LC) br

rahd ms
OR ZC br..

7 ) milFF jugLs goaUJ rahdtiw njbjLJ

mltizia brf. (109, d, iknuh, 10-9, , m, M)
fhu
10-1
10-6

K
bl

fh

106

FpL

bkfh

8 ) khzt xUt, vyf bta msia bfhL FL x

lid msLif, ms msL 4.27 br.. vd fhLwJ.
Koid, R iHaw rhjhuz bta msiabfhL rghf
KgLwh v,
(i) bta R, Kjik ms nfh vF mik?
(ii) bta nfh ms v, Kjik msnfh VnjD xU l
xUF?

9 ) (i) fU wsit - tiuaWf
(ii) bta ms RiH tiffis sFf.
(iii) bta msid bfhL , bghU vj xU gkhzij msL
tKiwfis sFf.

nkY ma
f
1. Fundamentals of Physics - David Halliday & Robert Resnick, JohnWiley
2. Complete Physics for IGCSE Oxford publications
izajsf
http://www.nist.gov/pml/
http://www.teach-nology.com
http://www.splung.com
232

myF 15

afK
utfS

myF-15

aa

afK utfS

bghf goifia bfhlhLtjfhf fhF mtdJ

bgnwhU, mtfsJ brhj CUF, bjhlto _y gaz
nkbfhld. fh #d tna aif fhfis
uJ bfhoUjh. kuf kW brof ndh
eftJ ngh njhaJ mtDF Mraij mjJ.
mt jdJ mkhl, kuf cikahfnt ndh
brwdth? vdnflh. mjF mtdJ mkh, kuf
iyahf csbjd, bjhlto afUgdhjh
kuf ndh eftijnghy
njhWwJ vd
sdh. fhF kwtfSF X kW af
g ghl _y sFnth.

234

afK utfS

15. af

bra 15.2

gl
fllij
Rs
kuf iy fllij bghWJ
khwhk csJ.
vdnt kuf
fllij bghWJ X iy
csjhf Twyh.

cfsJ tFgiw X iy,

af iyYs bghUfis
g fyJiuahl.

aF j msLj
trh xUt dK jdJ
oUJ rijF fhffis
vLJ brwh. mt rijF
U tf bry Ko.
Market

f to brYnghnjh
myJ XobfhoUFnghnjh R
s kuf, kW fllfis bghWJ
cfsJ iy bjhlJ khWgLwJ.
nghJ f af cf
myJ
a
bfhoUf
vdyh.

..

1.5

2.

glij
ftJ
tUtdtF ilaf.

mj :
xU bghU fhyij
bghWJ bjhlJ xnu iy
UFnkahdh mJ X iy
csJ vdgL. fhyij bghWJ
bghUbsh iy bjhlJ kh
bfhoUjh mJ af iy
csJ vdgL.
bra 15.1
cfis rhJ, X kW
af iyYs bghUfis
goaLf.
t. v

af

1
2
3
4

Na

1. bjhiy vwh vd? xbthU

ehS trh vts bjhiy
gaz brwh? bjhiy vgJ
mt brY ghij s MF.
Kj ghij tna brYnghJ
1.5 .. bjhiy, ulhtJ ghij
tna brYnghJ 2.5 .. bjhiy
brth.
mj : U lfSF ilgl
bjhiy rkkhf UfhJ. mJ brY
ghijia bghWJ khWgL.
2. mtuJ oF, rijF
ilgl f Fiwj bjhiy
ahJ? oUJ nenfhLghij
rijia mil u 1 . mF.
jid lbga vnwh.

mj
U lfSF ilgl f
Fiwj bjhiy myJ nenfhL
bjhiy lbga vdgL.
235

myF-15

aa
bra 15.3
O
0

C
1

A
6

10

nenfhLghij vW x afij fUJf. vW mj

afij O vw bjhlFwJ. A kW C vgd btntW
neuf vW iyf vf. vW Kj CI milJ d Ait
milwJ. d mJ brw ghijnyna U C vw ia milwJ
v vW flj bjhiy kW lbgaia fzLf.
bra 15.4

bra 15.5
B

A
10 br..

tFgiw xU _iy UJ
v _iyF
mj gff
tahf bry.
f flj
bjhiyid fzLf. nghJ
miw _iyl tahf v
_iyF bry. f flj
lbgaia
fzL
ntWghoid ma.

C
10 br..

10 br MuKila miutlij
tiua. ghij ABC (bjhiy) kW
ghij AOC (lbga) sfis
msLf.
UJ
bjhiy
31.4 br.. vd lbga
20 br.. vd mayh.

15.1. uhd af kW uw af
KaYF MikF ilgl gja mt af bjhlghd
tuf mltiz jugLsd.

236

afK utfS
fhy
(l)
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50

Ka flj
bjhiy
(l)
10
30
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
48

Mik flj
bjhiy
(l)
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50

j
msLf
UJ
MikahdJ xbthU 5 lF
5 bjhiyit flgij fhzyh.
mJ Fl fhy xnu ms
bjhiyit flwJ.
jifa
af uhd af vdgL.
bghU xW rk fhy ilbtf
rk bjhiyfis fljh mj
af uhd af vdgL

15.2. af jij msLj

ntf : kGJ xW nryUJ
bridia mila 6 k neu vLJ
bfhwJ, mnj bjhiyit ngUJ
xW 8 k neu flwJ.
vJ iuthf brwJ? V?
kGjhdJ
Fiwj
fhy
uij flJsjh ngUijl
kGJ iuthf brwJ vdyh.
mj : bghU xW Fl
bjhiyit Fiwj fhy fljh
mJ iuthf brwJ vdyh.
bghU xW Fl bjhiyit
flf mf neu vLJ bfhlh
mJ bkJthf brwJ vdyh.
bghU vts iuthf myJ
bkJthf brwJ vgij msl
ntf vw ms gagLjgLwJ.
ntf vgJ bjhiy fhy khWghL
j myJ xU dho flF
bjhiy MF.
flj bjhiy
ntf =
vLJ bfhl fhy

KayhdJ
xU
Fl
fhy
ilbt
btntW
bjhiyfis flJsJ. jifa
af uw af vdgL.

ntf / (m/s) ms-1 vw myfh

FlgLwJ.

bghU xW rkfhy ilbtf

btntW bjhiyfis fljh
mj af uw af vdgL.

vLJfhL

bra 15.6

ntfij / k (km / h) vw
myfhY Flyh.
bjhlto ntf 100 .. / k,
v mJ xU kneu 100 .,
bjhiyit flF.

uhd af kW uw af goaLf
uhd af
Rtfofhu Cr miyf

uw af
ber Fj rhiy k
af

237

myF-15

aa

irntf
bjhlJ
fhyij
bghWJ
khWgLbfhoUF.
bghU
irntf
VgL
khWghil vthW Flyh?

Ka brf
1) kGJ xW 6 k neu
300 .. bjhiyit flwJ,
mj ntf vd?

jfhf eh KLf vw kbwhU

aa msit mKfgLjyh.

2) mnj kGJ 60 .. / k ntf

brwh mnj bjhiyit flf
MF fhy vd?

xU dho neu bghU

irntf VgL khw myJ
irntf
khWghLj
KLf
vdgL.

3) 5 k neu mj bjhiyit
flf ntLbk mJ vts
ntf bry ntL?

KLf =

ir ntf
ntfij g ngRnghJ mj
af iria fU bfhsiy.
afirl ntfij fUJnghJ
afij bjthf J bfhs
Ko. irl nrJ ntfij
Flh mJ irntf vdgL.
irntfij
fzl
bjhiyF g lbgaia
fU vLJbfhs ntL.
xU dho
bghU mil
lbga myJ lbga
khWghLj
bghU irntf
vdgL.
( khWghL j vgJ xU dho
VgL khw ) lbga khWghL
irntf =

irntf
FlgLwJ.

fhy
/ vw myfh

uhd irntf
bghU xW rkfhy msf
rkkhd lbgafis miljh
mJ uhd irntf vdgL.

15.3. irntf fhy

khWghL j
nenfho uhd af cs
bghU irntf khWghL R MF.
Mdh uw af cs bghU
238

irntf khWghL
fhy

KLf / ( ms-2) vw myfh

FlgLwJ.
fhyij bghWJ bghU ir
ntf mfjh, KLf neF
cilaJ. jifa af KLfgl
af vdgL. fhyij bghWJ
bghU irntf Fiwjh mJ
v KLf vdgL. jifa
af vKLfkilj
af
vdgL.

uhd KLf
nenfhL
ghij
aF
bghU
irntf
rkfhy
ilbtf, rk ms mffnth
myJ Fiwanth brjh, bghU
KLf uhd KLf vdgL.

vLJfhL
kGJ xW 8 -2 vw uhd
KLfJl aFwJ v mj
irntfkhdJ xbthU dhoF
8 -1 mfwJ vd bghUgL.

vLJfhL
xU bjhlto 10 -2 vw uhd
KLfJl (vKLf) aFwJ
vwh, mj irntf xbthU
dhoF 10 -2 vw msF
FiwwJ vdbghUgL.

afK utfS
10 / ir ntf aF
kGJ x ir ntf 10 dho
50 / Mf khWglh mj KLf
vd?
irntf khWghL
KLf =
fhy
a=
a=

W
irntf

nkY mJ bfhnth
t.
v

bjhlf
irntf

fhy
50 - 10
10

40
10

= 4 / 2

nkTa vLJfhil bfhL,

KLffhd bghJthd thghil
fhzyh.
a vgJ KLfij, u vgJ
bjhlf irntfij v vgJ
Ko irntfij, t
vgJ
fhyij Fgjhf bfhlh,
v-u
a=
t

ntf
af
-1

k-1

1.

0.5

1.8

2.

kj

1.0

3.6

3.

tL

5.0

18

4.

P.T
ch

32.4

5.

Wij

24

90

6.

x
ntf

340

1224

7.

x
ntf

3 x 108

10.8 x 108

bra 15.7
btntW ngUJf af ga tU msLf UJ mj
KLf vthW mik vd fhf.
( a) uhd neF KLf
b) uw neF KLf c) R KLf
d) uhd vF KLf e) uw vF KLf
ntf ( k-1 )

fhy
( dho )

ngUJ A

ngUJ B

ngUJ C

ngUJ D

ngUJ E

2
4
6
8
10
12

10
10
10
10
10
10

10
8
6
4
2
0

0
4
6
9
12
14

3
6
9
12
15
18

20
18
14
8
3
0

15.4. afij tiugl _y FLj

bjhiy - fhy tiugl
fhy kW bjhiyF ilgl bjhlig tiugl _y vjhf mayh.
jFj ms lJl, fhyij X-mY, bjhiyit Y-mY bfhL
tiuagL tiugl bjhiy fhy tiugl vdgL.
239

myF-15

aa
uhd af

bra 15.8

KUf
btntW
elj
bjhiyf
FfgLsJ.

fhyf
tUkhW

fhy
(l)

bjhiy (l)

500

10

1000

15

1500

K.g. 5.00

20

2000

kJiu

120

K.g. 8.00

25

2500

beiy

270

K.g. 11.45

ehfnfh

350

.g. 1.45

Y
3000

yh
affhd
bjhiy-fhy tiuglij tiuJ,
yh ntfij fzLf.

2000

nfhL tiuagLwd.
it C
vw bto bfhtjh
ABC vw Knfhz cUthwJ.
tiugl BC vgJ bjhiyF
(S2 S1) rk. AC vgJ fhy (t2 t1)
F rk.
bjhiy
bghU ntf v =
fhy

1500

s2

1000

s1

500
0

10

15 t

20 t 25
2

bjhiy tJ nrU
(.)
neu

msl
X-m 1 br = 5 l
Y-m 1 br = 500

2500

bjhiy (l)

ruFJ (yh) xW U
UJ kJiu, Ubent kW
ehfnfhYF tJ nrU neuf
kW UUJ kJiu, beiy
kW ehfnfh Ma Cf
bjhiyf mltiz ju
gLsd.

30

v=

fhy ( l )
gl 15.1
F KUf rkfhy msf rk
ms uij flJsh. vdnt,
mt uhd ntfJl elJsh.
uhd
affhd
tiugl
nenfhlhf mik.
bjhiy - fhy tiuglUJ
bghU
ntfij
fhzyh.
tiugl AB vw WgFia
fUJf. A UJ XmF xU
brFJ nfhL, B UJ
Y-mF
kbwhU
brFJ
240

(S2 - S1)
(t2 - t1)

BC
AC

KLfgl af
(uw irntf )
kGJ xW uL dho fhy
ilbtf flj ufhd
mltiz
bfhLfgLsJ.
gl 15.2 kG affhd
bjhiy - fhy tiuglij FwJ.
fhy
( l )
bjhiy
( l )

10

12

16

25 36

afK utfS
tiugl jikUJ kG bjhiyf khWghL nenfho
mikahjij fhzyh.. vdnt j tiugl uw afij FF.
Y
40

msl
X-m 1 myF = 2 dho
Y-m 1 myF = 5

bjhiy (l)

35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0

X
2

10

12

14

16

fhy (dho)
gl 15.2

irntf - fhy tiugl

nenfho aF bghUbsh fhyij bghWJ irntf VgL
khWghil irntf - fhy tiugl _y Flyh.

uhd irntf (m) KLfkw af

kF 40 ./ k vw uhd ntf brY kG irntf - fhy
tiugl tUkhW mik.
F fhy X mY, irntf Y mY vLJ bfhsgLwJ.
Y

irntf ( k-1 )

40

C t1
1

t2 D

30
20
10
0

fhy (k)
gl 15.3
241

myF-15

aa

kG
lbgaahdJ,
irntf fhy tiugl ABCD-
milgL guF rk.

tiugl (gl 15.3) AC myJ BD

irntfij FF. CD myJ AB
fhy (t2 t1) I FF.

AC = 40 .. / k

gu

ABCDE

= ABCD vw brtf gu +
ADE vw Knfhz gu
s = AB x BC + 1 x ( AD x DE )
2

CD = (t2 t1) = 3 1 = 2 k
lbga = irntf x fhy
~ s = AC x CD myJ AB x BD

uw KLfkilj af

= 40 x 2 = 80 ..

uw KLf bgw affhd

irntf - fhy tiugl btntW
totf mik. gl 15.5 fhyij
bghWJ uw Kiw irntf khw
bgW kGJ x irntf-fhy
tiuglij FwJ.

uhd KLfkilj af
nrhjid Xl nghJ, uhd
fhy ilbtf kGJ x
irntff tU mltiz
bfhLfgLsd.

iintf
( k-1)
0
25
5.0
7.5
10.0
12.5

0
5
10
15
20
25

50

irntf ( k-1 )

neu ()

kG affhd irntf
- fhy tiugl 15.4 jugLsJ.
Y

30

20

10

12.5
10

irntf ( k-1 )

40

bra 15.9

7.5
A

5
2.5
X

0
5

10

15

20

25

30

fhy (dho)
gl 15.4.

rkfhy ilbt irntf

khw
rkkhf
miktij
tiuglUJ mayh.
242

10

12

fhy (k)
gl 15.5

xbthU FGY 5 khztfis

bfhl A, B vw U FGfis
mikf.
U
FGfS
jjna 500 ilbt bfhl
xU rhiy U rf W
bfhL
mlij
flF
thfdf v, tif kW flF
neu Matiw 15 lfSF
FJbfhs bra. ilf
bgW k fUJ xbthU
thfd ntfij, mt
vjid thfdf ntf fLghL
viyia Wwd vd fzLf.

afK utfS
bra 15.10
uhFY mtdJ rnfhj uah
jfsJ tof gF
brwd. mtf xnu neu
oUJ
s xnu ghij
brwhY
btntW
neuf
gia milwd.

uhF flj uah flj

bjhiy
bjhiy
(..)
(.. )

fhy

mtf
flj
uf
mltiz bfhLfgLsd.
tf
bjhiy-fhy
tiuglij, xnu tiugl tiuJ
sf jUf.

K.g. 8.00

K.g. 8.05

1.0

1.0

K.g. 8.10

2.0

1.9

K.g. 8.15

3.0

2.7

K.g. 8.20

4.0

3.5

K.g. 8.25

--

4.0

15.5. af rkghLf (tiugl Kiw)

nenfhL ghij a vw uhd
KLfJl aF bghU xiw
fUJf. bghU irntf t fhy
u- UJ v-F khWwJ.
t
fhy bghU milj lbga
s MF.

A kW B vgit tiugl
Js U f.
A
bghU irntf mj bjhlf
irntf (u) MF.
B
irntf mj W irntf (v)
MF.

gl 15.6 bghUSfhd irntf

fhy tiuglij FwJ.

A
UJ
x-mF
xU
brFJ
nfhL
(AC),
y-mF
kbwhU
brFJ

irntf

nfhL (AD) tiuagLwd.

ijnghynt B-UJ BE
kW BF brFJnfhLf
tiuagLwd.
AG vgJ A UJ BEF
tiuagL brFJ nfhL MF.

Fl neu irntf
fhd rkghL

tiugl,
AC
vgJ bjhlf ir
ntf (u) it
BC vgJ W irntf
(v) it

fhy

CE vgJ vLJbfhl
fhy (t) ia
i r n t f
DF vgJ
khWghoid FwJ.

gl 15.6
243

myF-15

aa
KLf =
~ a=

irntf khWghL

DF

rkghLf (1), (2) kW (3) Mait

bghU af rkghLf vdgL.

fhy

< KLf

OF-OD

=
OE-OC
CE
Mdh OE - OC = t
v-u
~ a=
t
v - u = at

bghU xW brFjhf nkneh

vagLwJ. eh fhgJ vd?

~ v = u + at . (I)

lbgafhd rkghL
t fhy bghU lbga
s vf. tiugl,
lbga = CABE gu
s = brtf CAGE- gu +
Knfhz ABG gu
s = AC x CE + 1 (AG + GB)
2
F AC = u, CE = t, AG = t
GB = v - u = at (rkghL (1) UJ)
1
x t x at
s = ut +
2
1
s = ut +
a t 2 . (II)
2

Fl iy irntf
rkghL
tiugl,
lbga = rtf CABE gu
1
(AC+EB) x CE
2
F AC = u, EB = v, CE = t
~ s=

u+v
x t (II)
2
v-u
rkghL (1) UJ (i), t =
a
t kig ul
u+v
v-u
s=
x
2
a
2
2
v -u
s=
2a
2
2
v - u = 2as
~ v2 = u2 + 2as .(III)

~ s=

bghU irntf gogoahf

FiwJ bfhnl tJ bgUk cau
R MF. mjhtJ bghU v
KLfij bgWwJ. bghUshdJ
nH GnghJ mj irntf
gogoahf mfF. mjhtJ bghU
KLf bgUwJ?.
bghU
bgW
v
KLf
myJ
KLfkhdJ
p
irah VgLtjh mjid <
KLf vnwh. J g vd
FlgLwJ.
g - ruhr k = 9.8 /2 MF.
brFjhf
nkneh
vagL
bghU
irntf
xbthU
dho 9.8 Fiw. nH GnghJ
xbthU dho irntf 9.8
mfF.
nkneh vagL myJ nH
G bghUSfhd rkghLfis,
v = u + at2
s = ut + 1 at2
2
v 2 = u 2 + 2as
vw af rkghLf UJ
bgwyh.
nkneh vagL bghUfSF
a = -g kW s = h vd uL
rkghLfis bgwyh.
~ v = u - gt
h = ut - 1 gt2
2
v2 =
u 2 - 2gh
bghU neh jhnd jil
GnghJ u = o , a = g kW s = h
vdnt v = gt
h = 1 gt2 , v 2 = 2gh
2

244

afK utfS

15.6. uhd tl af

nfhz lbga

Xlgja u xUt tlghij

g tahf Xodh mtUila
af tl af vdgL.

tlghij aF bghUis,
tl ikaij izF
Mubtl flF nfhz, nfhz
lbga (q) vdgL. J nuoa
vw myfh mslgLwJ.

mjhtJ tlghij aF
bghU af tl af vdgL.
bghU xW khwhj irntf
tlghij adh mJ uhd
tl af vdgL.
uhd tl af irntf
vk
vyh
fY
khahf UF. Mdh, ir kL
bjhlJ khWgL. tlghij
aF bghU irntf vthW
FlgLwJ?
Kija
ghlgF
eh
bghU lbgaia bfhL
irntf
fzL
Kiwia
ghnjh. J nenfhL irntf
vdgL.
nghJ bghU flF
nfhz msit bfhL mj
irntfij Flyh. J nfhz
irntf vdgL.
nfhzij
vj
myfh
msLf? nfhzij o vw
myfh FLnwh. nuoa vw
kbwhU myif gagLjyh.

nfhz irntf
tlghij aF bghUis,
tl ikaij izF
MunfhL xU dho flF
nfhz ms myJ nfhz
lbga fhykhWghL j
nfhz irntf vdgL.
nfhz lbga
nfhz
=
irntf vLJ bfhS fhy
~ w = q/t
nfhz
irntf
vdbtW Tw Kokh?
nuoa
myfhF.

1 nuoa

dho

vgJ mj

nenfhL irntfF - nfhz

irntfF
ilnaahd
bjhl
B
r

tl MuF rkkhd
s bfhl tl tl
ika
VgLJ
nfhz
1 nuoa vdgL.

myF

r Mu bfhl tlghij tna

v vw nenfhL irntfJl
bghU xW aFtjhf fUJnth.
bghU nfhz irntf . bghU
t fhy A UJ BF eftjhf
bfhf. q vgJ nfhz lbga
vf. AB = s bghU lbga
nenfhL
=
irntf

r
245

lbga
fhy

myF-15

aa

AB
v= t

s
v = t (1)
S sK r Mu bfhl tl
ika VgLJ nfhz q v

S = r q

------------------ (2)

r
2- kig 1 ul v = t

Mdh t = w = nfhz irntf

~ v = rw
nenfhL
tlghij Mu x
=
irntf
nfhz irntf

15.6.1. ikanehF ir kW ika

yF ir
x xU Kid f
xiw fl. kWKidia if
oJ bfhL fiy gl csJ
nghy uhd ntf tlghij
RHYgo bra.

nghJ iy L l.
f af vthW mik?
ijnghynt
fiy
btntW
lf L mj af iria
fhz.
xbthU
Kiw
fyhdJ
tlghijF
tiuagl
bjhL
nfho
tna
nenfho
aFtij fhzyh.
Vbd
fyhdJ LgL , jdJ
nenfhonyna
bjhlJ
bry
KgLwJ. vdnt, fiy bjhlJ
246

mjhtJ tlghij af bra

xbthU Y f aF ir
khwgl ntL.
UJ bghUis tlghij
af, tna tlikaij
neh xU ir brYjgLwJ
vd mayh. j ir ika nehF
ir vdgL.
tlghij aF bghU
irntfF brFjhd ir,
Mu tna, ikaij
neh
bghU J bragL khwh ir,
ikanehF ir vdgL.
m iw bfhl bghU xW r Mu
bfhl tlghij tna, vw
nfhzirntfJl aFtjhf
fUJnth.
bghU
nenfhL
irntf v vf.
mv2
F=
r
F = mr2 (

v = r)

vLJfhLf
1)
 dh
flgLs
f
tlghij
aFnghJ,
ikanehF
irahdJ

Girah bgwgLwJ.
2) kGJ xW tis UnghJ
laUF,
jiuF
ilgl
cuh ir njitahd ikanehF
iria jUwJ.
3) nfhfNaidRaFnghJ
nfhfSF,
NaDF
ilgl <a ir ikanehF
irahf bragLwJ.

afK utfS
4) c
 fUit RtU vyuhDF
njitahd
ikanehF
ir,
vyuhDF
cfUF
ilgl iy a <
irah bgwgLwJ.

cliy cneh rhwh. F

bragL cuh ir (ikanehF
ir) ikayF ir (mv 2/ r) ah
rk bragLwJ.

nkY mJ bfhnth

Kj vLJfho f J
irahdJ tna ikaij
neh
bragLtij
ju
(ikanehF ir), fyhdJ if
J mjF rkkhd iria
tna ikaUJ btneh
brYJwJ.

miu
FwR

ikanehF ir vkF
rkkhf, ir vuhf mik
ir ika yF ir vdgL.

ahdJ
JUtgFf
rW
jilahf,
yeL
nfhL gF rW gUJ
fhzgLwJ.
yeLnfhL
gF

lkhdJ,
JUtgF lijl 48
mfkhf UF. yeLnfhL
gF cs Jff irntf
JUt gFf cs Jff
irntfijl mf.
vdnt
yeLnfhL
gF
cs
Jff
jhd
ikayF
ir mfkhf mik.
vdnt,
yeLnfhLgF rW gUJ
fhzgLwJ.

vLJfhL
1. j

filnghJ
ikayF
ir fhuzkhf btbz
ghu XuF brwJ.

2.
 to
ghij

eLtiunfhL

miu
belR

tlJUt

XLgt
tisthd
brYnghJ
jdJ

15.7. utf
utf XlUJ kbwhU
lF gutToait. utf
tiuaWfgl
fd
msit
bfhoUF. it bfhfy
totij bgUF. utfis
f mf
mKf irfSF
cgLnghJ f Fiwj msnf
gUk khw VgLwJ. vdnt,
utf
mKf
ayhjitahf
fUjgLwd.
247

myF-15

aa
15.7.1. nknehF cJ ir kW
j ir
bra 15.11
Kfit cs D a
jif JL xid mGJf.
f vd czf? mf
MH brYgo nkY mGJf.
btntW MHf f vd
ntWghoid czf?

bghUshdJ UF _UF
tiu us KfitahdJ
nyrhf csij nghy njhW.
Mdh
Kfitia iu L
btna vLFnghJ vil mfkhf
csij czuyh. UJ
ua Kfit vil UF
_UFnghJ, UF nkgu
csij l Fiwthf UgJ ngh
njhW.

15.7.2 Mo

MH mfF nghJ jif

JoF
mf ms
mGj
juntosij
mayh.
UJ
uhdJ
nkneha
ir jif Jo J iria
VgLJwJ vgij mayh.
jif Jo MH mff
mff uh jugL nknehF
irahdJ mfwJ.

Mo

utD VnjD xU
mGj p = hdg vgJ ehkjnj.
UJ
MH
mfFnghJ
mGj
mfwJ
vgij
mayh.
xU
bghUshdJ
ut
jFnghJ
myJ
_FnghJ,
mbghU mogu bragL
mGjkhdJ nkgu bragL
mGjij l mfkhF. tGj
khWgho fhuzkhf xU nknehF
ir bghU J bragLwJ.
ir nknehFcJ ir myJ
j ir vdgL. j irahdJ
btnawgL ut vilF
rkkhF.
j irahdJ btnawgL
ut
<ika
tahf
bragLwJ. ika j ika
vdgL.
utdh
bghU
J
bragL j ir fhuzkhf
248

M o
nuf ehil nrj
ma mP(287212 B.C). iya
kW k iya
t fLoj gy
Ka
jJtf
eilKiwgLjgLsd.
t jij xU thayhs.
iruhf ehL kd bAnuh
tuJ egD cwdU Mth.
t
jDila
f
kW
gfis, mfhy fgjF
wbgw
mby[hoah
fWbfhlh.

benfh
Mo vJ eho cs
tafSF
ghrdfhd

Uid fLojh. benfh

jJtij fLojtU tnu.

afK utfS
benfhiy
fLoj
kdid ghJ, "kdh vdF
F btna gjF X lij
jhUf, eh ia efJnw"
vW Tdh. nuh ehL, nuf eho
J ngh bjhLj ntis nuhk
fgf J gSthd vilfis
jhFtjfhd gy vua
fUfis totikJ jjh.

nufh
kiya f Kakhd
Mo jJt fLofgl
j aghdjhF. nuf ehL
kd mehL bghbfhyl
jfij
mJ
flSF
mgjfhf jf l brgo
flislh.
bghbfhyD
l brJ kdl rkjh.
lij
nrhj
kdDF
l
bghbfhy
bt
myJ jhu fyUgh vw
rnjf vGjJ. lij ijfhk
nrhFgo Mol Tdh.
Mo xUeh jdJ Fayiw
bjho
Ff
brwnghJ,
Fayiw
bjhoF
_F
ntis, mtuJ cl jgij
fll, cil mtij kwJ
nufh, nufh (fLoJnl!,
fLoJnl!)
vd
T
bfhL f Xodh.

bra 15.12
Mo
thif
kW
mtuJ thif elj ffis
ehlfkhf eof.

Mo jJt
xU bghU ghk ( ut
myJ
th )
jF
jil
_UFnghJ, mJ Hgjhf
njhW
vil,
btnawgL
ghk vilF rkkhf UF.

Mo jJtij rghF
nrhjid
RU
juhR
x
bfhUJ a f xid
fo bjhf Lf. fh f
vilid W1 vd FJ bfhs.
gl fhosthW KGtJ
us #ho x fiy bkJthf
UF _FkhW bra. f
vilia fLof. jid W2
vd FJbfhs.
Kfit vilia
FJbfhs.

W3

vd

nghJ f UF _Ftjh
t iu Kfit nrfJ mj
vilia
fLof. Ul
nrJ Kfit vil W4 vf.
juhR

nufh

tnjhL
#ho

btnawgl
Ul Toa Kfit
249

myF-15

aa
btnawgL vil (W4 - W3)
fLof.
UF _F f HF vil
(W1 -W2).
UJ (W1 -W2) = (W4 - W3)
vd Ugij fhzyh. UJ
Mo jJt rghfglJ.

15.7.3. xgl
ml
bghU ml vgJ XuyF
gUkDfhd bghU iw vd
tiuaWfgLwJ.
ml =

iw

aa juh
lJ gf
jo bfhUJ bfhLfgl
bghUis bjhfLf.
fh mj iw (m1 )ia
fLo. lJ jo J ka
nkilid itJ ua Kfit
xid itf.
bghU J vjj
fhW
Ff
xoUfhjthW,
bghUshdJ
Kfit
gf
Rtfis bjhlhjthW D _f
bra.
UF lbghU iw
fLof.

= m1

fzL

gUk

fh lbghU iw = m1 uh

ml myF Kg m-3

D lbghU iw = m2 uh

xgl
xgl
vgJ
bghU
mlF mlF cs
jf MF. xglF myF iy.

xgl fzLj
1. M
 o
jJtij
gagL, iu l fdkhd,
fiuahj l bghU
xglia fzl.

D lbghU HF iw

= ( m1-m2 ) uh
~btnawgL

iw

= ( m1- m2 ) uh
btnawgL

fdms
= ( m1 -m2 ) cc

(Vbd 1 uh fdms 1 cc
MF)
lbghU fdms = ( m1 -m2 ) cc
lbghU
iw
lbghU
=
ml
lbghU
fdms

lJ jL

Kfit

m1
m1 m2

g cm-3

m1
lbghU
myF
=
~
ml
m1 m2 iy

FL

ka
nkil
250

ml 1 br-3 )

afK utfS
2. iu l nyrhd lbghU
xglia fhz (jif)

3. ut xglia
fzLj
kW xgl fhzntoa
ut uoY fiuahj jhu
CrFoid
aa
juh
lgf jL cs lUJ
bjhfLf Cr Fo iwia
(m1) fzLf.
Cr Foid,
ka
nkil
J
itfgl
ua Kfit
xD
_f
brJ D Cr
Fo iw m2ia
fzLf.

jifia UF _f bra
jhu CrFL gagLjgLwJ.
jhu CrFoid aa
juh
lgf
jo
bfhUJ bjhfl.
ka nkilJ itfgLs,
ua KfitD Cr Foid
_f brJ mj iw(m1)ia
fLof.
jifia FL cs mnj
fo jifahdJ UF btY,
FL
UF
_UFgo
brantL. nghJ iw (m2)ia
fLof ntL.
nghJ jifia Cr FLl
nrJ foLf. uil UF
_UFgo brJ iw (m3)ia
fLof.
fh

jif
= (m2-m1) uh

L
Cr
Foid xgl fhzntoa
ut ua KfitD _f
brJ utD Cr Fo iw
m3 fLof.

fzL
fh Cr Fo iw = m1 uh
UF Cr Fo iw = m2 uh
utD Cr Fo iw = m3 uh
UF Cr FL HF iw

= (m1-m2) uh

iw

utD Cr FL HF iw

= (m1-m3) uh

jif iw = (m3 -m1) uh

Cr
FL
_Ftjh
btnawgL kW ut
fdmsf rk.

UF jif HF iw

= (m2 -m1) - (m3 -m1) uh

= (m2 -m3) uh

jif
xgl

ut
xgl

fh
jif iw
UF jif
HF iw

m2 m1
m2 m3

=
myF iy.

251

utD
HfgL iw
UF
HfgL iw

m1 m3
m1 m2

myF iy.

myF-15

aa
15.7.4. KGtJ myJ gFas
ut
_UF
bghUSfhd sf
bra 15.13
ua Kfit xid
vLJbfhs. rk iw bfhl
jif xid, U M
xid

gu
J
itf. vd fwJ vgij
ftf?.

uggLsJ. j isthf
fg jF nghJ btnaW
fdms, fg fLkhd
gfSF
gagLjgl
U
fdmsitl
mfkhf
UF. vdnt, fg jgdh
btnawgL

vilahdJ
fg vilial mf.
xU bghU ut rkiy
jgjF
mj
J
bragL
Uirf (1) brFjhf neh
bragL
bghU
vil
(2)
btnawgL utdh bghU
J bragL fu nknehF ir
rk bragl ntL. mjhtJ
nkTa Uirf vk
rkkhf,
vbu
irY
braglntL.
bghU
J
bragL, bghUdh btnawgl
ut fu nknehF irahdJ,
bghU
vilF
rkkhfnth
myJ mfkhfnth Ufyh. J
btnawgL ut <ika
tahf braglntL.

jif jwJ, M
UF _FwJ. jif kW
U
ml
ntWgho
fhuzkhf J fwJ. jif
ml, mlia l
Fiwthf Ugdh, jif
J bragLJ nknehFir
(jir), jif vilia
l mfkhf Ugdh jif
jwJ.
U
mlahdJ

mlia l mfkhf Ugjdh,

M J bragL nknehF
ir, M vilia l
Fiwthf Ugdh M
_FwJ.

jit f
1.
 jF
bghU
vilahdJ,
mjdh btnawgL ut
vilF rk.

xU
UJL
ghjur
jF.
Mdh

_F.
jF fhuz ghjur ml
(13600
-3),

mlia
-3
(1000 ) l mf. U
JL
_Ftjh btnawgL
ghjur kW fdmsf
UJo fdmsF rkkhf
UjnghY,
UJodh
btnawgl,
ghjur
vil
UJo vilial mfkhf
UF. Mdh, btnawgL
vil UJo vilia l
Fiwthf UF.
Udh bragl fg
jwJ. fhuz fg totik
mfms fhlkhdJ fhwh
252

2.
 jF bghU <ikaK,
btnawgL ut <
ikaK
(jit
ika)
xnu
brFJnfho mikantL.

nkY mJ bfhnth
fh
mlahdJ,
iAu# th mlia
l Rkh 14
klF mf.
iAu# th uggl g
vil, mjdh btnawgL
fh vilia il Fiwthf
UF.
uoF
ilgl vilntWghL gid
caJtjF cjwJ. vdnt,
iAu# uggl g fh
canu gwwJ.

afK utfS
utkh
Ugdh
ntWgLwJ.

bra 15.14
beah
bragl
a
clw
bghik
xiw
vLJbfh. mj fhF mU
a Jisl. Us mfw fy
xid vLJ mjD bghikia
jf l. fy thgFia
xU ug
jhid bfhL
Wfkhf fl. nkwUJ
ug jhis mGJnghJ, bghik
UF KFwJ.

ug jh mGjgLnghJ,
fyF mGj mfgjh,
bghik cs Jis tna
cFwJ. j isthf
bghik vil btnawgL
vilial mfkhf Ugjh
bghik UF _FwJ.

vil xnu
_F

msthf
ms

bghJ utkh
bghJ utkh xU khW _Fiy
utkh
tifia
nrjJ. utkh
0.80
ut xglid
neuoahf
msL
0.85
tif
msf
0.90
FfgoUF.
utkh fzhoah
0.95
bragl FWfyhd, uhd
1.00
jL csJ. jo
nkKid milfgL,
1.05
mj
gF
xU
1.10
fzho
FGlD
1
izfgLsJ.
1.15
fzho
FD
ghjur myJ a <a
1.20
FLf uggoUF.
j
vil
fhuzkhf
2
u t k h a h d J
utf
brFjhf
jF.
ut
xgl
fhz,
3
gl 15.7 bghJ utkh
1. jL 2. FHh
3. ghjurJl Toa F

utkhf
lbghUf
kW
utf
xglia
fhz
gagL
utkhf,
j
fis
mogilahf
bfhL,
totikfgLwd.

utkhia ut jf bra
ntL. utkh _F msit
jLgF cs msLf
_y fhzyh. tsthdJ ut
xglid FF.

utkhf uL
tifgLjgLsd.

bghJthf

mlial
mfkhd mlbfhl utfSF
xW, mlia l Fiwthd
ml bfhl utfSF xW
vd
Utifahd
utkhf
gagLjgLtUwd.

tiffshf

1. khwh

_F iy utkhf,
jifa
utkhf,
mj
vilahdJ, midJ utfY
xnu ms _FkhW khaikF
tif csJ.
2. k
 hW _F
jifa

iy

gh mlia, mj xgl
_y
msl
gagLjgL
ghkh, bghJ utkh tifia
nrjJ.

utkhf,
utkhf,
253

myF-15

aa
MFHh jit
MFHh
jit
vgJ
mogf jilahd uhd FWF
btL gu bfhl X MFHh
MF. MFHh jit ut _
F msit fla MFHh
mogFUJ, nkgf tiu
brol
msf
Ff
goUF.
jitia
ut
brFjhf
jF
tif
mj vilia MFHh <a
FLfisnah myJ kziynah
nrgj _y mffyh.
MFHh jitid, khW _F
iy utkhahf bfhL ut
xgl fl nrhjid
2

xgl

UFgo
ftdJl
jf
l. nrhjidFHh _F
MHij lkhW njhwiH yhk
ftdKl h 1 vd FJbfhf.
nrhjid FHhia bt vLJ,
J xdh mj J xoUF
Jfis Jilf. nghJ
jitid xgl fhzntoa
ut
jf
l
ntL.
(<aFLfis nrfnth, vLfnth
TlhJ). ut _F MH h2 vd
FJ bfhsntL.
jit UF
_F MH
ut
=
xgl
jit utD
_F MH
h1
ut

h2

njitahd ms <aFLfis
J, jhf nrJ myJ
nrhjidia L brJ h1, h2
msfis FJ mltizgLj
ntL.

jit _F MH

1. Ul #ho 2. 3. <aFLfSl
Toa msf Ffgl M
FHh 4.utJl #ho
rkms
bfhss
bfhl
caukhd U #hof x iu,
kbwh xgl fhzntoa
ut xid uLf. msf
Ffgl,
jilahd
mogu
bfhl
nrhjidFHh
xW,
utf
brFjhf
jf
njitahd ms <aFLfisnah
myJ kziynah uLf.
#hoF, nrhjidFHhia jf
itgjF VJthf nrhjid FHh
thgFia skhd dh fo
Lf. vil uggl nrhjid
FHhia Us #ho jf l.
nrhjid FHh fhWFf
xlhjthW,
FHhahdJ
#ho
gfRtfis
bjhlhjthW
254

ut
t.
xgl =
v UF ut
h1/ h2
(h1) br ( h2) br myF iy
1.
2.
3.
4.

mltizUJ
bgwgL
h1
=
ruhr k, ut
h2
xglahF.

sf
jitdh btnawgL
vil = a h1d1g
jitdh
btnawgL
ut vil = a h2d2g
F a-jit FWF btLgu
d1 - ml, d2 - ut ml

afK utfS
bt vLJ, cyu brJ mj
vil(w2) fhzntL. nrhjidia
btntW MHfSF jf brJ
kfis mltizgLjntL.

g - < KLf
uL KiwfY jit vil
xwhf Ugdh,
btnawgl ut vil =
btnawgl vil

jit vil
xgl =
t.
w1/ w2
v UF ut
myF
iy
(w1) . ( w2) .

a h 2d 2g = a h 1d 1g
d2
h1
d1

h2

ut xgl =

1.

h1

2.

h2

3.
4.

M FHh jitid, khwh _F

iy utkhahf bfhL ut
xgl fl nrhjid

uL
#hofY
jit
_F MHf rkkhf Ugdh,
jitdh btnawgL kW
ut gUk rk. j fgo
jF
bghU
vil
mjdh
btnawgL ut vilF rk.

MFHh jitid Us
#ho brFjhf _f bra
ij h
MH vd bfhf. M
FHh #ho moghfijnah myJ
gf
Rtfisnah
bjhlhjthW
ghJbfhsntL.
M
FHhid bt vLJ, xos
Jfis Jiljd mj
vilia fla ntL. jid w1
vd FJ bfhf. L M
FHhia xgl fhzntoa ut
uggLs #ho brFjhf
jfl ntL.

btnawgl vil
w1 = a hd1g ----------------------- (1)

btnawgl ut vil
w2 = a h hd1g g ----------------- (2)
rkghL (2) / (1)

w1

d2
d1

ut
jit vil

ut
=
xgl
UF jit
vil
bra 15.15

utDS mnj
h MH
jFgo,
njitahd
ms
<aFLfis nrfnth myJ
vLfnth
ntL.
jitid
2
3
1

w2

1.Ul #ho 2. 3. <aFLfSl

Toa msf Ffgl M
FHh 4.utJl #ho
255

j
gho
x
_oia vLJ bfhf. mj J
tiugljh WgFia xl.
xU fzho ls iu,
kbwhU fzho ls c
iu vLJ bfhf. _oid
kW c brFjhf jf
bra. (njitgo _oD
js kz nrf) jF
MHfis FJ bfhf. c
xglia fzLf. c
brid khaikJ, btntW
brfSF xgl fhf.

myF-15

aa

kL
- m
1. tU ntffis VWtir vGj.
( 7 /, 15 /k, 2 ./, 0.1 /dho )
2. t
 lghij RW bghU xW XuyF nenfhLirntfij
bgWsJ v, mj nfhzirntf, tlghij _________ rkkhF.
(MuF, Mu UkoF, Mu jiyF, Mu tf _yF)
3. b
 ghU xW X iyUJ af MuwJ. uL dhofSF
d, bghU mil KLfkhdJ mj lbgaia nghy _________
klF MF. (miu, uL, ehF, fhgF)
4. b
 jhiy - fhy tiugl vY r myJ rhUJ bgwgLtJ
_________ ( KLf, lbga, irntf, fhy )
5.
 irntf-fhy tiugl tistiuah milgL gu FgJ, aF
bghU _________ ( irntf, flj lbga, KLf, ntf )
6. x
 U 100 Xlggja uij btahs 10dho flwh v mtuJ
ruhr ntf _________. ( 5 /dho, 10 /dho, 20 /dho, 40 /dho )
7. ut gf mogil fltW bghUjhj xiw njbjLf.
m) utf xU Fl gUkid bgWsd.
M) utf mKf ayhjit. ) utf jdbfW xU totij bgWsd.

- M
8. jugLs goaUJ,
mltizia bra.

t.v.
aa ms
1
irntf
2.
KLf

(/, nuoa/2, nuoa,

/ 2, nuoa / )

myF

3.

nfhz lbga

4.

nfhz irntf

9. i) jugLs tiuglfis, mitf FL afJl bghUJf.

m) KLfkw
af

M) uw Kiw
KLfgl
af
irntf

irntf

(C)

(B)

(A)

tiugl

M) uhd Kiw
KLfgl
af
irntf

af

fhy

fhy

ii) tiugl B- bghU KLf vd?

256

fhy

afK utfS
10. 2
 0 m/s irntf aF Urfu nkhlh to 4m/s-2 KLfkilwJ.
UJ nkhlh to irntfijg mtJ ahJ?
11. n
 gUJ xW brid bruUJ 20 . bjhiyYs dghf
khd iyaij 45 lf brwilwJ. v,
i) ngU ruhr ntf vd?
ii) ngU rhuhr ntf V mj cikahd ntfUJ khWgLwJ?
12.
 tU glij
ilaf.

MuhJ

dhfSF

1.5 kg
3 kg

i)
 k bghU UF Hgjhf njhW
njhw vil vd?
ii) glUj f mJ bfhtJ ahJ?

13. TW : uhd tl af , irntf vk , ir btntW

irf khwhUF.
nkfl TW rah? jtwh? fhuz TWf.

-
14. ehza xW 3m/s irntfJl vw UJ RlgLwJ.
a) AB, CD kW C- mj irntf vd?
b) A
 C kW CE ir ehza KLf
vd?
c) A kW E fSF il ehza flj
bjhiy kW brFJ lbga ahJ?

15. r
 hjs J cUL brY g iyfis tiugl FwJ. gJ xU
iyUJ kbwhU iyF bry 0.5 vLJbfhwJ.

C
D
E
F

a) g
 af uhdjh? myJ uw afkh?
vd TWf.
b) 2.5 dho neu gJ flj bjhiy ahJ?
c) A

UJ F iytiu
irntfij fzLf.

257

ruhr

myF-15

aa
16. tU nef affis fUJf.
i) aF kGJ

iii) x
 U KGRid nkbfhS
gJ

ii) n
 kjsF V, nH wa
kj

a) nkfl vj nef, bghU lbga Rahf mik?

b) ckJ ilfhd fhuz jUf.
x

 iugl OA kW AB gFfUJ
i) t
mtJ ahJ?
 A kW AB gFf kG ntf
ii) C
ahJ?

ntf

17.
 tU
tiugl
kGJ
afid FwJ vf.

18. tiugl Kiw _W af rkghLfis jUf.

fhy

nkY ma
jff
1. General Physics - Morton M. Sternhein - Joseph W. Kane
- JohnWiley
2. Fundamentals of Physics David Halliday & Robert Resnick
JohnWiley
izajsf
http://www.futuresouth.com
http://www.splung.com
258

myF 16

ntiy, w, Mw
kW btg

myF-16

aa

ntiy, w, Mw kW btg

xU eh Fkh j jijia fhgjfhf mtf

betaYF brwh. mF ntiyahf, be_ilfis
yh VbfhoUjhf. Fkh mF ftij
fhQif, uhK vw ntiyah 1 k neu 32 _ilfis,
nrhK vw ntiyah mnj fhy ms 26 _ilfis yh
Vd. uhK jdJ jijl brW jh fltiw bjJ
V j ntWghL? vd ddh. mjF Fkh jij,
uhK, nrhKit l mf Mw bgwt vgjh ntWghL
fhzgLwJ vW gyjh. ntiy, w, Mw g thf
mJ bfhs FkhUF kwtfSF cjnth.

260

ntiy, w, Mw kW btg

16.1. ntiy

n# nfh #&

mwhl th eh "ntiy"
vW brhtj bghU, aa
gagLjgL
ntiy
UJ
ntWglJ MF. eik fisgila
br vj braY ntiy vdgL.
vLJfhlhf
gogJ,
vGJtJ,
tz LtJ, elgJ nghwit.

n# nfh #& , lid

nrj fwj ma mP
Mth. btg afa kW
a t brj
Mf
tiug
gyU ma brjd.
n d h l
btgis
rhj
fis jUjt.
nkY, Mw mik ia
nrhjid
_y
rghjt.
btg aua izkh
kid fljt. ntiy
kW Mw myFf tUila
bgauhd
#& vw myfh
miHfgL tUwJ.

aago bghU xJ
ir (F) bragL, ir bragL
ahdJ
ir
ir
lbga (S) miljh ntiy (W)
bragljhf TwgL.
bragL ntiy =

ir x lbga
W=Fs
i) b
 ghU lbga ir
ir mikjh gl 16. 1
fhoathW
irah
ntiy
bragLwJ.

16.2. Mw
Mw
thif
vgJ
rhaiy. Mw njit bjhlJ
mfJ bfhnljh csJ.
cUsitfS,
aufS
ntiy brtjF Mw njitgLwJ.

Na
fR

gl 16.1 ntiy br kj
ii) lbga irbahF vuhf
mikjh, irF vuhf ntiy
bragLwJ.

Tlf
(module)
fy
ndw
fLgL

iii) lbga irF brFjhf

mikjh
bragl
ntiy
RahF.

ntiy myF
ntiy myF #& ( J ) MF.

fy

bghUbsh J xU l
ir bragL, bghUshdJ ir
ir 1 lbga miljh
irah bragl ntiy 1 #&
MF.
ntiy bga myFf
(i) nyh #& (1000#&)
(ii) bkfh #& (10 yr #&)

ne Rik
Na Mw
bghU
xW
ntiyia
brtjfhd w mj Mw vd
tiuaWfgLwJ.
261

myF-16

aa
a

y Mw _yfis TWfns.
1. Na
3. ____________

2. ____________
4. ____________

Mw myF
Mw
ntiyia
bfhL
mslgLtjh Mw myF
#& MF.
xU #& Mw brylglh
bragL ntiy ms xU #&
MF.

Mw gntW tiff
eh thG cy Mw btntW
tiff fhzgLwJ. vu Mw
nt Mw, x Mw, btg Mw,
dhw kW x Mw nghwit
Mw y Ka tiffshF.

vu Mw
bghU xiw efj
myJ
lbga bra gagL Mw
vu Mw vdgL. vu Mwiy
Utiffshf fyh.
m) iy Mw M) af Mw

16.2.1. iy Mw
bghU
xW
mj iyia
bghWJ myJ mj ig bghWJ
bgWs Mw iy Mw vdgL.

vLJfhLf
1. j
 iuUJ bghUis caj
bragL ntiy mj iy
Mw MF. v.fh gSFj
2. miz
nrfgL
iyahw f mf.
mizUJ
uhdJ
cauUJ btnaW nghJ
mJ RH rfufis af
brJ,
dhw
cg
bragLwJ. Jnt,
cg jJtkhF.

262

njf

bra 16.1
m

kh

ca
dGj
f

RH rfu
cg iya
bra 16.2
_ u xid bfhL,
xid brf. bka
Fdh bragl
m x xU Kidia
GJflgl
m
J bghUJf.
id
GJ
mid brYJf.
tot VgL
kW khwfis
TJ
m
ftf.

tot
VgL
khwfdh
nrfgL
iyahw af Mwyhf kh
mid af brwJ.
guUJ cajgl bghU
iy MwYfhd nfhit.
guF nkny bghU xiw
Fl cau caj,
caiy
p
irF
vuhf
bragL
m
ntiyahdJ,
m
bghU
iy
Mwyhf
nrf
gL.
h
F
m iws bghU
xiw guUJ
m
h cauF bfhL
moiy
brtjhf fUJnth.
gl 16.2
jid bra ir
njitgLwJ.
bghU jhd
neha p ir = mg

ntiy, w, Mw kW btg
gl 16.2 fhoathW bghU h cau
bfhL bry iria vJ
ntiy braglntL. bghU
J bragl ntiy, mbghUSF
MwiyjUwJ.

bra 16.3
btntW
iyf
iy
Mwiy fhf. m=10 kg kW
g =10 ms-2 vd bfhf.
1. Ep(X) = ____________

~ bragL ntiy

2. Ep(Y) = ____________

= ir x lbga

w = F x h

F=ma

w = mgh

a=g

j ntiyna
MwyhF.

3. Ep(z) = ____________
wsitia fLof.

F = mg

bghU

iy

~ Ep= mgh

ulh js

X
3m

Kj js

2m

4m
5m

P
jiujs

8m

braKiw 16.4
P, Q, R iyf g iy
Mwiy fhf. m = 5 kg kW
g =10 ms-2 vd bfhf.

1. Ep(P) = ____________
2. Ep(Q) = ____________
3. Ep(R) = ____________
UJ iy Mw btntW
cauf btntwhf mik
vgij mf.

R
263

myF-16

aa
16.2.2 af Mw

af MwYfhd nfhit

bghU xW mj afdh
bgWs
Mw,
af
Mw
vdgL. bghU af Mw
mj ntfij bghWJ mfwJ.
Fl
irntf brY
bghU
af
MwyhdJ,
bghUshdJ
mirntfij
bgWtjfhf bragl ntiy
msF rkkhF.

m iw bfhl bghU xW v vw
bjhlf irntfJl aFtjhf
fUJnth. bghUis X iyF
bfhLtu mj J F vw vir
jugLwJ vf. iy bghU
X iyia mil Kd flj
lbga S vf.

vLJfhL 1
Ra
af
Mw,
Mid RtD CLU
bry cjwJ.

bghU af Mw Ek vf .
bghU af Mw Ek vgJ
bghUis x iyF bfhLtu,
irF vuhf bragl ntiy.
Ek= F S ---------------1
vir F= m a -------------- 2
bjhlf irntf u = v
W irntf v = 0
_whtJ af rkghogo,
v2 = u 2+ 2aS

V
aFj
vir
V

0 = v2 - 2aS

vLJfhL 2

(F a vgJ vKLf)

JghUJ
btgL
Fo af Mw fhuzkhf,
FlhdJ
yFbghUis
CLU brwJ.

2aS = v2

lbga, S =

v2
2a

-------- 3

rkghLf (2), (3) I (1) ul

Ek= ma x

v2
2a

Ek = 1 mv 2
2
264

mv2
2

ntiy, w, Mw kW btg

16.3. Mw mik
bra 16.5
5 iw bfhl v~F gJ xW 5 cauUJ neh Ggo
bragLwJ. g = 10 ms-2 vd bfhL mltiz cs kfis
flJ brf.
jiuUJ
v~FgJ cs
cau (m)

afMw

iy Mw
Ep=mgh

Ek =

#&

1
2

mv2

bkhj Mw
E = Ep + Ek
#&

#&

5
4
3
2
Mwiy Mfnth, mfnth ayhJ. xUtif Mw kiwjh mJ kbwhU
tif Mwyhf khwkil. myJ bghU Mw khwf VglhY
bghU bkhj Mw khwhUF.

jhnd jil G bghUSF Mw mik ia %j:bghU J btw irf (cuh irf) braglh iy bghU
bkhj vu Mw khwhUF vgij fhzyh.
m iw bfhl bghU xW, jiuUJ h
A cauYs A vw UJ nH Gtjhf
fUJnth.
A vw
af Mw Ek= 0

iyMw Ep= mgh

B
h

bkhj Mw E = Ep +Ek

= mgh + 0
E = mgh

bghUshdJ neh
GnghJ B vw
Ugjhf
fUJnth.
iy
bghUshdJ
A vw UJ x
bjhiyit
flJsJ
vf

B vw
bghU irntf v2 = u2 + 2as

h-x

v2 = 2ax
1
bghU af Mw Ek =
mv2
2

= 1 m (2gx)
2

= mgx

C
mo iy

= 0 + 2ax

265

myF-16

aa
bghU iy Mw Ep = mg (h-x)
bkhj Mw E= Ep +Ek

= mg (h - x) + mgx

ntiy bragL j myJ

xuyF neu bragL ntiy w
vW tiuaWfgLwJ.

= mgh mgx + mgx

w =

E= mgh

bghUshdJ
milwJ vf.

vw iyia

bghU irntf v2 = u2 + 2as

(u=0, a=g, s=h)
v2 = 0 + 2gh

v2 = 2gh

bghU af Mw Ek =

1
mv2
2

bghU bkhj Mw E = Ep + Ek

E = mgh + 0
E = mgh

nkfltUJ
_W
iyfY jhnd jil G
bghU iyahw kW af
Mw TLj khwhk csJ
vgij mnwh.
<a ir bragLtdh
bghU
vu
Mw
khwkiltiy.

16.4. ntiy bragL

( myJ ) w

w myF #& / dho. J

th vdgL. j FpL W
1 th =

= 1 m (2gh)
2
Ek = mgh

16.5. w myF

bghU iy Mw Ep= 0

vLJbfhl fhy
P=

C vw ,

bragl ntiy

bra 16.6
fltW vjF w mf
vgij
MuhJ
njbjLJ
fhuz mf.
U rfu nkhlh thfd,
kJ, ngUJ, th}
266

#&
1 dho
1 W = 1 J s-1

n# th (1736-1819)
cy bjhJiw
fhuzkhd
uh
vuij nkgL
totikj vua
bghahs
kW
fhyhij nrj
fLoghs vw
bgUikFat
n# th.

uF

n#
th
mtf
uh
vu bjh Eg Fj
Mt bfhlt.
mnghija
vu totikf cUisahdJ
bjhlJ FfgL L
NnlwgLtjF f mf Mw
zhwJ vd fljh. n#
th uh vu totik
a khwfis brJ jahf
Fghid bfhL Mw
zhtij Fiwjh. j _y
vukhdJ mf wid mf
gaDW wid bfhL iy
kthdjhf
mika
bgwJ.
Fiuw vw a fUid
n#
th
mKfgLdh.
w S.I myfha th t
bgauhnyna tHfgLwJ.

ntiy, w, Mw kW btg
tf Kiwyhd w myF nyh
th kahF.

Mw khwf

eh gagLJ dhwYfhd
flz myJ nyhthk
vw myfh fzlgLwJ.
thk = w tho x fhy k

vLJfhL
xU 100 W w bfhl sF
10 kneu gagLj gLnghJ
brythF Mw vts?
Mw = 100 th x 10 k
= 1000 th k = 1 nyh th k
Jnt xU vdgL.
~ 1 = 1 nyhth k = 1000 th k
xU nyhth k vgJ xU
k neu
1000 th w
gagLjglij FF.
1 nyhth k = 1 nyhth x 1 k
= 1000 th x 60 l
= 1000 #&/dho x 60 x 60 eho
= 1000 #&/dho x 3600 s
= 3.6 x 106 #&
~ 1 = 1 nyhth k

= 3.6 x 106 #&

bra 16.7
cf Lf gagLjgL
tU rhjdf wfis
(tho) flJ vGJf.
FH sF

mizUJ
btnaW

iyahw, af
Mwyhf khWj

xth

x Mw ,
dhwyhf khWj

bjhiyfh
Hgl fU

x Mw,
dhwyhf khWj

x fy

x Mw,
dhwyhf khWj

ryit
bgo

dhw, btg
Mwyhf khWj

xgh

dhw,
x Mwyhf khWj

dhw, af
Mwyhf khWj

sF

dhw,
x Mwyhf khWj

16.6. btg
btg vgJ xUtif MwyhF.
bghU xW vj ms Nlhf csJ
myJ Fahf csJ vgij
btgiy vw ms FLnwh.
btgiy vgJ bghU mls
btg Mw msit jUkh?
juhJ. btgiyia kL bfhL
btg Mw msit ma KoahJ.
wF, vthW btgij msLtJ?
bghU vilia cztJ nghy
vnyhU vjhf btgij czu
Ko. Mdh btgij msLtJ
vilia msLtJ nghy mts
vjhdJ my. btgdh VgL
isit bfhnl mjid msl
aY.

khtiuF vu

Ka brf

Nnl

xU Mwiy vLJbfhs
40th sif vts neu
gaLjntL?

Frhjd

500 th nkhlh 4 k neu

bragLnghJ brylgL Mw
ahJ?
267

myF-16

aa
mj

bra 16.8

btgiy ca bghU jikia

rhjJ. nkfl brafUJ
bgwgL Ko ahJ? btgiy ca
iw kW bghU jikia
rhjJ. U msf bkhj
isit sf btg Vw vw
msid gagLjyh.

xnu khahd _W jokdhd

fzho
Kfitfis
vLJ
bfhs. x 50 iu,
ulh
Kfit
75

iu, _wht 100 iu

vLJbfhs. mt Mug
btgiyia FJbfhs.
jjahf (rhuha) sF xiw
bfhL Fl neuF (Rkh
5 lf) btggLj ntL.
xbthY btgiy cait
fzl. (F vyhtF
rkkhf btg jugLsJ)

16.6.1. btg Vw (Thermal Capacity)

bghUbsh btgiyia 1 K
caj njitahd btg Mw
ms mj btg Vw vdgL.

nkfl
braUJ
vyh
tY btgiy ca rkkhf
csjh? iy. btgiy ca
_Y btntwhf mikwJ.

mj
btntW iws xnu bghUSF
rkkhd btg jugL nghJ btgiy
ca rkkhf mikahJ. Mdh iw
kW btgiyia bgUtU
ms rkkhf miktij fhzyh.
vdnt iw kW btgiy
ca bgUf kig btgij
msL msthf vLJ bfhsyh.
bra 16.9
xnu mss _W fzho
Kfitfis vLJ bfhs.
rkiws , kvbz kW
njfh
vbz
Matiw
vLJ
bfhs.
_iw
jjahf 5 l neuF
sif bfhL btggLj
ntL. nghJ vyhtF
btgiy
ca
btntwhf
miktij fhzyh.
1

jid #] / bf (JK-1) vw
myfh Flyh.
bra 16.10
xnu iwila f
kW iu bt

Rkh xU k neu f
itf. wF fiy
xU ifahY iu
kbwhU ifahY bjhL ghf.
nghJ f, iul mfkhf Nlh
Ugij mayh.
nkfl braUJ btntW
bghUf
btg
Vwf
btntwhf
mik
vgij
cznwh.

jbtg Vw (s) (Specific heat capacity)

nkTa
braUJ
btg
Vw
bghU
jikia
rhJsJ vd, xnu iw bfhl
btntW bghUf btntW btg
Vwid bfhLsd vd
mayh. jid fU bfhL
jbtg Vw vw kbwhU
msid tiuaWfyh.

1. njfh vbz
2. kbzbz
3.

1 nyhuh iws bghU

btgiyia 1 K caj njitgL
btg Mw ms mbghU
jbtg V w vdgL.
j myF #]/./bf (J Kg-1k-1).

268

ntiy, w, Mw kW btg

16.7. iykhw (Change of state)

th

l
bghU

ah

kW ghjur jbtg
Vwfis xLf. magLtJ
ahJ? nghJ, bghU xW bgWs
btg
Mwiy
fzLnthkh?
tU vLJfhil ftd
bfhs.
5 .uh iws ghjur
btgiyia 10 K caj njitgL
btg msit fzLf.
ghjur jbtg Vw
= 140 JKg-1K-1
btgVw = btgiyia 1 k
caj njitgL btg
btg Vw = iw x jbtg
Vw = mS = 5 x 140 = 700 J K-1
jugL bkhj btg =
btg Vw x btgiy ca
= 700 x 10 = 7000 J
vdnt bghUSF jugL bkhj
btgfhd rkghL tUkhW.
jugL bkhj btg (m) bghU
=
VW bfhl btg (Q)
iw (m) x jbtgVw (S) x
btgiy ca (q)
Q = mS q

ghjur jbtg Vw
140 JKg-1K-1.

jbtg
Vw
ghjur
jbtg
V
widl Rkh 30 klF mf.
mjhtJ 1 .. iu 1 K btgiy
caj njitgL btgij
bfhL 30 .uh ghjur
btgiyia 1 K cajKo.

kh

nkY mJbfhnth

mjhtJ 1 .. btgiyia
1 K caj njitgL btg Mw
ms 4180 #] vd mayh.

bghUf l, ut kW th (M)
nghw _W iyf csd vgJ
eh midtU mjnj. t
liy vgJ ekF mf gHfkhdJ
MF.
eik R vyh lfY
th iy cs bghUshd fhW
NJ UjhY ekF th iy
eF mUfToajhf iy.
l kW utiy bghUfns ekJ
nfh mfkhf csit MF.
bghU xiw btggLJnghnjh
myJ
mUJ
btgij
Fnghnjh
VgL
Kakhd
isfis gfUJnth.
btggLJ
nghnjh
myJ
btgij
Fnghnjh
bghU
xUiy UJ kbwhU iyF
khWgLwJ vgij eh mDgt
czJnsh.
bghU xU iy UJ kbwhU
iyF khWgL f iykhw
vdgL.

1)  jbtg Vw 4180
MF.

JKg-1K-1

gj

vLJfhL:

cUFj / ciwj

ut
ciwj

cUFj
btggLJ nghJ btgij
vLJ bfhL l bghU utkhf
khW f cUFj vdgL.

cUFiy
vj
xU
khwh
btgiy
lbghU xW utkhf khWwnjh
mbtgiy mbghU cUF iy
vdgL.
269

myF-16

aa
bra 16.11
fzho Kfit x gfo JLfis
vLJ bfhL m xU btgiykhia
bghUJf. vd fwJ vgij ftJ
Koit TWf.
gfo
KGtJ
uhf
khWtiu
0
btgiykhahdJ 0 C msonyna UF.
gfoahdJ RWw fhYs btgij
vLJbfhL uhf khWwJ (cUFwJ)
J xU khwhj btgiy (00C) eilbgWwJ.
j btgiyna gfo cUFiy
vdgL. vdnt. gfo cUFiy 00 C.

bkG cUFiy

btgiykh

nrhjid FHh x nghJkhd

ms bkGif vLJbfhf. nrhjid
FHh thia ug milghdh
_oa wF mj tna btgiykh
xiw bkGD _ UFkhW
brYj. nrhjid FHhia Us
KfitD itf. nrhjid
FHhYs bkGF KGtJkhf cU
utkhF tiu iu btggLj.

bkGF

r Rl
sF

wF btggLJtij WL,
bkGif
Ful.
bkG
0
btgiy
30 CF
tUtiu
xbthU lF xUKiw mj
btgiyia FJ bfhf.

tiugl
cs
ilkl
nfhofhd
btgiy
bkG
cUF iyia jU. j khwhj
btgiy
ut
bkGfhdJ
lbghUshf
khwgLwJ.
bkG cUF iy 570C. utiy
cs bkGF l iyF khWnghJ
mj fd ms Fiw.
270

A
btgiy

fhyij x-mY, btgiyia

y mY bfhL tiugl tiua.
tiugl AB gF bkGF ut
iy csij CF l
iy csij fhL.

Y
utiy
khwh btgiy
57o C B

C
l iy
X
fhy

bfhj (Boiling)
ut
iy
cs
bghU
btgij vLJbfhL mj th
iyF khwkil f bfhj
vdgL.

ntiy, w, Mw kW btg
bfhiy

bf u

vj
xU
khwh
btgiy
utbghUshdJ, mj th iyF
khWwnjh mbtgiy mut
bfhiy vdgL.

t xU aayhs kW
bghahs. btg afaiy g
vnyhUF bjaitjJ tuJ
Kakhd
gf
kW
rhjidahF.
b t g i y i a
msgjfhd msit
f L o j t .
btgiy
ga
msga rhjidfhf tuJ bganu
btgiy myfhf
bf
vW bgalglJ.

bfhiy
btgiykh

r Rl
sF

nrhjid FHh js iu
vLJbfhf.
btgiykh
F klF
rW nkny
UFgo
btgiykhia
bghUj.
nrhjid
FHhia
btggLj.
btgiykh
cs ghjur nkny brW 1000C
iyahf F. j iyahd
btgiyna bfhiy MF.

fFiwj btgiy vdyh. J

0 K (m) -2730 C vd FlgL.
midJ bghUfS jR
btgiyia l mfkhd vyh
btgiyfY btg fir
cG.
bf ms(K ) = bra ms + 273
bra ms(0C) = bf ms (K ) - 273
btgiyia bf ms
FLnghJ ghif (degree) FpL
nghlntoa mtaiy.

16.8. bf btgiy msL

bghUbshiw
bjhlJ Fu
itjh mj btgiy bjhlJ
Fiw.
Mdh
xU
Fl
btgiyF

bghUis
Fuitf ayhJ.
xU bghUis Ff Toa
f Fiwj btgiyiana bf
0 vd Flh. j btgiy
jR btgiy vdgL. jid 0
K vd Flyh.
jR
btgiy
_yTWf af KGtJkhf
WL. vdnt bghU btg
Mw R MF. vdnt jR
btgiy vgij eh milaToa

Tk = Tc + 273
bra kW bf msL
271

myF-16

aa

Mait khWgLwd. vdnt t

xiw khwhk itJ bfhL
kw U msfSF ilna cs
bjhlig mtJ vjhf mik.

thf
bra 16.12
fhahd,
cyj
FLit
x
th
gF
g
xiw bghUj. FLitia
NLgLj.
g
VgL
khwid ftf. bjhlJ
btggLJnghJ g ms
bjhlJ mfF. J
V VgLwJ?

bra 16.12UJ btgiyia

bghWJ fd ms kLnk khWgL
csJ.
Vbd
g
khwhj
btw
mGjF
vuhf
jil tilwJ. btgdh
mGj kL VgL khwij
vthW sfyh?
fhW fhjthW Wfkhf _lgl
cnyhf ghu xW btggLj
glh vd fG?
F fdms khwhJ. Mdh
mGj
mfF.
ghuij
mfkhf btggLjgLnghJ, mj
_o mf mGjij jhf Koahk
btna jsgL.

uhg gh

FLit kW g cs fh
mGj btgdh mfwJ.
(mjhtJ
btgdh
mGj
mfwJ.)
btggLJtij
Wlh vd fG?

uhg gh vgt aa
kW nta brj
MfSfhf w
bgwt. gh ia
jUjt. t Kj
ed ntayh vW
fHglh.

g RUf MuF. mjhtJ

mGj
Fiwtij
fhL.
wsitia fLof.
bra-16.12
btggLJnghJ
fh mGj mfgjhnyna
g tilwJ. F FLit
kW g cs fh fd
ms btgdh mfJsij
mayh.
btg
jugLnghJ
th
mGj kW fdms uL
khWgL.
l,
utbghUf
fdms khwij kL fz
bfhsgLwJ.
btgiyia
bghWJ thf fdms myJ
mGj myJ uoY VgL
khwf VgLwJ.
thf tilnghJ mj
fd ms, mGj kW btgiy
272

tuJ fUgo 1661 M ML

Kj
gUbghU
JffSF
jk vw w bga juglJ.

16.9. th f kW th
rkghL
th f
thf tilnghJ mj
fd ms, mGj kW btgiy
Mait
khWgLwd.
vdnt
t xiw khwhk itJ
bfhL kw U msfSF ilna
cs bjhlig mtJ thf
vdgL.
khwhj btgiy th x
fd ms kW mGj VgL

ntiy, w, Mw kW btg
khWghofhd bjhlig jUtJ gh
ahF.

bra 16.13
gl fhoathW x CLUt
Toa kU (Syringe) x
KidgFia
milJ
Lf.
lid bkJthf mG
bkJthf
bt
1 Gf.
vd
fwJ
vgij
TJ ftf.

gh
btgiy
khwhk
csnghJ
Fl iws th mGj
mj fdmsF vjf mik.
khwh btgiy P vgJ th
mGj kW V vgJ fdms v

1
v

10

pv = kh

gl
l
msf
Ffgl
kU
milgl
fh gUk _lgl
KF FHh

rhy

mGj
khwhk
csnghJ,
btgiy
kW
fdmsfhd
bjhlig jUtJ rhy myJ
fdms vdgL.

5
4
3
2

fdms
khwhk
csnghJ,
btgiyia bghWJ mGj
VgL khWghil TWtJ rhy
(myJ) mGjfhd
vdgL.
mjhtJ V T (m) V / T = kh
mGj : fdms khwhk
csnghJ, Fl iws th
mGj mj bf btgiyF
nejf mik.
(m)

1. l

1
0

fdms : mGj khwhk

csnghJ,
Fl
iws
th fdms mj bf
btgiyF nejf mik.

mjhtJ P T

3
4

2. msfSl kUJ C
3. milfgl fh gUk
4. _lgl _F FHh

th rkghL
gh kW rhy fSF
cgL ea th xmGj,
fd
ms
kW
btgiy
tilgl
bjhlig
fhQ rkghilna thrkghL
vnwh.
P-mGj,
Vfdms,

P / T = kh

T- btgiy v

#hF rhy (1746-1823)

t xU buR ehil nrj fLoghs. ma
mP. fj mP balloonist vw w bgwt. gh
aa nguhauhf gahat. btgiy kW
fdmsF ilgl bjhlig jUjt. tuJ M
_y, rk btgiy ntWghoF btggLjgLnghJ,
midJ thfS xnu ms RU, til vd
maglJ. Kj iAu# gid totikjj _y
bgU fid, nguhjuit bgwh. ut khia
fLojtU tnu.
273

myF-16

aa
gh go, T khwhk csnghJ P 1/V
rhy go, V khwhk csnghJ

PT

uil nrf
t
p
~ PV T myJ PV = RT
v
F R vgJ j kh nkY, J th kh vdgL. R = 8.31 Jmol-1K-1.
n vgJ th cs nkhf vif v PV = nRT. J ea th
rkghL vdgL.

kL
- m
1. b
 ghUbsh J irah bragL ntiy vF v, bghU
lbgaahdJ _________ UF
(ir ir/ ir irF vir).
2. x
 U bghU No ms (m) F ms vgJ mbghU _________
(btg, btgiy).
3.
 fhQ bghUf bgWs Mw jik mogil khWgl
xiw J vLJ vGJf.
(afYs fh, bjho nrfgL , nkir Js jf,
afhj iy cs )
4. dhw tfKiw myF _______ (#&, #&/dho, th, nyhth k)
5.
 tUtdtW 4180Jkg-1K-1 jbtg Vw k bfhl utid
njbjLf (ghjur, kbziz, , njfh vbz)

- M
6. g
 lfis
MuhJ,
xbthU
fY ntiy bragLwjh?
iyah? vgij T sFf.
(ii)
(iii)
(i)
7.
 ia R tU Jiznfh
J <a irah bragL ntiy ms vd? cfsJ ilfhd
fhuz vGJf.
8. j
 nghJ Lf, kw cnyhffis l jhujhyhd mogF bfhl
rika fyf gagLjgLtnj?
9. g
 lfis
ghf.
xbthU
rhjd
fG Mw khwfis
FLf.
(ii)

(i)
274

(iii)

(iv)

ntiy, w, Mw kW btg
10. tUtdtiw bghUJf
iykhw
1) Mahj
2) Fj
3) ciwj
4) gjfkhj

cjhuz
m) fu vj
M) ,gfoahf khWj
) uh
<) kiH

11. 4
 0 vils uh#h, xbthW 16 br cau cs 20 gofLfis
20 dho VWwh v mtDila w vd?
12.
 fhQ glfis ghf. mKfgL RU nrfgL
iyahw ms vd?
13.  bfhiy 100K T cs jtW/jtWfis fLoJ, bf
10 br.

F = 10 N

6 br.

(ii)

(i)
ms Kiw rahf vGJf.

14.
 nH jugLstUJ, rahd ilia
bfhL fhQ
mltizia brf. ( vu Mw, x th, xgh )
t.v

Mw khw

1.

dhw

2.

xMw

fU
nkhlh

dhw

-
15. f
 yh, jDila g ma Mtf bkG cUFiyia
fl Mid brwh. M nghJ mt Fj, cUa bkG
btgiyf tUkhW.
fhy (l)

btgiy C

0
1
2
3
4
5

85
80
70
60
57
57

57

bkG
ii)tiuglUJ
cUFiyia fLo

7
8

54
48

iii) t
 iugl jilahd gF
bkG iy vd?

i) n
 euij X-mY btgiyia
Y-mY
bfhL
F
tiugl tiuf.

275

myF-16

aa
16. j
 hnd jil nH G bghU x
iyf gl jugLsd.

A vw

af Mw = 0,

iy Mw = mgh

B vw

af Mw = mgx

C vw

af Mw = mgh ,

iy Mw = 0.

jiu
m) B
 vw bghU iy Mwiy fhf.
M) A,B kW C vw iyf bghU bkhj Mw fzLf.
) b
 khj Mw VnjD khWghL csjh? KoUJ mtd ahJ?
17. bkG cUFiy fl nrhjidia tf.

nkY ma
jff
1. Physics Foundation and Frontiers

- G.Gamov and J.M.Clereland Tata Mc Graw Hill

2. Complete Physics for IGCSE Oxford publications

izajsf
http://www.edugreen.teri.res.in/explore/n_renew/energy.htm
http://www.arvindguptatoys.com
http://www.physics.about.com

276

myF 17

xa

myF-17

aa

xa
ir FG

dh, mtsJ bgnwhU Ukz tunt f xF

brUjd. mUj irFGYs xbthUtU ir
f bjhlF K jKila irfUid, o ,
jo, moJ rbrJ bfhoUjij dh flh. dh
mtSila jijl "mtf V mthW brjd?" vd
ddh. mjF mt , rahd mfis , iria
clhf mthW brjd vd sdh. dh , kwtfS
xidg J bfhs eh ghl _y cjnth

278

xa
17.1. x clhFj
e mwhl th xahdJ KagF twJ. x_ykhf jh ekF
brfis gkhbfhs KowJ.
irbah ekF kia jUwJ.
t
 hbdh kW bjhiyfh xf ekF njitahd jftf kW
bghGJ nghFfis jUwd.
thfdf xgh rj eik vrif brwJ.
bra 17.1
iz,
ffis
fia
nfSf.

bra 17.3
jh kW ta
Lf,
mW
ghUf,
Xiria

(i) Cjiy CJf.

mGJf,
(ii) xghid
xia nfSf.

xgh

Cj

iz

thW
RuLj,
njj,
CJj, Lj, moj, FYFj
nghw nkTa braf _ykhf
bghUfUJ xia clhfyh.
itaidJ bghUfis mw
brwd. jdh fh cs Jff
mWwd. xF Ka fhuz
mf vdyh. mf vgJ
bghUf a, K, afkhF.

ta

jh
bra 17.2
(i) k mof / fofhu myhu
xia nfSf.
(ii) Fah ou ir fUia
mogjh clhF xia
nfSf.

bra 17.4

ou

myhu

f nfF xia tU mltiz tifgLj.

t. v

njj

CJj

Lj

moj

1.
2.
3.
4.

ta

Cj

jh

ou

279

myF-17

aa

17.2. x guj

uhg gh vw ma mP
x btl tna guthJ vd
%jh. mt gl 17.1 fhoathW
fzho
FLitD
rhu
kia mikjh. btlkhF
fUbfhL
J
jhf
fhiw FLitUJ btna
x ms Fiwtij fhodh.
KGtJkhf
fhiw
btnaa
wF x nffiy vd %jh.
FLitD L fhiw brY
xia nff brjh.

bra 17.5

gu J f xiw vf.
f Gj UJ gl
fhgJ ngh tl tot miyf
midJ irfY Knd
gutij fhzyh.
xahdJ
x_yUJ
nfFeUF
Clf
tna
guwJ. mW bghUf
K, af fhuzkhf x
miy guwJ.

Clf
vj bghU tna xaiyf
guwdnth mjF Clf vW
bgauhF. ClfkhdJ l, ut myJ
th bghUshf Ufyh.

Clf
Jff
miy
afF
cgLtjh,
miy
afkhdJ bjhlJ xU JfUJ
mLjLj JffSF khwgL.
xbthU JfS mjF K cs
Jfis l J neu fJ
mtila bjhlF. Clf
Jff l bgauhk xU JfUJ
kbwhU JfSF khWghL kLnk
Knd brwJ. J nghynt x
miyf guwJ.
izF

ug milgh

krho

rhu k

btlkhF
fUF

gl 17.1 .fzho FLitD rhu k

280

xa
17.3. beliyfS FWfiyfS.
miyf

fhj miyf
(FWfiyf)

vu miyf

v.fh. x miyf
mff kW w
Cjh ff

FWfiyf
( nkgu
cUthF
miyf)

beliyf
(x miyf)

beliyf
bra 17.6
RU xiw vLJbfhSf. gl fhosthW xU Kidia
f oJ bfhL, kWKidia cf egid oJbfhSkhW
TWf. gl fhoathW RUid Lf.

jnghJ RU iy cfsJ eg gf jSf. RU iy cf

ifah kh kh js Gf brf. RU gl fhoathW
miktij fhzyh.

C
C - beUf

R - be

ClfYs Jff miy gu irF izahfnth myJ mt

irnynah mWtjh clhF miyf beliyf vdgL.
v.fh. x miyf
Jff mW ir
miy gu
ir
x miyf fhnyh myJ thnyh beliyfshf guwd.
281

myF-17

aa

Clf tna beliyf gunghJ gl 17.2 fhoathW beUfK

be cUthwd. beUf vgJ mf mGj cs gF , be vgJ
Fiwj mGj cs gF.
beUf

be

irfit

gl 17.2 beliyf

FWfiyf

KfL : eLiy UJ nk
nehF ir ClfJf
bgUk
lbga
KfL
vdgL.

bra 17.7
skhd f xU Kidia
#d fo kbwhU Kidia
Wf oJ bfhSf. nghJ
gl fhoathW ifia nkY
Gkhf Ro Lf.

 LiyUJ

mfL : e
nehF ir ClfJf
bgUk
lbga
mfL
vdgL.

gl fhoathW nk
afij,
FWfiyf
clhtij fhzyh.

Jff mW ir
miy gu
ir

v.fh uiyf,
f mf

GJflgl

fhy

ClfJff, miygu irF,

brFjhd ir mWtjh
cUthF
miyf
FWfiyf
vdgL.

lbga

KfL

mfL

FWfiyf Clf tna

KfL, mfLfshf gl 17.3 fhoathW
guwd.
282

gl 17.3 FWfiyf

xa
FWfiyf kW beliyfSF ilnaahd ntWghL.
FWfiyf

beliyf

ClfJff, miygu irF ClfJff miygu irF

brFjhf mWwd.
izahd ir mWwd.
KfLf, mfLf cUthwd.

beUfK befS cUthwd.

l kW ut nkgu tna
guwd.

l, ut kW thf tna
guwd.

v.fh. uiyf

v.fh. x miyf

FWfiyf fhW myJ thf tna gutiy. V?

tiuaiwf:

mbt
(n):
ClfJf
xU dho nkbfhS KG
mf vif mbt
vdgL. j myF bA (hertz).
1
n=
T

bjhiy

irntf =

xahdJ
fh
brY
ntfijl, IJ klF
ntfkhf, U UgJ klF
ntfkhf brwJ.

nkY mJ bfhnth

Mdh n =

fhy

x irntf ( 3 x 108 / )
MdJ x irntfijl
(340 / ) f, f mf.
xahdJ
xial
a klF ntf
khf brwJ. j
fhuzkhfjh
o
d nghJ, d
W Kj ygLwJ.
d
onahir
nfwJ.

miygu

2T
fhy

nkY mJ bfhnth

miy irntf, mbt,

kW
miys tfhd
bjhl.
neu

miy s ()

miys (): mW Jf, xU

mF vLJ bfhS neu,
Clf
miygu
bjhiy
miys vdgL. j myF l.

T dho
bjhiy =

O
R

miy fhy (T ): xU KG mid

nkbfhs ClfJff vLJ
bfhS fhy. j myF dho.

miy s ()
lbga

R (a ): eLiy UJ
Jf mil bgUk lbga R
vdgL. j myF l.

, v=n
T
irntf = mbt x miys

283

myF-17

aa

17.4. x vbuh
bra 17.8
jokdhd mil (myJ) tiugl milf _ykhf bragl xnu
khahd uL FHhfis vLJ bfhf.
FHhfis nkir J itJ,
Rt mUnf nkiria mikf. xU
FHh wj KidfU fofhu
xid itJ mj vrif
kia mG xid gl
fhoathW, kbwhU FHh tna
nff.
FHhfSF
ilgl
nfhzkid r brJ bgUk x
nfFkhW bra.
nrhjid
KofUJ
fofhu
xahdJ,
xia
nghnw
vbuh miltij czuyh.

mil

iu
brFJ

br

xahdJ kiyfshY, caukhd fllfdhY vbuh mil.

17.4.1. vbuh (ECHO )

eh VgLJ xahdJ fhLf myJ kiyf myJ fllfdh
vbuhJ myJ blGJ e brfis vbuhahf tJ milwJ.
vLJfhlhf, xUt VgLJ xahdJ, bghUfdh vbuh milj
d uL myJ _W Kiw nffgLwJ. jifa xf vbuh
vdgL.
bra 17.9
xU Fif myJ Ruf ghijD W mf
rjJl x vGf. f x vGa a
fhy ilbtF L x rjij
nff KowJ.

gL
miyf

vbuh
miyf

f vGa xrjkhdJ, Rtiu milJ

L eik tjila rW fhy jhkj miltdh
vbuh nfwJ.
nfl o fhuzkhf ekJ _is xahdJ xU dho 1/10 gF
x bjhlJ czugLwJ. vbuh _ykhf eik tjil. vj xU x 1/10
dho 34 bjhiy gaz brUF. vdnt vbuh nffglntLbk
xia vbuh mila br jilbghUshdJ FiwjJ 17 bjhiy mika
ntL. V? Muhf.
284

xa
irntf =

bjhiy
fhy

bjhiy

= irntf x fhy

= 340 x 1 / 10

= 34 .

gKf
vbuh
fhuzkhf
vbuhghdJ xWF nk gyjlit
nfwJ.
xahdJ
vbuh
gufsha
nkfTl
kW
ygFfsh L L vbuh
miltjh o KHf nfwJ.

17.4.2. v KHf (Reverberation)

xU bga miw VgLjgL
xahdJ, miw Rtf gL
L L vbuh milJ
mj nfF jik RahFtiu
oUF.
gKf vbuh fhuzkhf, x
nfl oUF jik vKHf
vdgL.

bfhl bghUfshyhd mKfgl

eh mil, iuiyf kW
shl nghw bghUfsh nkR
bragoUF.
ghitahsf
mkU Uiff xia cftU
g mogil bj bra
gLwd.

17.5. brz beLf

xahdJ mW bghUfsh
cUthwJ. 20 Hz Kj 20,000 Hz tiu
mbt
beLf
bfhl
xia ekh nff KowJ. ekJ
brdh
czuToa
beLf
bfhl xiriffis kjf
brz
beLf
vnwh.
(1 Hz = 1 RW / dho )
20,000 Hz F mfkhd mbt
bfhl x bah vdgL.
btsthf
yneuf
bahfshF.

kW
lhf
vG
xf

20 Hz F Fiwthd mbt
bfhl x Fbwh vdgL.
ekh
bahid,
Fbwhid nff Kotiy.
Mdh y Fl Uff bah
kW
Fbwhfis
cUthf,
czu brwd.
bA %lh bA (1857 - 94)
b#k ehil
nrj
ma
mP
bA,
Kj
Kjyhf
nuonah
miyf
Ugij M
_y
%jh.
u t f
Mahj g M brJsh.
t thiy M Fj
ehlKilat.
mbt
myfha RWf / eho tuJ
bgauhnyna bA vw myfhf
khwglJ.

xg Tl
fiy muf, bga miw, iu
muf kW xg Tlf
nghwt
VgL
mfkhd
vKHf UgjfhjJ MF.
vKHf
neu
xU
Fl
cfj(optimum) kigl mfkhf
Uj TlhJ. v KHf neukhdJ
ngF
0.5
eho,
irF
1 Kj 1.5 eho Uj ntL.
v KHf neuij FiwgjF,
fiymuf nkTiu, Rtf
nghwit x cftU jik
285

myF-17

aa
kj kW btntW Uff brz beLf (Hz)

1000 - 1,50,000

20 - 20,000

kj

btsth

16 - 12,000

70 -1,50,000
lhf

ahid

900 2,00,000
16- 40,000
fleh
gR

bra 17.10
fhiy
Kj,
u
tiu
f
nffToa
cfsh
VgLjgL btntW xfis
vQfns.

100 - 32,000

17.6. bah gaghL

id

bah tfnzhl vgJ

jnghJ eilKiw cs fU cs
Rid M br ghJfhghd,
F isfhj
Jakhd,
kW
kthd KiwahF.
KiwahdJ
b j h l J
gagLjgL,
jnghJ
xbthU
fUw bgfl
fUts g mJbfhsToa
jf ayhj eilKiw fUahf
kh csJ.

40 - 46,000
eh

1000 - 1,00,000
Ka
286

xa
17.6.1. nrhdh

irntf v kW bah flj bkhj

bjhiy 2d v

nrhdh
vgJ
bahfis
gagL, fl MH, Ufo
cs bghUf bjhiy, ir,
kW ntf Matiw msf Toa
fUahF.

vxt
2
thW jilbghU bjhiy
fl Kiw vbuh beLf
vdgL. j _y fl MH,
flYF
cs
gkiyf
l, _ fg bjhiy,
gghiwf kW _a fg
iy nghwtiw ma Ko.

(Sound Navigation and Ranging)

2d=vxt,

d=

bra 17.11

fg

bjhlto iya cs
eilnkil
W
bfhL
cfis neh tU kW flJ
brY
bjhlto
Cj
xia nfSf.

gu

cz

bah
Jo

vbuhfgl
Jo
fl mojs

gl 17.4 bahia mD gu
VF cz
fg bghUjgoUF nrhdh
fU, bahfis gugToa
gu, bahfis czuToa
cz csJ.
guahdJ
bahfis
cUthf,
gug
brwJ.
tiyf UF gaJ fl
mojs
cs
bghUf
J nkhjYw vbuh bgW
czdh czugLwd.

17.6.2. xa lhs is
bjhltoahdJ eik neh
tUnghJ
Cj
x
RU
mfkhtJ nghW, bjhltoahdJ
eik flJ brYnghJ RU
FiwtJ nghW njhW.
x _yUJ xU iyahd
bjhiy nfFe Ughnuahdh,
mt nffToa x RU,
x_y cUthF x RU
xwhfnt UF. Mdh x _ynkh
myJ nfFenuh (myJ) uL
af csnghnjh nfFeUF
x mbt xU khw
UgJ nghy njhW.

czugL bahf czdh

iriffshf
khwgL
jFj
jftfshf bgwgLwd.

vbuh beLf
bahf
guggLtjF,
VfgLtjF
ilyhd
fhy
ilbt t vf. UF x
287

myF-17

aa

x _yF, nfFeUF il xU rhaf csnghJ x

mbt njhw khw VgL f lhs is vdgL.

oa n#hA lhs (1803 - 53)

t Ma ehil nrj fj kW aa
mP Mth. 1842M ML uil fUJ
tU tz xiaga M _y lhs
isit fljh. x_y af csnghJ,
mJ cUthF x RU njhw khw VgL
vw fUid btlh. tuJ fUJ irntf
kW bghUf bjhiy fl KiwfSF
f gaDsjh mikJsJ.

xa lhs is gaf
n
 ulh (Radio Detection and Ranging) - lhs is jJt mogil
bragL nulh fUia bfhL _fg kW th}f
af kW irntf flagLwJ.
n
 ghFtuJ fLghL thfdUJ, ntfkhf brY thfdij neh
iknuh miyf mDggLwd. aF thfdUJ vbuh bgW
miyf, fLghL thfdYs gFgh cjdh czugLwJ.
mbt VgL lhs lbga _y thfd ntf
fzlgLwJ.
t
 h} iya cs nulh _y bgwgL lhs lbga
cjl th} cs cau, ntf, beUF th} bjhiy
nghwit fzlgLwd.
b
 tsthf bahfis cUthF kW czU gfbfhlit. iu
kW jil bghUf gL vbuh mil bahf VgL lhs
lbga _y btsthf iu bjhiy kW afij mJ
bfhwd.

dh
is vbuh

bah
miyf

btsth

288

xa
kL
- m
1. e
 h iria nfFnghJ, xahdJ
( lbghU, utbghU, th )

guggL

Clf

________

2. xia clhF Kiw mogil khWgl xid njbjLf.

th ir
fU

iz

yhFH

ehjtu

3.
 fl glfUJ, vj gl xahdJ fh guggL fid
FwJ?
miyguj
mW irfit
(i)

(ii)

4. bfhLfgl
mbt
goaUJ
njbjLf.
(2000 Hz, 20,000 Hz, 30,000 Hz, 10,000 Hz)

bah

mbtiz

5. jaJo kh bragL jJt ________ (vbuh , gKf vbuh)

6. brz beLf mogil khWgl xid njbjLf.

ahid

btsth

lh

Ka

- M
7. tUtdtiw bghUJf.
m)
M)

nkgu njhW
tl tot miyf
x miyf

(ii) fhj FWfiyf

x miyf

(iii) vua FWfiyf

(i) beliyf

289

myF-17

aa

8. A
 kW B vw U muff mUfUnf flgLsd. xbghahs
mtuffis M brJ flthW mif mJsh.
nkfl
muffUJ,
xU
muf v KHf neu
mufij
A
1.5 s
(i) f
 Ujuf
(myJ)
brhbgh
B
0.5 s
fF kbwhiw
(ii) fiyffSfhf njbjLf.

9.
 Kfg bghUjgLs nrhdh fUahdJ 5 dho fhy
ilbt guggl xiriffis bgWwJ. KfgUJ
bghU bjhiy 3625 v , x irntfij fzLf.
10. e
 h tF miwf vbuh nfgiy, bga Tlf vbuh
nfwJ. V?
11.
200
(i) gl A , B kW C vd Flgl iyf
350
500
viy vrif x vG fofhuid
350
itjh, nfFeUF bgUk x nfF?
(ii) cfsJ ilfhd fhuz jUf.
12. f
 iyauf myJ iu muFf nkTiu kW Rtf iuiyfshY,
mKfgl eh milfshY _lgoUgnj? sFf.

-
13. fhQ gl miy xid FwJ.
(a) glid tiuJ x,y,kW z vw
khf bgafis FLf.

lbga

x
O

z
fhy

khfisbfhL
(b) nkfl
miy
irntffhd
rkghoid jU.
(c) F
 WfiyfSF, beliyfSF
ilna
cs
VnjD
U
ntWghLfis vGJf.

nkY ma
jff
1. Know about Science - sound - Dreamland
2. V.K.Science, Physics, Class IX - S
 atya Prakash, V.K. (India)
Enterprises, New Delhi - 2
izajsf
http://www.alcyone.com/max/physics/index.html
http://www.dmoz.org/science/physics
290

brKiwf

brKiwf

brKiwf goa
t.
v
1.

2.

3.

4.

nrhjid
nrhjid nehf
bga
jhtubr
btfha njh
jfhf bghU
(jfhf eGt)
xiw jahJ, jhtu
brfis mj

rLgut

kfuj

rhnww

njitahd bghUf

fhy

btfha FH,
fzho wf,
fzho iy,
fzho eGt,
bk y myJ
rh~u, r,
cRjh kW
Enzh

40
l

cUisHF
Mkhnfh
_y rL gut
fia mj.

cUisHF, f,
rfiu fiur,
f, rhanka ,
F^f Kjad.

40
l

kfuj fis
fzho eGt
, va
Enzh
ghj kW gl
tiuJ ghff
Fj.

kyf, va
Enzh, fzho
eGt kW C

rhnww
iryFHhf
tahf jh
eilbgWwJ
vgij fhJig
jhtuij gagL
%j.

rh myJ f,
, nah rha
myJ t ik kW
fhJig jhtu.

jahfgl ghua
fzhoiy
dfhz

TL Enzh,
ghua fzho

40
l

40
l

5.

ghua

6.

gh ik ghkhia
gagL gh
ikia fhz

gh, ghkh

7.

EQf FsJ fhzgL

3 EQfis
dfhz

FsJ, TL
Enzh, fzho

40
l

8.

v
MfAh

v MfAh,
my fyj
bghlha il
Fnuhnk, nrhjid
FHh

40
l

Clf cs
v MfAhiy
fhLoj

292

40
l
40
l

brKiwf
t.
v

nrhjid
bga

nrhjid nehf

njitahd bghUf

9.

ut
fdmsit
msl

fiurf
fdmsit bgil
gagL msl

bg (20 )
Kfit (250 )

10.

jkw,
jkW j
f fiurf
jahj

jkw, jkW
j f
brs btntW
fiurfis
jahj

Kfit (100 )
a
nrhoa FnshiuL

fhy
40
l

40
l

11.

cnyhff x
cnyhff
bra wfis brawfis
mj
msl

nrhjid FHh,
40
fha, Jjehf kW
l
jhu Pb(NO3)2, Zn
SO4, CuSO4

12.

my
cWfis
flj

bfhLfgl
cYs my
cWig flj

nrhjid FHh,
fhgnd c, rng
c, FnshiuL c,
j HCl, AgNO3,
BaCl2

40
l

nfhs tot
bghU
x l
flj.

bta msia
bta ms, nfhs
bfhL nfhs
tot bghU (j
totbghU l Cr FL)
flj.

40
l

j Cr
x
sF
mj miy
fhyF
ilgl
bjhlig
flj.

j Cr
miyfhy
flJ, l/T2xU
kh vd %j.

lbghU
ml
flj.

mlia l
RU juhR.
jis FL,
mfkhd ml
bfhl lbghU Ul Toa Kfit
mlia
Mo
jJtij bfhL
flj

40
l

btgiy fhy ilgl

bjhlig
flj.

bfhiyia
flj nkY
F tiugl
tiuj

Ul Toa Kfit,
btg_o,
Kfh, jh, f
tiy

40
l

13.

14.

15.

16.

293

j Cr fU (
jh, Cr FL,
, sgl jif,
WJ fofhu)

40
l

brKiwf

1. jhtu briy mj
nehf
btfhanjh jfhf eGt (jfhf bghU) xiw jahJ, jhtu
brfis mJ bfhSj.

njitahd bghUf
btfha FH, fzho wf, fzho iy, fzho eGt,
bk y myJ rh~u, r, cRjh kW Enzh.

brKiw
1. btfha xU JL gFia bto, mj cw mLFfUJ
njhiy bjLf.
2. fzho eGt x xU J btfha njhid itf.
3. xU J bk y myJ rh~u rhaij btfha njh nk
itf.
4. mf rhaij F bghUL ij fGt.
5. xU J rid itJ fzho iy bfhL _l.
6. fzho iy Xuf cs mfgoahd rid cRjh
cjbfhL f.
7. fzho eGtij Enzh _y Kj Fiwj cUbgUf MwY
d mf cUbgUf MwY ghf.

fhgJ
l, brtf tot brf brffis mL itfglJ nghw mik
fhzgLwd. xbthU brY shkhrid R fhzgL brRt
kW Jffsh Md irnlhshrjh NHgl, mlj tzKila
cfU(a) tiw bgWsJ. br ikagFia thFnth
usJ.
(4) fzho
eGt xU J
iu itj

(1) btfhaFH JL

(5)
(2) briy ndh Gj

(3) bka btfha njhiy

GJ bjLj

(6) fzho eGt

bghUJtjfhd goiyf

Enzh bj brf gl tiuJ, a, thFnth kW

brRt tiw Ff.

294

brKiwf

2. rL gut (Mkh) fid mj

nehf
cUisHF Mkhnfh _y rL gut fid mj.

fUJ
myJ fiugh _yTWf mj br mfkhd lUJ mj
br Fiwthd lF xU miuflJ r _y lbga miltJ
rLgut (Mkh) vdgL.

njitahd bghUf
cUisHF, f, rfiu fiur, f,
Kjad.

rhanka , F^f

brKiw
1. cUisHid vLJ, mj njhiy f.
2. H mogFia bto, jilahf.
3. mj ikagF clw Fia VgL, mF rfiu
fiuriy vLJbfhs.
4. rfiu fiur Mug klij F^ah Ff.
5. j cUisHid rhanka bfhl f itf.
6. j cgfuzij J neu mgona itUf.
7. rfiu fiur Wklij msf.
F^

rfiu fiur
rhanka

cUisHF

fhgdtiw fl mltiz g brf.

rfiu fiur
Mug kl ()

rfiu fiur
W kl ()

Mug klF W
klF ilna cs
ntWghL ()

mtJ
_________ fhuzkhf rfiu fiur kl _________ kW _________.

295

brKiwf

3. kfujfis Enzh ghj

nehf
kfuj fis fzho eGt , va Enzh ghj
kW gl tiuJ ghffis Fj.

njitahd bghUf
kyf, va Enzh, fzho eGt kW C

brKiw
m) bfhLfgLs kyUJ kfuj fis nrff.
M) kfuj fis, C cjbfhL fzho eGt itf.
) fzho eGtij Enzh _y ghf.

fhgJ
1. kfuj xU xiw bryhyhd mikig bfhLsJ.
2. J uL mLFfis bgWsJ. bt ciwahd vir Kf
cilajhf c ciwahd il UJthf fhzgLwJ.
3. J xiw ai[ irnlhshrij bfhLsJ.
Enzh _y fl kfuj mikig gl tiuf. bt ciw, c
ciw, irnlhshr kW a tiw Ff.

296

brKiwf

4. rhnww eilbgWtij %j
nehf
jhtuf rhnww iryFHhf tahf jh eilbgWwJ vgij
fhJig jhtuij gagL %j.

fUJ
ntdh crgl kW fk cf iryFHhf tahf nkneh
jL _y fljgL f rhnww vdgL.

njitahd bghUf
rh myJ f, , nah rha myJ t ik kW fhJig
jhtu.

brKiw
m) Us rh xid vLJ m WJf nah rha myJ
tikid nrf.
M) rh thgFia xU Jis ug milghdh _l.
) Jis tahf fhJig jhtuij EiHf.
<) j cgfuzij
itUf.

vj

jkhd

ilW

mgona

Jneu

jhtu

ug milgh
rh
nah
fiur
xbthU 10 l fhy ilbt fgtiw fL mltiz
gbrf.
t.v

fhy ilbt

1.

10 lF wF

2.

20 lF wF

3.

30 lF wF

fhgd

mtJ
joY iy eufY t w nfhLf fhzgLtJ _________ I
%wJ.
297

brKiwf

5. ghuaij flj
nehf
ghua fzho xW jah brJ mjid TL Enzhdh
cW nehFj. mjid gl tiuJ ghffis Fj.

ghua fzho jahj

x
 U y itnfh JQFfis f nghL 3 ehf
ewhf Cw itfntL.
i
 tnfh JQFf
cUthwd.

mGFnghJ

mt

ghua

 f cs j xU brhil fzho itJ
TLEnahdh cW nehfntL.

dfhz
fzho fhzgLtJ xu br yfhd ghua MF.

cWnehf
1. ghua mik 2. ghua af.

6. gh ikia flj
nehf
ghkhia gagL gh ik jikia flj.

njitahd cgfuzf
gh kW ghkh

jJt
100 . ghiy f vLJ m ghkhia jf lntL. ghkh
gh J _, L jf MuF. mbghGJ ghkh c ms
gh ik jikia czJ.
t.v

gh

1.

100 .

iy

2.

100 .

10.

3.

100 .

20.

4.

100 .

30.

ghkh ms

Ko
thW ghkhia gagL gh ikjikia fhzyh.

298

brKiwf

7. FsJ iu gagL y EQfis fhz

nehf
_W EQfis FsJ fhz. mt gl tiuj.

njitahd cgfuzf
xU f ms FsJ , fzho, TLEnzh.

brKiw
 U brhL FsJ iu fzho itJ mij TL Enzhdh
x
cW nehFj.

cWnehf
fhzgl EQ _iw milahs fL, mt gl tiuj.

Ko
fhzgl EQf.
bga
gl 1

bga
gl 2

bga
gl 3

299

brKiwf

8. bfhLfgLs Clf v MfAh csij

flj.
nehf
Clf v MfAh csij flj.

njitahd cgfuzf
v MfAh, my fyj bghlha ilFnuhnk fiur.

brKiw
xU nrhjid FHh 5 .. my fyj bghlha ilFnuhnk
fiuriy vLJ bfhsntL. mjD xU brhL v MfAhiy L
FYfntL. mjfiur bkJthf gir wkhf njhW. J Clf
MfAh csJ vgij fhLwJ.

fhgd
t wkhf njhw Toa Fnuha ma gir wkhf khWwJ.
nrhjid
my fyj
bghlhail
FnuhnkLl
xU brhL
v MfAh
nrfgLwJ.

fhgd
mtd
__________ wkhf Uj __________
fiur __________ wkhf csJ vgJ
khWwJ.
%fgLwJ.

Ko
Clf __________ csJ %fgLwJ / %fgliy.

nrhjid KaJt
 J mUatfis fla j nrhjid gagLwJ. J xU
k
Rthrfhiw gFgh brKiw.

300

brKiwf

9. bgil gagL fiur fd msit msl

nehf
bfhLfgLs wkw kWk wKila fiurf fd msit bgil
gagL msl.

brKiw
Fl fd mss bgil vLJ bfhs ntL. bgil dh
fGa , vLfgl ntoa fiurdh fGt ntL. bgo mogFia
fiur gF itJ, bgo ms FpLFnk, fiur tUtiu
c Mfho uyh eF mGj ntL. f ghitF vuhf, ilkl
nenfho bgo msFpL UFkhW itf ntL. bgoYs
Mfhou E mGjij FiwJ fiur bkJthf btnaWkhW
brJ, fiur iwjs ms Fia bjhLkhW bra ntL. (wKila
fiurYF nk iwjsij fU bfhs ntL) bgo gFia
nrffy itJ, u Eia bgoUJ vLJ l ntL.
bghGJ bgoUJ fiur btna fy nrffgLwJ. mslgl
fd msit mltizgLj ntL.

mltiz
tir
v

fiur
bga

fiur w

iwjs

fiur
fdms

Ko
bgil gagL mslgl fiur fd ms = __________ .

Kbdrif
tikf myfis myJ fhufis bgo _y cRjiy
jf.

301

brKiwf

10. jkw, j kW jf fiurf jahj

nehf
jkw, j kW jf brs btntW fiurfis jahj.

jJt
xU Fl btgiy, mf ms fiubghU fiuJs fiur jkw
fiuryhF.
Fl msFnk fiubghUis fiuf ayhj fiur j fiuryhF.
brf fiuriy l mf ms fiubghUis bfhl fiur jf
fiuryhF.

brKiw
100 fzho f 25 ms Jhaiu vLJbfhs ntL. 2
ms nrhoa FnshiuL cig nrJ eF fyf ntL. c KGtJ
fiuJL. bghGJ fiur jikia ftf ntL.
fiurYl nkY mf ms cid nrJ fyf ntL. fzho
f mo c fiuahk UF tiu nrf ntL. bghGJ fiur
jikia ftf ntL.
fiurYl nkY cid nrf ntL. y lf tiu fiuriy
btggL cid fiuf ntL. btggLJtij WL,
fiuriy Fuitf ntL. goff cUthtij, fiur jikia
ftf ntL.

mltiz
tir
v

nrfgl
c bga

nrfgl
c ms

Ko
ilfbgw fiur tiff

1.

2.

3.

302

fdms

fiur
brjik

brKiwf

11. cnyhff bra wfis mj

nehf
bfhLfgl cnyhff x brawfis (ne jik) msl.

jJt
cnyhff x brawfis, xU cnyhf kbwhU cnyhfij
gothFtj _y flgLwJ.

njitahd ntbghUf
fhg, by kW cnyhfJff, byienu, fhg rng kW
rng fiurf

brKiw
bra 1
5 msyhd byienu kW fhg rng fiurfis uL
nrhjid FHhf jjna vLJ bfhs ntL. a ms fhg
cnyhfij uL nrhjid FHhfY nrJ fG khwij flJ
FJ bfhs ntL. (uL FHhfY ntkhw vJ ftiy).

mltiz
tir v

vLJ bfhsgl
fiurf

nrfgl
cnyhf

bra 2
5 msyhd fhg rng kW rng fiurfis uL nrhjid
FHhfY jjna vLJ bfhs ntL. a ms by cnyhfij
uL nrhjid FHhfY nrJ fG khwij flJ, FJ
bfhs ntL (by cnyhf fhg rng fiurYl id Mdh
rng fiurYl idtiy).

mltiz
tir v

vLJ bfhsgl
fiurf

nrfgl
cnyhf

bra 3
5 msyhd fhg rng kW byienu fiurfis uL
nrhjid FHhfY jjna vLJ bfhs ntL. a ms
cnyhfij uL nrhjid FHhfY nrJ fG khwid flJ,
FJ bfhs ntL. ( cnyhfkhdJ fhg rng kW byienu
fiurfSl idwJ.)

mltiz
tir v

vLJ bfhsgl
fiurf

nrfgl
cnyhf

Ko:
cnyhff x braw tir = ________>________>________.
303

brKiwf
12. my cWfis flj
(i) fhgnd my cWig flj
nehf
bfhLfgLs cYs my cWig flj.
v.

nrhjid

fhgit

1.

xU MFHh 1 . cig
vLJbfhL, mjDl 2-3
j iAnuhFnsh myij
nrf.

CO2 th btnaWtjh
EiuJ bghFj
VgLwJ.

2.

js c fiurYl,
y Jf bka rng
fiuriy nrf.

bka fhgnd,
btik w gothf
njhWwJ.

Ko : c cs my cW ___________ MF.

(ii) FnshiuL my cWig flj.

v.

nrhjid

fhgit

1.

xU MFHh 3 cig
vLJ bfhf. mjDl fa
ms khfR il Mi[il
nrj ml r
myij nrJ, fyitia y
lf eF NnlWf.

gRik fyj kr
w Fnsh (Cl2) th
btnaWwJ.

2.

c fiur xU gFl
y Jf t ienu
fiuriy nrf.

j nghw
btikahd gothf
t FnshiuL
cUthwJ.

Ko : c cs my cW ___________ MF.

(iii) rng my cWig flj

v.

nrhjid

fhgit

1.

js cl iu nrf. c
fiuaiy v mjDl
js j iAnuhFnsh
myij nrf. mjDl
nga FnshiuL fiuriy
nrf.

btik w gothf
nga rng
cUthwJ.

2.

js c fiurYl, y
Jf by mbrnl fiuriy
nrf.

btik w gothf
by rng cUthwJ.

Ko : c cs my cW ___________ MF.
304

brKiwf

13. nfhs tot bghU x l flj

nehf
bta msia bfhL nfhs totbghU l flj.

cgfuzf/ njitahd fUf

bta ms, nfhs tot bghU (j Cr FL).

Nu
nfhs totbghU l = OR ZC x 10-2 m
OR = MSR + (VC x LC ) x 10 -2
F, OR = fl ms, MSR = Kjiknfhy ms x 10 -2m
LC = wsit x 10 -2 m, VC = bta x, ZC = RUj x 10 -2 m

brKiw
bta ms wsitia flf.
nkY bta ms Ria flf.

bfhLfgl bghUid
U jhilfSF ilna cWahf
gUFgo of.
Kjiknfh msid, bta xid FJbfhf.
bghUid btntW iyf itJ, nrhjidia L bra ntL.
nfhstot bghU l OR ZC x 10-2 m
OR = MSR + (VC x LC ) x 10 -2
thghoid gagL, nfhs l fzLf.

fhgf
bta nfhf vis N =
1 Kjiknfh g 1 MSD
=
1
x 1MSD
wsit =
N
RiH ZE =
t.
v

Kjiknfh
ms
(MSR) cm

bta
x
VC

RUj ZC =
flagL ms
= MSR+(VC x LC)
cm

Ujgl
rahd ms
OR ZC cm

1.
2.
3.
4.

nfhs l

ruhr

Ko

bfhLfgl nfhs l = ___________

305

x 10 -2 m.

brKiwf

14. j Cr x sF, mj miyfhyF

ilgl bjhlig flj.
nehf
j Cr

miyfhy flJ, l / T2 xU kh vd %j.

cgfuzf / njitahd fUf

j Cr fU (jh,
sgl jif, WJ fofhu).

Cr

FL,

Nu
l / T 2 xU kh
F, l = j Cr s ( l),
T = j Cr miy fhy (dho)

brKiw
j
 Cr s 70 br UFkhW jCrid
bjhfL.
xU miy fhy
a RfSl miyw brf.
CryhdJ eLiyid tyJ gfkhf jhLnghJ WJ
fofhuij a, 0 vd vz bjhlFf.
j CryhdJ L eLiyid tyJ gfkhf flFnghJ 1 vd
vQf.
thnw UgJ vd vQtiu, WJ fofhuij a, UgJ vd
vQnghJ WJ fofhuij WJf.
20 miyfSfhd neuij flJ, mltiz msfis
FJbfhsntL.
jCr sij 80 br., 90 br., 100 br., 110 br. vd khaikJ
nrhjidia L brantL.
kfis mltiz FJ T, T2 & l / T2 fzlntL.
mltiz Wu k, khahf miktijfhzyh.
UJ l / T2 xU kh vd UfgLwJ.

fhgf
t.
v

j Cr
s
(m)

1.

0.7

2.

0.8

3.

0.9

4.

1.0

5.

1.1

20 miy fSfhd
miyfhy
neu
T(s)
(s)

Ko
mltizUJ l / T2 xU kh vd UfgLwJ.

306

T2
s2

l / T2
(ms-2)

brKiwf

15. lbghU ml flj.

nehf
mlia l mfkhd ml bfhl lbghU mlia
Mo jJtij bfhL flj.

cgfuzf/ njitahd fUf

RU juhR,

jis FL, Ul Toa Kfit.

Nu
d=

w1
w1-w2

kg m-3

d = lbghU ml (kgm-3)
w 1 = fh lbghU vil ( kg), w 2 = UF lbghU vil (kg)

brKiw

RU juh bfhUJ bfhLfgl lbghUis bjhfLf.

fh lbghU vil w 1 flf.
U KfitD lbghUis _fbrf.
UF lbghU vil w 2 flf.
thnw jKs U lbghUf vilfis fhY, Y fhf.
kfis mltizgLJf.
mltiz fil u ruhr k flf. J bfhLfgl
lbghU mlahF.

fhgf

t. v

fh lbghU
vil w 1 x 10-3 Kg

UF
lbghU vil
w 2 x 10-3 Kg

lbghU
ml
w1
d=
w1-w2
kg m-3

1.
2.
3.
ruhr

Ko
bfhLfgl lbghU ml = ____________ kgm-3

F
i) bghUshdJ UF KYkhf _Uj ntL.
ii) bghUshdJ Kfit moguignah myJ gfRtfisnah bjhL
bfhoUfTlhJ.
iii) lbghU J Ff xoUj TlhJ.
307

brKiwf

16. btgiy fhy ilgl bjhlig flj.

nehf
bfhiyia flj nkY F tiugl tiuj.

cgfuzf/ njitahd fUf

Ul Toa Kfit, btg_o, Kfh, jh, f tiy d

brKiw
K
 fh jh Js ftiy J Us Kfitia itf.
jh
btgiykhia
bghU
Kfit
cs
UF
_UFkhW brf.
btg_oid bfhL, Kfitia btggLJf.
uhdJ bfhFnghJ, btgiykh msit FJ bfhf.
tsthdJ bfhiyia FF.
btggLJtij W, id Fu bra.
WJ fofhuij af bjhlFnghJ btgiykh msid
FJ bfhf.
WJ fofhu cjl btgiy ilbtfis fhf.
thnw WJ fofhu cjl xbthU l ilbtf
btgiy 60C vd tUtiu btgiykh msfis FJbfhf.
msfis mltizgLJf.
jFj msl bfhl, fhyij x-mY, btgiyia y-mY
bfhL F tiugl tiuantL.

fhgf
mslgl bgUk btgiy = ____C
bfhiy =____C
fhy
(lf)

btgiy
(C )

btgiy

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

fhy

Ko
1. bfhiy = ____C

2. F tiugl tiuaglJ.

308