OSI Physical Layer

Network Fundamentals Chapter 8

Objectives

Explain the role of Physical layer protocols and services in supporting communication across data networks.
- Describe the role of signals used to represent bits as a frame as the frame is transported across the local media

Describe the purpose of Physical layer signaling and encoding as they are used in networks Identify the basic characteristics of copper, fiber and wireless network media Describe common uses of copper, fiber and wireless network media

Outline
Physical layer: Communication signals Purpose of the physical layer Physical layer standards Physical layer fundamental principles Physical signaling and encoding: Representing bits Signaling bits for the media Encoding: Grouping bits Data-carrying capacity Physical media: Connecting communication Types of physical media Media connectors

Purpose of the Physical Layer

The roles of the OSI physical layer: To encode the binary digits that represent data link layer frames into signals. To transmit and receive these signals across the physical media. There are various types of physical media and they carry

different types of signals.

Copper cable electrical voltage. Fiber optic light pulses. Wireless electromagnetic waves.

Physical layer will encode the binary data in a frame to the

proper type of signal depending on the physical media used.

Physical Layer Protocols & Services

The purpose of the Physical layer is to create the electrical,

optical, or microwave signal that represents the bits in each frame.

Physical Layer Standards

The physical layer technologies are defined by organizations

such as:
The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) The Electronics Industry Alliance/Telecommunications Industry

Association (EIA/TIA) National telecommunications authorities such as the Federal Communication Commission (FCC) in the USA

Physical Layer Protocols & Services

Standards for the PL specify signal, connector and cabling

requirements.

Physical Layer Standards

The technologies defined by these organizations include four

areas of the physical layer standards:

Physical and electrical properties of the media. Mechanical properties (materials, dimensions, pinouts) of the

connectors. Bit representation by the signals (encoding). Definition of control information signals.

Standards for PL: Signals

Standards for PL: Connectors

Standards for PL: Cables

Physical Layer Fundamental Principles

Three fundamental functions of the physical layer:
The physical components Data encoding Signaling

The physical components refer to the physical media and its

connector.

Responsible for making sure that signals can travels reliably

from one device to another over the physical media.

Physical Layer Fundamental Principles

Encoding refers to the method of converting a stream of data

bits into a predefined code.

Codes are groupings of bits used to provide a predictable

pattern that can be recognized by both the sender and the receiver. Encoding is also used for control information such as identifying the beginning and end of a frame.
This is normally represented using specific patters of 0s and 1s.

Physical Layer Fundamental Principles

Signaling refers to the process of converting the encoded bit

streams into signals.

The signals generated is dependant on the physical media. The method of representing the bits is called the signaling method.

The processes of encoding and signaling complete the

preparation of data for transmission over the physical media. The physical layer sends these bits out one at a time onto the medium as a signal and those signals get picked up and decoded at the receiving end.

Physical Layer Protocols & Services

The three fundamental functions of the Physical layer are:
The physical components Data encoding Signaling

Signaling Bits for the Media

Bits are represented on the medium by changing one or more

of the following signal characteristics:

Amplitude Frequency Phase

To make sure that the receiver reads the signals at the right

time, the timing for both senders and receivers needs to be synchronized.
Done by the use of a clock signal. This ensures that they both have the same bit time (the time that the

signal for one bit stays on the media).

Signaling Bits for the Media

Bits are represented on the medium by changing one or more

of the following characteristics of a signal:

Amplitude Frequency Phase

Signaling Method Nonreturn to Zero (NRZ)

Bits are represented by voltage level: 0 low voltage value 1 high voltage value The simplest signaling method but only suitable for slow

speed data link.

NRZ is used in communication over serial port.

Disadvantages: Uses bandwidth inefficiently. Susceptible to electromagnetic interference. No inherent clocking capability and therefore easy to lose synchronization.

Signaling Method Nonreturn to Zero (NRZ)

Signaling Method Manchester Encoding

Bits are represented by voltage transition: 0 change from high to low 1 change from low to high Better than NRZ and can be used in faster data links. Provides inherent clocking capability which makes it possible to transmit signals at faster speed without losing synchronization. Manchester encoding is used in 10 Mbps Ethernet LAN. Disadvantage: the signal needs to be read twice during each

bit time.

Signaling Method Manchester Encoding

Encoding: Grouping Bits

In transmitting bits across the transmission media, the bits

are normally not transmitted as it is.

If we have data bits 0011, normally we do not just send signals

that represent the bits 0011 into the media.

Instead, the bits are first encoded to prepare it for

transmission.

With encoding, the data bits 0011 may now be represented by

the bits 10101.

Encoding: Grouping Bits

Although encoding may introduce more bits to represent the

data, it does provide several advantages, for example:

Specifies the start and end of data frame. Provides better error detection. Limiting effective energy transmitted into the media by making sure

that the number of +ve voltage produced is equal to the number of ve voltage produced.

There are two methods of encoding: Signal patterns Code groups

Encoding Signal Patterns

Signal patterns can be used to identify the start and end of a

frame. This is done by using a certain pattern of signals.

When the receiver sees this pattern, it knows that a data frame will

follow afterwards. Enables the receiver to get ready to read the frame.

Any signals that are not followed by the start frame signal

pattern will be ignored.

This will help the receiver to know which signals to read and which

signals to ignore.

Physical Layer Signaling and Encoding

Encoding Code Groups

Code group refers to a consecutive sequence of code bits that

are interpreted and mapped as data bit patterns.

Example: data bits 0011 can be represented by the code bits 10101.

Code groups are normally used in higher speed LAN

technologies. Example: 4B/5B (used in 100 Mbps Ethernet LAN).

4 bits of data are turned into 5-bit code symbols. These 5-bit code symbols may represent data or control information

such as symbols that indicate beginning / end of transmission.

Encoding Code Groups

Data Code / Control Information 0000 0001 0010 1110 1111 Idle Start of stream End of stream Symbol 11110 01001 10100 11100 11101 11111 11000 00111

Encoding Code Groups

Advantages of using code groups include:
Reducing bit level error The receiver read the bits by sampling the signal at certain time interval. It is important for timing between the sender and receiver to be synchronized. Timing can be synchronized by having the signal to change its level every so often. Code groups can help to achieve this by making sure that there are not too many 0s or 1s used in a row.

Encoding Code Groups

Limiting the energy transmitted into the media
It is important to balance the number of high and low signal levels

(this is called DC balancing). Otherwise, excessive energy may be injected into the media and this may cause interference. Code groups can help to achieve this by balancing the number of 0s and 1s. Helping to distinguish data bits from control bits In addition to data bits, control bits must also be transmitted to facilitate data transfer. Code groups specifies special bit sequences for control information (so that it cannot be confused with data codes).

Encoding Code Groups

Better media error detection
Code groups defined symbols for data and control information. They are also invalid symbols which are not used to represent data or

control information. These invalid symbols will never be generated by the sender. If the receiver receives any of the invalid symbols, then it knows there must be some error in data reception. This will enable the receiver to take an appropriate corrective action.

Data Carrying Capacity

Different physical media support the transfer of bits at

different speeds. Data transfer can be measured in three ways:

Bandwidth : The capacity of a medium to carry data Throughput : The measure of the transfer of bits across the

media over a given period of time. Goodput : The measure of usable data transferred over a given period of time, and is therefore the measure that is of most interest to network users.

Data Carrying Capacity

Data Carrying Capacity

Throughput Refer to the actual transfer rate over the medium in a period of time. Influence by multiple factors such as the amount of traffic, the type of traffic and the number of devices on the network. Goodput Refer to the transfer rate of actual useable data bits. Goodput = throughput (overhead for connection establishment, acknowledgement and packet header).

Data Carrying Capacity

Example:
A 100BaseT Ethernet LAN has a bandwidth of 100 Mbps. However, due to the number of hosts connected to the LAN

and the amount of traffic generated by these hosts, the throughput may only be 60 Mbps. Out of all the bits transmitted, 1/3 of them may just be control bits. Only the other 2/3 are data bits. Therefore, the goodput is only 40 Mbps.

Types of Physical Media

The physical layer defines the standards for the physical

components of a network (copper, fiber cables) and the connectors used on them. It also defines how bits are represented (signaling method and encoding to be used). The standards vary depending on the type of physical media used and its applications. In general, there are three types of media:
Copper media Fiber media Wireless media

Copper Media
Copper media is the most widely used media in local

networks. Data travels as small pulses of electrical voltages. However, the voltage is quite low and easily distorted by outside interference and signal attenuation.
Interference (also known as noise): unwanted signals that can distort

or corrupt data signals. Attenuation: the loss of energy in the signal as it travels longer distance.

Copper Media
There are various types of copper media: Unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) cable Coaxial cable Shielded twisted-pair (STP) cable For each type, there are standards that specify the following

characteristics:
Bandwidth of the communication

Type of connecters to be used

Pinout and color codes of connection to the media Maximum distance of the media

Copper Media

Copper Media UTP Cable

UTP is the cheapest and the most common type of copper

media used. Consists of eight wires twisted into four color-coded pairs.
The colors are used to identify wires for proper connection at the

terminals. These four pair of wires are then bundled together into a cable jacket.

Applications of UTP cable: Telephone network Local area network (LAN)

Copper Media UTP Cable

The twisting is done to reduce crosstalk interference. When electric current travels a wire, it produces magnetic fields around it. This magnetic field can cause interference to the data. In a pair, each wire transmit signals in opposite direction. This causes the magnetic fields generated by the two wires to cancel each other. The rate of twisting (the twist length) in each pair of wires is different so that each pair self-cancels and reduces crosstalk to a minimum.

Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

Used in Ethernet LANs, consists of four pairs of color-coded wires that have been

twisted together and then encased in a flexible plastic sheath.

Copper Media UTP Cable

There are several categories of UTP cable: Category 3 (Cat 3) Used in telephone network and 10 Mbps Ethernet LAN. Category 5 (Cat 5) Used in 100 Mbps Ethernet LAN. Category 5e (Cat 5e) An improved version of Cat 5 cable with ability to perform fullduplex transmission. Used in 1 Gbps (1000 Mbps) Ethernet LAN. Category 6 (Cat 6) Has stricter manufacturing and termination standards. Has higher performance and less crosstalk. Used in 1 Gbps (1000 Mbps) Ethernet LAN.

Copper Media UTP Cable

The most common UTP cable connector in LAN devices is

an RJ-45 connector. There are two standards that specify the cable pinout (the order of wires in the connector):
TIA/EIA 568A TIA/EIA 568B

There are three types of UTP cable, each with different

pinout configuration.
Straight-through cable Crossover cable Rollover cable

 Different situations may require UTP cables to be wired

according to different wiring conventions.

Straight-through Crossover Rollover

 Two other types of copper cable are used: 1. Coaxial 2. Shielded Twisted-Pair (STP)

Copper Media Coaxial Cable

Consists of a single, coated copper wire center and an outer

metal mesh.
The outer metal mesh acts as both a grounding circuit and an

electromagnetic shield to reduce interference.

Applications of coaxial cable: Used in older Ethernet LAN standards such as 10Base2 and 10Base5. Used in wireless implementations to connect antenna to wireless devices. Used to carry TV signals (cable TV).

Copper Media: Shielded twisted-pair (STP)

STP uses four pairs of wires that are wrapped in an overall

metallic braid or foil. STP cable shields the entire bundle of wires within the cable as well as the individual wire pairs. STP provides better noise protection than UTP cabling, however at a significantly higher price. For many years, STP was the cabling structure specified for use in Token Ring network installations. With the use of Token Ring declining, the demand for shielded twisted-pair cabling has also waned.

 The susceptibility of copper cables to electronic noise can also

be limited by:
Selecting the cable type or category most suited to protect the

data signals in a given networking environment Designing a cable infrastructure to avoid known and potential sources of interference in the building structure Using cabling techniques that include the proper handling and termination of the cables

Copper Media STP

Safety Issues in Handling Copper Cabling

Fiber Media
In fiber optic cable, data bits are encoded as light pulses

generated using either laser or LED. The cable consists of glass or plastic fibers that can guide light pulses.
Uses a property of glass called total internal reflection where the light

rays get reflected back and forth along the medium. Occurs when a ray of light strikes the boundary of a medium that has a higher index of refraction at an angle larger than the critical angle.

On the receiving end, a device called photodiode interprets

the light signal and decode it to bits.

Fiber Optic
Fiber-optic cabling uses either glass or plastic fibers to guide

light impulses from source to destination. The bits are encoded on the fiber as light impulses. Optical fiber cabling is capable of very large raw data bandwidth rates.

Fiber Optic: Single Mode vs Multimode

Fiber Media
Advantages of fiber optic cable (as compared to copper

cables):

Much greater capacity (bandwidth). Lower attenuation can run for longer distance. Immunity to electromagnetic interference. Cable has smaller size and weight.

Disadvantages of fiber optic cable: More expensive. More easily damaged. Fiber optic cable is normally used in backbone connections to

connect between floors, buildings or remote sites.

Fiber Optic: Implementation Issues

More expensive (usually) than copper media over the same

distance (but for a higher capacity) Different skills and equipment required to terminate and splice the cable infrastructure More careful handling than copper media The laser light transmitted over fiber-optic cabling can damage the human eye. Care must be taken to avoid looking into the end of an active optical fiber.

Wireless Media
Wireless media carry electromagnetic signals at radio and

microwave frequencies that represent the binary digits of data communications.

Wireless Media
In wireless media, signal is carried using electromagnetic

waves.

Electromagnetic waves at different frequencies are called with

different names: radio wave, microwave, etc.

The main advantage is that devices no longer need to use

physical cables. However, there are several disadvantages:

The speed is generally slower than cable connection. More susceptible to interference. More susceptible to security breach.

Wireless connections are best used in open areas.

Wireless Media
Four common data communication standards that apply to

wireless media:
IEEE 802.11 A wireless LAN standard commonly known as Wi-Fi. IEEE 802.15 A wireless personal area network (WPAN) standard

commonly known as Bluetooth. IEEE 802.16 A wireless WAN network commonly known as WiMAX. GSM (Global System for Mobile Communication), together with GRPS, WCDMA or HSDPA Provide data transfer over mobile cellular network.

Media Connectors
UTP cable
RJ-45 connector

Coaxial cable
BNC connector N type connector F type connector

STP cable
D type connector

Media Connectors
Fiber optic cable
Straight Tip (ST) for multimode Subscriber Connector (SC) for single mode Lucent Connector (LC) for both multimode and single mode MT-RJ Connector for both multimode and single mode

Media Connectors
It is essential that all copper media terminations be of high

quality to ensure optimum performance with current and future network technologies.

Summary