I. THE NOUN..............................................................................................................................................................................2 1.1. Kinds and function.............................................................................................................................................................2 1.2. Gender................................................................................................................................................................................2 1.3. Plurals............................................................................................................................................................................3 1.3.1.

Uncountable nouns (also kno n as non!count nouns or "ass nouns#........................................................................$ 1.%. T&e for" of t&e 'ossessi(e)*eniti(e case...........................................................................................................................+ 1.,. Use of t&e 'ossessi(e)*eniti(e case and of - noun...........................................................................................................+ 1... /E0IN12 ! NOUN..........................................................................................................................................................3 II. 12TI45E/.............................................................................................................................................................................1% 2.1. T&e definite article...........................................................................................................................................................1% 2.2. O"ission of t&e................................................................................................................................................................1. 2.3. T&e indefinite article........................................................................................................................................................13 2.%. T&e 6ero article.................................................................................................................................................................13 2.,. /E0IN12 ! 12TI45E....................................................................................................................................................27 III. 189E4TI:E/.......................................................................................................................................................................23 3.1. Kinds of ad;ecti(es...........................................................................................................................................................23 3.2. Order of ad;ecti(es of <ualit=...........................................................................................................................................2% 3.3. 4o"'arison .....................................................................................................................................................................2, 3.%. 4onstructions it& co"'arisons .....................................................................................................................................2. 3.,. Possessi(e ad;ecti(es .......................................................................................................................................................2$ 3... /E0IN12 ! 189E4TI:E...............................................................................................................................................2+ I:. 18:E2>/............................................................................................................................................................................31 %.1. Kinds of ad(erbs..............................................................................................................................................................31 %.2. ?or" and use....................................................................................................................................................................32 %.3. 4o"'arati(e and su'erlati(e ad(erb for"s......................................................................................................................3% %.% Position of ad(erbs............................................................................................................................................................3% %.,. In(ersion of t&e (erb........................................................................................................................................................3. %... /E0IN12 ! 18:E2>....................................................................................................................................................3$ :. THE P2ONOUN....................................................................................................................................................................33 ,.1. Personal 'ronouns............................................................................................................................................................%7 ,.2. Uses of it..........................................................................................................................................................................%1 ,.3. Possessi(e 'ronouns.........................................................................................................................................................%2 ,.%. 8e"onstrati(e 'ronouns .................................................................................................................................................%3 ,.,. 2efle@i(e 'ronouns ........................................................................................................................................................%3 ,... Interro*ati(e 'ronouns.....................................................................................................................................................%3 ,.$. 2elati(e 'ronouns ............................................................................................................................................................%% ,.+. Indefinite 'ronouns .........................................................................................................................................................%% 1ll /o"e None ................................................................................................................................................................%, ,.3. /E0IN12 A P2ONOUN...............................................................................................................................................%, :I. P2EPO/ITION/...................................................................................................................................................................,% ..1. Introduction......................................................................................................................................................................,% ..2. /E0IN12 ! P2EPO/ITION............................................................................................................................................3

I. THE NOUN 1.1. Kinds and function A There are four kinds of noun in English:

Common nouns: dog, man, table ro!er nouns: France, Madrid, Mrs. Smith, Tom A"stract nouns: beauty, charity, courage, fear, joy Collecti#e nouns: crowd, flock, group, swarm, team 1.$. %ender A &asculine: men' "o(s and male animals )!ronoun he/they). *eminine: +omen' girls and female animals )!ronoun she/they). Neuter: inanimate things' animals +hose se, +e don-t kno+ and sometimes "a"ies +hose se, +e don-t kno+ )!ronoun it/they). E,ce!tions: shi!s and sometimes cars and other #ehicles +hen regarded +ith affection or res!ect are considered feminine. Countries +hen referred to "( name are also normall( considered feminine. The ship struck an iceberg, which tore a huge hole in her side. Scotland lost many of her bravest men in two great rebellions. . 1 &asculine/feminine nouns denoting !eo!le 0ifferent forms: boy, girl gentleman, lady son, daughter bachelor, spinster husband, wife duke, duchess king, queen uncle, aunt bridegroom, bride man, woman widower, widow father, mother nephew, niece prince, princess earl, countess
2

lord, lady $ The ma1orit( of nouns indicating occu!ation ha#e the same form: artist cook driver guide assistant dancer doctor etc. &ain e,ce!tions: actor, actress host, hostess conductor, conductress manager, manageress heir, heiress steward, stewardess

2ometimes person is used instead of man, woman! salesperson, spokesperson. C 0omestic animals and man( of the larger +ild animals ha#e different forms: gander, goose stag, doe tiger, tigress dog, bitch lion, lioness

bull, cow duck, drake ram, ewe stallion, mare cock, hen 1.3. lurals A

The !lural of a noun is usuall( made "( adding s to the singular: house, houses

day, days dog, dogs

s is !ronounced /s/ after p' k or f sound. Other+ise it is !ronounced /4/. 5hen s is !laced after ce' ge' se or ze an e,tra s(lla"le )/i4/6 is added to the s!oken +ord. Other !lural forms . Nouns ending in o or ch' sh' ss or x form their !lural "( adding es:

tomato, tomatoes brush, brushes

bo", bo"es church, churches kiss, kisses

3

.ut +ords of foreign origin or a""re#iated +ords ending in o add s onl(: dynamo, dynamos kimono, kimonos piano, pianos kilo, kilos C Nouns ending in y follo+ing a consonant form their !lural "( dro!!ing the y and adding ies: baby, babies country, countries boy, boys day, days fly, flies lady, ladies donkey, donkeys guy, guys photo, photos soprano, sopranos

Nouns ending in ( follo+ing a #o+el form their !lural "( adding s:

T+el#e nouns ending in f or fe dro! the f or fe and add ves. These nouns are calf, half, knife, leaf, life, loaf, self, sheaf, shelf, thief, wife, wolf! loaf, loaves wife, wives wolf, wolves

Nouns The nouns hoof, scarf and wharf take either s or ves in the !lural: hoofs or hooves scarfs or scarves Other +ords ending in f or fe add s in the ordinar( +a(: cliff, cliffs handkerchief, handkerchiefs A fe+ nouns form their !lural "( a #o+el change: foot, feet louse, lice mouse, mice woman, women goose, geese Names of certain creatures do not change in the !lural. Fish is normall( unchanged' fishes e,ists "ut is uncommon. 2ome t(!es of fish do not normall( change in the !lural: #arp pike crabs salmon trout cod plaice sardines eels squid turbot mackerel "ut if sharks used in a !lural sense the( +ould take a !lural #er". Others add s: herrings lobsters $eer and sheep do not change: one sheep, two sheep. The +ord game, used "( s!ortsmen to mean an animal/animals hunted' is al+a(s in the singular and takes a singular #er". Collecti#e nouns' crew, family, team etc.' can take a singular or !lural #er"7 singular if +e consider the +ord to mean a single grou! or unit: %ur team is the best or !lural if +e take it to mean a num"er of indi#iduals. %ur team are wearing their new jerseys. man, men tooth, teeth child children o", o"en. safe, safes wharfs or wharves

Certain +ords are al+a(s !lural and take a !lural #er":

#lothes, garments consisting of t+o !arts breeches trousers &inoculars pliers etc. scissors spectacles glasses

pants

pyjamas shears

etc. and tools and instruments consisting of t+o !arts: scales

A num"er of +ords ending in ics, acoustics, athletics, ethics, hysterics, mathematics, physics, politics etc.' +hich are !lural in form' normall( take a !lural #er": 'is mathematics are weak. .ut names of sciences can sometimes "e considered singular: Mathematics is an e"act science. 5ords !lural in form "ut singular in meaning include news! The news is good And certain diseases: mumps billiards rickets darts shingles draughts bowls dominoes and certain games: $ The first +ord is made !lural +ith com!ounds formed of #er" 8 er nouns 8 ad#er"s: hangers on in law lookers on runners up and +ith com!ounds sisters com!osed of noun 8 !re!osition 8 noun: ladies in waiting wards of court 3 Initials can "e made !lural: M(s )&em"ers of arliament6 )*(s )#er( im!ortant !ersons6 %+(s )old age !ensioners6 ,F%s )unidentified fl(ing o"1ects6 1.3.1. Uncounta"le nouns )also kno+n as non9count nouns or mass nouns6 1 Names of su"stances considered generall(: &read, cream, gold, paper, tea, beer, dust, jam, ice, sand, water, cloth, gin, soap, wine, coffee, glass, oil, stone, wood

- A"stract nouns: advice, e"perience, horror, pity, beauty, fear, information , relief, courage, help, knowledge, suspicion, death, hope, mercy, work 3 Also considered uncounta"le in English:

"aggage' damage' luggage' sho!!ing' cam!ing' furniture' !arking +eather 1.:. The form of the !ossessi#e/geniti#e case A -s is used +ith singular nouns and !lural nouns not ending in s: a man.s job men.s work the people.s choice the crew.s quarters the horse.s mouth the bull.s horns 1ussia.s e"ports

a woman.s intuition the butcher.s /shop0 a child.s voice the children.s room

women.s clothes

. A sim!le a!ostro!he )-6 is used +ith !lural nouns ending in s: a girls. school the students. hostel the eagles. nest the Smiths. car C Classical names ending in s usuall( add onl( the a!ostro!he: (ythagoras. Theorem 0 +rchimedes. 2aw Sophocles. plays

Other names ending in s can take -s or the a!ostro!he alone: Mr. 3ones.s /or Mr. 3ones. house0 4eats.s /or 4eats.0 poems

1.;. Use of the !ossessi#e/geniti#e case and of 8 noun A The !ossessi#e case is chiefl( used of !eo!le' countries or animals as sho+n a"o#e. It can also "e used: 1 Of shi!s and "oats: the ship.s bell, the yacht.s mast 2 Of !lanes' trains' cars and other #ehicles' though here the of construction is safer: a glider.s wings or the wings of a glider the train.s heating system or the heating system of the train 3 In time e,!ressions: a week.s holiday, today.s paper, tomorrow.s weather, in two years. time, ten minutes. break, two hours. delay,

:. 5ith for 8 noun 8 sake: for heaven.s sake, for goodness. sake , In a fe+ e,!ressions such as: a stone.s throw journey.s end the water.s edge <. 2ometimes certain nouns can "e used in the !ossessi#e case +ithout the second noun' a5the baker.s5butcher.s5chemist.s5florist.s etc. can mean -a/the "aker-s/"utcher-s etc. sho!-. 2imilarl(' a5the house agent.s5travel agent.s etc. )office6 and the dentist.s5doctor6s vet.s )surger(6: 4ou can buy it at the chemist.s. 'e.s going to the dentist.s.

1.<. 2E&INA= 9 NOUN

E>E=CI2E

1. 7ouns ending in 9f/9fe form their plural in 9fs/9fes or 9#es or

both. 8ive the plural form of the following nouns and noun groups into the respective three categories! Half' cuff' +olf' "elief' leaf' scarf' chief' calf' cliff' shelf'.d+arf' self' thief' safe' gulf' !roof' loaf' +ife' roof' handkerchief' knife.
E>E=CI2E.

a6 9rite the singular of! countries ta,es enemies ta,is si4es "u44es do#es shoes !ies e(es #al#es !orches toes

allies alle(s

hal#es kangaroos !otatoes

dresses skies houses skis

"6 9rite the plural of! !otato' radio' hero' cargo' echo' tango' "uffalo' concerto' Negro' #olcano.
E>E=CI2E

. Turn into the plural!

1. Englishman $. 2!aniard 3. Chinese :. *renchman ;. ole <. 2+ede ?.Nor+egian @. %erman A. 0utchman 1B. Italian 11. =omanian 1$. =ussian

13. $B.

%reek 1:. Australian 1;. Ca!anese 1<. 0ane 1?. *inn 1@. Irishman 1A. 2cot akistani. #hoose the right form of the verb !

E>E=CI2E

1. a6 The committee )consist' consists6 of 1$ mem"ers. "6 The committee )has' ha#e6 come to a common !oint of #ie+. $. a6 &( friend-s famil( )is' are6 small. "6 The famil( )+as' +ere6 aslee! +hen +e arri#ed. 3. a6 The !ress )is' are6 kindl( reDuested to lea#e the Conference Hall' "6 The !ress )is' are6 al+a(s !resent on such occasions. %. a6 The audience )+as' +ere6 taking their seats. "6 The audience )+as' +ere6 a!!lauding enthusiasticall(. ,. a6 The mo" )has' ha#e6 "een fighting among themsel#es for some time' "6 A mo" )is' are6 a disorderl( cro+d. .. a6 The Education .oard )is' are6 arguing a"out the cost of te,t"ooks' "6 The 2election .oard )has' ha#e6 selected the "est !u!ils from the can9 didates. $. a6 The go#ernment )has' ha#e6 announced further +age rises. "6 The go#ernment )stand' stands6 firm in refusing to make further concessions. @. a6 The ne+ Ca"inet )+as' +ere6 the result of his "argaining +ith the center9left !arties' "6 The ne+ Ca"inet )is' are6 reluctant to look into it. A. a6 A flock of shee! )has' ha#e6 in#aded m( garden. "6 Eook outF Gour flock )is' are6 stra(ing in all directions. 1B. a6 The Arm( )has' ha#e6 sei4ed !o+er. "6 The in#ading Arm( )+as' +ere6 defeated. 11. a6 Canada )is' are6 "ilingual. "6 Canada )has' ha#e6 got into the semi9finals again.

E>E=CI2E

. #hoose the singular or plural form. Translate into 1omanian! a6 I sim!l( hate this .... b# Gou must stand still +hen the countr(-s ... is "eing raised. c# &( fa#ourite . .. are "lue and "eige.

1. colour

$. custom a6 Gou ha#e to declare e#er(thing at the .... b# 2he +as !ri#ileged to get acDuainted +ith this ... of the .urundians. c# Hand shaking is one of the most freDuent... in Euro!e. 3. damage a6 I-ll ha#e to !a( for the ... "6 In case of fire the insurance com!an( +ill !a( the .... :. ground a6 Gou must ha#e solid ... if (ou +ant to ask for a di#orce. b# 5hat +as the ... of this DuarrelH c# Children ha#e taken good care of their s!orts . . . ;. minute a6 Ho+ man( . . . does it take to get to the officeH b# 5e +anted him to read the ... of the !re#ious meeting. c# 5ait a . . . F <. !ain a6 2he feels no . . . no+. b# 5hat do (ou recommend for stomach . . . H c# Gou do take great. . . +ith (our +ork. ?. scale a6 &( neigh"our has "een !ractising ... for hours. b# 0id (ou kno+ he could !la( +ith a fish . . . . H c# The ... of this s!ecies of fish are !hos!horescent. d# On to! of the Court House one can notice a scul!tured ... of Custice. @. term a6 5hen does . . . endH b# Are (ou on good . . . H c# 5hat are the .. . of the treat(H A. s!ectacle a6 It +as a terrif(ing. . . "6 5h( not +ear .. . H

1B. s!irit

a6 That-s the right. . . b# Ho+ can (ou "elie#e in ... H c# I shall ne#er touch . . . again. d# Is there no ... in (our lighterH

E>E=CI2E

. Form feminine nouns from the following masculine nouns using

the following suffi"es! 9ess' 9i,' 9a' 9ine: Actor' host' she!herd' administrator' sultan' god' lion' !rior' negro' hero' !rince' tiger' heir' +aiter.
E>E=CI2E . a6 8ive the corresponding masculine nouns of the following femi

nine nouns: b0 then give the generic term, if any!

&O0EE:

I a6 mother I father "6 mother I father I !arent

Jueen' +oman' +ife' daughter' nun' lad(' sister' goose' "ee' duck' grand9 daughter.
E>E=CI2E . 2ist the feminine nouns in the -nd column and the generic nouns

in the ;rd column so as to correspond to the masculine nouns in the <st column! hog cock hound "uck "ull drone stallion fo, ram stag mare #i,en hen e+e "ee "itch hind co+ doe so+ !ig/s+ine deer dog o, horse fo+l fo, shee! deer cattle

E>E=CI2E

. 8ive the masculine of! maidser#ant' female candidate' !olice+oman'

.ride' girl9friend' student.

E>E=CI2E

lad( foot"aller' +oman di!lomat' lad( s!eaker' s!inster' lad(' nurse' female . +rrange the following nouns into two columns according to

their usual gender when personified in poetry, etc. 1emember that the masculine gender is usually ascribed to nouns denoting strength, harshness, cruelty, and negative features while those denoting delicacy, feebleness, tenderness and other positive features are feminine. %n the other hand, the distinction sometimes depends on the author.s imagination or intentions! *riendshi!' anger' "oat' fur(' shi!' terror' car' crime' moon' s!ring' storm' morning' thunder' e#ening' slee!' night' sun' !ride' time' truth' fear' soul' death.
E>E=CI2E

3A. Substitute synthetic genitive forms for the prepositional

genitive forms. The former are generally used with animate nouns, mainly with persons, with collective nouns /e.g. government, company0, and with certain kinds of inanimate nouns denoting! a6 geographical names /continents, countries, cities, towns0: "6 locative nouns denoting regions, heavenly bodies, institutions /e.g. the region.s welfare, the earth.s core, the sun.s impact, the #lub.s band07 c6 temporal nouns /e.g. yesterday.s reception, this year.s anniversaries07 d6 nouns of the type! body, mind, science, life, treaty, play, book, car, ship etc. /e.g. the play.s success, the ship.s captain, science.s progress0! 1. The ne+ car of his friend is a *iat 1$;. $. 5hat do (ou kno+ a"out the climate of this countr(H 3. I admired the hats of the ladies. :. He has "een stud(ing the folklore of 5ales for three (ears. ;. 5hat-s the name of the ne+ t(!ist of the managerH <. This is the most im!ortant museum of/in Eondon. ?. The !arents of all the other girls are !resent. @. 5hat are the first signs of

s!ringH A. These are the "est !aintings of Turner. 1B. He +on-t sa( a +ord a"out the !ur!ose of his life. 11. The interests of the %o#ernment lie else+here. 1$. 5hat do (ou kno+ a"out the 5ar of a Hundred GearsH 13. The future of Africa is in the hand of its o+n !eo!les. 1:. The "louses of the sho!9girls are the "est ad#ertisement. 1;. .o" doesn-t e#en kno+ the time9ta"le of his child. 1<. Is it !ossi"le to track the ra(s of the sunH 1?. He is !roud of the !erformance of his car on the road. 1@. 0o (ou dou"t the good intentions of m( relati#esH

II. A=TICEE2 $.1. The definite article A *orm the is the same for singular and !lural and for all genders: the boy the girl the day the boys the girls the days . Use The definite article is used: 1 5hen the o"1ect or grou! of o"1ects is uniDue or considered to "e uniDue: the earth a second time: 'is car struck a tree: you can still see the mark on the tree. 3 .efore a noun made definite "( the addition of a !hrase or clause: the girl in blue met the man with the banner the boy that * the place where * met him the sea the sky the equator the stars $ .efore a noun +hich has "ecome definite as a result of "eing mentioned

: .efore su!erlati#es and first, second etc. used as ad1ecti#es or !ronouns' and only! the first /week0 the best day the only way

the 8 singular noun can re!resent a class of animals or things: The whale is in danger of becoming e"tinct. The deep free=e has made life easier for housewives. .ut man, used to re!resent the human race' has no article: *f oil supplies run out, man may have to fall back on the horse.

0 the 8 ad1ecti#e re!resents a class of !ersons: the old K old !eo!le in general

the is used "efore certain !ro!er names of seas' ri#ers' grou!s of islands' chains of mountains' !lural names of countries' deserts' regions: the +tlantic the +=ores the #ity the 7etherlands the #rimea the +lps the Thames the Sahara the 1iviera the 4emen

and "efore certain other names: the Mall the Sudan the 'ague the Strand * the is used "efore the ad1ecti#es east5west etc. 8 noun in certain the >ast59est >nd the >ast59est *ndies the 7orth5South (ole "ut is normall( omitted: South +frica 7orth +merica 9est 8ermany

names:

% the +ith names of !eo!le has a #er( limited use. the 8 !lural surname can "e used to mean -the . . . famil(-: the Smiths ? Mr. and Mrs. Smith /and children0

$.$. Omission of the A The definite article is not used: 1 .efore names of !laces e,ce!t as sho+n a"o#e' or "efore names of !eo!le. 2 .efore a"stract nouns e,ce!t +hen the( are used in a !articular sense: Men fear death "ut The death of the (rime Minister left his party without a leader. 3 After a noun in the !ossessi#e case' or a !ossessi#e ad1ecti#e: the boy.s uncle K the uncle of the boy *t is my /blue0 book ? The /blue0 book is mine. : .efore names of meals: The Scots have porridge for breakfast "ut

The wedding breakfast was held in her father.s house. , .efore names of games: 'e plays golf. . .efore !arts of the "od( and articles of clothing' as these normall( !refer a !ossessi#e ad1ecti#e: 1aise your right hand. 'e took off his coat. .ut notice that sentences of the t(!e: She sei=ed the child.s collar. * patted his shoulder. The brick hit 3ohn.s face. ? Omission of the "efore home, "efore church, hospital, prison, school etc. and "efore work, sea and town A home 5hen home is used alone' i.e. is not !receded or follo+ed "( a descri!ti#e +ord or !hrase' the is omitted: 'e is at home. 'ome used alone can "e !laced directl( after a #er" of motion or #er" of motion 8 o"1ect' i.e. it can "e treated as an ad#er": 'e went home. * arrived home after dark. * sent him home. .ut +hen home is !receded or follo+ed "( a descri!ti#e +ord or !hrase it is treated like an( other noun: They went to their new home. 9e arrived at the bride.s home. For some years this was the home of your queen. + mud hut was the only home he had ever known. . bed, church, court, hospital, prison, school/college/university the is not used "efore the nouns listed a"o#e +hen these !laces are #isited or used for their !rimar( !ur!ose. 5e go: to bed to slee! or as in#alids to church to !ra( to hospital as !atients to prison as !risoners

to court as litigants etc. to school5college5university to stud(

2imilarl( +e can "e: in bed, slee!ing or resting at church as +orshi!!ers in court as +itnesses etc. 5e can "e/get "ack )or "e/get home6 from school5college5university. 5e can leave school, leave hospital, "e released from prison. 5hen these !laces are #isited or used for other reasons the is necessar(: / went to the church to see the stained glass. 'e goes to the prison sometimes to give lectures. C sea 5e go to sea as sailors. To "e at sea K to "e on a #o(age )as !assengers or cre+6. .ut to go to or "e at the sea ? to go to or "e at the seaside. 5e can also li#e by5near the sea. 0 work and office work )K !lace of +ork6 is used +ithout the: 'e.s on his way to work. 'e is at work. 'e isn.t back from work yet. Note that at work can also mean -+orking-7 hard at work ? +orking hard: 'e.s hard at work on a new picture, office )K !lace of +ork6 needs the: 'e is at5in the office. To "e in office )+ithout the) means to hold an official )usuall( !olitical6 !osition. To "e out of office ? to "e no longer in !o+er. E town the can "e omitted +hen s!eaking of the su"1ect-s or s!eaker-s o+n to+n: 9e go to town sometimes to buy clothes. 9e were in town last Monday. in hospital as !atients at school etc. as students

$.3. The indefinite article Its =omanian eDui#alent: un' o. A is used in front of consonants: e.g. a good man' a ma!' a +indo+ and an is used in front of #o+els: an a!!le' an im!ortant issue. The indefinite functions as a numeral: one hundred L a hundred Used to sho+ the num"er of ha!!enings during a gi#en !eriod of time: once a +eek' one a!!le a da( Used +ith nouns denoting 1o"s +hen after the #er" to "e: I am a la+(er. )eu sunt a#ocat6 5hen the noun is uniDue' then it doesnMt need the indefinite article: He is chairman. Used as a!!ositions: Ir#ing' a !rose +riter' NN.. Used in e,!ressions: for a time' lend me a hand' once u!on a time' to set an e,am!le' to !a( a call on' to ha#e a mind to' once in a "lue moon.

$.:. The 4ero article Oero article is used to e,!ress generalities' +hole categories and not indi#idual items. Children +ill "e children Clothes do not make the man .arking dogs seldom "ite.

2u"stance names: Oil is lighter than +ater7 .lood is thicker than +ater. 5ith a"stract nouns: Eo#e is a no"le feeling7 .efore human names: &ichael' %eorge' 0ais(

Names of continents' countries' !ro#inces' regions' counties' to+ns' cities' #illages: Euro!e' Africa' 5allachia L e,ce!tions: the Ukraine' the United 2tates' the Argentine' the Congo. &onths of the (ear' da(s of the +eek E,!ressions: from time to time' "( means of' at random' "( sea' on sale' at da+n.

$.;. 2E&INA= 9 A=TICEE

E>E=CI2E

1. *nsert definite or indefinite articles.

1. I ha#e ordered . . . +ashing machine and . . . +ashing machine has come. $ . . . climate does not suit me. 3. Ho+ did . . . !ress recei#e itH :. 2ince lunch +as not read( (et' m( hus"and read . . . !a!er for a +hile' then he rose from . . . armchair and turned on . . . tele#ision. ;. I mentioned "ridge7 he +as #er( good at. . . game. <. %i#e me . . . ne+s!a!er to clean the mirror +ith. ?. %i#e me . . . ne+s!a!er' I +ant to ha#e a look at the ads. @. . . . moon rose out of the sea. A. Is there . . . moon tonightH 1B. The door o!ened and . . . teacher came in. 11. The door o!ened and . . . headmaster came in. 1$. I heard on . . . radio that the( ha#e come to . . . truce. 13. . . . man has called and left. . . !resent for (ou. 1:. . . . moon goes round . . . earth and . . . earth goes round . . . sun. 1;. Ho+ ha#e m(ths come into . . . +orldH
E>E=CI2E

$. Supply the necessary article/s0! =ero /@0, the or a5an, used

in their generic function. Make any necessary changes! 1. . . . #erdict has to "e unanimous. $. . . . tiger is larger than . . . l(n,. 3.. +itness ma( tell onl( +hat he himself kno+s to "e true. :. . . . *rench ha#e good +ines. ;. . . . leo!ard is a cat. <. . . . leo!ard is the fastest cat. ?. He-s +asted his life in search of . . . unusual. @. Gou-re rather !artial to . . . as!aragus' and . . . trout. A. The( ha#e a fine taste in . . . music and . . . lite9

rature. 1B. The res!onsi"ilit( of. . . !arents is stressed in the 0eclaration on the =ights of. . . Child. 11. . . . fello+ does a lot of cra4( things +hen he has "een drinking. 1$. . . . man has left his im!rint here too. 13. 5hat can N. man do +hen he is cast on a far9off islandH 1:. . . . ru""er t(res do not make a noise. 1;. . . . first offenders should "e treated +ith s(m!ath(. 1<. . . . rich ha#e al+a(s e,!loited . . . !oor.

E>E=CI2E 3. Supply the necessary article! =ero

)B6' a5an

1. He had ser#ed his countr( as . . . &inister of *inance and . . . Am"assador to *inland. $. 2he +as . . . t(!ist "( trade. 3. Can (ou act as . . . guideH :. 5ho is going to hold the office of. . . secretar(H ;. .e . . . foster !arentF .. He had the hel! of t+o de!uties' the economist &ark 5e"ster' . . . 0irector of the U.N. U. N. officer. $. Gou can get a 1o" as . ... +aiter. @. He-ll "e acting the !art of . . . solicitor ne,t +eek. A. The castle in +hich &ar( . . . Jueen of 2cots +as im!risoned is +orth a #isit. 1B. He "ecame . . . un+illing sailor. 11. He full( +ell deser#ed to "e a+arded the rank of. . . general. 1$. He s!ent his adolescence as . . . seaman' . . . !ros!ector and . . . fireman. 13. He +as . . . firm "elie#er in the trium!h of good. 1:. He has "een elected . . . resident of the Conference. 1;. No+ he-s had a go at sol#ing a difficult case' he might turn . . . detecti#e. 1<. I rather dou"t he-ll remain . . . content accountant all his life. 1?. I +on-t ha#e (ou take her for . . . fool. 1@. 5hat +ith e#er("od( finding him ... indis!ensa"le !ersonF It-s gone to his head.
E>E=CI2E

o!ulation 0i#ision and =o( 5ilkins' . . .

career

:. Supply the necessary article! definite or =ero!

1.

I hate . . . +et +eather. $. I s!ent four hours going from . . . hotel to . .

. hotel' tr(ing to find a room. 3. . . . +inter of last (ear +as !rett( mild. :. . .

. (outh look do+n on old9timers. ;. A humane leader is lo#ed "( . . . !eo!le. <. That t(!e of . . . skirt is no longer fashiona"le. ?. He doesn-t go "( . . . train "ecause he can ne#er find a seat. @. No"od( liked . . . cheese "ut I7 I thought it #er( tast(. A. 2he has . . . (outh and she has . . . taste. 1B. 0id (ou see . . . #an E(ck at the National %aller(H 11. I decided to sta( in . . . "ed. 1$. He ho!ed he +ould "e inside the har"our "efore . . . sundo+n. 13. He looked for+ard to lea#ing . . . school and 1oining . . . arm(. 1:. . . . dinner is "eing !re!ared "( the children toda(. 1;. The num"er of. . . smokers has dro!!ed. 1<. 2he is suffering from . . . loss of . . . memor(. 1?. The( generall( ha#e . . . "reakfast out on the !orch in . . . +arm +eather. 1@. 0on-t dri#e. Take . . . train. 1A. E#er("od( feels . . . s!ring is in . . . air. $B. There are no ras!"erries on . . . market. $1. Co#er the roots of the !lant +ith . . . earth. $$. . . . lunch +as good "ut. . . "reakfast +as a+ful. $3. %rann( +ent to . . . market to "u( . . . fruit for the famil(. $:. One can get tired of. . . fish and chi!s. $;. . . . health is "etter than . . . +ealth. $<. It is not #isi"le at. . . night. $?. The !art( +ent on far into . . . night. $@. The !art( started in . . . e#ening and "roke u! after . . . midnight. $A. Around . . . noon he can "e found in his office. 3B. . . . atmos!heric !ollutants turn . . . mar"le into . . . fine dust +hich is +ashed a+a( "( . . . rain.
E>E=CI2E

;. *nsert definite or =ero articles before the geographical

names used in the following sentences! 1. . . .ritish Isles ha#e a total area of a"out 1$1'<BB sDuare miles. The largest islands are . . . %reat .ritain )!ro!er com!rising the mainlands of. . ' England'. . . 5ales' and . . . 2cotland6 and . . . Ireland )com!rising . . . Northern Ireland and ... Irish =e!u"lic6. $. ... Isle of &an in... Irish 2ea and . . . Channel Islands "et+een . . . %reat .ritain and . . . *rance ha#e administrati#e autonom(. 3. The latitude of ;BP North cuts across... Ei4ard eninsula and latitude <BP North !asses through... 2hetland Islands. :. The "oundaries of this region run from the mouth of . . . T(ne to the mouth

of. . . E,e. ;. . . . North Atlantic Current reaches the islands from across . .. Atlantic. <. . .. Highland .ritain com!rises the +hole of. . . 2cotland )including the hills and moors of . . . southern 2cotland as +ell as the mountains of. . . 2cottish Highlands' +hich e,tend from . . . *orth9Cl(de #alle( to the e,treme north9+est6' . . . Eake 0istrict in . . . north9+est England' the "road central u!land kno+n as . . . ennines. ?. The +hole of. . . .ritain north of a line 1oining... ri#er Thames and . . . .ristol Channel +as co#ered "( ice ca!s. @. The red sandstone on . . . Cum"erland coast and the limestone masses and slates of . . . em"roke shire coast in . . . 2outh 5ales are nota"le features of the #aried coastline. A. .et+een 1;B and $BB inches of rain fall on the summits of . . . 2no+don and .. . .en Ne#is during the a#erage (ear. 1B. The eastern coast of England "et+een . . . Hum"er and . . . Thames estuar( is for the most !art lo+9l(ing. )Ada!ted from Q.ritain9An Official Hand"ook 1A<@Q6

III. A0CECTIRE2 3.1. Kinds of ad1ecti#es A The main kinds are: (a# (b# (c# twenty (d# (e# Interrogati#e: which, what, whose ossessi#e: my, your, his, her, its, our, your, their 0emonstrati#e: this, that, these, those 0istri"uti#e: each, every 7 either, neither Juantitati#e: some, any, no 7 little5few 7 many, much 7 one,

(f# Of Dualit(: clever, dry, fat, golden, good, heavy, square . artici!les used as ad1ecti#es .oth !resent !artici!les ing) and !ast !artici!les )ed6 can "e used as ad1ecti#es. resent !artici!le ad1ecti#es' amusing, boring, tiring etc., are acti#e and mean -ha#ing this effect-. ast !artici!le ad1ecti#es'

amused, horrified, tired etc.' are !assi#e and mean -affected in this +a(-. The play was boring. )The audience +as "ored.6 The work was tiring. )The +orkers +ere soon tired.6 The scene was horrifying. )The s!ectators +ere horrified.6 an infuriating woman )2he made us furious.6 an infuriated woman )2omething had made her furious.6 C Agreement Ad1ecti#es in English ha#e the same form for singular and !lural' masculine and feminine nouns: a good boy, good boys, a good girl, good girls The onl( e,ce!tions are the demonstrati#e ad1ecti#es this and that, +hich change to these and those "efore !lural nouns: this cat, these cats that man, those men

3.$. Order of ad1ecti#es of Dualit( A 2e#eral #ariations are !ossi"le "ut a fairl( usual order is: ad1ecti#es of (a# (b# (c# (d# si4e general descri!tion )e,cluding ad1ecti#es of !ersonalit(' emotion6 age sha!e

(e#colour (f# material (*# origin nouns: walking stick, riding boots0. a long sharp knife a small round bath new he"agonal coins blue velvet curtains an old plastic bucket an elegant French clock )h6 !ur!ose )these are reall( gerunds used to form com!ound

3.3. Com!arison There are three degrees of com!arison: ositi#e dark tall useful Com!arati#e 2u!erlati#e darker taller tallest darkest

more useful most useful

. One9s(lla"le ad1ecti#es form their com!arati#e and su!erlati#e "( adding er and est to the !ositi#e form: bright brave brighter braver brightest bravest Ad1ecti#es ending in e add r and st:

C Ad1ecti#es of three or more s(lla"les form their com!arati#e and su!erlati#e "( !utting more and most "efore the !ositi#e: interested frightening 0 more interested most interested more frightening most frightening

Ad1ecti#es of t+o s(lla"les follo+ one or other of the a"o#e rules. Those ending in ful or9re usuall( take more and most: doubtful more doubtful most doubtful obscure more obscure clever pretty silly cleverer prettier sillier silliest worse worst farther farthest )of distance onl(6 further furthest )used more +idel(7 see *' %6 most obscure

Those ending in er, y or ly usuall( add er, est: cleverest prettiest )note that the ( "ecomes i6

Irregular com!arisons: bad far

good little old

better best less elder older least more most eldest )of !eo!le onl(6 oldest )of !eo!le and things6

many5much

* farther/farthest and further/furthest .oth forms can "e used of distances: 4ork is farther5further than 2incoln or Selby. 4ork is the farthest5furthest town !urther can also "e used' mainl( +ith a"stract nouns' to mean -additional/e,tra-: Further supplies will soon be available. Further discussion5debate would be pointless. II elder, eldest" older, oldest elder, eldest im!l( seniorit( rather than age. The( are chiefl( used for com!arisons +ithin a famil(: my elder brother, her eldest boy5girl: "ut elder is not used +ith than, so older is necessar( here: 'e is older than * am. elder +ould not "e !ossi"le.6

3.:. Constructions +ith com!arisons A 5ith the !ositi#e form of the ad1ecti#e' +e use as ... as in the affirmati#e and not as/not so . . . as in the negati#e: + boy of si"teen is often as tall as his father. 'e was as white as a sheet. Manslaughter is not as5so bad as murder. 4our coffee is not as5so good as the coffee my mother makes. . arallel increase is e,!ressed "( the 8 com!arati#e . . . the 8 com!arati#e: HOU2E A%ENT: $o you want a big houseA ANN: 4es, the bigger the better.

TO&: &ut the smaller it is, the less it will cost us to heat. C %radual increase or decrease is e,!ressed "( t+o com!arati#es 1oined "( and: The weather is getting colder and colder. 'e became less and less interested. the 8 ad1ecti#e +ith a !lural meaning A blind, deaf, disabled, healthy/sick, living/dead, rich/poor, unemployed and certain other ad1ecti#es descri"ing the human character or condition can "e !receded "( the and used to re!resent a class of !ersons. These e,!ressions ha#e a !lural meaning7 the( take a !lural #er" and the !ronoun is they: The poor get poorer: the rich get richer. the can "e used in the same +a( +ith national ad1ecti#es ending in ch or sh: the $utch the &urmese the Spanish the #hinese the 9elsh and can "e used similarl( +ith the 3apanese the Swiss national ad1ecti#es ending in se or ss: though it is 1ust !ossi"le for these to ha#e a singular meaning. ;.B. ossessi#e ad1ecti#es my your his5her5its our your their A ossessi#e ad1ecti#es in English refer to the !ossessor and not to the thing !ossessed. E#er(thing that a man or "o( !ossesses is his thing7 e#er(thing that a +oman or girl !ossesses is her thing: Tom.s father is his father "ut

Mary.s father is her father. E#er(thing that an animal or thing !ossesses is its thing: + tree drops its leaves in autumn. + happy dog wags its tail. .ut if the se, of the animal is kno+n' his/her +ould often "e used. If there is more than one !ossessor' their is used: The girls are with their brother. Trees drop their leaves in autumn. Note that the !ossessi#e ad1ecti#e remains the same +hether the thing !ossessed is singular or !lural: my glove, my gloves his foot, his feet

C To add em!hasis' own can "e !laced after my, your, his etc. and after one#s: my own room her own idea own can "e an ad1ecti#e' as a"o#e' or a !ronoun: a room of one.s own Note the e,!ression: *.m on my own ? *.m alone.

3.<. 2E&INA= 9 A0CECTIRE

E>E=CI2E

1. #hoose the appropriate adjective. 7ote that $ic alternates

with $ical with a difference of meaning! 1. I am fond of classic / classical languages. $. Caragiale-s !la( QThe Eost EetterQ is a comic / comical master!iece. 3. E#er("od( has reali4ed that "ig cars are not economic / economical to run. :. It has taken long (ears of I historic 5 historical research to gather all the data a"out this historic / historical building. ;. The =o(al .allet-s !erformance of QThe Nut9crackerQ +as a classic5 classical one. <. =omania-s economic 5 economical !erformance is no longer considered a miracle. ?. 2he +as Duite a sight +ith

that comic 5comical old hat on. @. &an( an innocent man has gone to the electric 5electrical chair. A. He is Duite an e,!ert in electric / electrical engineering.
E>E=CI2E

$. 8roup the adjectives listed below under the three heads of

the table. Note that there are t+o regular +a(s of marking the categor( of com!arison in English7 a6 "( means of 9er in the com!arati#e and )the6 9est in the su!erlati#e )the s(nthetic com!arison6 +ith monos(lla"ic ad1ecti#es7 "6 "( means of the !eri!hrastic forms +ith more and the) most )the anal(tic com!arison6' incase of !luris(lla"ic ad1ecti#es. A series of monos(lla"ic ad1ecti#es' such as: calm, cross, fit, fond, frank, scarce, grave, prompt dis!la( "oth !atterns. &an( dis(lla"ic ad1ecti#es dis!la( "oth !atterns too. It is t(!icall( the case +ith ad1ecti#es ending in 9(' 9o+' 9le' $er such as: clumsy, sallow, humble, clever, as +ell as the follo+ing ad1ecti#es: handsome, common, polite, quiet, pleasant, precise, sincere etc. sl(' +icked' con#enient' foolish' acti#e' #ague' afraid' common' red' +ounded' thin' !rett(' startling' stu!id' "ig' health(' correct' ali#e' fertile' +orth(' !leasant' minute' eager' cruel' tiring' remote' earl(' comic' sim!le' eas(' tender' lo+' calm' sore' fast' 1ust' docile' !ro!er' distinct' high' sincere. a6 9er )the6 9est "6 more8Ad1. )the6 most8Ad1. S6 a6 9er7 )the6 9est / "6 more 8 Ad1. )the6 most 8 Ad1.
E>E=CI2E

3. (rovide the irregular degrees of comparison of the following

adjectives. 1emember that some of them have two forms of degrees of comparison ! 1. good' $. "ad / ill' 3. little' :. near' ;. much / man(' <. far' ?. late' @. old.

E>E=CI2E

:. ,se the correct form of the adjectives in brackets!

1. 5hat is the )late6 information (ou-#e gotH $. Her )old6 "rother is called Cim. 3. 5e +ere in a hurr( to catch the )late6 "us. :. 5hich is )old6 of the t+o H ;. 5ho is the )old6 mem"er of the students- clu"H <. The( got do+n to "usiness +ithout )far6 dela(. ?. I-#e got a still )old6 edition of the dictionar(. @. The )old6 sister +as t+ent( (ears )old6 than the (oungest. A. The )late6 half of &a( +as Duite rain(. 1B. I +as told to +ait until )far6 notice. 11. I +ish I had "ought it at the )near6 sho!. 1$. He !ro#ided them +ith )far6 information as agreed. 13. The )near6 station is Calea Rictoriei. 1:. Cohn-s )late6 no#el +as a )good6 seller and for sure it +on-t "e his )late6 one. 1;. He is the )little6 +riter of the t+o. 1<. I sa+ him meet her at the )far6 end of the street. 1?. I shall need )far6 hel! +ith this.
E>E=CI2E ;. Supply the appropriate form of the adjectives given in

brackets ! 1. This is the . . . "ook I ha#e read for a long time )good6. $. He has one of the . . . cars on the road )fast6. 3. The +ork (ou are doing toda( is . . . than the +ork (ou did (esterda( )eas(6. :. Ann often +ears . . . dresses than her mother )e,!ensi#e6. ;. 5hich is the . . . !la( (ou ha#e latel( readH )interest9 ing6. <. The actress on the stage +as the . . . girl I ha#e e#er seen )striking6. ?. Tom is . . . than his friend )tall6. @. The( ha#e a. . . garden than ours )lo#el(6. A. He said this +as the . . . da( in his life )im!ortant6. 1B. He +as . . . than his +ife +hen the child "roke the +indo+ )angr(6. 11. He +as the . . . man in the +orld to do that )late6. 1$. A: -5hich +as (our . . . su"1ect at school and +hich +as (our .. . )good' "ad6H- .:- h(sics +as m( . . . and histor( m(.. .-)good' "ad6.- 13. Is .ucharest or rague the . . . from Eondon )far6H 1:. Tom is 1? (ears old' his "rother Cack is 1A and his sister Cane is 1;. Therefore Cane is the . . . and Cack is the.. . )(oung' old6.

E>E=CI2E

<. Supply the comparative form of the adjectives given in

brackets. Note that the meaning of the !attern the comparative of +djective . . . ' the comparative of +djective is cu cCt. . . cu atCt! l. The )long6 the s!eech is' the )tedious6 it is. $. The )+eak6 the !atient' the )great6 his de!endence on the nurse. 3. The )storm(6 the +eather' the )dangerous6 the tri!. :. The )hum"le6 a man is' the )haught(6 her manner "ecomes. ;. The )scarce6 the food is getting' the )+ild6 the "easts "ecome. <. The )!rom!t6 the ans+er' the )high6 the grade. ?. The )!ro!er6 the +ord' the )e,act6 the translation is. @. The )narro+6 the !ath +as getting' the )hostile6 the horse +as "ecoming. A. The )eager6 the child' the )intricate6 the Duestions he asks. 1B. The )fertile6 the land' the )little6 the amount of fertili4er gi#en to it.
E>E=CI2E

?. 8ive the correct succession of the adjectives in the following noun

phrases! 1. a/an )"lue' +asha"le' good' cotton6 skirt7 $. )"lue' frightened' small6 e(es7 3. a/an )Asiatic' large' stri!ed6 Duadru!ed7 :. )cold' tur"ulent' gre(ish' dee!6 +aters7 ;. )#olcanic' dark' tall6 rocks7 <. a )%reek' (oung' "right6 stu9 dent7 ?. a/an )fifteen9foot' !ale9red' age9old6 "rick +all7 @. a/an )little' mar"le' =oman' "ro+nish6 statue7 A. a/an )intelligent' olish' +ir(' elderl(6 logician7 1B a/an )fluff(' orange' +ide' +oollen' eru#ian6 sha+l.

IR. A0RE=.2 :.1. Kinds of ad#er"s &anner: bravely, fast, happily, hard, quickly, well lace: by, down, here, near, there, up Time: now, soon, still, then, today, yet *reDuenc(: always, never, occasionally, often, twice

2entence: certainly, definitely, luckily, surely 0egree: fairly, hardly, rather, quite, too, very Interrogati#e: whenA whereA whyA =elati#e: when, where, why :.$. *orm and use The formation of ad#er"s +ith ly A &an( ad#er"s of manner and some ad#er"s of degree are formed "( adding l( to the corres!onding ad1ecti#es: final, finally 2!elling notes (a# A final y changes to i: happy, happily. (b# A final e is retained "efore ly: e"treme, e"tremely. E,ce!tions: true, due, whole "ecome truly, duly, wholly. (c# Ad1ecti#es ending in a consonant 8 le dro! the e and add (: gentle, gently simple, simply Note that the ad#er" of good is well. . Ad1ecti#es ending in ly daily, weekly, monthly etc.' kindly and sometimes leisurely can "e ad1ecti#es or ad#er"s' "ut most other ad1ecti#es ending in ly, e.g. friendly, likely, lonely etc.' cannot "e used as ad#er"s and ha#e no ad#er" form. To su!!l( this deficienc( +e use a similar ad#er" or ad#er" !hrase: likely )ad1ecti#e6 probably )ad#er"6 friendly )ad1ecti#e6 C in a friendly way )ad#er" !hrase6 immediate, immediately slow, slowly

2ome ad#er"s ha#e a narro+er meaning than their corres!onding ad1ecti#es or differ from them. coldly, coolly, hotly, warmly are used mainl( of feelings: 9e received them coldly, )in an unfriendl( +a(6 They denied the accusation hotly, )indignantl(6

She welcomed us warmly, )in a friendl( +a(6 .ut warmly dressed K +earing +arm clothes. coolly % calmly/courageously or calmly/impudently: 'e behaved very coolly in this dangerous situation. presently % soon: 'e.ll be here presently. Ad#er"s and ad1ecti#es +ith the same form A back deepE early far fast hardD little highE justE lateE left long low rightE shortE still straight well wrongE

directE ill

much5more5mostE prettyE

enough kindly nearE

Used as ad#er"s: #ome back soon. The train went fast. an ill made road Turn right here. 'e led us wrong.

Used as ad1ecti#es: the back door a fast train The work is hard 4ou look ill5well the right answer This is the wrong way.

4ou can dial 1ome direct. the most direct route They worked hard, )energeticall(6

She went straight home. a straight line

. 2tarred +ords a"o#e also ha#e ly forms. Note the meanings. deeply is used chiefl( of feelings: 'e was deeply offended. &irectly can "e used of time or connection: 'e .<< be here directly, )#er( soon6 The new regulations will affect us directly5indirectly.

'ighly is used onl( in an a"stract sense: 'e was a highly paid official. also "e an ad#er" of degree. *ately % recently: 'ave you seen him latelyA :.3. Com!arati#e and su!erlati#e ad#er" forms A 5ith ad#er"s of t+o or more s(lla"les +e form the com!arati#e and su!erlati#e "( !utting more and most "efore the !ositi#e form: ositi#e quickly Com!arati#e 2u!erlati#e more quickly most quickly more fortunately most fortunately They spoke very highly of him. (ustly corres!onds to the ad1ecti#e )ust )fair' right' la+ful6' "ut )ust can

fortunately

2ingle9s(lla"le ad#er"s' ho+e#er' and early, add er, est: hard harder hardest earliest )note the ( "ecomes i6 early earlier well badly little much far better best worse worst less least more most fartherfarthest )of distance onl(6 furtherfurthest )used more +idel(6 :.: osition of ad#er"s Ad#er"s of manner A Ad#er"s of manner come after the #er": She danced beautifully or after the o"1ect +hen there is one: 'e gave her the money reluctantly. They speak >nglish well. 0o not !ut an ad#er" "et+een #er" and o"1ect.

. Irregular com!arisons:

. 5hen +e ha#e #er" 8 !re!osition 8 o"1ect' the ad#er" can "e either "efore the !re!osition or after the o"1ect: 'e looked at me suspiciously or 'e looked suspiciously at me. .ut if the o"1ect contains a num"er of +ords +e !ut the ad#er" "efore the !re!osition: 'e looked suspiciously at everyone who got off the plane. Ad#er"s of time A afterwards, eventually, lately, now, recently, soon, then, today, tomorrow etc. and ad#er" !hrases of time: at once, since then, till )<.BB etc.6 These are usuall( !laced at the #er( "eginning or at the #er( end of the clause' i.e. in front !osition or end !osition. >ventually he came5'e came eventually. Then we went home59e went home then. 9rite today. Ad#er"s of freDuenc( (a# etc. (b) ever, hardly ever, never, rarely, scarcely ever, seldom always, continually, fre+uently, occasionally, often, *.ll wait till tomorrow.

once, twice, periodically, repeatedly, sometimes, usually

A Ad#er"s in "oth the a"o#e grou!s are normall( !laced: 1 After the sim!le tenses of to be: 'e is always in time for meals. $ .efore the sim!le tenses of all other #er"s: They sometimes stay up all night. 3 5ith com!ound tenses' the( are !laced after the first au,iliar(' or' +ith interrogati#e #er"s' after au,iliar( 8 su"1ect: 'e can never understand.

4ou have often been told not to do that. 'ave you ever ridden a camelA Order of ad#er"s and ad#er" !hrases of manner' !lace and time +hen the( occur in the same sentence E,!ressions of manner usuall( !recede e,!ressions of !lace: 'e climbed awkwardly out of the window. 'e .d study happily anywhere. Time e,!ressions can follo+ e,!ressions of manner and !lace: They worked hard in the garden today. 'e lived there happily for a year. :.;. In#ersion of the #er" In#ersion of the #er" after certain ad#er"s Certain ad#er"s and ad#er" !hrases' mostl( +ith a restricti#e or negati#e sense' can for em!hasis "e !laced first in a sentence or clause and are then follo+ed "( the in#erted )i.e. interrogati#e6 form of the #er". The most im!ortant of these are sho+n "elo+. The num"ers indicate !aragra!hs +here an e,am!le +ill "e found. hardly ever hardly . . . when 6 neither5nor never not only not till nowhere <. 'aven.t got a ticket. F 7either57or have *. on no account only by only then5when scarcely ever seldom so

in no circumstances only in this way

no sooner . . . than scarcely . . . when

-. * had never before been asked to accept a bribe. 7ever before had * been asked to accept a bribe. ;. They not only rob you, they smash everything too. 7ot only do they rob you, they smash everything too. G. 'e didn6t reali=e that he had lost it till he got home. 7ot till he got home did he reali=e that he had lost it. 5. This switch must not be touched on any account. %n no account must this switch be touched. :.<. 2E&INA= 9 A0RE=.

>H>1#*S>

Form adverbs from the following adjectives and nouns by adding

the suffi" if or 9+ard)s6' paying attention to their spelling. 1emember that certain adverb coincide in form with the adjectives they derive from! %a(' e,treme' "ack' sincere' true' sensi"le' east' +hole' final' due' "eautiful' good' sure' home' !leasant' hungr(' +hole9hearted' dee!' "ad' thankful' late' de#oted' striking' hard' +est' unha!!(' terri"le' diligent' silent' fast' near.
E>E=CI2E

$. #hoose the correct word!

1. Gou are an e,cellent cook. The food tastes )good' +ell6. $. It +as a lo#el( da( +ith "irds singing and the sun shining )"right' "rightl(6 and girls +earing )"right' "rightl(69coloured dresses. 3. I hate taking medicine. It tastes )"itter' "itterl(6. :. I don-t think he is ill. His #oice sounds )merr(' merril(6. ;. It rains )hea#(' hea#il(6. <. It is )near' nearl(6 fi#e o-clock. ?. Gou must +ork )hard' hardl(6 for (our e,ams. @. He s!oke so )Duick' Duickl(6 that +e could )hard' hardl(6 follo+ him. A. 5hen did (ou )last' lastl(6 see himH 1B. I am )direct' directl(6 interested in +hat (ou think. 11. He couldn-t mo#e as he +as )dead' deadl(6 tired. 1$. His e(es hurt him

)"ad' "adl(6. 13. &r. Cones held it )tight' tightl(6. 1:. It +as si, o-clock as )near' nearl(6 as he could guess. 1;. )last' lastl(6 I must account for m( sister-s "eha#iour.

E>E=CI2E

3. 1ewrite these sentences substituting 9l( adverbs for the

italici=ed phrases!
&O0EE: -5ho-s

afraidH- he said in an uneasy manner. -5ho-s afraidH- he

said uneasil(. 1. He smiled a contemptuous smile. $. I !ick m( staff in a careful manner. 3. -Oh' Cohn-' she said in a hoarse voice. :. He "ade us fare+ell in a cold voice.;. 2he cried with bitter tears. <. He came u! to me at a slow pace. ?. He s!oke a"out the tri! in an e"cited voice. @. The( defended their friend in convincing words. A. 2he stared at me with a fi"ed look. 1B. The Indians li#ed a simple life, hunting and fishing.
E>E=CI2E

:. 8ive the degrees of comparison of the following adverbs!

&uch' "rightl(' Duietl(' e,!ressi#el(' "adl(' Duickl(' late' fast' high' often' +ell' s+iftl(' far' little' slo+l(. E>E=CI2E ;. 1ewrite the following sentences using the adverbs in parentheses in the correct degree of comparison! 1. In a large cit( (ou must cross the street )carefull(6 than in a small one. $. He +alked )far6 than I did. 3. lease s!eak )slo+l(6' so that I can take notes. :. 2he mo#ed )a+k+ardl(6 an ele!hant. ;. He re#ie+ed her +ork )unfa#ora"l(6 than 0i,on did. <. Of the three men' (ou "eha#ed )disgracefull(6. ?. He-s "een slee!ing )"adl(6 than m(self the last fe+ months. @. Of the ten students he has "een +orking )hard6. A. I !ick m( staff )carefull(6 than (ou do7 that-s +h( our results are +orse. 1B. The ans+er came "ack )Duickl(6 than I had e,!ected.

E>E=CI2E

< *ill in the blanks with rather or fairl(:

Note that fairly im!lies the idea of something Qfa#oura"leQ +hile rather the idea of something Qunfa#oura"leQ. 1ather can "e used "efore alike, like, similar, different and "efore com!arati#es con#e(ing the meaning of a little, slightly, )e.g. Gour e,am!le is rather similar to mine. The suitcase +as rather hea#ier than I e,!ected6. Fairly cannot "e used "efore com!arati#es. 1ather can "e used "efore certain Qfa#oura"leQ +ords such as: good, well, pretty, clever, amusing, and the #er"s to like, to enjoy, etc.' its meaning "ecoming nearl( eDui#alent to very. )e.g. The !erformance +as rather good.6 1. This cake is . . . good' "ut the other is . . . sour. $. The( "eha#ed . . . meanl(. 3. Gou s!eak English . . . +ell. :. It +as . . . stu!id of him to !ro!ose to &ar(. ;. 2he looks . . . nice. <. Eesson $; is . .. difficult "ut Eesson $: +as . . . eas(. ?. 2he +as . . . kind to me. @. The teacher +as . . . angr( +ith us. A. 2he is . . . tall for her age. 1B. It +as . . . cruel of him to sa( that. 11. The lecture +as . . . interesting "ut. . . long. 1$.1 didn-t +ant to make friends +ith them "ut no+ I . . . like them.

R. THE =ONOUN ronoun is a +ord used to re!lace a noun. ronouns identif( !ersons' !laces' things' and ideas +ithout renaming them. E>A& EE: Cohn "roke CohnMs arm. AN25E=: Cohn "roke his arm. The noun that a !ronoun re!laces is the antecedent of the !ronoun. E>A& EE:

Carmen and Coan +alked into the theatre. It +as so dark that the( could "arel( see the floor. )Theatre is the antecedent of it. Carmen and Coan are the antecedents of the(.6 ,he antecedent usuall( a!!ears "efore the !ronoun. ronouns ma( "e the antecedents of other !ronouns E>A& EE: HE en1o(s HI2 free time. )He is the antecedent of his6 A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in number. If the antecedent is singular' the !ronoun must "e singular. If the antecedent is !lural' the !ronoun must "e !lural There are se#en kinds of !ronouns: !ersonal' demonstrati#e' refle,i#e' intensi#e' interrogati#e' relati#e' and indefinite.

;.1. ersonal !ronouns ersonal ronouns are the largest grou! of !ronouns. The( ha#e different form to e,!ress !erson' num"er' and gender. E,!ressing !erson 5hen (ou +rite or s!eak a"out (ourself' (ou use first9!erson !ronouns: I' me' +e' us.

5hen (ou refer to an audience' (ou use the second !erson !ronoun: (ou. 5hen (ou refer to other !eo!le or things' (ou use third9!erson !ronouns: he' she' the(' it' and them. E,!ressing num"er )are the( singular or !lural6 ersonal !ronouns also indicate +hether the antecedent )the noun that the !ronoun is re!lacing6 is singular or !lural. - , .he, he' and it are 2IN%UEA= !ronouns. /e, they and us are EU=AE !ronouns. 0ou can "e EITHE= singular or !lural. E,!ressing gender ersonal !ronouns e,!ress gender. 'e and 'is indicate the masculine gender. .he and 'er indicate the feminine gender. It indicates the neuter gender' +hich (ou use to refer to things and ideas. ;.$. Uses of it A it is normall( used of a thing or an animal +hose se, +e don-t kno+' and sometimes of a "a"( or small child: 9here.s my mapA * left it on the table. 2ook at that bird. *t always comes to my window. 'er new baby is tiny. *t only weighs - kilos. it can "e used of !eo!le in sentences such as: ANN )on !hone6: 9ho is that59ho is itA .IEE: *t.s me. *s that Tom over thereA I 7o, it.s (eter.

it is used in e,!ressions of time' distance' +eather' tem!erature' tide: 9hat time is itA I *t is si". 9hat.s the dateA I *t.s the third of March 'ow far is it to 4orkA I *t is G@@ kilometres. 'ow long does it take to get thereA I *t depends on how you go. *t is raining5snowing5free=ing. *t.s full moon tonight. *t.s frosty. *t.s a fine night. *n winter it.s5it is dark at si" o.clock.

*t is hot5cold5quiet5noisy in this room. *t.s high tide5low tide. Note also: *t.s5*t is three years since * saw him K I haven.t seen him for three years. E it/this can re!resent a !re#iousl( mentioned !hrase' clause or #er": 'e smokes in bed, though * don.t like it. /it K his smoking in "ed6 'e suggested flying, but * thought it would cost too much, Jit K fl(ing6 * it also acts as a su"1ect for im!ersonal #er"s: it seems it appears it looks it happens

;.3. ossessi#e !ronouns ersonal ronouns ha#e !ossessi#e forms to sho+ o+nershi! or "elonging. E>A& EE: The house is ours. The !en is mine. The follo+ing chart contains the !ersonal !ronouns. The O22E22IRE forms are in !arentheses. *I=2T E=2ON 2ECON0 E=2ON THI=0 E=2ON 2IN%UEA= I' me )m(' mine6 (ou )(our' (ours6 he' him )his6 she' her )her' hers6 it )its6 EU=AE +e' us )our' ours6 (ou )(our' (ours6 them' the( )their' theirs6

;.:. 0emonstrati#e !ronouns 0emonstrati#e !ronouns tell +hich one or +hich grou! is referred to. A list of demonstrati#e !ronouns follo+s: THAT' THI2' THE2E' THO2E THI2 and THE2E !oint to !eo!le or things that are near in s!ace or time. THAT or THO2E !oint to !eo!le or things that are farther a+a( in s!ace or time. E>A& EE 1: THI2 is a ne+ "ook.) the antecedent of THI2 is "ook6 E>A& EE $: THO2E are rare coins. )the antecedent of THO2E is rare coins6 ;.;. =efle,i#e !ronouns =efle,i#e ronouns are used to indicate that !eo!le !erform actions TO' *O=' or U ON themsel#es. Gou form refle,i#e !ronouns +ith the suffi,es 9self' and 9sel#es. *I=2T E=2ON: m(self' oursel#es 2ECON0 E=2ON: (ourself' (oursel#es THI=0 E=2ON: himself' herself' itself' oneself' themsel#es. E>A& EE 1: .rad "um!ed himself on the knee. ).rad !erformed the action of "um!ing u!on himself.6 E>A& EE $: The Hanson CHIE0=EN "uilt themsel#es a tree house. )The Hanson children "uilt a tree house for themsel#es6

;.<. Interrogati#e !ronouns Interrogati#e ronouns introduce Duestions. A list of interrogati#e !ronouns follo+s. 5ho +hich +hose +hom +hat E>A& EE 1: 5HO +as at the doorH

E>A& EE $: 5HICH do (ou !referH E>A& EE 3: 5HO& did (ou electH

;.?. =elati#e !ronouns =elati#e ronouns introduce ad1ecti#e clauses' +hich are +ord grou!s that modif( a +ord or a !hrase. A list of refle,i#e !ronouns follo+s. 5ho 5hose That 5hom 5hich E>A& EE 1: I kno+ the E=2ON +ho li#es here. ) E=2ON is the antecedent of +ho6 E>A& EE $: He !lanted *EO5E=2 that "loom e#er( (ear. )*EO5E=2 is the antecedent of that6 T=emem"er' that INTE==O%ATIRE =ONOUN2 introduce JUE2TION2 onl(.

;.@. Indefinite !ronouns Indefinite ronouns do not refer to a definite !erson' !lace or thing7 instead the( refer to !ersons' !laces or things in general. The follo+ing indefinite !ronouns are singular. The( are used +ith the singular !ossessi#e !ronouns HI2' HE=' and IT2. Another an("od( an(one an(thing each either e#er("od( neither e#er(one no"od( e#er(thing no one one some"od( someone

E>A& EE: Each of the 1o"s has IT2 re+ards. The follo+ing indefinite !ronouns are !lural. The( are used +ith the !lural !ossessi#e THEI=. .oth man( fe+ se#eral E>A& EE: &an( of the #ie+ers e,!ressed THEI= o!inions.

The follo+ing indefinite !ronouns can "e either singular or !lural' de!ending on their meaning in the sentence. All 2ome None

;.A. 2E&INA= L =ONOUN

E>E=CI2E

1. Substitute possessive pronouns for the italici=ed groups of

words!
&O0EE:

His results are more im!ressi#e than my results.

His results are more im!ressi#e than mine. 1. Cim-s sense of humour is as unusual as her sense of humour. $. %randmother-s !ears are #er( 1uic(7 our pears are not. 3. Our em!lo(ers +ill "e as sur!rised as their employers. :. Tom "oasted to his friend a"out his success and .o" "oasted to his friend. ;. I-m glad I ha#en-t a mind like your mind. <. Gou ha#e (our o+n interests' and I ha#e my interests. ?. The .ro+ns took their t+ins to the Ooo' and the Ashtons took their twins to the circus. @. He-ll take m( hand and I-ll take her hand and +e-ll start dancing. A. 2he is mad at her daughter and I am mad at my daughter. 1B. 2cratch m( "ack and I-ll scratch your back.
E>E=CI2E

$. ,se the possessive pronoun instead of the possessive

adjective!
&O0EE: He

is one of her fans. He is a fan of hers.

1. He is one of m( friends. $. Tom lent his friend one of his "ooks. 3. I ga#e him one of our dictionaries. :. 2he !la(ed one of her old records. ;.

2ome of their neigh"ours had come o#er to tea. <. He took a fanc( to one of m( cousins. ? Here' Cohn' meet one of (our +ell9kno+n commentators. @. Is this another of their little schemesH A. 5as it one of her fa#ourite !unsH 1B. That-s one of our fa#ourite tunes.
E>E=CI2E

3. Fill in the blanks with the suitable refle"ive pronouns!

1. If the child eats so little he-ll make . . . ill. $. Can a fi#e9(ear9old "o( +ash . . .' dress . . . ' feed . . . H 3. 5e find it still difficult to e,!ress ... in English. :. Alice hurt. . . +hen she fell do+n the tree. ;. The( are likel( to ha#e en1o(ed ... at (our !art(. <. One has to ser#e ... in that restaurant. $. &( cousin s+itched the light off and finding ... in the dark "egan to cr(. +. I +as told (ou ha#e de#oted ... to science. A. 2he cheers ... u! "( talking a"out her (outh. 1B. I "ought a ne+ +atch for . . . (esterda(. 11. One can lose . . .Duite easil( in Eondon. 1$. 5e forced ... to smile. 13. 0o !ull. . . togetherF 1:. The ringleader shot . . . . 1;. I chose to defend . . . against her. 1<. The cat looked at... in the looking glass. 1?. &ake ... at home )!i6. 1@. The( could onl( s!eak for .... 1A. 2he cooked ... a good meal and +ent to "ed.
E>E=CI2E

:. #hoose the necessary pronoun!

Note that !re!ositions denoting concrete s!atial relations are not follo+ed "( refle,i#e !ronouns. 5ith the follo+ing !re!ositions as, like, but, e"cept !ersonal and refle,i#e !ronouns are used in #ariation: 1. He "egan to imagine ho+ he might rescue her in s!ite of )her/herself6. $. The( tried to li#e u! to a lot of !eo!le +ho +ere "etter off than )them/ themsel#es6. 3. The car +as heading straight to+ards )them/themsel#es6. :. Then he +ent cra4(' screamed and thre+ )him/himself6 a"out. ;. Eook a"out )(ou/(ourself6F <. 2ome"od( like )(ou/(ourself6 should set the fashion. ?. I +inced inside )me/m(self6. @. 2he +as "eside )her/herself6 +ith rage. A. &( sister and )I/m(self6 +ent sho!!ing. 1B. 0o the( ha#e an(

mone( on )them7 themsel#es6 H 11. 5hen he +as )him/himself6 again she +as too ha!!( to Duestion him. 1$. 5e-ll !lace our !a!er in front of )us/oursel#es6. 13. I am dee!l( touched to "e offered hel! "( so eminent a man as )(ou/(ourself6. 1:. He takes too much u!on )him/himself6. 1;. *or some"od( like )me/m(self6 this is no sur!rise. 1<. I ho!e it-ll remain "et+een )us/oursel#es6. E>E=CI2E ; Identif( the t+o !ersonal !ronouns in each of the follo+ing sentences. Tell +hether each !ronoun is in the first !erson' the second !erson' or the third !erson. 1. I !icked u! 2amMs !a(check and sent it through the mail. $. I +ould like to tell (ou a"out last summer. 3. It +as a long +inter' and to make the time !ass more Duickl(' I took u! !ainting. :. He couldnMt Duite hear +hat (ou said. ;. 5e thought that the team +as out of the running' "ut it came "ack to +in the !ennant. <. Is the "ook 2and(Ms' and does she +ant itH ?. 5ill (ou !lease tr( to +rite us more oftenH @. 5e should not critici4e other !eo!le too harshl(' for those !eo!le ma( turn around and critici4e us. A. The( sa+ the e,hi"it +hen it +as at the art museum last (ear. 1B. .rad looked at the !ainting' and kne+ it +as his. E>E=CI2E < Underline the !ronouns used in !lace of nouns. Identif( their antecedents )the noun each !ronoun stands for6 1. Carol(n and Kat( +a,ed their skis.

$. &s. =odrigue4 !la(ed the guitar for her class. 3. UHa#e (ou s!oken to CeanHV 2heila asked =ene. :. The steam made a hissing sound as it esca!ed. ;. 0ad and &art( finished their !ainting. <. The &illers mo#ed. Anthon( hel!ed them. ?. UAre the glo#es (oursHV the sales clerk asked Coe. @. Kim +on a tro!h(. 2he +as e,cited. A. UI +ill +rite the in#itations'V said Ke#in. 1B. U5e met Cim at the mo#ie'V said &ike and Can. 11. The test took half an hour. It +as sim!le. 1$. The results are in. The( +ill "e !osted later. 13. .o" carried 2ueMs !icture +ith him. 1:. 0olores de!osited the mone( in her sa#ings account. 1;.Al and Eee are here. 0id 2arah find themH E>E=CI2E ? Eist the antecedents of the !ronouns in CA ITAE letters. 1. 2helle(' +ill GOU !lease ans+er the !honeH IT has "een ringing for fi#e minutes. $. %randmother said that 2HE +ould lo#e to come for dinner toda(. 3. Earr( +ill gi#e (ou the information +hen (ou need IT. :. Cuan should go to the fair "efore IT closes on *rida(. ;. eter and I +ill !ractice our duet "efore 5E come to "and !ractice on 2aturda( morning. <. The car!enter !icked u! HI2 hammer. ?. Gou must +ait GOU= turn. @. The columnist +rote HE= article. A. T+o mem"ers ha#e not !aid THEI= dues. 1B. Nora has im!ro#ed HE= grades.

E>E=CI2E @ 5rite a correct demonstrati#e !ronoun for each sentence. 1.WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW is the first Ca!anese restaurant IM#e "een in. $.WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW +ere m( fa#orite stores. 3.WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW donMt taste as fresh as the others. :.WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW +as a good idea. ;.WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW are m( sisters +ith me. <.WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW o#er there are (ours. ?.WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW is his house across the street. E>E=CI2E A Identif(ing 0E&ON2T=ATIRE and INTE==O%ATIRE !ronouns. 5rite +hether each ca!itali4ed !ronoun is 0E&ON2T=ATIRE or INTE==O%ATIRE. 1. 5HO +as at the doorH $. Are THE2E left o#erH 3. 5e chose THAT for our theme song. :. 5HICH of the 1ackets is (oursH ;. 2ara !referred THO2E. <. 5HO2E is the "lue !enH ?. THI2 is "est for e#er(one. @. 5HAT +as that noiseH E>E=CI2E 1B Using Indefinite ronouns Correctl(. Underline the indefinite !ronoun' then underline the correct !ossessi#e !ronoun. 1. No"od( lost )his or her' their6 !lace. $. E#er(one has !aid )his or her' their6 fee. 3. &an( of the musicians "rought )his or her' their6 instruments. :. Each of the t(!e +riters comes +ith )its' their6 o+n carr(ing case.

;. All of the g(mnasts !racticed )his or her' their6 routines. <. Neither of the girls "rought )her' their6 s+im suit. ?. If an(one is interested' ha#e )him or her' them6 see me. @. 2e#eral of the containers +ere missing )its' their6 la"els. A. .oth of the stores raised )its' their6 la"els. 1B. Neither of the scientists com!leted )his or her' their6 e,!eriment. 11. E#er(thing +as returned to )its' their6 o+ner. 1$. 2ome of the architects sent in )his or her' their6 designs. 13. None of the sul!hur is in )its' their6 flask. 1:. No one offered )his or her' their6 hel!. 1;. Either of the girls can e,!lain )her' their6 ans+er E,. 11 *ill in the correct self !ronoun )m(self' (ourself' himself' herself' itself' oursel#es' (oursel#es' themsel#es6 or each other into the ga!s. 1. .o" cut NNNNNNN.. +hile he +as !re!aring su!!er. $. The t+o clim"ers fell and hurt NNNNNNN.. on the rocks. 3. 2and( and her friend &argie looked at NNNNNN. #er( sur!rised. :. Q0on-t +orr(' &and(. 5e can take care of NNNNNNNN. .Q ;. &r 2mith is teaching NNNNNNN 2!anish "ut he thinks it-s #er( difficult. <. 5hat a nice s+eaterF 9 Thank (ou' I-#e knitted it NNNNNNNN.. . ?. The clock came off the +all NNNNNNN. . @. &rs. .ro+n +all!a!ered the li#ing room NNNNNNN.. . A. .oth families ha#en-t "een talking to NNNNNNN.. since the "ig Duarrel last (ear. 1B. Cath( and Ann are se+ing fanc( costumes for NNNNN.. . E,.1$ *ill in +ith relati#e nouns 1. This is the "o( NNNNN. had an accident.

$. Gesterda( I sa+ a car NNN.. +as reall( old. 3. &and( is the girl NNNN. I met on *rida(. :. I ha#en-t seen eter' NNN.. "rother is fi#e' for a long time no+. ;. The ro""er stole the carNNNN. the lad( !arked in front of the su!ermarket. <. This is the man NNNN. house is on fire. ?. Can I talk to the girl NNNNNN is sitting on the "enchH @. The "ook NNNN.. (ou ga#e me is great. E,.13 =elati#e Clauses' =elati#e ronouns 1. 5here is the "ottle of Coke NNN. +ho +hich +hose , I "ought this morningH $. I talked to the girl NNN. +ho +hich +hose , car had "roken do+n in front of the sho!. 3. &r. Cones' NNN +ho +hich +hose , is a ta,i dri#er' li#es on the corner. :. There is the car NNN. +ho +hich +hose , I-d like to "u(. ;. He cleaned the car NNN. +ho +hich +hose , had an accident. <. This is the girl NNN. +ho +hich +hose , comes from 2!ain. ?. That-s eter' the "o( NN. +ho +hich +hose , has 1ust arri#ed at the air!ort. @. 5hat did (ou do +ith the mone( NN.. +ho +hich +hose , (our mother lent (ouH

E,. 1: Correct the !ronoun errors. 1. Keats +rote that Qa thing of "eaut( is a 1o( fore#er.Q He added that it-s Qlo#eliness increases.Q $. At some schools' (ou ha#e to take the courses the( tell (ou to take. 3. E#er(one at the game "rought their Thermos filled +ith hot chocolate.

:. &arie and me +ill go +ith (ou and she to the craft fair. ;. Gou ha#e a much higher % A than me. <. &ake (our reser#ations +ith either 0ana or m(self. ?. On the ten o-clock ne+s' the( announced that ete and her +ill "e the ne+ delegates. @. Unless (ou gras! the conce!t' it can "e reall( frustrating. A. &( "ar"er and his "oss are al+a(s arguing7 he told me the( ma( ne#er make !eace. 1B. The "and !la(ed a fanfare for the resident and I as +e disem"arked from the !lane. 11. Gou and me are "est "uds. This makes me #er( ha!!(. 1$. 5hen the( dro#e to California' the( +ere sur!rised at ho+ fast it +ent. 13. The !hotogra!h certainl( did 1ustice to the scener(7 it-s Dualit( +as e,cellent. 1:. 0ad lo#es the +ide o!en s!aces. That is +h( he mo#ed out of the cit(. 1;. 2arah sa(s she is going to graduate +ith honors or die tr(ing. 1<. &ike' 2usan' and I +ashed the floor ourself this morning. 1?. One of the !lans +ere dra+n "( the architect +ho is more famous than me. 1@. All of the lum"er +ere +ar!ed "( the hea#( rain. 1A. Coe is afraid of dogs' and he is allergic to cats. That is +h( he doesn-t ha#e a !et.

E,. 1; Q5hoQ and Q5hom'Q Q5hoe#erQ and Q5home#erQ E,ercises *ill in the correct form in the follo+ing sentences. 1. WWWWW kicked the field goalH $. The go#ernor a!!ointed WWWWW for the !ositionH 3. I +ill !ick WWWWWW needs the mone(. :. 0an .aker is not onl( the man WWWWWW +rote the "est9selling no#el "ut also the e,9con#ict a"out WWWWWW e#er(one +onders. ;. Trud( and WWWWWW +ill "e co9chairs of the committeeH <. Gou and WWWWWW "ought the flo+ers for WWWWWW H ?. This is the +oman for WWWWWW the "ell tolls. @. The student WWWWWW +as +earing the "lue shorts s+ore that he +ould !unch out WWWWWWhe could catch. A. Cod( +ent to the histor( class admiring WWWWWW could +rite an QAQ !a!er for that !rofessor' WWWWWW +as noted for his tough grading !olicies and a"out WWWWWW e#er(one +as gossi!ing. 1B. The cor!oration +as facing "ankru!tc(7 conseDuentl(' it could not ad#ertise for the technicians WWWWWW +ould "e the most Dualified' and the( had to settle for WWWWWW the( could find that +ould "e +illing to +ork for lo+ +ages. 11. &artha is a #er( conscientious mother u!on WWWWWW the +hole famil( de!ends. 1$. This general' +ith WWWWWW man( soldiers fought and under WWWWWW more soldiers +ere trained' WWWWWW disci!lined soldiers WWWWWWW diso"e(ed the slightest order' and WWWWWW challenged WWWWWW a!!eared to ha#e the faintest s!ark of !romise' died ingloriousl( (esterda( +hile

sitting in his eas( chair in the nursing home' dreaming of the da(s +hen he could strike fear in the hearts of WWWWWW he commanded.

RI. =E O2ITION2 <.1. Introduction re!ositions are +ords normall( !laced "efore nouns or !ronouns The student has t+o main !ro"lems +ith !re!ositions. He has to kno+ )a6 )"6 +hether in an( construction a !re!osition is reDuired or not' and +hich !re!osition to use +hen one is reDuired.

The first !ro"lem can "e es!eciall( trou"lesome to a Euro!ean student' +ho ma( find that a certain construction in his o+n language reDuires a !re!osition' +hereas a similar one in English does not' and #ice #ersa: e.g. in most Euro!ean languages !ur!ose is e,!ressed "( a !re!osition 8 infiniti#e7 in English it is e,!ressed "( the infiniti#e onl(: I came here to study Alternati#e !osition of !re!ositions A re!ositions normall( !recede nouns or !ronouns. In t+o constructions' ho+e#er' it is !ossi"le in informal English to mo#e the !re!osition to the end of the sentence: 1 In Duestions "eginning +ith a !re!osition 8 whom/which/what/ whose/where: To whom were you talkingA )formal6 9ho were you talking toA )informal6 *n which drawer does he keep itA )formal6

9hich drawer does he keep it inA )informal6 It used to "e thought ungrammatical to end a sentence +ith a !re!osition' "ut it is no+ acce!ted as a colloDuial form. - 2imilarl( in relati#e clauses' a !re!osition !laced "efore whom/which can "e mo#ed to the end of the clause. The relati#e !ronoun is then often omitted: the people with whom * was travelling )formal6 the people * was travelling with )informal6 the company from which * hire my T) set )formal6 the company * hire my T) set from )informal6 . .ut in !hrasal #er"s the !re!osition/ad#er" remains after its #er"' so the formal t(!e of construction is not !ossi"le' the children * was looking after could not "e re+ritten +ith after 8 whom and 9hich bridge did they blow upA could not "e re+ritten +ith up 8 which. Time and date: at, on, by, before, in at dawn, at si", at midnight, at G.;@, at si"teen5at the age of si"teen, on Monday, on G 3une, on #hristmas $ay, by the end of 3uly C on time, in time, in good time on time K at the time arranged' not "efore' not after: The K.<B train started on time. )It started at @.1;.6 in time/in time for 8 noun K not late7 in good time for) K +ith a comforta"le margin: (assengers should be in time for their train. * arrived at the concert hall in good time /for the concert0. ) erha!s the concert "egan at ?.3B and I arri#ed at ?.1;.6 I Time: from' since' for' during from is normall( used +ith to or till/until: Most people work from nine to five

since is used for time' ne#er for !lace' and means -from that time to the time referred to-. 'e has been here since Monday, )from &onda( till no+6 'e wondered where +nn was. 'e had not seen her since their quarrel. for is used of a !eriod of time: for six years, for two months, for ever: &ake it for two hours. 'e travelled in the desert for si" months. for 8 a !eriod of time can "e used +ith a !resent !erfect tense or !ast !erfect tense for an action +hich e,tends u! to the time of s!eaking: 'e has worked here for a year. )He "egan +orking here a (ear ago and still +orks here.6 during is used +ith kno+n !eriods of time' i.e. !eriods kno+n "( name' such as Christmas' Easter or !eriods +hich ha#e "een alread( defined: during the Middle +ges during his childhood Time: to, till/until, after, A to and till/until to can "e used of time and !lace7 till/until of time onl(. 5e can use from ... to or from . . . till/until: They worked from five to ten5from five till ten. /at five to ten +ould mean -at A.;;-.6 .ut if +e ha#e no from we use till/until, after after )!re!osition6 must "e follo+ed "( a noun' !ronoun or gerund: $on.t bathe immediately after a meal5after eating. $on.t have a meal and bathe immediately after it. during <LG< during the summer )of that (ear6

at, in" in, into" on, onto A at and in at 5e can "e at home' at +ork' at the office' at school' at uni#ersit(' at an address' at a certain !oint e.g. at the "ridge' at the crossroads' at the "us9sto!. in 5e can "e in a countr(' a to+n' a #illage' a sDuare' a street' a room' a forest' a +ood' a field' a desert or an( !lace +hich has "oundaries or is enclosed. .ut a small area such as a sDuare' a street' a room' a field might "e used +ith at +hen +e mean -at this !oint- rather than -inside-. 5e can "e in or at a "uilding' in means inside onl(7 at could mean inside or in the grounds or 1ust outside. If someone is -at the station- he could "e in the street outside' or in the ticket office/+aiting room/ restaurant or on the !latform. 5e can "e in or at the sea' a ri#er' lake' s+imming !ool etc. in here means actuall( in the +ater: The children are swimming in the river. at the sea/river/lake etc. means -near/"eside the sea-. .ut at sea means -on a shi!-. . in and into in as sho+n a"o#e normall( indicates !osition. into indicates mo#ement' entrance: They climbed into the lorry. * poured the beer into a tankard. Thieves broke into my house5My house was broken into. 5ith the #er" put, ho+e#er' either in or into can "e used: 'e put his hands in5into his pockets. in can also "e an ad#er": #ome in K >nter. 8et in )into the car6.

I-

on and onto on can "e used for "oth !osition and mo#ement: 'e was sitting on his case. 'is name is on the door. Snow fell on the hills. 'e went on board ship.

onto can "e used )chiefl( of !eo!le and animals6 +hen there is mo#ement in#ol#ing a change of le#el: (eople climbed onto their roofs. "e an ad#er": 8o on. #ome on. 9e lifted him onto the table. The cat jumped onto the mantelpiece. on can also

a"o#e' o#er' under' "elo+' "eneath etc. A above and over above )!re!osition and ad#er"6 and over )!re!osition6 can "oth mean -higher than- and sometimes either can "e used: The helicopter hovered above5over us. Flags waved above5over our heads. .ut over can also mean -co#ering-' -on the other side of' -across- and -from one side to the other-: put a rug over him. 'e lives over the mountains. There is a bridge over the river. over can mean -more than- or -higher than-. above can mean -higher than- onl(. .oth can mean -higher in rank-. .ut 'e is over me +ould normall( mean -He is m( immediate su!erior-' -He su!er#ises m( +ork-' above +ould not necessaril( ha#e this meaning. If +e ha#e a "ridge o#er a ri#er' above the bridge means -u!stream-. over can "e used +ith meals/food/drink: below and under
X9e

below )!re!osition6 and under )!re!osition6 can "oth mean -lo+er than- and sometimes either can "e used. .ut under can indicate contact: She put the letter under her pillow. The ice crackled under his feet. 5ith below there is usuall( a s!ace "et+een the t+o surfaces: They live below us. )5e li#e on the fourth floor and the( li#e on the third.6 2imilarl(: 9e live above them. )2ee A a"o#e.6 beneath can sometimes "e used instead of under, "ut it is safer to kee! it for a"stract meanings: 'e would think it beneath him to tell a lie. )un+orth( of him6 She married beneath her. )into a lo+er social class6 beside, between, behind, in front of, opposite Imagine a theatre +ith ro+s of seats: A' .' C etc.' =o+ A "eing nearest the stage.WWWWWW 2tage =o+ A =o+ . Tom &ar( Ann .o" .ill Cane

This means that: Tom is beside +nn: Mary is beside &ob etc. +nn is between Tom and &ill: &ob is between Mary and 3ane. Mary is behind Tom: Tom is in front of Mary. .ut if Tom and &ar( are ha#ing a meal and Tom is sitting at one side of 1 the ta"le and &ar( at the other' +e do not use in front of, "ut sa(: Tom is sitting opposite Mary or Tom is facing Mary. .ut 'e stood in front of me could mean either -He stood +ith his "ack to me- or -He faced me-.

eo!le li#ing on one side of a street +ill talk of the houses on the other I side as the houses opposite /us0 rather than the houses in front of us. 0on-t confuse beside +ith besides, beside K at the side of: 9e camped beside a lake. besides )!re!osition6 K in addition to/as +ell as: I do all the cooking and besides that * help Tom. &esides doing the cooking * help Tom. besides )ad#er"6 means )a6 -in addition to that/as +ell as that-: I do the cooking and help Tom besides and )"6 -in an( case/an(+a(-: 9e can.t afford oysters. &esides, Tom doesn.t like them. between and among between normall( relates a !erson/thing to t+o other !eo!le/things' "ut it can "e used of more +hen +e ha#e a definite num"er in mind: 2u"embourg lies between &elgium, 8ermany and France. among relates a !erson/thing to more than t+o others7 normall( +e ha#e no definite num"er in mind: 'e was happy to be among friends again. a village among the hills re!ositions used +ith ad1ecti#es and !artici!les Certain ad1ecti#es and !ast !artici!les used as ad1ecti#es can "e follo+ed "( a !re!osition 8 noun/gerund. Usuall( !articular ad1ecti#es and !artici!les reDuire !articular !re!ositions. 2ome of these are gi#en "elo+7 others can "e found "( consulting a good dictionar(' +hich after an( ad1ecti#e +ill gi#e the !re!ositions that can "e used +ith it.

absorbed in

involved in

according to accustomed to afraid of an"ious for5about ashamed of aware of bad at5for capable of confident of due to5for e"posed to fit for fond of frightened of5at good at5for interested in

keen on liable for5to nervous of owing to pleased with prepared for proud of ready for responsible for5to scared of sorry for5about successful in suspicious of terrified of tired of used to

'e was absorbed in his book. She is afraid5frightened5scared of the dark. +ccording to Tom it.s -.;@. )Tom sa(s it-s $.3B.6 'e is bad5good at chess, )a "ad/good !la(er6 1unning is bad5good for you. )unhealth(/health(6 They are very keen on golf. $rivers e"ceeding the speed limit are liable to a fine. The management is not responsible for articles left in customers. cars. *.m sorry for your husband. )I !it( him.6 *.m sorry for forgetting the tickets. *.m sorry about the tickets. Rer"s and !re!ositions accuse sb. of insist on

apologi=e /to sb.0 forlive on )food/mone(6 apply to sb.5for sth. long for ask for5about attend to beg for believe in beware of blame sb. for compare sth with comply with conform to consist of deal in depend on dream of fight with sb. for fine sb. for hope for object to occur to persist in prefer sb.5sth to sb5sth prepare for punish sb. for refer to rely on remind sb. of resort to succeed in suspect sb. of think of5about wait for warn sb. of5about wish for

charge sb. with )an offence6 quarrel with sb. about

$o you believe in ghostsA They were charged with receiving stolen goods. 4ou haven.t complied with the regulations. For a week she lived on bananas and milk. *t never occurred to me to insure the house. They persisted in defying the law. 9hen arguments failed he resorted to threats.

<.$. 2E&INA= 9 =E O2ITION

E>E=CI2E

1. #hoose the correct preposition in parentheses in the

sentences below! 1. &ar( +alked )in' into6 the dining9room. $. 2he !ut her !ackages )on' at6 the ta"le. 3. 2he is sitting )in' on6 an armchair )into' in6 the li#ing9room. :. Is her hus"and )at' in6 home no+H No' he is )on' at6 the li"rar(. ;. He also s!ends man( hours )in' on6 his office )on' at6 ;B' *leet 2treet. <. I found a note !inned )in' on6 m( door +hich said: Q&eet me )at' in6 the corner of O,ford 2treet and =egent 2treet. ?. His famil( li#es )at' on6 .ridge 2treet )in' on6 Edin"urgh' 2cotland. @. Gou must al+a(s +rite (our return address )in' on6 the en#elo!e. A. The team arri#ed )in' at6 England last +eek.

E>E=CI2E $.

9ill in each blank with to, into or from:

1. 2he learnt English . . . "ooks. $. Then she taught it . . . (ou. 3. A !ri9 soner has esca!ed . . . !rison. :. He esca!ed . . . the +oods. ;. He fell... a ri#er and the !olice rescued him . . . it. <. The( sa#ed him . . . dro+ning. ?. Her father has retired . . . "ed. @. He has retired . . . the arm(.
E>E=CI2E

3 Fill in each blank with onto or into whenever possible:

otherwise with on or in: a# 16 Take a seat... the car. $. 0on-t take e#er(thing... the car. 3. Hel! me lift this suitcase . . . the seat. :. The( are arri#ing . . . =ome. ;. The( are dri#ing . . . the cit(. <. Are the( sta(ing . . . the cit( tonight H b# *n which of the last M sentences could we use off, and in which could we use out of1
E>E=CI2E

:. Fill in each blank with the suitable preposition. ,se a different

preposition each time!

1. The 0anu"e rises . . . the .lack *orest and flo+s . . . the .lack 2ea. $. The Isles of 2cill( are a grou! of islands . . . the Atlantic' . . . Corn+all. Not man( !eo!le li#e . . . them. 3. The train lea#es . . . aris earl( in the morning' and it gets . . . %urtici "( dinner9time. :. 2te! . . . this ladder' "ut "e careful (ou don-t fall... it. ;. 5ait .. . me round the corner' 1ust . . . the "aker-s. <. Gou aren-t !ermitted to smoke . . . the area of !etrol tanks. ?. Eook out' childrenF There-s a car racing . . . (ouF
E>E=CI2E

;. #hoose the correct preposition in parentheses in the

sentences below! 1. The( sto!!ed )in front of' "elo+6 the museum and sat do+n )in' on6 the ste!s. $. Cim said' QI must go )to' to+ards6 the li"rar( and take out some "ooks. I-m li#ing )to' in6 our hostel this termQ. 3. Our house is num"er :B. Num"er :$ is )o!!osite' ne,t to6 ours. :. Num"er :1 is )o!!osite' ne,t to6 ours. ;. 5e like to li#e )a"out' among6 ci#ili4ed !eo!le. <. 2omething is hidden )at the "ack of' "ehind6 this sim!le occurrence. ?. I am )"ehind' at the "ack of6 m( +ork. @. There is a "eautiful !ark )"ehind' at the "ack of6 m( house.