BBM 502 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

PREM PYARI 117523

A 9/13/2013

QUESTION 31&32
Q31:Short notes on : Interval Ratio scales Thurstone scale

INTERVAL
Quantitative attributes are all measurable on interval scales, as any difference between the levels of an attribute can be multiplied by any real number to exceed or equal another difference. A highly familiar example of interval scale measurement is temperature with the Celsius scale. In this particular scale, the unit of measurement is 1/100 of the temperature difference between the freezing and boiling points of water under a pressure of 1 atmosphere. The "zero point" on an interval scale is arbitrary; and negative values can be used. The formal mathematical term is an affine space (in this case an affine line). The Likert scale, which is one of the most common scales used in survey research, would be a popular example and practical application of the 'interval scale'. Variables measured at the interval level are called "interval variables" or sometimes "scaled variables" as they have units of measurement. Ratios between numbers on the scale are not meaningful, so operations such as multiplication and division cannot be carried out directly. But ratios of differences can be expressed; for example, one difference can be twice another. The central tendency of a variable measured at the interval level can be represented by its mode, its median, or its arithmetic mean. Statistical dispersion can be measured in most of the usual ways, which just involved differences or averaging, such as range, interquartile range, and standard deviation. Since one cannot divide, one cannot define measures that require a ratio, such as studentized range or coefficient of variation. More subtly, while one can define moments about the origin, only central moments are useful, since the choice of origin is arbitrary and not meaningful. One can define standardized moments, since ratios of differences are meaningful, but one cannot define coefficient of variation, since the mean is a moment about the origin, unlike the standard deviation, which is (the square root of) a central moment.

RATIO SCALES
S. S. Stevens (1946) described four levels of measurement ranging from least to most precise: nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio. Nominal, ordinal, and interval scales are described elsewhere in this volume. Ratio scales share several common characteristics with interval scales. They distinguish greater and lesser amounts. Intervals between any two adjacent numerals indicating quantities are equal in size. The distinguishing characteristic of ratio scale is the existence of an absolute origin or zero point. This zero allows the researcher to make explicit how much greater or smaller one quantity is than another. Such statements are not possible with interval scales. [Others argue that the distinction between interval and ratio measurement is of no consequence (Wright, 1997). For example, my weight is 180 pounds. My wife weighs 120. We could say, in comparing the two of us, that I am the heavier individual, an ordinal level distinction. Or, it is Users without a subscription are not able to see the full content on this page. Please, subscribe or login to access all Methods content.

THURSTONE SCALE
In psychology and sociology, the Thurstone scale was the first formal technique to measure an attitude. It was developed by Louis Leon Thurstone in 1928, as a means of measuring attitudes towards religion. It is made up of statements about a particular issue, and each statement has a numerical value indicating how favorable or unfavorable it is judged to be. People check each of the statements to which they agree, and a mean score is computed, indicating their attitude.

Thurstone scale Thurstone's method of pair comparisons can be considered a prototype of a normal distributionbased method for scaling-dominance matrices. Even though the theory behind this method is quite complex (Thurstone, 1927a), the algorithm itself is straightforward. For the basic Case V, the frequency dominance matrix is translated into proportions and interfaced with the standard scores. The scale is then obtained as a left-adjusted column marginal average of this standard score matrix (Thurstone, 1927b). The underlying rationale for the method and basis for the measurement of the "psychological scale separation between any two stimuli" derives from Thurstone's Law of comparative judgment (Thurstone, 1928).

The principal difficulty with this algorithm is its indeterminacy with respect to one-zero proportions, which return z values as plus or minus infinity, respectively. The inability of the pair comparisons algorithm to handle these cases imposes considerable limits on the applicability of the method. The most frequent recourse when the 1.00-0.00 frequencies are encountered is their omission. Thus, e.g., Guilford (1954, p. 163) has recommended not using proportions more extreme than .977 or .023, and Edwards (1957, pp. 4142) has suggested that if the number of judges is large, say 200 or more, then we might use pij values of .99 and .01, but with less than 200 judges, it is probably better to disregard all comparative judgments for which pij is greater than .98 or less than .02." Since the omission of such extreme values leaves empty cells in the Z matrix, the averaging procedure for arriving at the scale values cannot be applied, and an elaborate procedure for the estimation of unknown parameters is usually employed (Edwards, 1957, pp. 4246). An alternative solution of this problem was suggested by Krus and Kennedy (1977). With later developments in psychometric theory, it has become possible to employ direct methods of scaling such as application of theRasch model or unfolding models such as the Hyperbolic Cosine Model (HCM) (Andrich & Luo, 1993). The Rasch model has a close conceptual relationship to Thurstone's law of comparative judgment (Andrich, 1978), the principal difference being that it directly incorporates a person parameter. Also, the Rasch model takes the form of a logistic function rather than a cumulative normal function.

Q31: Tabulation of Data& its principles:

Tabulation of Data
When a mass of data has been assembled, it becomes necessary for the researcher to arrange the same in some kind of concise and logical order. This procedure is referred to as tabulation. Thus, tabulation is the process of summarising raw data and displaying the same in compact form (i.e., in the form of statistical tables) for further analysis. In a broader sense, tabulation is an orderly arrangement of data in columns and rows. Tabulation is essential because of the following reasons. It conserves space and reduces explanatory and descriptive statement to a minimum. It facilitates the process of comparison. It facilitates the summation of items and the detection of errors and omissions. It provides a basis for various statistical computations.

Tabulation can be done by hand or by mechanical or electronic devices. The choice depends on the size and type of study, cost considerations, time pressures and the availaibility of tabulating machines or computers. In relatively large inquiries, we may use mechanical or computer tabulation if other factors are favourable and necessary facilities are available. Hand tabulation is usually preferred in case of small inquiries where the number of questionnaires is small and they are of relatively short length. Hand tabulation may be done using the direct tally, the list and tally or the card sort and count methods. When there are simple codes, it is feasible to tally directly from the questionnaire. Under this method, the codes are written on a sheet of paper, called tally sheet, and for each response a stroke is marked against the code in which it falls. Usually after every four strokes against a particular code, the fifth response is indicated by drawing a diagonal or horizontal line through the strokes. These groups of five are easy to count and the data are sorted against each code conveniently. In the listing method, the code responses may be transcribed onto a large work-sheet, allowing a line for each questionnaire. This way a large number of questionnaires can be listed on one work sheet. Tallies are then made for each question. The card sorting method is the most flexible hand tabulation. In this method the data are recorded on special cards of convenient size and shape with a series of holes. Each hole stands for a code and when cards are stacked, a needle passes through particular hole representing a particular code. These cards are then separated and counted. In this way frequencies of various codes can be found out by the repetition of this technique. We can as well use the mechanical devices or the computer facility for tabulation purpose in case we want quick results, our budget permits their use and we have a large volume of straight forward tabulation involving a number of cross-breaks. Tabulation may also be classified as simple and complex tabulation. The former type of tabulation gives information about one or more groups of independent questions, whereas the latter type of tabulation shows the division of data in two or more categories and as such is deigned to give information concerning one or more sets of inter-related questions. Simple tabulation generally results in one-way tables which supply answers to questions about one characteristic of data only. As against this, complex tabulation usually results in two-way tables (which give information about two inter-related characteristics of data), three-way tables (giving information about three interrelated characteristics of data) or still higher order tables, also known as manifold tables, which supply information about several interrelated characteristics of data. Two-way tables, three-way tables or manifold tables are all examples of what is sometimes described as cross tabulation.

Types of Tabulation
(1) Simple Tabulation or One-way Tabulation: When the data are tabulated to one characteristic, it is said to be simple tabulation or one-way tabulation. For Example: Tabulation of data on population of world classified by one characteristic like Religion is example of simple tabulation. (2) Double Tabulation or Two-way Tabulation: When the data are tabulated according to two characteristics at a time. It is saito be double tabulation or two-way tabulation. For Example: Tabulation of data on population of world classified by two characteristics like Religion and Sex is example of double tabulation. (3) Complex Tabulation: When the data are tabulated according to many characteristics, it is said to be complex tabulation. For Example: Tabulation of data on population of world classified by two characteristics like Religion, Sex and Literacy etcis example of complex tabulation.

Principles of tabulation:
Such principles of tabulation, particularly of constructing statistical tables, can be briefly states as follows:* 1. Every table should have a clear, concise and adequate title so as to make the table intelligible without reference to the text and this title should always be placed just above the body of the table. 2. Every table should be given a distinct number to facilitate easy reference. 3. The column headings (captions) and the row headings (stubs) of the table should be clear and brief. 4. The units of measurement under each heading or sub-heading must always be indicated. 5. Explanatory footnotes, if any, concerning the table should be placed directly beneath the table, along with the reference symbols used in the table. 6. Source or sources from where the data in the table have been obtained must be indicated just below the table. 7. Usually the columns are separated from one another by lines which make the table more readable and attractive. Lines are always drawn at the top and bottom of the table and below the captions.

8. There should be thick lines to separate the data under one class from the data under another class and the lines separating the sub-divisions of the classes should be comparatively thin lines. 9. The columns may be numbered to facilitate reference. 10. Those columns whose data are to be compared should be kept side by side. Similarly, percentages and/or averages must also be kept close to the data. 11. It is generally considered better to approximate figures before tabulation as the same would reduce unnecessary details in the table itself. 12. In order to emphasise the relative significance of certain categories, different kinds of type, spacing and indentations may be used. 13. It is important that all column figures be properly aligned. Decimal points and (+) or ( ) signs should be in perfect alignment. 14. Abbreviations should be avoided to the extent possible and ditto marks should not be used in the table. 15. Miscellaneous and exceptional items, if any, should be usually placed in the last row of the table. 16. Table should be made as logical, clear, accurate and simple as possible. If the data happen to be very large, they should not be crowded in a single table for that would make the table unwieldy and inconvenient. 17. Total of rows should normally be placed in the extreme right column and that of columns should be placed at the bottom. 18. The arrangement of the categories in a table may be chronological, geographical, alphabetical or according to magnitude to facilitate comparison. Above all, the table must suit the needs and requirements of an investigation.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
BOOK:
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY :METHODs and techniques BY C.R KOTHARI

Research Methodology site:http://e-university.wisdomjobs.com/researchmethodology/chapter-1857-355/processing-and-analysis-of-data.html

Google
https://www.google.co.in/search?newwindow=1&q=principles+of+tabulation+in+research+methodolog y&oq=principles+of+tabulation+in+research+methodology&gs_l=serp.12...341869.400842.0.406494.22. 22.0.0.0.0.3049.27443.1j1j5j4j1j1j1j9-8.22.0....0...1c.1j2.26.serp..13.9.4642.QNZUdVP0TDA

Wikipedia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principle