Chapter 1

Basic Concepts and Properties of

Fluid Mechanics
( (( (;_y[| ;_y[| ;_y[| ;_y[|) )) )
contents
1 The definition of fluids and
continuum Hypothesis (])j| ])j| ])j| ])j|
2 Physical Properties
3 Forces acted on a fluid
4 Flow of a fluid
5 Viscosity (|, |, |, |, of a fluid **
6 Compressibility and incompressible flow
7 Surface Tension
1. Definition of a fluid:
In the earththere are three main substance states
1 The definition of fluids and continuum
Hypothesis
Solid
liquid
gas.
Fluid
A fluid is a substance the particles of which easily move
and change their relative position
Or: a substance that will deform or flow
fluid
solid

P
deformation, no shape
Distinction Between a Solid and a Fluid
Solid can not only bear pressure and pulling force , but also resisting tangential stress.
Fluid can bear pressure, but cannot bear pulling deformation force and resist
tangential stress.
MicrocosmicA fluid is composed of a large amount of molecules in irregular
motionwith gap between molecules.
Macroscopicmuch larger than inter molecular distance mean free path
y
x
z
0

P(x,y,z)
m

m


'
]),
If ' ` '' =m'
If ' ''m' change so, is defined as
'

lim

=
Assumption of Continuum Model
Assumption of Continuum Model
Continuum /Continuous substanceFluids or solid particles occupy space
continuously with inter molecular distance and molecular motion ignored.
2 Definition of Continuum Model
m


'
]),
1 Definition fluid particle
A fliud element with the volume ''is defined as a fluid particle,
''is a volume that is small enough with enough
moles to make sure that the macroscopic mean
density has definite value.
1cm
3
liquid : 3.3x10
22
molecules
1 cm
3
gas : 2.7x10
19
molecules
10
-19
cm
3
gas : 2.7x10
10
molecules
Continuum Model An assumption model that assumes a
fluid as a continuum. Under this assumption, all physical
properties are the continuous function of space coordinates
and time. uut,x,y,z) . uut,x,y,z) . uut,x,y,z) . uut,x,y,z)
Exercise
According to the concept of continuum, fluid particle is
A.fluid molecule. B.solid particle in fluid. C.
geometric point.D.differential element whose geometric
scale is infinitesimal , yet includes a large amount of molecules.
return
1Excluding complexibility of molecules in motion.
2Physical properties are the continuous function of space
and time,so we can use mathematical tool of continuous function
to solve problems.
return
3. .. .Advantages
Density is mass of the substance per unit volumeUnitkg/m
3
.
1. Density
For homogenous fluid, each point has the same density
2 Physical Properties
( Density, Relative density, Specific Volume and Density of mixture gas)
m
=

p
RT
=
For ideal gas
0
1
t
t

=
+
m


'
]),
'

lim

2. Relative density |j |j |j |j
where
w
density of 4waterkg/m
3
1.2 Physical Properties
w
d

=
1

=
3. Specific Volume of Gas (] ] ] ]
Specific Volume is the volume occupied by a mass of gas, specific
volume is the reciprocal of density, m
3
/kg
Relative density of a fluid is the ratio of its density to that of pure water
at 4It has no unit and dimensionless.
4. Density of mixture gas
Density of mixture gas is calculated as volume fraction:
where
i
density of gas i.
volume fraction of gas i
1 1 2 2 3 3
1
n
i i
i

=
= + + =

i

1.2 Physical Properties

Specific Weight is weight per unit volume. Unit\m
3
.
0
lim
G

=
For homogenous fluid, each point has the same specific weight
=G/V =g
For water, the nominal value of specific weight is
=9800 N/m
3
5. Specific Weight ***
1.2 Physical Properties
2 .According to acting method:
1 Classification
1 .According to physical properties of fluids:
3 Forces on Fluids ( Mass force and surface force)
gravity, friction force, inertia force,
elastic force and surface tension.
Mass force and surface force .
1.Mass Force: The force acting on every fluid mass particle within the
control body. Its value is proportional to its mass. For homogenious fluids (each
point within the fluid has the same density) mass force is proportional to fluid
volume. Mass force is also known as body force. Unit: N
2 Mass force
2.Unit mass force is the mass force acting on per unit mass fluid.
Unit of unit mass force[m/s
2
] Its the same as the unit of acceleration unit.
dF f d =

x y x
f f i f j f k = + +


3 Forces on Fluids ( Mass force and surface force)
1.Surface Force is the force exerted on the contact surface by the contacted fluid
or other body. Its value is proportional to contact area.
3 Surface Force
2
/ m N or Pa

n
F
A
=
0
lim

n
A
F
A

=
Normal Compressive Force : perpendicular to acting surface
Shear Force : parallel to acting surface
According to the acting directions, surface forces can be classified into:
2 .Stress is the surface force on per unit area,
unit:

F
A

=
0
lim

A
F
A

= Shearing stress
Pressure
n
F F F

= +

1. Mechanical characteristics:
Solid can not only bear pressure and pulling force , but also resisting tangential stress.
Fluid can bear pressure, but cannot bear pulling deformation force and resist
tangential stress.
4 Flow of a fluid
pressure pulling force tangential force.
Solid:
Fluid:




` `` ` ` `` `
fluid solid

P
F
2. Relationship between deformation and force:
4 Flow of a fluid
F x
return
x
F
2. Relationship between deformation and force:
4 Flow of a fluid
0, F x
return
Chinese Text:
P16: 1-1, 1-2, 1-4, 1-7,1-8
Exercise
Englishe Text:
P2: 1.1.1,
P17:1.7.1, 1.7.2, 1.7.3
5 Viscosity of a Fluid
1. The definition of viscosity
2. Newtons Viscosity Law *
3. Newtonian and non- Newtonian Fluids
4. Coefficient of Viscosity
5.
5.
Affecting Factors of Viscosity
Affecting Factors of Viscosity
5.1 Definition of viscosity
Viscosity is that property of a fluid by virtue of which it
offers resistance to shear. (the fluid sticking action)
The most important property of a fluid, any real fluid is
viscous fluid.
Kinescope2 Kinescope1
According to whether fluids have viscosity, fluids can be classified into
|.Ideal fluid1. 0.
2. du/dy=0
u.Real fluidViscous fluid, 0.
1. Viscosity:
2. Cause of viscosity:
(a) attractive, cohesive forces between the molecules
(b) molecular interchange
Question : What is ideal gas ?
return
5.2 Newtons Viscosity Law
1686, Newton suggested:
Fluid sticking action:
1. Velocity gradient
2. Surface area
3. Fluid property
du
A
dy
F =
du F
A dy
= =
Unit of + ?
l '
h
x
l
y
U
u
return
Newtonian Fluids: :: :The shear stress of a fluid is directly proportiond to the
rate at each point, that is , fluids conform Newtons Law of Viscosity.
Non-Newtonian Fluid: fluids that dont meet the above conditions.
5

dy
du

0
1
2
3
4
Elastic
solid
Ideal-plastic fluid
Pseudoplastic fluid
Newtonian fluid
Dilatant fluid
Ideal fluid


5.3
5.3
Newtonian Fluid
Newtonian Fluid
and
and
Non
Non
-
-
Newtonian Fluid
Newtonian Fluid
du
dy
F
( )
0
n
du
dy
= +
Fluids type Definition
= +
0
( )
d u
d y
n

Example

Ideal fluid
Non-viscous
Incompressible
assumptive
fluid.
= 0 .
0
0

Newtonian fluid Conform
Newtons Law of
Viscosity
0
0 .
0 .n = 1
Water, gas, gasoline
and kerosene etc
Bingham
plastic fluid

0
0 .
= Const .n = 1
Paste, mud and blood
etc
Pseudoplast
ic fluid

0
0 . 0 .
1 < n
Rubber, paint and
nilon etc


Real fluid
Non-
New
tonia
n
fluid
Dilatant
fluid
Viscous
compressible
fluid 0

0
0 . 0 .
1 > n
starch

Fluid Classification
return
5.4 Coefficient of Viscosity
Dynamic Viscosity
dynamic viscosity or viscosity, is the measurement of fluid viscosity.
Unit: Ns/m
2
.

= v
(m
2
/s)
Kinematic Viscosity
du
dy

=
( )
, Pa s kg m s
Reletive Viscosity E
' E t t =

t: fluid, 200cm
3
, =2.8mm
t: 20C water , 200cm
3
, =2.8mm
E- 0.0731 0.0631 E =


return
5.5 Affecting Factors of Viscosity
(a) attractive, cohesive forces between the molecules
(b) molecular interchange
The value of viscosity of a fluid varies due to the change in pressure or
temperature. Different fluids has different viscosity.
1Fluid type. The viscosity of liquids (ordinarily ) > gases
2Pressure. varies little , can be negligible
3Temperature. the main factor to affect viscosity.
Affecting Factors of Viscosity Affecting Factors of Viscosity
Cause of Viscosity Cause of Viscosity
a. Liquid
For liquid,Cohesive Force is the main factor to produce viscosity .When
temperature increases, molecular distances increase cohesive forces
diminishes, so shear force produced by shear deformation rate
diminishes and decreases.
When temperature increases, viscosity of liquids decrease
while that of gases increases.
2
000221 . 0 0337 . 0 1
01775 . 0
t t
v
+ +
=
(cm
2
/s)
Kinematic viscosity of water is usually calculated:
Correct: P10, +v
b. Gases
Gas molecular distance is big ,therefore cohesive force is small. So
for gases the predominating factor is the interchange of molecular
momentum. When temperature increases, molecular activities
increase, momentum interchanges also increase, so increases.
return
For most gas, dynamic viscosity can be calculated as Sutherland formula:
1.5
1
2
T
C
T C
=
+
For air :
1.5
6
1.458 10
110.4
T
T

=
+
Exercise
The wrong statement about the viscosity of a
fluid is
A. .. .Viscosity is a property of fluid. .. .
B. .. .Viscosity is a measure of its resistance to shear
deformation during motion.
C. .. .Viscosity of a fluid can both speed up and slow
down movement. .. .
D. .. .Viscosity of a fluid increases as the
temperature increases.
return
Example 2 As shown in figure, the mass of a 1-cm-
height and 40 ` `` `45cm
2
bottom area, wood board is 5kg.
It moves at a fixed velocity along a slope with
lubricating oil. Wood velocity u=1m/s, the oil thickness
=1mm, oil velocity gradient caused by wood is a
straight line.What is viscosity of oil?
u


Solution`constant velocity is fixed .as=0
Based on Newton Second Law
u


F
s
=ma
s
=0
mgsinA=0

u
dy
du
= =
Velocity gradient is a line
2
/ 105 . 0
sin
m s N
Au
mg
=

` =tg
-1
(5/12)=22.62
return


6
6 Elasticity (Compressibility and incompressible flow)
1.
1. Elasticity ( Compressibility)
The elasticity of a fluid is related to the amount of deformation
(expansion or contraction) for a given pressure change.
The degree of elasticity is given by E (Bulk Modulus of Elasticity)

p
E =

return
For water:
9
2.0 10 E Pa =
5
4
9
1.013 10
0.5 10
2.0 10
P
E

= = =

5
1.013 10 P Pa =
if:
return
2.
2. incompressible flow
Liquids: E ~10
9
, incompressible flow
M<0.3 : 100m/s, <3%
0.3 M<0.75 : 100-250m/s
M 0.75 :250m/s
V
M
a
=
Gas: V---dP
Example 1 What pressure must be applied to water
respectively in order to reduce its volume by 0.1% or 1%
K=2000MPa

p
E =

p E =

( )
9 6
2.0 10 0.1% 2.0 10 Pa=2.0MPa p = =
( )
9 7
2.0 10 1% 2.0 10 Pa=20MPa p = =
reduce 0.1%
reduce 1%
Chapter Two Fluid Statics(
What is Fluid Statics
General Rules of fluid at rest, and their engineering application.
fluid at rest
fluid in equilibrium
Equilibrium (a=0) relative equilibrium ( a = 0)
Characteristic of Fluid at rest
u=0 du=0
0
du
dy
= =
Contents
2.1 Statical pressure intensity and its
characteristic
2.2 Differential Equation of Fluid Equilibrium
2.3 Pressure Distribution in the Static Fluid
2.4 Pressure Mearurements
2.5 Fluid in Relative Equilibrium Fluid.
2.6 Fluid Static Force on Plane and Curved Area
2.2.1 Definition of statical pressure intensity
Normal force acting over per unit area
of a static fluid
2.1 Statical pressure intensity and its characteristic
0
l i m

n
A
F
p
A

=
Unit: Pa or N/m
2
2.2.1 Characteristic
1.direction
2.magnitude
The pressure at a point in a fluid at rest is the same in all directions. It
has nothing to do with the normal direction of the acting surface.
Negative
Normal
Force Positive--Pulling
Shearing

There is only compressive stress (or pressure ) in a fluid at rest , and the direction of
pressure is the same as the direction of inward normal line of acting point . Fluid at
rest cannot bear pulling force because of the trends to flow.
x y z n
p p p p = = =
(1) Select a triangular prism element OABC, dx, dy, dz
p
x
, p
y
, p
z
, p
n
are pressure intensity acted on the respective surface.
The surface pressure:
1
d d
2
x
p y z
1
d d
2
y
p x z
1
d d
2
z
p x y d
n
p A
, ,
,
n is normal direction of inclined surface ABC.
y
x
z
0
p
z

p
y

p
x

p
n

dy
dx
dz
C
A
B
Consider force components in x direction:
Surface forces:
Mass forces
(2) Force analysis:
OAC:
OAB:
OBC:
ABC:
1
d d
2
x
p y z
1
d d
2
y
p x z
1
d d
2
z
p x y
d
n
p A
1
d d d
6
x
f x y z
1
d d d
6
y
f x y z
1
d d d
6
z
f x y z
, ,
(3) Equation of fluid in equilibrium
0 F =

1 1
cos( , ) 0
2 6
x n x
p dydz p dA n x f dxdydz + =
y
x
z
0
p
z

p
y

p
x

p
n

dy
dx
dz
C
A
B
Similarly
When the element shrinks to a point o , dx0thus
The results show that the pressures are
independent of direction because is arbitrary.
Hence the pressure at a point on a static fluid is the
same in all directions.
n

And:
1
d cos( , ) d d
2
A n x y z =
So:
1 1 1
d d d d d d d 0
2 2 6
x n x
p y z p y z f x y z + =
1
d 0
3
x n x
p p f x + =
y
x
z
0
p
z

p
y

p
x

p
n

dy
dx
dz
C
A
B
x n
p p =
x y z n
p p p p = = =
( )
, , p p x y z =
1 1
cos( , ) 0
2 6
x n x
p dydz p dA n x f dxdydz + =
1 Differential Equations of a Fluid in Equilibrium
------Euler Equilibrium Equations
2 Pressure Difference Equation
3 Force Potential Function
2 Surface of Equal Pressure
2.2 Differential Equation of Fluid Equilibrium
2.2.1 Differential Equations of a Fluid in Equilibrium
------Euler Equilibrium Equations
2.2 Differential Equations of a Fluid in Equilibrium
Consider the six surfaces of infinitesimal element in equilibrium fluid.
Its sides are dx,dy,dz. Assume the pressure at the center of the element
is p(x,y,z)=p.
2.2 Differential Equation of Fluid Equilibrium
y
x
z
/ // /
dy
dx
dz
b bb b C CC C
2.2 Differential Equations of a Fluid in Equilibrium
Consider force components in y direction
Mass forces
y
x
z
/ // /
dy
dx
dz
b bb b C CC C
Surface forces:
d
2
B
p y
p p
y

d
2
C
p y
p p
y

= +

d
( )d d
2
p y
p x z
y

d
( )d d
2
p y
p x z
y

left:
right:
d d d
y
f x y z
There is F
y
=0 in y direction
because the element is in equilibrium :
d d
( )d d ( )d d d d d 0
2 2
y
p y p y
p x z p x z f x y z
y y


+ + =

( )
2
0 0
''( )
( ) ( ) '( )
2
f x
f x x f x f x x x + = + + +
Differential Equations of a Fluid in EquilibriumEuler Equilibrium Equations
condition:
or
2.2 Differential Equations of a Fluid in Equilibrium
d d
( )d d ( )d d d d d 0
2 2
y
p y p y
p x z p x z f x y z
y y


+ + =

1
0
y
p
f
y

1
0
1
0
1
0
x
y
z
p
f
x
p
f
y
p
f
z

=
`

)
1
grad 0 f p

Equilibrium and relative equilibrium

Compressible and incompressible flow
Physical Meaning:
For the fluid in equilibrium, surface force components per mass fluid are equal to mass
force components per mass fluid. Pressure variation rate in axes directions
) are equal to mass force components per unit volume in axes directions
f
x
, f
y
, f
z
) respectively.
z
p
y
p
x
p

, ,
or
2.2 Differential Equations of a Fluid in Equilibrium
1
0
1
0
1
0
x
y
z
p
f
x
p
f
y
p
f
z

=
`

)
1
grad 0 f p

2.2.2 Pressure Difference Equation

( General Differential Equations of a Fluid in
Equilibrium)
1
0
1
0
1
0
x
y
z
p
f
x
p
f
y
p
f
z

=
`

)
d d d d
p p p
p x y z
x y z

= + +

1
d d d ( d d d )
x y z
p p p
f x f y f z x y z
x y z

+ + = + +

` `` `p = p(x,y,z)
Multiply every equation in equation group (1) with dx,dy,dz
respectively, then add them:
.the total differential of pressure is:
2.2 Differential Equations of a Fluid in Equilibrium
d ( d d d )
x y z
p f x f y f z = + +
2.2.3 Force Potential Function
( )
x y z
dp f dx f dy f dz = + +
If the density is a constant:
Define a force potential function:
p
=

( )
x y z
d p f dx f dy f dz = + +
( )
p
d d dx dy dz
x y y

| |
= =
|

\ .
x
y
z
f
x
f
y
f
z

=
`

=

)
2.2.4 Equipressure Surface
Equipressure Surface is a surface that the pressure of every point in
liquid is equal. Common equipressure surfaces are free liquid surface
and interface of two unmixed fluids in equilibrium.
mass force of any point on the equipressure surface in equilibrium fluid
is perpendicular to the equipressure surface.
Kinescope
Cartoon
2.2 Differential Equations of a Fluid in Equilibrium
d 0 p =
d d d 0
x y z
f x f y f z + + =
0 f dr =

Important character of equipressure surface:

x y x
f f i f j f k
dr dxi dyj dzk

= + +

= + +

( )
x y z
dp f dx f dy f dz = + +
Proving Consider a fluid particle M on the equipressure surface, dr is a
differential distance on the equipressure surface. Assume the unit mass
force of the particle is
At the equipressure surface in equilibrium fluid:
dr dxi dyj dzk = + +


( ) 0
x y z
dp f dx f dy f dz = + + =
Mass force is perpendicular to dr
dr is line vector on the equipressure surface
0 f dr =

Mass force is
perpendicular to
equipressure surface
x
y
z
dr is
x y x
f f i f j f k = + +


0 f dr =

2.3.1 Basic Equation of Static Fluid under Gravity

1. Basic Equation
General differential equation of a fluid in equilibrium
( )
x y z
dp f dx f dy f dz = + +
0
x y z
f f f g = = =
0 dp gdz dz dp g = + =
c =
p
z C
g
+ =
A B
A B
p p
z z
g g
+ = +
( uniform, impressible fluid , under the action of gravity)
2.3 Pressure Distribution in the Static Fluid
or
Basic equation of fluid statics
z (m) the elevation height above datum surface o-o . Elevation Head
p/g(m) rising height of fluid with unit weight under the action of
pressure P. Pressure Head
(m) : Total height is a constant . Piezometric Head
2. Geometrical meaning
A B
A B
p p
z z
g g
+ = +
p
z C
g
+ =
1 2
1 2
p p
z z
g g
+ = +
p
z
g
+
For any points in a static fluid
under gravity, their unit potential
energy are the same.
3. Physical meaning
Z (Nm/N) elevation potential energy per unit weight of fluid
p/g (Nm/N) pressure potential energy per unit weight of fluid
(Nm/N ): Total potential energy per unit weight of fluid.
Cartoon
p
z
g
+
H
h
z
z
o o
p
0
A
p
z C
g
+ =
So,pressure of fluid statics
2.3.2 Pressure Distribution in a Static Fluid under Gravity
Equi-pressure Surface
h c or z c = =
At the free surface
dz=-dh
dp gdz =
let
d d p g h =
h=0p=p
0
1
p gh C = +
0
p p gh = +
Conclusions
1 Pressure at a point in a static fluid under gravity increases
linearly with depth.
2 Pressure at a point in a static fluid under gravity is equal to
the sum of the pressure at the free surface and the fluid specific
weight timing depth.
3 Equipressure surface in a static fluid under gravity is a
horizontal plane.
4 Extended: while the pressure at a point and the depth
difference between two points are known, the pressure at
another point can be calculated.
0
p p gh = +
Exercisewhich static equation is true based on Figure (

2
)
1 2
1 2
p p
z z
g g
+ = +
3 2
3 2
p p
z z
g g
+ = +
Question Total potential energy at any point to the same datum
plane per unit weight fluid under gravity at rest _______
A. increases due to increases in depth.
B. is constant.
C. decreases due to increases in depth.
D. is uncertain.
Return
b. Relative PressureKnown as gage pressure,
pressure that is measured relative to local atmospheric pressure.
p= p
abs
p
a
. p can be positive , negative or zero.
c. VacuumIt is the negative relative pressure.
The state that the absolute pressure is less than atmospheric
pressure.
a.Absolute PressurePressure that is measured above absolute
vacuum (absolute zero). we express it with p
abs
p
abs
0 .
2.4. Pressure Expression and Mearurements
2.4.1. .. .Expression of Pressure
Cartoon
different reference
AttentionRelative pressure is used in calculation without extra explanation.
Vacuum value p
v
) (
a abs abs a
p p p p p < =

Kinescope
2.4.2. .. .Unit of Pressure
a. Stress unit
Based on the definition of pressure: N/m
2
PakN/ m
2
kPa
b. Barometric pressure
Standard barometric pressure1 (atm)=1.01310
5
Pa=101.3 kPa
Engineering barometric pressure1(at)=9.810
4
Pa=98kPa
c. Height of liquid column
Height of water column mH
2
O
for 1atm,
for 1at ,
Height of mercury column mmHg
for 1atm,
for 1at,
O mH
a
p
h
2
33 . 10
9800
101300
= = =

O mH
a
p
h
2
10
9800
98000
= = =

mmHg h 760
8 . 9
3
10 6 . 13
101300
=

=
mmHg h 736
8 . 9
3
10 6 . 13
98000
=

=
Example 1: What are the absolute pressure and relative
pressure of the point 2m below water free surface?
(Assume absolute pressure at the free surface is 1at)
SolutionAbsolute pressure:
2 3
0
2
98000 9800 2
117.6kpa 1.2at 1.2 gf/cm
abs a
N N
p p gh p gh m
m m
k
= + = + = +
= = =
Relative pressure
2
9800 2 19.6 0.2at
abs a
kN
p p p gh
m
= = = = =
Question 1Metal gage value is
A. absolute pressure.
B. relative pressure.
C. sum of absolute pressure and local
barometric pressure.
D. sum of relative pressure and local
barometric pressure.

2.4.3 Manometers
U-tube Manometers
Piezometric Tube
Inclined Differential Manometer
U-tube Manometer
>1atm:
1 1 1 A
p p gh = +
2 a
p p gh = +
1 2
p p =
1 1 A a
p p gh gh = +
12 is Equipressure Surface , so
1
<<
MA
p gh =
if:
A a
p p gh = +
gage pressure:
<1atm:
vacuum:
1 1 1 A
p p gh gh = + +
2 a
p p =
1 2
p p =
1 1 A a
p p gh gh =
12 is equipressure surface, so
1 1 vA
p gh gh = +
vA
p gh =
1
<<
if:
A a
p p gh =
1 1 MA
p gh gh =
MA
p gh =
ChoiceA mercury U-tube piezometer, is fixed on a
closed vessel shown in figure. Point 1,2,3 are at the same
level, then
A. p
1
=p
2
=p
3
.
B. p
1
>p
2
>p
3
.
C. p
1
<p
2
<p
3
.
D. p
2
<p
1
<p
3

U-tube piezometer
Piezometric Tube
>1atm:
A a
p p gh = +
gage pressure:
<1atm:
a A
p p gh = +
gage pressure:
MA
p gh =
MA
p gh =
If the pressure of measured point A is very small, the following
two means can be used to lift measure accuracy,through
enlarging piezometric tube read on the scale,
1 Piezometric tube may be inclined. If the read on the scale
is l, the pressure head ( vertical height) h is:
p
A
=( (( (gh= ( (( (glsin
2 Put in a liquid with low density. Its density ( (( (' '' '< ( (( (
so we will have larger h.
h
A
p
0
l

2.5 Piezometer
Inclined Manometer
if:
2 1
p p >
1
sin h l =
rising:
falling:
2 1 2
h l A A =
1 2
h h h = +
( ) ( )
2 1 2 1 2
sin
a a
p p g h h p gl A A = + + = + +
1 2
A A <<
2
sin p gl =
( ) ( )
2 1 2 1 2
sin
M
p g h h gl A A = + = +
if:
Choice 1As shown in the figure
A. p
0
=p
a
.
B. p
0
>p
a
.
C. p
0
<p
a
.
D. Uncertain.

A. 1.5m.
B. 1.125m.
C. 2m.
D. 11.5m

Choice 2The free surface in piezometric tube is 1.5m higher than liquid
surface in a closed vessel as shown in figure, . What is the relative pressure in
the height of water column? Liquid in the vessel is gasoline. =7.35KN/m
3

1. In traditional experimentwhy is the mercury used as working

fluid of U-tube piezometer?
1.Low compressibility.2.Low evaporation pressure.3.High density.
2. Two fluids are in the same vessel shown in figure,
1
<
2
, and
two piezometric tubes are fixed on the vessel wall. Is the
liquid elevation of piezometric tube shown in figure true?

Yes
Example 2.2 as shown in Fig2.2, for mercury =13600
kg/m
3
and water
1
=1000kg/m
3
h=15cmwhat is the
pressure difference between point A and C.
Solution
so
4 1 1 2 1 1 A
p p gh p gh = + = +
3 1 2 1 1 2 C
p p gh p gh = + = +
( )
2 1 1 1 2 A c
p p p p g h h = +
( )
2 1 2 1
p p g h h gh = =
( )
1 1 2 1 A c
p p gh g h h gh gh = + =
( )
2
13600 1000 9.8 0.15 18522 Nm
A c
p p = =
so
and
Example 2.3 p
MA
=0.25atm
|
=13600 kg/m
3

;
=800kg/m
3
h=0.5mh
1
=200mmh
2
=250mm
h
3
=220mmwhat is the pressure in vessel B.
Solution for 1-1
2-2
3-3
p
M
=p
4
and
From these equations
and
( )
1 1 MA
p p g h h = +

=
2 1 1
p p gh =
|
3 2 3
p p gh = +
;
4 3 2 M
p p p gh = =
|
( )
1 3 2 M MA
p p gh gh gh gh = + +
; | |

2
26100 N m
M
p =
Chinese Text:
P36: 2-1, 2-3, 2-4, 2-8,2-9
Exercise
In a relative equilibrium fluid, there is inertia forces besides gravity .
2.5 Fluid in Relative Equilibrium
0 a
a. Uniform Linear Acceleration
b. Uniform Rotation about a Vertical Axis
Relative EquilibriumRelative rest or equilibrium state that there is no
relative motion between fluid particles or between fluid and
container. There is no relative motion , so there is no shearing stress
existing in fluid or between fluid and wall .
a. Uniform Linear Acceleration
Consider the unit mass forces including inertia force and gravity:
So C= p
0
Because
( )
x y z
dp f dx f dy f dz = + +
0
( ) a p p x gz = +
x
f a =
0
y
f =
z
f g =
0
( )
a
p p g x z
g
= +
(1) Variation of pressure
Cartoon
d ( d d ) p a x g z =
1
( ) p ax gz C = + +
0
( ) p p ax gz = +
Integrated it
At the free liquid surface
x=z=0 . p=p
0
soC
1
= p
0 ,
and
(2) Equation of equipressure surface
0 dp =
0
x y z
f dx f dy f dz + + =
So:
Integrated it
At the free liquid surface x=z=0
Equation of free liquid surface
d d 0 a x g z + =
2
ax gz C + =
a
arctg
g
=
0
s
ax gz + =
s
a
z x
g
=
h
V
L
D
A
O
x
y
Example 2.4 An open tank containing water, moves
upwards with a velocity V=10m/s, water density
1000kg/m
3
and D2mh0.3mL=8mif this tank
decelerate and stop with a distance of s=100mwhat is the
pressure of point A
2 2
2
10
0.5 m s
2 2 100
V
a
s
= = =

, 0
x y z
f a f f g = = =
d ( d d d )
x y z
p f x f y f z = + +
p ax gz C = +
( ) C g D h = +
( )
p ax gz g D h = + +
h
V
L
D
A
O
x
y
solution
B.C.x=0, z=D+hp= p
0
, so
Pressure distribution is
A(x4 m, z=1 m),
( )
( )
2
1000 0.5 4 1000 9.8 1 1000 9.8 2.0 0.3 14740 N m
A
p ax gz g D h = + +
= + + =
Integrated it
or :
pressure distribution is
b. Uniform Rotation about a Vertical Axis
(1) Variation of pressure
2
r z
f r f g = =
2 2
x y z
f x f f g = = = y
2 2 2
d ( d d d ) ( d d ) p x x y y g z r r g z = + =
2 2
3
( )
2
r
p g z C
g
= +

2 2
0
( )
2
r
p p g z
g

= +
When r=0z=0p=p
0
C
3
=p
0
p=const
Free surface equation expressed
in relative pressure
0 0
( )
s
p p g z z p gh = + = +
Explanation Pressure in a relative equilibrium
rotating liquid is proportional to the depth.
Pressure at any point
(2) Equation of equipressure surface
Equipressure surface is a cluster of rotational paraboloid
2 2
0
( )
2
r
p p g z
g

= +
2 2
1
2
s
z r
g
=
2 2
4
1
2
z r C
g
= +
At free surfacer=0z=0, C
4
=0
(3) Applicarions
i. Centrifugal Casting
pressure distribution is
2 2
0
( )
2
r
p p g z
g

= +
2 2
1
( )
2
p r gz C = +
Roof pressure
2 2
0
2
r
p p

= +
When r=0z=0p=p
0
=C
(3) Applicarions
ii. Centrifugal Fan
pressure distribution is
2 2 2
0
( )
2
R r
p p g z
g

| |
|
\ .

= +
2 2
1
( )
2
p r gz C = +
When r=Rz=0p=p
0
Roof pressure
( )
2 2 2
0
( )
2
R r
p p

=
0
2 2
2
R
C p g
g

=
example2.5 H180mmD600mm7000kg/m
3
,
what is the pressure of point M
a. n0; b. n600r/min
b. n 600r/min, the pressure of point M
and
so
4
7000 9.81 0.18 1.24 10 Pa
M
p gH = = =
2 2
2
r
p gH g
g

= +
2 20 rad s n = =
2 0.3 m r D = =
( ) ( )
2 2
6
7000 9.81 0.18 7000 20 0.3 2 1.25 10 Pa
M
p = + =
a. n 0; the pressure of point M is:
solution
Chinese Text:
P36: 2-6, 2-7, 2-10, 2-12,2-13, 2-14,2-18
Exercise
Chapter Two Fluid Statics
1
grad 0 f p

0
lim

n
A
F
p
A
=
x y z n
p p p p = = =
4.Fluid in relative equilibrium .(2 types)
Key Points
d ( d d d )
x y z
p f x f y f z = + +
p
z C
g
+ =
0
( )
a
p p g x z
g
= +
2
ax gz C + =
1.Stress characters of a static fluid.
2.Differential equation of fluid equilibrium. Equipressure surface.
3. Pressure distribution of static fluid Absolute pressure,
relative pressure, vacuum value. Piezometric head.
2 2
0
( )
2
r
p p g z
g

= +
2 2
4
1
2
z r C
g
= +
Chapter 3
Concepts and Basic Equation of
Fluids in motion
( one dimension, ideal fluids)
j[7]|7| j[7]|7| j[7]|7| j[7]|7|
Contents
1. Methods to Study Fluids in Motion
2. Flow Classification
3. Pathline ( _ __ _) and Streamline (_ _ _ _)
4. Streamtube ( ) and Discharge ( )
5. Continuity Equation for Steady Flow in a
Conduit
6. Motion Differential Equation for Ideal 1-D
Flow & The Bernoulli Equation Along a
Streamline
Contents
7. Differential Equation for Ideal Flow along
Normal Line
8. The Bernoulli Equation for 1-D pipe flow
9. Application of The Bernoulli Equation
10. The Linear-Momentum ( )Equation and
Moment-of-Momentum ( ) Equation for
Ideal Flow
3.1 Methods to Study Fluids in Motion
1. Lagrangian Approach
(|| || || ||)
2. Eulerian Approach
( )
3. System and Control Volume
4. Eulerian Acceleration
A

A

B
B
viewpoints:
a individual fluid particle
b certain point in space
Lagrangian Description of Motion is the description that
every fluid partide in flow field is observed as a
function of time.
Space
coordinates

=
=
=
) , , , (
) , , , (
) , , , (
t c b a z z
t c b a y y
t c b a x x
1. Lagrangian Approach
A

A

B
B
Euler Approach is the description that the motion
factors of every space point in flow field are
observed as a function of time.
flow field description.
Flow field motion factors are the continuous functions of time
and spacex,y,z
Eulerian Description is utilized widely in engineering.
2. Eulerian Approach
(x, y, z) -----Eulerian Variables
( )
( )
( )
, , ,
, , ,
, , ,
x y z t
p p x y z t
V V x y z t

3. System (_, _, _, _, and Control Volume jj jj jj jj
Definition of a System
A system refers to a specific mass of fluid within the boundaries
defined by a closed surface.
Shape may change
mass no change
A control volume refers to a fixed region in space, which does not
move or change shape.
The surface surrounding the control volume is called control surface
3. System (_, _, _, _, and Control Volume jj jj jj jj
Shape no change
mass may change
Definition of a Control Volume
1
1
2
2
1 11 1. Eulerian cceleration
( )
, , , V x y z t

t :
position:x, y, z
t t +
:
position:
velocity:
( )
, , x x y y z z + + +
( )
, , , t V x x y y z z t + + + +

velocity:
y
x
z
0


t
(x, y, z)
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
0
0
0
, , , , , ,
lim
1
lim , , , , , ,
lim
x
t
t
t
u x x y y z z t t u x y z t
a
t
u u u u
u x y z t x y z t u x y z t
t
x y z t
u t u x u y u z
t t x t y t z t

+ + + +
=
(
= + + + +
(


(
= + + +
(

0 0 0
lim , lim , lim
t t t
y
x z
u v w
t t t

= = =

y
x
z
0


t
(x, y, z)
so
d
d
x
u u u u u
a u v w
t t x y z

= = + + +

and
d
d
d
d
d
d
x
y
z
u u u u u
a u v w
t t x y z
v v v v v
a u v w
t t x y z
w w w w w
a u v w
t t x y z

= = + + +

= = + + +

= = + + +

or:
( )
V
a V V
t

= +

i j k
x y z

= + +

Similarly
Acceleration of particles is composed of two parts
1Local Acceleration
the change of velocity at every point with time.
2Convective Acceleration
the change of velocity with position
d
d
p p p p p
u v w
t t x y z

= + + +

d
d
u v w
t t x y z

= + + +

For density and pressure:
General form:
d
d
V
t t

= +

. The Total Derivative

example3.1 velocity is:
2 2
3 2 V x yi y j z k = +

(m/s),
What is the acceleration of point (3,1,2).
solution:
2 2 2
0 (2 ) ( 3 ) 0 27
x
u u u u
a u v w x y xy y x m s
t x y z

= + + + = + + + =

2
2 2
0 0 ( 3 ) ( 3) 2 0 9
y
v v v v
a u v w x y y z m s
t x y z

= + + + = + + + =

2
2 2
0 0 ( 3 ) 0 2 4 64
z
w w w w
a u v w x y y z z m s
t x y z

= + + + = + + + =

So, the acceleration of point (3,1,2) :
27 9 64 a i j k = + +

3.2
Classification of Fluid Flow
Classification of Fluid Flow
Based on the Characteristic of Fluid
Based on the State of Flow
Based on the Number of Space Variables
1. Based on the Characteristics of Fluid
Ideal flow and Viscous flow
0 or =
Incompressible flow and compressible flow
or const =
2. Based on the State of Flow
Steady flow and unsteady flow
0 or
t

Rotational (|) flow and irrotational () flow

Laminar flow () and turbulent flow (()
Subsonic flow (,) .Transonic flow (|,)
and supersonic flow (],)
Uniform flow and non-uniform flow
0
V
or
s

3. Based on the Number of Space Variables

One dimensional flow ()
Two dimensional flow ()
Three dimensional flow ()
4. Steady flow and unsteady flow
is the flow whose motion factors dont
change with time. That is:
Steady Flow
( )
, , , V V x y z =

0
V
t

H=C
!,?,3
m
m
m
Unsteady flow is the flow that at least one
of its motion factors changes with time.
That is
unsteady Flow
( )
, , , V V x y z t =

0
V
t

H!
H?
H3
!
?
3
m
m
m
5 1-D, 2-D and 3-D Flow
One-dimensional Flow:
(2)cross-sectional average values
S
fluid motion factors are function of a space coordinate.
(1) Ideal flow.
(3) motion factors are functions of
curved coordinates s.
( , ) x t =
( , ) x t =
( , ) s t =
( , ) s t =
Two-dimensional Flow:
fluid motion factors are function of two space coordinates.
(Not only limited to rectangular coordinates) .
Fluid flows motion factors are functions of three space
coordinates.
For example: Water flow in a
natural river whose cross
section shape and magnitude
change along the direction of
flow; water flows around the
ship.
Three-dimensional Flow:
A pathline is the trace after a single particle
travels in a field of flow over a period of time.
(1).Definition
Kinescope1
Kinescope2
3.3 Pathline (_ _ _ _) and Streamline (_ _ _ _)
1. Pathline
(2).Equation of Pathline
uvw are functions of both time t and space
(xyz). Here t is an independent variable
dy
dx dz
u v w
dt = = =
A Streamline is a curve that show the
direction of a number of particles at the
at the same instant of time.
The curve indicates the velocity
vectors of any points occupying on the
streamline.
Kinescope
2. Streamline
1. Definition
a
V

b
V

c
V

d
V

e
V

2. .. .Equation of Streamline
Select point A in streamline, ds is a differential arc length, u is the
velocity at point A
ds dxi dyj dzk = + +

ds
u
A
V ui vj wk = + +


Directional cosine between velocity
vector and coordinates
cos( , )
v
V y
V
=

cos( , )
u
V x
V
=

cos( , )
w
V z
V
=

Directional cosine between ds

and coordinates
cos( , )
dx
ds x
ds
=

cos( , )
dy
ds y
ds
=

cos( , )
dz
ds z
ds
=

// ds V

dy
dx dz
u v w
= = Streamline equation
So,
velocity vector is tangent to streamline
cos( , ) cos( , ) ds x V x =

cos( , ) cos( , ) ds y V y =

cos( , ) cos( , ) ds z V z =

u dx
V ds
=
v dy
V ds
=
w dz
V ds
=
u v w V
dx dy dz ds
= = =
3. .. .Character of Streamline
b.At the same instant of time, streamlines
can not intersect.
c.Streamline cant be a folding line,
but a smooth curve.
U
2
L
1
L
2
U
1
d. In steady flow, streamlines and
pathlines coincide.
m
t2
Stream
line
Path
Line
t1
m
t1
m
t3
t3
t2
(b)Unsteady
Flow
a.streamline:many fluid particles, one instant of time
(pathline: a fluid particle, a period of time)
1 u x = +
v y =
Example

Find the streamline equation of point12.

Solution
d d x y
u v
=
so
d d
1
x y
x y
=
+
integrate it :
( )
ln 1 ln ln x y C + = +
or
( )
1 x y C + =
the streamline equation of point12:
( )
1 4 x y + =
The velocity of a 2-d flow field is :
3.4 Streamtube ( ) and Discharge ( )
Consider a closed curve (not streamline) in the flow field,
then draw streamlines through every point on it, so as to
form a tube-shaping space whose walls are streamlines. This
tube is called the streamtube.
Fluid fulling the stream tube is called the tube flow and the
limit of a tube flow is a streamline.
Stream tube and tube flow
1. .. .Streamtube ( )
2. .. .Tube Flow: ( )
The section is perpendicular to the direction of fluid
flow (such as pipe flow and channel flow).
1
1
2
2
Cross Section
4.1 Total Flow Analysis Method
If the walls of the stream tube are extended to the flow
field boundary, the fluid flow within the boundary is the
Total Flow.
3. .. .Total Flow ( )
4. .. .Cross Section (|; |; |; |;)
Amount of fluid pass through a cross section (such as the
section in the channel or pipe) per unit time.
Volume discharge m
3
/s
Mass discharge kg/s
Weight discharge N/s
5. Discharge ( )
A
Q VdA =
}
m
A
Q VdA =
}

g
A
Q gVdA =
}

6. Mean Velocity (|j |j |j |j)
The velocities of points on the same cross section in
the total flow are different, so usually an average
velocity is used instead of the real velocity over the
cross section, this average velocity is called the mean
velocity.
Q
V
A
=
1.What are streamline and pathline What are their differences
2.What are streamline and pathline s characters
3.Is there any streamlines in real flowWhat is purpose of
introducing the concept of streamline
Questions
Streamlines are curves that show the mean direction of a number of particles at
the same instant of time; curves are tangent to the velocity vectors of any points
occupying on the streamline.
Pathline is the trace after a single particle travels in a field of flow over a period
of time.
a.At the same instant of time, streamlines can not intersect.
b.Streamline cant be a folding line, it must be a smooth curve.
c.Streamline cluster density reflects the amount of velocity. (Dense
streamlines mean large velocity; while sparse streamlines mean small velocity.)
No. It is convenient to analyze the fluid flow and define the trends of fluid
flow.
5.What are the characters of steady flow
6.What are the research objects of Eulerian Description and
Lagrangian Description of MotionIn engineering, which description
of motion is utilized?
Steady flow is the flow whose hydraulic motion factors dont change with time;
In steady flow, streamline and pathline coincide, and local acceleration is equal to zero.
0
t
A
=

The research object of Eulerian Description is flow field and the research
object of Lagrangian Description of Motion is fluid particles; In engineering,
Eulerian Description is used widely.
3.5 Continuity Equation for Steady Flow
in a Conduit (1-D) |[,| |[,| |[,| |[,| )
1.All the parameters do not vary across the cross-sections
1-D flow:
1
1
2
2
s
!
V!
A!

?
V?
A?

2.Only the mean parameters of the cross-sections are
considered.
or:
3.5 Continuity Equation for Steady Flow
in a Conduit (1-D) |[,| |[,| |[,| |[,| )
Consider a control volume and the conditions below:
1No fluid can leave or enter the control volume through the
tube wall.
2Fluid is a continuum, and there is no gap in the tube flow.
3Ignore the possibility that the mass turns to energy.
1
1
2
2
s
!
V!
A!

?
V?
A?

1. Select a control volume 1122 in a flow field
volume
left surface A1 (cross section):
A
1
, V
1
,

1
right surface A2 (cross section):
A
2
, V
2
,
1
V
2
V
1
1
2
2
s
!
V!
A!

?
V?
A?

2
3.5 Continuity Equation for Steady Flow
in a Conduit (1-D) (|[,| |[,| |[,| |[,| )
Based on the law of conservation of mass, there is
1
1
2
2
s
!
V!
A!

?
V?
A?

1 2
1 1 1 2 2 2
A A
V dA V dA d
t

} } }
left surface flow in (dt):
1
1
1
1
A
V dA dt
}

right surface flow out (dt):

2
2
2 2 A
V dA dt
}

Mass change (dt):

dt d
t

}
Physical meaning
The net mass discharge entering the control volume is equal to
the mass increased in unit time due to the change in density.
Fit for
Steady flow, unsteady flow, compressible and incompressible
fluid, ideal fluid and real fluid.
1 2
1 1 1 2 2 2
A A
V dA V dA d
t

} } }
Continuity equation in total flow (general form)
1 2
1 1 1 2 2 2
A A
V dA V dA d
t

} } }
If density do not vary across the inlet and outlet areas:
Fit for
All steady flows within solid boundary, including compressible
and incompressible fluid, ideal fluid and real fluid.
0
t

Continuity Equation in Steady Total Flow

For steady flow:
Thus:
A
VdA
V
Q
A A
}
= =
1 2
1 2
1 2
V A V A =
1 2
1 1 1 2 2 2
0
A A
V dA V dA =
} }
1 1 2 2
1 2
V A V A =
1 2
1 1 1 2 2 2
A A
VdA V dA d
t

} } }
Continuity Equation in Incompressible Total Flow
Physical meaning
For the incompressible fluid, mean velocity is inverse proportional
to the cross-section area.

1 1 2 2
V A V A =
or
1 2
Q Q =
Fit for
Incompressible fluid, including steady and unsteady flow, ideal
and real fluid.
For incompressible fluid:
1 2
1 1 2 2
0
A A
V dA V dA =
} }
Const =
1 2
1 1 1 2 2 2
A A
VdA V dA d
t

} } }
Continuity Equation in Branching Total Flow
1
1
Q
1
2
2
3
3
Q
2
Q
3
junction
1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3
V A V A V A = +
1 1 2 2 3 3
V A V A V A = +
Continuity equation for junction
( ) ( )
in out
VA VA =

( ) ( )
in out
VA VA =

3.6 Motion Differential Equation for Ideal 1-D
Flow & The Bernoulli Equation Along a Streamline
|[j]|||]| |[j]|||]| |[j]|||]| |[j]|||]|) )) )
1. Motion Differential Equation for Ideal 1-D Flow
2. The Bernoulli Equation Along a Streamline
1. Motion Differential Equation for Ideal 1-D Flow
Step 1: select a differential streamtube (a streamline)
Step 2: select a small cylindrical element
s
s
pdA
ds
dz

d d
p
p s A
s

| |
+
|

\ .
d d g s A
1. Motion Differential Equation for Ideal 1-D Flow
Step 2: select a small cylindrical element
Length: ds, area: dA
Left pressure: p,
Right pressure:
p
p ds
s

| |
+
|

\ .
Mass force: f
z
= - g
Fluid density: ( (( (
Mass : m=( (( (dsdA
Angle:
s
pdA
ds
dz

d d
p
p s A
s

| |
+
|

\ .
d d g s A
Mass force (gravity):
Step 3: Force analysis ( s direction)
cos gdsdA
Surface force:
Left Surface:
pdA
right Surface:
p
p ds dA
s

| |
+
|

\ .
s
pdA
ds
dz

d d
p
p s A
s

| |
+
|

\ .
d d g s A
d d d d d cos
s
p
F p A p s A g s A
s

| |
= +
|

\ .

s s
F ma =

cos
s
p
pdA p ds dA gdsdA dsdAa
s

| |
+ =
|

\ .
cos
s
p
F pdA p ds dA
s
gdsdA

| |
= +
|

\ .

s s
ma dsdAa =
Step 4: Introducing Newton s Second Law
s
pdA
ds
dz

d d
p
p s A
s

| |
+
|

\ .
d d g s A
so:
and
s
pdA
ds
dz

d d
p
p s A
s

| |
+
|

\ .
d d g s A
s
V V
a V
t s

= +

1
0
z p V V
g V
s s t s

+ + + =

1
cos 0
s
p
g a
s

+ + =

cos
z
s

That is:
For steady flow:
( Euler Equation)
Motion Differential Equation for Ideal 1-D Flow
Integrate:
s
pdA
ds
dz

d d
p
p s A
s

| |
+
|

\ .
d d g s A
1
0
z p V V
g V
s s t s

+ + + =

1
0
z p V
g V
s s s

+ + =

d 1 d d
0
d d d
z p V
g V
s s s
+ + =
1
d d d 0 g z p V V

+ + =
integrate
For incompressible flow: ( (( (=c
2. The Bernoulli Equation Along a Streamline
y
x
z
0


! !! !
? ?? ?
z1
z2
p1
V1
p2
V2
s
g
2
1
1
2
V
gz dp C + + =
}

2
1
2
p
V
gz C

+ + =
2
2
2
p
V
z C
g
g

+ + =
2 2
1 1 2 2
1 2
2 2
p V p V
z z
g g
g g

+ + = + +
1
d d d 0 g z p V V

+ + =
a. Condition
2. The Bernoulli Equation Along a Streamline
1 Steady flow. .. .
2 Incompressible fluid. .. .
3 Ideal flow;
4 along a streamline;
5 The only mass force is gravity. .. .
y
x
z
0


! !! !
? ?? ?
z1
z2
p1
V1
p2
V2
s
g
2 2
1 1 2 2
1 2
2 2
p V p V
z z
g g
g g

+ + = + +
2
2
2
p
V
z C
g
g

+ + =
b. Geometrical meanings
z (m) the elevation height above datum surface o-o . Elevation Head
(m) rising height of fluid with unit weight under the action of
pressure P. Pressure Head
(m) rising height of fluid with unit weight under the action of
velocity V. velocity Head
(m) : Total head
Total head line of ideal fluid flow is horizontal
Head LineCurves reflecting head change along the flow.
p
g
2
2
V
g
2
2
p
V
z
g
g

+ +
2
2
p
V
z C
g
g

+ + =
Total head line of ideal fluid flow is horizontal
b. Geometrical meanings
2
2
p
V
z C
g
g

+ + =
c. Physical meanings
Z (Nm/N) elevation potential energy per unit weight of fluid
(Nm/N ): kinetic energy per unit weight of fluid.
(Nm/N) pressure potential energy per unit weight of fluid
Physical meaning In a steady flow of incompressible ideal fluid
under gravity, the mechanical energy per unit weight of fluid
along a streamline is the same. Generally different for different
streamlines.
(Nm/N ): mechanical energy per unit weight of fluid.
p
g
2
2
V
g
2
2
p
V
z
g
g

+ +
3.7 Differential Equation for Ideal Flow along
Normal Line
Step 2: select a small cylindrical element
Length: dr, area: dA
Step 1: select a streamline
s
dA
dz
dr

d
p
p r
r

p
d d g r A
r
C
Mass force:(gravity)
Step 3: Force analysis (r direction)
cos gdrdA
Surface force:
Left Surface:
pdA
right Surface:
p
p dr dA
r

| |
+
|

\ .
Centripetal acceleration at normal direction:
r r
F ma =

2
V r
s
dA
dz
dr

d
p
p r
r

p
d d g r A
r
C
2
d d d d d cos d d
p V
p A p r A g r A r A
r r

| |
+ =
|

\ .
cos
z
r

so:
and:
(1)
s
dA
dz
dr

d
p
p r
r

p
d d g r A
r
C
cos
z
r

2
d d d d d d
V p z
r A r A g r A
r p r


= +

2
( )
p V
z
r g gr

+ =

2
V p z
g
r p r

= +

( ) 0
p
z
r g

+ >

p
z
g
+
r
r
p
z
g
+
Application 1
1. If streamline flexures (, , , ,) are small and they are
nearly parallel to each other r= = = = so
( ) 0
p
z
r g

+ =

r
_
1
2
1 2
1 2
p p
z z
g g
+ = +
pressure distribution of static fluids
2
( )
p V
z
r g gr

+ =

2. If the effects of gravity can be neglected. (a, b...)
( ) 0
p
r g

>

( ) 0
p
z
r g

+ >

3. r= = = =and neglecting the effects of gravity.

0
p
r

1 2
p p = That is:
' j
'
j
( ) 0
p
z
r g

+ =

r
_
1
2
( ) 0
p
r g

2
( )
p V
z
r g gr

+ =

Application 2
2
2
p V
z C
g g
+ + =
2
0
2
p V p V V
z z
r g g r g g r
| | | |
+ + = + + =
| |

\ . \ .
or
p V V
z
r g g r
| |
+ =
|

\ .
According to Bernoulli equation:
If mechanical energy keep a constant in the whole
flow field
(2)
so
2
V V V
gr g r

1
Vr C =
p V V
z
r g g r
| |
+ =
|

\ .
(2)
(1)
2
( )
p V
z
r g gr

+ =

V V
r r

V r
V r
=

ln ln 0 d V d r + =
Velocity
distribution
Velocity distribution in
a straight tube
For horizontal flow
2
( )
V p
r r

=

2
1
2
2
2
C
p C
r
=
2
( )
p V
z
r g gr

+ =

' j
'
j
1
Vr C =
Substitute
Integrate it
3.8 The Bernoulli Equation for 1-D Ideal
Total flow
Condition
1 Steady flow. .. .
2 Incompressible fluid. .. .
3 Ideal flow;
4 along a streamline;
5 The only mass force is gravity. .. .
The Bernoulli Equation Along a Streamline
2
2
p
V
z C
g
g

+ + =
Review:
streamlines are parallel to each other
1. If streamlines are parallel to each other
For Total flow
1
1
2
2
2
( )
p V
z
r g gr

+ =

a
b
c
d
For 1-1 section:
a b
a b
p p
z z
g g
+ = +
a b
V V =
For 2-2 section:
c d
c d
p p
z z
g g
+ = +
c c
V V =
Ideal flow:
streamlines are parallel to each other
1
1
2
2
a
b
c
d
For 1-1 section:
2 2
2 2
a a b b
a b
p V p V
z z
g g g g
+ + = + +
For 2-2 section:
2 2
2 2
c c d d
c d
p V p V
z z
g g g g
+ + = + +
According the Bernoulli Equation Along a Streamline
2 2
2 2
a a c c
a c
p V p V
z z
g g g g
+ + = + +
2 2
1 1 2 2
1 2
2 2
p V p V
z z
g g
g g

+ + = + +
For parallel total flow, 1-1 and 2-2 section:
1
1
2
2
a
b
c
d
2. If streamlines are curves
*. Gradually Varied Flow and Rapidly Varied Flow ([ [ [ [)
!
!
?
?
3
3
1
1
Nearly parallel
Nearly straight line
Gradually Varied Flow
streamline flexures are small and they are nearly parallel to
each other.
Rapidly Varied Flow
streamlines are curves, angle between streamlines is large
( )
( )
!
!
?
?
3
3
1
1
p
g
For 1-1 and 4-4 section:
2 2
1 1 4 4
1 4
2 2
p V p V
z z
g g
g g

+ + = + +
Conditions
The Bernoulli Equation for Ideal total flow:
2
2
p
V
z C
g
g

+ + =
5 Gradually Varied Flow section. .. .
6 z and at the same point
1 Steady flow. .. .
2 Incompressible fluid. .. .
3 Ideal flow;
4 along a streamline;
5 The only mass force is gravity. .. .
4
3.9 Application of The Bernoulli Equation
2
2
p
V
z C
g
g

+ + =
Conditions
p
g
1 Steady flow. .. .
2 Incompressible fluid. .. .
3 Ideal flow;
4 The only mass force is gravity. .. .
5 Gradually Varied Flow section. .. .
6 z and at the same point
Problem 1 Problem 2
Application 1: The Pitot-statics Probe | | | |-' ' ' '
Point S is called the stagnation(]) ]) ]) ])) point.
The kinetic energy of fluid flow at the stagnation point is all
transformed into pressure energy.

\
A
B
2
2
t
p
V
h
g
g

= +

:
p
h
g
=

2
2
V
h
g
=
h is the liquid surface difference between total pressure tube and static pressure tube.
Write Bernoulli equation from point A to point C along streamline:

\
A
B
2
2
t
p
V
h
g
g

= +

:
p
h
g
=

2
2
V
h
g
=
2
2
t
p
p
V
g g
g
+ =

( )
( )
2 2 2
t
t
p p
V g g h h g h
g

= = =

h p g =
p g
=
2
2 V g
t
h
=
_
_
^
_
?
!
z
z
p g
2
2 V g
The Bernoulli Equation for Ideal total flow:
Venturi Flowmeter
For 1-1and 2-2 sections:
2 2
1 1 2 2
2 2
p V p V
g g
g g

+ = +
Continuity equation:
1 1 2 2
V A V A =
so
1
2 1
2
A
V V
A
=
Application 2: Venturi Flowmeter 1, 1, 1, 1,
so:
discharge:
( )
2
1
1 1 2
2
2 1
A
V p p
A

(
| |
= (
|
(
\ .

( )
2
1
1 1 2
2
2 1
A
Q A p p
A

(
| |
= (
|
(
\ .

For real flow
( )
2
1
1 1 2
2
2 1
A
Q A p p
A

(
| |
= (
|
(
\ .

correct factor
Example 3.6, d
1
=250 mm.d
2
=100 mm, the mercury U-tube
piezometer h=800 mm, what is the discharge in the pipe?
Solutionpressure difference between 1-1 and 2-2 sections:
( )
( )
1 2 2
13600 1000 9.8 0.8 98784 Pa
Hg H O
p p gh = = =
and
2
1 1
2 2
A d
A d
| |
=
|
\ .
so:
( )
( )
2
2
3
4 1
1 1 2
2
0.25
m
2 1 2 98784 1000 2.5 1 0.112
s
4
A
Q A p p
A

(
| |
(
= ( = =
|

(
\ .

Application 3: siphon and cavitation 1|[ 1|[ 1|[ 1|[) )) )
Example 3.7 Water is siphoned out of a tank by a
bent pipethe top section h
1
=3.6m, if the
evaporating pressure for this water is 0.32atmwhat
is the distance h when the discharge in the pipe is
the most
b
h1=3.6m
/
h
Solution
2
B
V gh =
A
1
0
M
p
h h
g
+ + =
b
h1=3.6m
/
h
2
A B
V V gh V = = =
from continuity equation:
Write Bernoulli equation from point A to point B :
Select B section as the base section for the free surface and B section
A
1
0
M
p
h h
g
+ + =
h
1
keep a constant,
( )
A
0.32 1.0 atm 0.68 101325 68901 Pa
M
p = = =
A
1
68901
3.6 3.42 m
1000 9.81
M
p
h h
g

= = =

2 V gh =
b
h1=3.6m
/
h
h V p
MA
p
Amin
=0.32atm p
MAmin
=(1-0.32)atm
1 Momentum Equation in Steady Total Flow
( ) d MV
dK
F
dt dt
= =

Momentum LawThe rate of change of momentum of system about time is

equal to the vector sum of all forces on the system, that is,
p1
V1
p2
V2
A2
1
1
2
2
A1
x
y
z
1'
1'
2'
2'
3.9 The Linear-Momentum ) )) )Equation and
Moment-of-Momentum ) )) ) Equation for Ideal Flow
Select a tube flow in a steady total flow as the control volume, as is
shown in figure. After time dt, fluid flows from 11-22 to 1' 1'- 2' 2'.
p1
V1
p2
V2
A2
1
1
2
2
A1
x
y
z
1'
1'
2'
2'
left surface flow in (dt):
1
1
1
1
A
V dA dt
}

right surface flow out (dt):

2
2
2 2 A
V dA dt
}

mass momentum
( )
1 1 1 1
1
A
V V dA dt
}

( )
2 2 2 2
2
A
V V dA dt
}

( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1
2 1
A A
d MV V V dA dt V V dA dt =
} }

The change of momentum of tube flow in dtsteady flowis:
p1
V1
p2
V2
A2
1
1
2
2
A1
x
y
z
1'
1'
2'
2'
The rate of change of momentum
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1
2 1
A A
d MV V V dA dt V V dA dt =
} }

( )
2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1
2 1
A A
d MV
V V dA V V dA
dt
=
} }

( ) d MV
dK
F
dt dt
= =

Momentum Equation in Steady Total Flow:

2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1
2 1
A A
V V dA V V dA F =

} }

2 2
A
V dA AV =
}
2
2
2
1
A
A
V dA
V
dA
A
V
V A

} | |
= =
}
|
\ .
Defining:
so:
2 1
2 2 2 1 1 1
Q V Q V F =



Incompressible momentum equation in steady total flows
2 1
2 2 2 1 1 1
Q V Q V F =



( )
2 1
Q V V F =

Generally, assuming =1.0

1-D continuity equation:
2 2 1 1
Q Q Q = =
( )
( )
( )
2 1
2 1
2 1
x
y
z
Q u u F
Q v v F
Q w w F
=

=

`

=

)

( )
2 1
Q V V F =

xyz:
1 Ideal fluid, incompressible steady flow.
2 Two cross sections must be gradually varied flow sections.
3 Discharge doesn t change along flow.
F

The sum of all forces on fluid in the control volume. This external
forces . include:
1 The mass forces on fluid in the control volume;
2 The surface forces on the control volume surface (dynamic
pressure and shearing force);
3 The total forces on fluid exerted by the surrounding boundaries,
( )
2 1
Q V V F =

Limit
( ) ( )
out in
QV QV F =


Branching Flow:
2 Moment-of-Momentum ( ) Equation
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1
2 1
A A
r V V dA r V V dA r F =

} }

2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1
2 1
A A
V V dA V V dA F =

} }

Moment-of-Momentum Equation
p1
V1
p2
V2
A2
1
1
2
2
A1
x
y
z
1'
1'
2'
2'
r is the position vector from o to the element
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1
2 1
A A
r V V dA r V V dA r F =

} }

1 =
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 1 1
Q r V Q r V r F =

Moment-of-Momentum Equation,
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1
Q r V Q r V r F =

Letting:
( )
( ) ( )
out
in
Q r V Q r V r F =



Branching Flow:
Example 3.10 A nozzle that discharges a 10cm-
diameter fluid jet into the air is on the right end of a
horizontal 4cm-diameter. The relative density of the fluid
is 0.85p
M1
=7.0`10
5
Pad
1
=10cmd
2
=4cmWhat is
the force exerted by fluid on the bolt s. (neglect friction).
select control volume 1122:
2
2 2
1 2 2
1 1
A d
V V V
A d
| |
= =
|
\ .
Bernoulli Equation between 11 and 22 section :
2 2
1 1 2
2 2
p V V
g
g g

+ =
So:
4
2 2 2
2
2 1 2
1
1
1
2 2 2
d V V V
p g
g g
d

| |
| |
| |
|
= =
| |
|
\ .
\ .
\ .
5
1
2
4 4
2
1
2
2 7 10
41.1m/s
4
0.85 1000 1
1
10
p
V
d
d

= = =
| | | |
| | | |

| |

|
|
|
|
\ .
\ . \ .
\ .
so
4
2
2
1 2
1
4
41.1 6.58m/s
10
d
V V
d
| |
| |
= = =
| |
\ .
\ .
2 2
3
1
1
0.1
6.58 0.0516m /s
2 2
d
Q V
| | | |
= = =
| |
\ . \ .
Momentum equation in x-direction:
( )
2 1 1 1
Q V V p A R =
( )
( ) ( )
1 1 2 1
2
5
7 10 0.1 0.85 1000 0.0516 41.1 6.58 3982N
4
R p A Q V V

=
= =
Solving Steps with Momentum Equation
1. Selecting control volume: Based on the problem, selecting the stream
between two gradually varied flow sections as the control volume;
2. Selecting coordinates: Determining the directions of coordinates axes,
magnitudes and directions of components of all forces and velocities on
each axe.
3. Plotting diagram for computation: Analyzing the forces on control volume
and plotting the directions of all forces on the control volume.
4. Writing momentum equation and solving it: Substituting conponents of all
forces and velocities on axes into momentum equation and solving it. All
the pressures are relative to the relative pressure.
Note: it is usually combined with energy equation and continuity equation
to solve problems.
Example1 Example2 Example3 Example4
1. Understand Eulerian Method and Lagrangian Method to
depict the flow of a fluid.
2. Understand Flow Classification pathline, streamline,
stream tube and discharge.
3. Understand continuity differential equation and one-
dimensional continuity equation.
4. Fluid differential equation of motion: Ideal fluid differential
equation of motion.
5. Bernoulli integral of Euler equation. Energy and
geometrical meanings of Bernoulli equation.
6. The Momentum Equation for Ideal Flow.
Chapter 3
Fluid Flow Concepts and Basic Equation
Key points