By the end of chapter 1, you will be able to:

Explain different steps involved in the generation of the petroleum. Describe the effect of pressure and temperature in the migration and conversion of petroleum.

Explain different entrapments which can hold the petroleum in place underground.
Name some of the duties of reservoir, production, formation and drilling engineers.

Chapter_1_Introduction
Petroleum and reservoirs
Main elements of a reservoir Origin of petroleum o Organic material deposition o Migration and conversion o Entrapment Quality of reservoir rock o Porosity o Permeability Petroleum Engineering Formation Evaluation Drilling Engineering Reservoir Engineering Production Engineering

Introduction/Main elements of a reservoir

Source rock (source of hydrocarbons) Reservoir trap (structural or stratigraphic)

Reservoir seal (to contain hydrocarbons within reservoir trap)

Quality of reservoir rock (reasonable porosity and permeability)

Introduction/Origin of petroleum/Organic deposition

Petroleum reservoirs are created through three sequential steps: deposition, migration/conversion and entrapment. A. Organic material deposition: Petroleum originates mainly from algae and plankton (fatty molecules called lipids). This organic material must be buried under a sediment or silt. The silt guards the organic material from aerobic consumption. Deposition process normally takes place in the river deltas or between shores and reefs (stagnant flow zone). The organic material and sediment form a source bed which is required for the remaining steps in the process. This is often called black shale or sedimentary rock. Black shale contains an organic feature called Kerogen enriched in high molecular weight organic chemicals.
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Introduction/Origin of petroleum/Organic deposition

B. Migration/Conversion: Pressure: Responsible for the primary migration Buoyancy: Responsible for the secondary migration Temperature: Responsible for petroleum generation

Introduction/Origin of petroleum/migration
Primary migration: The release of petroleum compounds after they are generated from Kerogen in source beds. The cause of expulsion of petroleum is due to the overburden pressure on the source rock, pushing out water and hydrocarbons.
Secondary migration: The expelled oil from the source bed passes through wider pores of more permeable porous rocks. Small droplets of petroleum coalesce to form larger volumes. Surrounding water pushes the oil and gas, which have a lower density, upward through the reservoir rock layer until they are accumulated in traps. This is caused by buoyancy forces.

Petroleum Formation and Occurance2nd edition, Tissot, B.P. and Welte, D.H., Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1984, 294.

Introduction/Origin of petroleum/conversion
For a reservoir to be formed, a porous rock (such as sandstone, dolomite and so on) must form above the source bed rock.

Petroleum Formation and Occurance2nd edition, Tissot, B.P. and Welte, D.H., Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1984, 294.

Introduction/Origin of petroleum/conversion
Conversion (Effect of temperature):
The series of events involved in the transformation of organics into petroleum is not well known. This conversion takes place during both the primary and secondary migrations. Temperature plays a major role in the conversion. Temperature in the porous rock is determined by the average surface T and the geothermal gradient. An average value is 30 C/km. In western Canada these values are: 0 C and 38 C/km. Some Types of Kerogen release crude oil and natural gas above 50 C. Although the overburden pressure is the driving force for the primary migration, it does not appear to be an important parameter in the chemistry of converting organic material to petroleum since a similar crude oil is obtained at a wide range of well depths at different locations in the world. 8

Introduction/Origin of petroleum/conversion
Conversion (Effect of temperature): Generation of crude oil is promoted at temperature between 50 C (1.3 km) and 160 C ( 4.2 km) considering an average geothermal gradient of 38 C/km. At temperatures higher than 160 C, the petroleum undergoes thermal degradation to form gas. At temperatures over 225-250 C, organic matter loses all its hydrogen and transforms into graphite. At temperatures lower than 50 C, Kerogen tends to be selectively degraded by bacteria where the lower density components are consumed and the higher density fluids remain (e.g. Bitumen within the Oilsands)
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Introduction/Origin of petroleum/conversion
Conversion (Effect of temperature):

Hydrocarbon Exploration and Production, Jahn, F., Cook, M., Graham, M., Elsevier, 2008, 2nd Edition 22.

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Introduction/Origin of petroleum/Summary

Earth, portrait of a Planet, 4th edition, Stephen Marshak, W.W. Norton & company, 2012

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Introduction/Origin of petroleum/Entrapment
C. Entrapment:
Entrapment occurs when the petroleum reaches an impermeable layer where no further migration can occur. This rock layer is known as a trap. There are four types of traps: structural, stratigraphic, combination and differential. C.1. Structural traps:

Structural traps are formed by folding (Anticline) or faulting (normal or thrust) or salt dome.
Folding occurs from compression and tension in the earths crust including uplifts caused by salt or shale. The inverted U-shape of the fold (the anticline) results in a trap where the upper layer (the cap rock) is impermeable to the oil. Fault traps result from shifting and displacement along a fault line, which places a reservoir layer adjacent to an impermeable layer.12

Introduction/Origin of petroleum/Entrapment
Structural trap (Anticline)
Anticline
Surface gravel

Shale

Gas Oil Sandstone

Gas Oil
Salt

Limestone

Where rock layers are folded into anticlines and synclines, the oil and gas migrates to the crests of the anticlines within the reservoir rock, and are trapped if overlain by an impermeable layer. If fractures occur, oil and gas may seep to the surface. Examples include the Bubbles and Jedney gas fields in northeastern British Columbia.
http://www.drillingfunds.com/common_traps.html

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Introduction/Origin of petroleum/Entrapment
Structural trap (Normal fault)
Surface gravel

Limestone

Shale Sandstone Gas

Salt

Oil

Faults drop one side down and push the other side up to place the reservoir rock against impermeable sealing rocks, forming a structural fault trap. An example is the Dunvegan gas field in northwestern Alberta.
http://www.drillingfunds.com/common_traps.html

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Introduction/Origin of petroleum/Entrapment
Structural trap (Thrust fault)
Gas

Sandstone Shale Limestone Oil In the foothills of Western Canada, east of the Rockies, the original limestone layer was first folded and then thrust-faulted over itself. An overlying seal of impermeable rock completes the structural trap. Examples include the Turner Valley oil and gas field and Jumping Pound gas field, both in south-western Alberta.
http://www.drillingfunds.com/common_traps.html

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Introduction/Origin of petroleum/Entrapment
Structural trap (Salt dome)

Sandstone

Shale

Salt dome Under the weight of overlying rock layers, layers of salt will push their way toward the surface in salt domes and ridges. Oil and gas are trapped in folds and along faults above the dome and within upturned porous sandstones along the flanks of the dome. Examples are found off Canada's East Coast.
http://www.drillingfunds.com/common_traps.html 16

Introduction/Origin of petroleum/Entrapment
C.2. Strarigraphical Traps:
Stratigraphic traps are formed by a change in the character of the reservoir rock (less permeable) or a change in the deposition environment where an impermeable layer is deposited around the reservoir rock. The layering must have both a vertical and lateral aspect to act as a trap. Three common stratigraphic traps: Pinch out, Reef, and Unconformity. Examples:

Reservoir Rock Sandstone Deolomite Reef limestone

Impermeable Layer Shale Limestone Limestone

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Introduction/Origin of petroleum/Entrapment
Stratigraphic trap (pinch out)
Gas

Limestone

Shale

Sandstone

Oil
This occurs where the porous limestone reservoir loses its porosity and becomes impermeable limestone, or the porous sandstone reservoir simply thins and pinches out. Overlying impermeable rocks act as seals. Examples include the D-1 Crossfield sour gas field and many oil and gas fields in Saskatchewan.
http://www.drillingfunds.com/common_traps.html

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Introduction/Origin of petroleum/Entrapment
Stratigraphic trap (reef)

Shale

Limestone Shale
Limestone

Porous ancient coral reefs grew in the warm seas that once covered much of Western Canada. They now provide prolific oil and gas reservoirs. Often overlying porous rock layers are "draped," or folded over the reefs and form separate traps. Overlying impermeable shales act as seals to the reservoirs. An example is the Leduc oil and gas 19 field in Alberta. http://www.drillingfunds.com/common_traps.html

Introduction/Origin of petroleum/Entrapment
Stratigraphic trap (unconformity)

Introduction to Oil and Gas Production, API, Dalla, Texas, 1983, 4.

An unconformity is a break in the depositional sequence of rocks. If the underlying beds were tilted, eroded and then covered with flat laying impermeable rocks, then oil and gas may be trapped at the unconformity. The reservoirs are commonly covered by shale.
http://www.carbonet.net/bjarne/Stoupakova%20et%20al%202006.swf

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Introduction/Origin of petroleum/Entrapment
C.3. Combination traps:
Combination traps have characteristics of both structural and stratigraphic traps. A trap is created due to a salt dome or salt plug moving upward. As the salt dome pushes upward through the sedimentary layers (stratigraphic component), it causes folding and faulting (structural component). This results in formation of combination traps.

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Introduction/Origin of petroleum/Entrapment

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http://www.carbonet.net/bjarne/Stoupakova%20et%20al%202006.swf

Introduction/Origin of petroleum/Entrapment
C.4. Differential Traps:

DIFFERENTIAL TRAPPING OF HYDROCARBONS, WM. C. GUSSOW. CONSULTANT.

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Introduction/Origin of petroleum/Entrapment
C.4. Differential Traps:
Stage 1

Both oil and gas continues to be trapped while water is displaced. Stage 1 ends when oil water interface reaches the spill points.

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Introduction/Origin of petroleum/Entrapment
C.4. Differential Traps:
Stage 2

Gas continues to be trapped while oil is spilled up dip. Stage 2 ends when oil-gas interface reaches spill point and coincides with the oil-water interface

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Introduction/Origin of petroleum/Entrapment
C.4. Differential Traps:
Stage 3

Gas spills up dip as more gas enters trap. Oil by-passes the trap and continues up dip.

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Introduction/Origin of petroleum/Entrapment
Summary of traps 1. Structural (89%) Folding (Anticline) Faulting Normal fault Thrust fault Salt dome 2. Stratigraphic (9%) Pinch out Reef Unconformity

3. Combination (2%)
4. Differential
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Introduction/Reservoir rock
Porosity: Connected porosity to store economic volume of hydrocarbons.

Permeability: The ease with which fluids can flow through the porous rock.

Hydrocarbon Exploration and Production, Jahn, F., Cook, M., Graham, M., Elsevier, 2008, 2nd Edition, 96, 165.

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Introduction
Petroleum and reservoirs Main elements of a reservoir Origin of petroleum o Organic material deposition o Migration and conversion o Entrapment Quality of reservoir rock o Porosity o Permeability Petroleum Engineering
Formation Evaluation Drilling Engineering Reservoir Engineering Production Engineering

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Introduction/Petroleum Engineering
1) Formation Evaluation:
Objective: Formation evaluation activities attempt to develop a composite description of the reservoir. Seismic testing (e.g. sonic waves) Well logging (e.g. electrical resistivity of the reservoir) Well testing (e.g. determination of the flow behaviour)

Information from the formation evaluation will determine the extent of the reservoir and provide an estimate of the amount of oil available and the difficulty in obtaining the oil. The preliminary feasibility of the reservoir can be determined from this information. The results also guide the work of the other disciplines in determining the most effective method to produce oil from the field.
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Introduction/Petroleum Engineering
2) Drilling Engineering
Objective: Determine the optimum approach to create an oil well. Plan and execute the drilling process and all related activities such as well logging, cementing, completion, stimulation.

Responsibilities also include the design of networks of horizontal wells. A key concern of the drilling engineer is to limit the extent of wellbore damage during drilling.

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Introduction/Petroleum Engineering
3) Reservoir Engineering
Objective: Determine the best method to operate all the wells in the oil field using: Well testing Material balance Reserve estimation update Stimulation This work involves modelling the entire oil field. There are a number of modeling and simulation software in the market.

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Introduction/Petroleum Engineering
4) Production Engineering
Objective: Determine the best method to operate individual wells using: Well testing Well work-over Stimulation Artificial lift

The production engineer must obtain the maximum production from one or more wells at the minimum cost.

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Introduction/Petroleum Engineering
Identify the type of engineering work in each video. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vSTLyEC6QqM

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c83CvjQ6nYE
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RX4jHN4Fu-k

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