Centralised Decentralisation:

Left Front and Panchayati Raj in West Bengal (1978 !"1#$

Debraj Bhattacharya
Institute of Social Sciences, Eastern Regional Centre Kolkata

Abstract: This paper explores the Panchayati Raj experience of the state on the basis of published and unpublished studies till date as well as recent policy documents. Five themes are explored le islative chan es! relationship between the traditional bureaucracy and the panchayats! party control! participation and poverty alleviation. "t concludes by ar uin that it is the credit of #eft Front $overnment that the panchayats have now struc% deep roots in the rural society and sets the tone and tenor of the state&s politics but the panchayat functioned as implementin a encies controlled by the bureaucracy on the one hand and Party on the other rather than as local self' overnment and this explains why it could not play a role in miti atin the local discontents on land related issues which started the downfall of the #eft Front in (est )en al.

%ntrod&ction The anchayat election of 2!1" in #est Bengal has effecti$ely en%e% the &eft 'ront era in #est Bengal anchayats( )lthough the anchayat )ct of the state *as +asse% %uring the Congress era in 1,-" the first election *as hel% only in 1,-. after the &eft 'ront ca/e to +o*er in 1,--( Since then anchayat elections ha$e been hel% regularly an% the &eft ha% %o/inate% the elections till 2!1"( In 2!!. election the +o*er of &eft 'ront *as %i/inishe% to so/e e0tent but it still controlle% as /any as 11 out 1- 2illa arisha%s( 'ollo*ing the %efeat of the &eft 'ront in 2!11 )sse/bly election T3C has continue% its %o/ination of the state +olitics an% ha$e *on 11 2illa arisha%s an% 4!("-5 of the 6ra/ anchayat seats( &eft 'ront on the other han% coul% /anage only "2("15 of the seats an% only t*o 2illa arisha%s( This /ay be therefore an o++ortune /o/ent to reflect on the en%uring legacies of the &eft 'ront era in #est Bengal +anchayats( In this +a+er I *ish to e0a/ine the career of one of the /ost i/+ortant achie$e/ents of the &eft 'ront 7 the +anchayat syste/( I +ro+ose to e0+lore this 8uestion by re9e0a/ining +ublishe% an% un+ublishe% re+orts, articles, /onogra+hs, books an% +olicy %ocu/ents on the anchayat syste/ in the state( 3y analysis has also been infor/e% by /y o*n e0+erience of *orking in the anchayats an% Rural De$elo+/ent De+art/ent bet*een 2!!: an% /i%92!!,( 3any ne* /icro9 stu%ies ha$e co/e u+ since the o$er$ie*s by Bu%%ha%eb 6hosh ;6hosh< 2!!!=, D*ai+ayan Bhattacharyya ;Bhattacharyya< 2!!:= an% ranab Bar%han an% Dili+ 3ookherjee ;Bar%han an% 3ookherjee 2!!-=( >e* %e$elo+/ents ha$e also taken +lace *ithin the anchayat syste/ itself( ) critical re9e0a/ination of $arious /icro9stu%ies an% +olicy %ocu/ents on the anchayati Raj e0+erience of #est Bengal un%er the &eft 'ront 6o$ern/ent *oul% therefore be not entirely ina++ro+riate at this +oint in ti/e( ?o*e$er I *oul% like to /ake it clear at the outset that this is a stock taking of +ublishe% an% un+ublishe% %ocu/ents that are a$ailable rather than the results of yet another fiel% sur$ey( 3y objecti$e is not to a%% to e/+irical %ata but to /ake sense of *hat is a$ailable to us( In or%er to analy@e the e0isting state of kno*le%ge I ha$e classifie% it into fi$e the/atic areas 7 ;i= legislati$e changes, ;ii= %yna/ics bet*een the a%/inistration an% the

"

anchayats, ;iii= interface bet*een the +olitical +arty an% the +anchayats, ;i$= +eo+leAs +artici+ation an% +lanning fro/ belo*, an% ;$= i/+act on +o$erty( Through a %iscussion of these the/es I *ish to unco$er the achie$e/ents an% failures of the +anchayati raj establishe% by the &eft 'ront in #est Bengal, *hich is +resente% in a su//ary for/ in the conclu%ing section(

%' Legislati(e Changes and their Li)its The for/al structure of the +anchayat syste/ of #est Bengal %i% not re/ain static but un%er*ent se$eral changes %uring the last three an% half %eca%es( )t the le$el of +olicy /aking there has been se$eral atte/+ts since the /i%9eighties to broa%en the %e/ocratic base of the +anchayats by /aking the/ /ore trans+arent, accountable an% +artici+atory( In 1,.49.: for e0a/+le, in or%er to facilitate %ecentralise% +lanning, t*o ne* structures *ere create%( The first *as the Block District lanning Co//ittee an% the secon% *as the lanning Co//ittee( They *ere to be hea%e% by the *abhapati an% the

*abhadhipati res+ecti$ely( The ra%hans an% the +armadhya%shas ;hea% of the stan%ing co//ittees= of anchayat Sa/ities an% the Block le$el officials of %ifferent %e+art/ents *ere /a%e /e/bers of the Block anchayat Sa/ities, the lanning Co//ittees( Si/ilarly the *abhapatis of the

Kar/a%hyakshas of the 2illa arisha%s, the Chair+ersons of 3unici+alities, an% %istrict le$el officials *ere /a%e /e/bers of the District lanning Co//ittees ;D C=( In the nineties three /ajor a/en%/ents *ere /a%e in 1,,2, 1,,1 an% 1,,-( These a/en%/ents coinci%e% *ith the -"r% a/en%/ent to the Constitution of In%ia, *hich *as initiate% %uring the Raji$ 6an%hi +erio% but finally enacte% *hen >arsi/ha Rao *as the ri/e 3inister( The a/en%/ents of 1,,2 strengthene% the roles of the +armadhya%shas or the hea%s of the stan%ing co//ittees( They *ere /a%e res+onsible for Bfinancial an% e0ecuti$e a%/inistrationA of the +rogra//es or sche/es un%er the control of the *thayee *amities ;stan%ing co//ittees=( They *ere also gi$en a certain a/ount of a%/inistrati$e +o*er( Si/ilarly although at this stage there *as no stan%ing co//ittee at the le$el of

the 6ra/ anchayat, efforts *ere /a%e to strengthen the +o*ers of the *ar% /e/bers( This in%icate% a shift to*ar%s a cabinet ty+e of e0ecuti$e structure 7 the chair+erson an% his colleagues for/ing a tea/ for all three tiers of the +anchayat bo%ies( The 1,,2 a/en%/ent also /a%e it /an%atory for all Chair+ersons an% +armadhya%shas to be full9 ti/e functionaries( By the 1,,- )/en%/ent the offices of the ra%han *ere also /a%e full9ti/e( In antici+ation of the -"r% a/en%/ent, the 1,,2 a/en%/ent also ensure% that one9 thir% of the seats of all three tiers *ere reser$e% for *o/en( Si/ilarly seats *ere reser$e% for Sche%ule% Castes ;SC= an% Sche%ule% Tribes ;ST= in all three9tiers( The nu/ber of such seats to be reser$e% *as +ro+ortional to the +ercentage of SC an% ST +o+ulation in that area( The a/en%/ent /a%e in 1,,1 also +ro$i%e% for reser$ation in the offices of both chair+ersons an% $ice9chair+ersons of all the tiers for *o/en as *ell as for the SCDST +o+ulation as +er the -"r% a/en%/ent( In the 1,,1 a/en%/ent, in or%er to increase accountability of the anchayats, a $ram *ansad *as intro%uce% in a%%ition to the $ram *abha, *hich is /an%ate% by the Constitution( The +ur+ose of the $ram *ansad *as the fact that in #est Bengal the 6ra/ anchayats ty+ically ha$e a juris%iction o$er a fairly large +o+ulation, an% hence the $ram *abha is 8uite ineffecti$e( It *as felt that a *ar% le$el structure *oul% hel+ to /ake the +anchayats /ore accountable( )t least t*o /eetings of the $ram *ansad *ere to be organi@e% by the anchayat as +er this a/en%/ent, one in >o$e/ber an% another in 3ay( Ene9tenth of the total a%ult +o+ulation of the Sansa% has to atten% in or%er to fulfill the 8uoru/( The $ram *abha on the other han% *as sche%ule% to be hel% once in a year %uring the /onth of Dece/ber( 'or this the 8uoru/ *as fi0e% at one9t*entieth( The 1,,1 a/en%/ent create% a ne* institution kno*n as the District Council, *hich *as ai/e% at gi$ing s+ace to the o++osition *ithin the institution( The a/en%/ent +ro$i%e% that in each %istrict of the state there shall be such a District Council( The Chair/an of the Council *as to be the lea%er of the o++osition( The Fice9Chair+erson *as to be one of the /e/bers of the 2illa arisha%( )+art fro/ these t*o, the Council ha% another nine /e/bers, fi$e of *ho/ *ere to be /e/bers of the 2illa arisha% *hile the other four *ere to be officials, three of *ho/ to be no/inate% by the state go$ern/ent( The fourth +erson *as to be the a%%itional e0ecuti$e officer of the 2illa ra%han an% the C+a

arisha% *ho *oul% be the e09officio /e/ber secretary of the council( The /ain functions of the council, as %esignate% by the a/en%/ent, are 7 ;a= to scrutinise the accountsDbu%get of any +anchayat bo%y of any the three tiers *ithin the %istrict in or%er to ensure that the e0+en%iture /a%e by it satisfies the nor/s of +ro+riety, rules an% regulations, ;b= to consi%er the au%it re+orts of +anchayats an% to e0a/ine the re+lies to such re+orts furnishe% by the res+ecti$e +anchayats, ;c= to +ursue the /atters relating to unsettle% au%it objections an% sen% its obser$ations to the a++ro+riate authorities for correcti$e action( The State 'inance Co//ission ;S'C= *as constitute% as +er the constitutional /an%ate in 1,,1( The Co//ission sub/itte% its first re+ort in >o$e/ber 1,,4( The state go$ern/ent is boun% by the Constitution to set u+ such a 'inance Co//ission an% sub/it an action taken re+ort to the &egislati$e )sse/bly regar%ing the reco//en%ations of the S'C( So far three such 'inance Co//issions ha$e been set u+ by the State 6o$ern/ent( Se$eral ne* features *ere intro%uce% to the anchayat )ct in 2!!" to further re%uce concentration of +o*er( 'irstly, fi$e ,pa'*amitis ;stan%ing co//ittees= *ere constitute% at the 6ra/ anchayat le$elG their functions being si/ilar to that of the *thayee *amitis at the Block an% %istrict le$els( Secon%ly, +ro$isions ha$e been /a%e so that o++osition /e/bers are re+resente% in each *thayee *amiti( Thir%ly, Block Sansa% an% 2illa Sansa% *ere constitute% as accountability foru/s for anchayat Sa/iti an% 2illa arisha%( 'inally, $ram ,nnayan *amities *ere to be constitute% by the $ram *ansad, an% *hich *ere to be the e0ecuti$e *ing of the $ram *ansad an% act as an e0tension ar/ of the 6ra/ anchayat but not a fourth tier( In the $ram ,nnayan *amity a +ro$ision *as /a%e to inclu%e /e/bers of local ci$il society organisations, self9hel+9 grou+s an% significant e%ucate% /e/bers so that the +artisan nature of %ecision9/aking /ay be re%uce%( Thus on +a+er there ha$e been 8uite a fe* +olicy changes ai/e% at increasing accountability the RIs( Cnfortunately these a/en%/ents ha$e largely re/aine% changes in +a+er only( The BRoa%/a+A +ublishe% by the anchayats an% Rural De$elo+/ent De+art/ent in 2!!, has acce+te% that the legislati$e changes ha$e not 8uite ha% the %esire% results( It says, H)nother i/+ortant learning has been that it is rather easy to

a/en% )ct an% to /ake change in the legal +rocesses but it is /uch /ore %ifficult to gi$e effect to those changes through buil%ing ca+acities at all le$el(I ;6o#B<2!!,<12= 3ore i/+ortantly, there *ere no atte/+ts regar%ing effecti$e %e$olution of the "'s 7 'un%s, 'unctions an% 'unctionaries since the se$enty thir% a/en%/ent of the In%ian Constitution in 1,,"( The latest 'inance Co//ission re+ort ;6o#B< 2!!.= has, for e0a/+le, /a%e a substantial criti8ue of the state of affairs as far as %ecentralisation is concerne%( Regar%ing functions, it has obser$e%<
"(11 The Cabinet %ecision of transferring the subjects to the three9tier anchayats *as to be gi$en effect to by issuing a++ro+riate notifications transferring such +o*ers, functions an% %uties in the official ga@ette in ter/s of Section 2!-B of #est Bengal anchayat ;)/en%/ent= )ct, 1,,1( >ot*ithstan%ing such re+eate% +olicy %eclarations, such for/al notifications a++ear to ha$e not been issue% as yet( ;Ibi%<2"=

Si/ilarly the conclusion is not charitable regar%ing %e$olution of fun%s either<

"(2" )s for #est Bengal, the fiscal syste/ is hea$ily %o/inate% by the State 6o$ern/entJthe State 6o$ern/ent raises ,: +er cent of all re$enues( Enly about : +er cent of total re$enues of 6 s is %eri$e% fro/ E*n Source of Re$enue ;ESR=(;Ibi%< 2-=

Regar%ing functionaries, the Re+ort has note% that the 6 s still continues to ha$e $ery little +o*er o$er the staff<
"(:, >u/ber of functionaries, +articularly *ith the 6 s, is highly ina%e8uate an% e$en those functionaries are not un%er the control an% authority of the 6 s so far as their a++oint/ent, transfer an% %isci+linary control are concerne%(;Ibi%< 1!=

Research on the 6ra/ Cnnayan Sa/ity by Raghaben%ra Chatto+a%hyay, Bhaskar Chakrabarti an% Su/an >ath has clearly sho*n that it has beco/e +oliticise% an% has faile% to ser$e the +ur+ose for *hich it *as create%( ;Chatto+a%hyay et al < 2!1!< -. = #e %o not ha$e any research on the District Councils, but /y o*n fiel% e0+erience as a staff of Strengthening Rural Decentralisation +roject of anchayats an% Rural De$elo+/ent De+art/ent bet*een 2!!: an% 2!!, in%icate that the i%ea of gi$ing s+ace to the

o++osition +arties has not ha% /any takers both in 2illa arisha%s un%er &eft control as *ell as in the ones controlle% by the o++osition(

%%' Who is in Po*er Panchayats or B&rea&cracy+ It *as e0+ecte% that *ith the co/ing of the anchayati Raj, the tra%itional

bureaucracy *oul% beco/e less i/+ortant( ?o*e$er this %i% not ha++en( )lthough &'6 intro%uce% the anchayats in the state after co/ing to +o*er in 1,-- it %i% not %is/antle the ol%er for/ of colonial a%/inistration( Thus #est Bengal ac8uire% a highly co/+licate% structure of rural go$ernance( En the one han% there *as the colonial style District 3agistrate ;D3= an% Sub9Di$isional Efficers ;SDE= an% the line %e+art/ents( The +ost9colonial state un%er Congress a%%e% the structure of the Co//unity De$elo+/ent Block, +o+ularly kno*n as Block( The three9tier +anchayats ca/e as an a%%ition to these structures an% not as so/ething that re+lace% the ol% structure( Thus the task of %e$elo+/ent *ork in a %istrict beca/e a highly co/+licate% one *ith nu/erous +layers( There is no %etaile% stu%y *hich has looke% into these institutional %yna/ics *ithin the syste/ as it e$ol$e% %uring the eighties( ?o*e$er in 1,,2, t*o senior ci$il ser$ants, >ir/al 3ukarji an% D(Ban%yo+a%hyay, at the re8uest of the 6o$ern/ent of #est Bengal, *ent aroun% the %istricts to un%erstan% ho* the +anchayat syste/ *as *orking( They foun% /any +roble/s( Consi%er the follo*ing co//ent as an e0a/+le<
Jthe anchayats ha$e so far o+erate% /ainly in the fiel% of %e$elo+/ent( There also, they ha$e functione% /ore as i/+le/enting agencies of Cnion an% State sche/es than %oing things on their o*n( E$en as i/+le/enters of such sche/es, they ha$e ha% to %e+en% on %e+art/ental staff outsi%e their control( En the face of it they ha$e resigne% the/sel$es to the situation, but belo* the surface there is great %eal of %issatisfaction( ;3ukarji an% Ban%yo+a%hyay< 1,,"< -=

In such a situation, the re+ort continue%, the anchayats ha$e taken u+ se$eral e0tra9 %e$elo+/ental acti$ities like /e%iating $illage le$el %is+utes( ?o*e$er the i%ea of the +anchayat as an institution of local self9go$ern/ent *as not so/ething that the +anchayat lea%ers *ere fa/iliar *ith( ;Ibi%= The t*o ci$il ser$ants foun% +lenty of e0a/+les of conflict bet*een the %e+art/ental staff an% the anchayats( In case of )griculture, for e0a/+le, they foun% that the )griculture De$elo+/ent Efficer ;)DE=
Jkee+s his %istance fro/ the S, his coo+eration being a$ailable only by chance( ) S K anchayat Sa/itiL Kar/a%hyakshya is unable to call /eetings of the Krishi Sesh o Sa/abaya Sthayee Sa/iti Kstan%ing co//ittee for agriculture, irrigation an% coo+erati$esL because the Coo+erati$e ins+ector, *ho is the secretary, is rarely a$ailable( Things are *orse at 6 le$el, *here officials like the )griculture Technical )ssistant an% the ?ealth )ssistant largely stay a*ay( E0ce+t for the $anishing tribe of the ol% faithfuls, the cho*ki%ars, 6 s ha$e no fiel% staff( ;Ibi%< .=

>ir/al 3ukarji an% D(Ban%yo+a%hyay also note% that if

anchayats *ere beco/ing

/ore an% /ore i/+ortant as units of self9go$ernance then this shoul% ha$e le% to a %ecrease in the si@e of the go$ern/ent /achinery( The o++osite see/e% to be true( )s +er their calculations, in 1,--9-. total re$enue e0+en%iture on the go$ern/ent /achinery *as Rs( -!1 crores( By 1,,19,2, it ha% e0+an%e% to Rs( 41.1 crores( Bet*een 1,.! an% 3arch 1,,1 go$ern/ent staff increase% by 1, 4-,!!!( They co//ente%<
It see/s that the go$ern/ental /achinery, far fro/ %i/inishing, has e0+an%e% %uring the $ery +erio% that the anchayats ha$e been in e0istence( The i/+lication is that, *hate$er the rhetoric about the success of the anchayats, the State 6o$ern/ent has not felt un%er co/+ulsion to re%uce either its functions or its staff, an% conse8uently any clai/ that the anchayats ha$e a %egree of autono/y is not sustainable( ;Ibi%< 21922=

?as the situation change% since the 3ukarji9Ban%yo+a%hyay re+ortM In 2!!4, the anchayats De+art/ent carrie% out a stu%y on the organi@ational as+ects of the anchayats as +art of the Strengthening Rural Decentralisation +rogra//e in collaboration *ith 6o$ern/ent of CK(; NRD< 2!!-=( This un+ublishe% re+ort argue%

that there are structural fla*s in the RI syste/ because of the inco/+lete /erger of the tra%itional bureaucracy an% the RIs( It *ent on to elaborate<
The offices of the District 3agistrate at %istrict le$el, the Block De$elo+/ent Efficer at block le$el an% the $arious line %e+art/ents continue to be the de facto centres of +o*er in local go$ern/ent syste/s( The 2illa arisha% an% the anchayat Sa/iti are in co/+arison +oorly staffe% an% fun%e% an% are ina%e8uately e8ui++e% to /onitor bureaucratic ser$ice %eli$ery in rural areas( ; NRD< 2!!-< :=

The stu%y not only +ointe% out control by the %istrict bureaucracy, it also +ointe% to*ar%s bureaucratisation of the +rocesses through *hich the RI functione%( The re+ort note% that the Habsence of a for/al %istribution %uties co/bine% *ith un%erstaffing has left the 2 office +rone to %u+lication of +rocesses(I ; NRD< 2!!-< 1,= T*o years later, another stu%y of 6ra/ anchayats by Ct+al Chakraborty, one of the faculty /e/bers of the State Institute of ;SI RD=, /a%e the follo*ing obser$ation<
6ra/ anchayats are +resently o$er bur%ene% *ith go$ern/ent or%ers an% circulars( In /ost of the cases they are not +ro+erly /aintaine%( En the other han% $ery fe* office bearers are able to %eci+her the contents of the or%ers( ;Chakraborty< 2!!-<-=

anchayats an% Rural De$elo+/ent

#hat /a%e the situation ironic is that although the tra%itional bureaucracy has continue% to ha$e control o$er the anchayats, they *ere not al*ays efficient in carrying out their %uties( Thus the anchayats *ere %e+ri$e% of the +otentially beneficial as+ects of bureaucratic su+er$ision( Chakraborty +ointe% out that the go$ern/ent officials *ho are res+onsible for /onitoring the 6ra/ anchayats *ere either not +erfor/ing or *ere not able to +erfor/ their %uties +ro+erly( 'or e0a/+le, in course of his fiel% $isits, he foun% that the anchayat )u%it an% )ccounts Efficers ; ))E= *ere busier *ith other acti$ities of the Block than looking after anchayat accounts( )nnual au%it re+orts, he foun%, anchayat Sa/iti an% the Block har%ly e$er le% to correcti$e /easures fro/ the

a%/inistration( In course of his fiel% $isits he %i% not fin% any e0a/+le of the rele$ant officers 7 anchayat De$elo+/ent Efficer ; DE=, anchayat )u%it an% )ccounts Efficer ; ))E=, Block De$elo+/ent Efficer ;BDE=, Sub%i$isional Efficer ;SDE= an% District anchayats an% Rural De$elo+/ent Efficer ;D RDE= 7 e$er $isiting the anchayats an% +ro$i%ing $aluable gui%ance an% /onitoring their acti$ities( ;Ibi%< ,=

1!

)nother i/+ortant +roble/ that has been i%entifie% in recent years is that there is significant ca+acity ga+ ;an% hence inefficiency= a/ong the anchayat functionaries as *ell as the lo*er le$el bureaucracy( )n un+ublishe% stu%y con%ucte% by functionaries in 2!!1<
The fiel% stu%ies ha$e re$eale% that /ost of the electe% re+resentati$es, +articularly those ne*ly in%ucte% into the syste/ an% /ost of the RI e/+loyees as *ell as the 6o$ern/ent e/+loyees functioning as /e/bers of Sthayee Sa/itis of 2 s N Ss an% /e/bers of C+a9Sa/itis of 6 s are not fully a*are of the full structure, +o*ers, functions, roles N res+onsibilities an% inter9relationshi+ of the "9tier anchayat syste/ an% of the accountability structure of the anchayat syste/ na/ely 6ra/ Sansa%, 6ra/ Sabha, Block Sansa%, 2illa Sansa% an% the District Council( 3ost of the electe% /e/bers of the Sthayee Sa/itis of 2 s N Ss an% C+a9Sa/itis of 6 s are also not a*are of their roles an% res+onsibilities an% as such cannot %ischarge their res+onsibilities satisfactorily( ; NRD< 2!!1<":=

anchayat

De+art/ent on ca+acity buil%ing issues ha% this to say regar%ing the ca+acity of the

This therefore is a %ouble irony 7 on the one han% the anchayats ha$e not fully re+lace% the tra%itional bureaucracy an% on the other han% the tra%itional bureaucracy is not able to %ischarge its su+er$isory role efficiently( 3atters often beca/e e0tre/ely co/+licate% lea%ing to serious un%er+erfor/ance if the relationshi+ bet*een the *abhapati an% the BDE at the Block le$el an% the District 3agistrate an% the *abhadhipati at the District le$el *as not cor%ial( %%%' Party Control #hile the anchayats *ere controlle% by the not so efficient bureaucracy on the one han%, they *ere controlle% by the arty on the other( C I ;3= has al*ays ha% an arty an% the anchayat( a/bi$alent attitu%e to*ar%s the relationshi+ bet*een the

?arihar Bhattacharyya has trace% this a/bi$alence in the stance on the anchayats taken in the arty %ocu/ents of C I;3= ;Bhattacharyya < 1,,.< 11! 7 1"1=( The C I;3=As #est Bengal State Co//ittee in a %ocu/ent sai% in 1,,1 that the role of the arty shall be to +ro$i%e %irection an% gui%ance ;B+arichalonaA in Bengali=( The %ocu/ent then goes

11

on to e0+lain that Hthis %oes not /ean acting at *ill( It /eans acti$ation of anchayats in accor%ance *ith the +rinci+les an% i%eals of the +arty(I ;Ibi% < 11!= In course of ti/e at each le$el of the anchayats, C I;3= for/e% a anchayat Sub9Co//ittee *hich is the artyAs B arichalan Co//itteeA( Its acti$ities ha$e been %efine% as follo*s<
)ll electe% +arty /e/bers of anchayat Sa/iti an% 2illa arisha% *ill act un%er the res+ecti$e co//ittees( 6enerally, the local an% @onal co//ittees of the +arty *ill look after the 6ra/ anchayat Kan% anchayatL Sa/ities res+ecti$ely( The final %ecision at each le$el *ill be taken by the arichalan Co//ittee of the arty, although the electe% /e/bers /ay offer reco//en%ations( ;Ibi%< 111=

This is ho*e$er follo*e% by certain cautionary notes *hich reflect the a/bi$alence in artyAs thinking( 'or e0a/+le<
#e /ust in$ol$e the +eo+le irres+ecti$e of all classes an% cree% in the acti$ities of the anchayat( The +eo+le of the area /ust be /a%e a*are of the fact that it is their /oney an% *orkJIf e$erything is concentrate% in the han%s of a fe* an% +eo+le are ke+t in the %ark then, e$en honest o+eration *ill also arouse sus+icion in the eyes of the +eo+leJ#e cannot e0+ect those *ho %o not take +art in %ecisions to carry out %ecisions( The +rocess of %ecisions /ust start fro/ the +eo+le( ;Ibi%=

BhattacharyyaAs e/+irical in$estigations in the %istricts of Bar%ha/an an% ?oogly, le% hi/ to conclu%e that the %ecision of the arty, not the anchayat /e/bers, is final an% this *as justifie% by arty functionaries as a necessary ste+ to *in the class9struggle against $este% interests in the rural society( That the arty has the /ost i/+ortant role to +lay in %ecision /aking *as obser$e% by )tul Kohli ;Kohli< 1,.-= in the late eighties an% by 3oitree Bhattacharyya in 2!!2 ;Bhattacharyya< 2!!2=( Kohli obser$e% in 1,.- that %ecisions at the 6ra/ anchayats *ere /a%e in consultation *ith the arty an% the arty /achinery su+er$ise% the acti$ities of the anchayats( ) %eca%e later, base% on a fiel% *ork %one in 1,,-, 3oitree Bhattacharyya also ca/e to the sa/e conclusion( In the t*o 6ra/ anchayats that she stu%ie%, in one case :! +er cent an% in the other case ,! +er cent of the res+on%ents sai% that the %ecisions are taken by the arty re+resentati$es( ;Bhattacharyya< 1-:= She has also sho*n that a +ro$ision *as /a%e in the 1,,1 )/en%/ent of the anchayat )ct KSection 21";)=L accor%ing to *hich no /e/ber can cast $ote against the

12

*ishes of the /ajority /e/bers of the 6ra/ anchayat electe% fro/ his +arty(; Ibi%= Thus it is not +ossible for any in%i$i%ual /e/ber belonging to a arty to $ote %ifferently fro/ the other /e/bers of the sa/e +arty, *hich in reality /eans that sDhe cannot rebel against the +arty %ictat unless all the /e/bers fro/ hisDher +arty in the 6 stan% unite% for that %ecision, *hich of course is al/ost i/+ossible( ) cou+le of years later, in 2!!4, a research tea/ fro/ the Centre for Stu%ies in Social Sciences ;CSSSC=, Kolkata, foun% an interesting ter/ in the fiel% 7 the B Pradhan -hala%&( ;CSSSC< 12,= This literally /eans the +erson *ho /akes the ra%han /o$e, referring to the in$isible han% of the arty fro/ behin%( In another article +ublishe% in 2!!, base% on ethnogra+hic stu%y of t*o $illages in Koch Bihar an% 3al%a %istricts, Rajarshi Dasgu+ta foun% a *ell9oile% C I;3= B/achineryA running the sho* Ha%e+t in for/ulating %ifferent strategies for %ifferent tiers of the +anchayat syste/, calibrating their ri$alries(I ;Dasgu+ta< 2!!,< .!= )nother /icro9 stu%y +ublishe% in the sa/e year, by 3anasen%u Kun%u, has corroborate% the thesis of control of the arty o$er the anchayats an% sai% that the boun%ary bet*een the arty an% the anchayat is Ha/biguousI( ;Kun%u< 2!!,< 12:= There is thus a clear consensus a/ong scholars that the arty has %o/inate% the anchayats( The /ore co/+licate% 8uestion is *hat has been the conse8uenceM )ccor%ing to 3oitree Bhattacharya, this has le% to +oliticisation of rural life an% the or%inary +eo+le of the $illages try to stay a*ay fro/ the affairs of the anchayats( She has 8uote% one $eteran C I;3= lea%er *hich +erha+s %eser$es to be 8uote% again<
In the initial years, i(e( late se$enties an% early eighties, the +anchayats *ere /ore /o$e/ent oriente%G the ten%ency *as to in$ol$e the /ass of $illagers into *hate$er acti$ity it un%ertook( )lthough the +arty ga$e the lea%ershi+, co//on +eo+le *ere also +art of it( It *as the +artici+ation of +eo+le that enable% +anchayats to %eal so successfully *ith floo% relief acti$ities an% rehabilitation *orks in 1,-.JIn the later years, the nature of anchayat +olitics change% 7 fro/ /o$e/ent +olitics to institutionali@e% +olitics( >o* the +anchayat ha$e been re%uce% to /ere institutions for i/+le/enting %e$elo+/ent acti$ities(; Bhattacharyya< 2!!2<1."9.1=

In course of her fiel% *ork, she foun% $ery fe* res+on%ents intereste% in the affairs of the anchayat an% /ost of the/ felt alienate% fro/ the institution( This lack of interest *as also e$i%ent in the +oor atten%ance in the gra/ sansa%s an% gra/ sabhas, *hich has re/aine% a +roble/ o$er the ne0t %eca%e as *ell( 1"

In a recent essay, D*ai+ayan Bhattacharyya has e0+laine% the i/+act of the strong gri+ of the +ro+ose% by arty in ter/s of a theoretical for/ulation calle% the B+arty9 societyA;Bhattacharyya< 2!!,< 4,9:,=( 3o%ifying the conce+t of B+olitical societyA artha Chatterjee ;Chatterjee< 2!!1=, he says that in rural #est Bengal H+olitical +arties ten% to %is+lace other co/+eting channels of +ublic transaction 7 *hich /a%e the rural situation ontologically %ifferent fro/ the urban +olitical society(I ;Bhattacharyya< 2!!,< :!= Cnlike other states in In%ia, +olitical +arties transcen% caste, religion or ethnicity base% organisations( )s a result, all %is+utes, fa/ilial, social or cultural, takes $ery little ti/e to beco/e +artisan( This +arty9society has o$er the last three %eca%es %is+lace% the ol%er +atron9client for/ of relationshi+s( Bhattacharyya argues<
&an% refor/ legislations an% local go$ern/ent bo%ies ;the +anchayats= *ere the tools an% the C I ;3= ;as *ell as its +easant *ing, the Krishak Sabha= *as the +ri/ary agent to bring about this change( The ne* +olitics set ne* nor/s of transaction to *hich e$ery +olitical outfit 7 the ruling si%e as *ell as the o++osition 7 ha% to confor/, *illingly or un*illingly( In this organi@ational gri% J KtheL +olitical +arty *as largely acce+te% as the chief /e%iator, the central con%uit, in the settling of e$ery $illage /atter< +ri$ate or +ublic, in%i$i%ual or collecti$e, fa/ilial or associational( ;Ibi%<:.=

Bhattacharyya %oes not think of the B+arty9societyA as si/+ly a negati$e +heno/enon( ?e says that it +laye% a $ery i/+ortant role in %e/ocrati@ing rural +olitics in the early years of &'6( It free% the +oor fro/ %e+en%ency on the e0+loitati$e rich lan%e% fa/ilies, H+ro%uce% a go$ern/ental locality in the for/ of the $illage +anchayat, an% carrie% out nu/erous /easures that enable% the un%er+ri$ilege% an% the /arginal to reali@e host of rightsI ;Ibi%< :,=( Such +ositi$e i/+act of the early +art of &eft 'ront rule ho*e$er %i% not last an% *as re+lace% by concern for electoral $ictory only( This /eant that social stasis +ro$e% to be /ore alluring for C I;3= than Hthe uncertainties of e0+an%ing the %e/ocratic s+ace(I ;Ibi%= In other *or%s, the &eft 'ront *hile unleashing the re$olutionary force of the RIs also ensure% that it staye% fir/ly *ithin its control( The anchayats *ere ne$er allo*e% to gro* into institutions of self9go$ern/ent an% act on their o*n(

11

%,' %nade-&ate Partici.ation ) necessary conse8uence of bureaucratic an% +arty9control has been lack of +artici+ation, *hich is the essence of anchayati Raj( B artici+ationA is a ter/ that ho*e$er re8uires certain a/ount of clarification( It can +erha+s best be un%erstoo% in ter/s of fi$e +rogressi$e le$els< ;a= +artici+ation of the electorate as $oters ;b= +artici+ation of +oor an% /arginalise% in the anchayats as /e/bers, ;c= +artici+ation in the 6ra/ Sansa% an% 6ra/ Sabha /eetings, ;%= +artici+ation of +eo+le in %ecision /aking, an% ;e= +artici+ation in +lanning fro/ belo*( &et /e %iscuss the &'6 e0+erience in ter/s of each of these le$els( ;a= Participation of the electorate as voters< Surya Kanta 3ishra, 3inister in Charge for anchayats an% Rural De$elo+/ent till recently, has 8uite un%erstan%ably +rou%ly +resente% %ata on anchayat elections in his book *reni .rishtibhon itey Panchayat( ?e sai% that *hile in the BbourgeoisA countries it is rare to see e$en 4! +er cent $oters turnout in their election, in case of the anchayat elections of 1,," an% 1,,. the $oter turnout has been /ore than .! +er cent ;3ishra< 1,,.< 1-94.=( This *as also corroborate% by a stu%y by 6irish Ku/ar an% Bu%%ha%eb 6hosh ;Ku/ar an% 6hosh< 1,,:< 1-91.=( #e %o not ha$e any stu%y *hich has looke% into the $oting %ata for the entire &eft 'ront +erio%, but generally s+eaking, it can be safely sai% that the $otersA turnout has been high( /b0 Participation of poor and mar inali1ed as members < The #est Bengal ?u/an De$elo+/ent Re+ort for 2!!1 ;henceforth #B?DR= has 8uote% three stu%ies to co/+ile a +rofile of the re+resentati$es of the RIs bet*een 1,-. an% 1,,"( ;#B?DR< 2!!1< 1,=( )ccor%ing to this %ata lan%less an% +oor +easants constitute% nearly 1" +er cent of the gra/ +anchayat /e/bers an% this re+resents a break fro/ the usual +attern in In%ia *here the rural elite ha$e ca+ture% the anchayats( The sur$ey by Centre for Stu%ies in Social Sciences in 2!!4, con%ucte% on 6 /e/bers electe% for the ter/ 2!!"9!., base% on a sa/+le of 1:2 6 s in all %istricts of the state, ho*e$er sho*s a /ore co/+licate% +icture at the beginning of the t*enty first century( The re+ort conclu%e%<
J/ore than 24 +er cent of 6 /e/bers in /ost %istricts *ere lan%o*ning agriculturists, the +ro+ortion going u+ to -,(. +er cent in urulia an% :.(, +er

14

cent in Cttar Dinaj+ur( ?o*e$er, the +ro+ortion *as as lo* as 1(2 +er cent in ?o*rah, 1:(2 +er cent in Birbhu/ an% 22(1 +er cent in ?ooghly( In Dakshin Dinaj+ur an% Birbhu/, there *ere a significant +ro+ortion of 6 /e/bers *ho *ere agricultural labourers( ;CSSSC< 124=

It is unfortunately not +ossible to co/+are the %ata that has been +resente% in the #B?DR an% the CSSSC %ata as sa/+le si@es are %ifferent an% also because the %ata +resente% by CSSSC is %isaggregate% into %istricts an% %oes not sho* any state *i%e a$erage( )lso the CSSSC %ata %oes not %i$i%e the Blan%o*ning agriculturistsA accor%ing to the si@e of their hol%ing( #e can +erha+s ha@ar% one generali@ation *hich is in agree/ent *ith the o$erall thesis of #B?DR that there has been a strong +artici+ation of the +oorer sections of the society( Regar%ing +artici+ation by Sche%ule% Tribes, Sche%ule% Castes an% EBCs an% on +artici+ation of *o/en also *e ha$e only the CSSSC stu%y *hich gi$es %ata on a large scale( The %ata re$eals that the +artici+ation of the SCs, STs an% EBCs is 8uite significant in all %istricts e0ce+t *here there is $ery little ST +o+ulation( 'or +artici+ation of *o/en also *e only ha$e the CSSSC %ata for 2!!"92!!. that is gi$ing us a +icture on the basis of a significant sa/+le si@e( The %ata clearly sho*s that at least to*ar%s the en% of our +erio% *o/en *ere beco/ing re+resentati$es as +er the re8uire/ents set by the -"r% )/en%/ent of the Constitution an% in so/e cases their +ercentage is higher than the /ini/u/ re8uire%( ?o*e$er, statistics alone %oes not tell the co/+lete story( This is because the *o/en re+resentati$es are so/eti/es %ictate% fro/ behin% by their /ale fa/ily /e/bers, as is seen else*here in In%ia as *ell( ) stu%y con%ucte% by Raghaben%ra Chatto+a%hyay an% Esther Duflo obser$e% that 1" +er cent of their sa/+le sai% that they *ere being hel+e% by their husban%s, an% Hthe inter$ie*ers are /ore likely to fin% the *o/en hesitant, they are /ore likely to ackno*le%ge that they %i% not kno* ho* the 6 functione% before being electe% an% that they %o not inten% to run againI ;Chatto+a%hyay an% Duflo< 2!!1< ,."= )nother un+ublishe% stu%y con%ucte% by Su+arna 6anguly an% Sonali Chakra$arti Bannerjee in 2!!:9!- base% on a sa/+le of 2:! *o/en re+resentati$es in "2 6ra/ anchayats foun% that<
J.1(2" +er cent of the *o/en anchayat /e/bers un%er stu%y ha$e been +laying their /ai%en innings in the current ter/( It is e$i%ent that the *o/en *ho ha% earlier *orke%

1:

in the anchayat bo%ies ha$e /ostly %isa++eare% fro/ the +ublic arena( ) fresh set of *o/en /e/bers is e$ol$ing ;%ue to co/+ulsion of reser$ation= through e$ery anchayat election in e$ery fi$e years( But they are +ro$ing to be a +erishable bree%, in the /ale9 %o/inate% +olitical culture of ours( ; 6anguly an% Bannerjee < 2!!.< 1"2=

3oreo$er the stu%y also sai% that H:. +er cent of the *o/en res+on%ents in the "2 B/i0e%A 6 s ha$e ne$er +lace% any %e/an% in the general /eetings at the 6 le$elI ;Ibi%< 1"-=( Chatto+a%hyay an% Duflo ha$e +resente% a /ore +ositi$e +icture of the i/+act of reser$ation for *o/en an% ha$e note% so/e %ifference in the *ay *o/en hea%s +rioriti@e %e$elo+/ent *ork ;for e0a/+le *ater o$er roa%s= an% ha$e also note% that re+resentation of *o/en in gra/ sansa% ten% to go u+ *hen the 6 is hea%e% by *o/en( ;Chatto+a%hyay an% Duflo< ,.2= But there is a general agree/ent bet*een the t*o stu%ies regar%ing su++ort fro/ husban%s an% the fact that /any of the *o/en %o not inten% to beco/e ra%hans in the ne0t election( In s+ite of these shortco/ings one can say that &'6 has fulfille% the constitutional re8uire/ent of "" +er cent reser$ation for Sche%ule% Castes, Sche%ule% Tribes an% *o/en( Recently they ha$e increase% the reser$ation +ercentage to 4! +er cent follo*ing the lea% taken by Bihar( This also goes to the cre%it of &'6( Things ho*e$er start to take a negati$e turn fro/ the ne0t layer on*ar%s( ;c= Participation in the $ram *ansad and $ram *abha meetin s < The #B?DR has ackno*le%ge% that atten%ance in gra/ sansa% /eetings has been lo* an% has been %eclining o$er the years ;#B?DR< 2!!1< :-=( ) stu%y of gra/ sansa% /eetings in 2! sansa%s of " %istricts by 3aitreesh 6hatak an% 3aitreya 6hatak ;6hatak an% 6hatak< 2!!2< 4!= in 2!!2 foun% the a$erage atten%ance to be about 12 +er cent( )lthough once again %etaile% %ata is not a$ailable in any e0isting research, there see/s to be a consensus that the 6ra/ Sansa% /eetings are yet to beco/e truly %e/ocratic foru/s *here the +oor can freely $oice their o+inion( The CSSSC stu%y also ca/e to the sa/e conclusion<
) /ajority of our res+on%ents in /ost %istricts sai% that they ne$er atten% the /eetings of the 6ra/ Sansa%( This figure is as high as -4(:: +er cent in 3urshi%aba%( En the other han%, the absentee rate *as the lo*est in the +lains region of Darjeeling an% in aschi/ an% urba 3i%na+ore( 3ost +eo+le sai% that they *ere unable to atten% because they *ere not infor/e% of the /eeting ;in Cttar Dinaj+ur, 3al%a an% 3urshi%aba%= or the

1-

ti/ing of the /eeting *as incon$enient ;/ost other %istricts=( It is also significant that e0ce+t in Dakshin Dinaj+ur an% urba 3i%na+ore, only a s/all +ro+ortion of +eo+le actually kno* that there are t*o /eetings of the Sansa% e$ery year ( ;CSSSC< 2!!:< 11.=

In another recent stu%y, Ragahben%ra Chatto+a%hyay, Bhaskar Chakrabarti an% Su/an >ath ha$e also foun% that gra/ sansa% /eetings in their fiel% area in$ariably fail to attract the +eo+le an% that 8uoru/ for the /eetings are /et in official recor%s through corru+t +ractices ;Chatto+a%hyay et al< 2!1!< -2=( This clearly sho*s that things ha$e not i/+ro$e% %uring the last %eca%e( &et us no* consi%er the fourth le$el of +artici+ation an% ask ho* far the +eo+le are able to contribute to the %ecisions /a%e in the 6ra/ Sansa% an% ho* far the 6ra/ anchayats are res+onsi$e to the %e/an%s that are raise% in the 6ra/ Sansa%( ;%= Participation of people in decision ma%in of the $P< The CSSSC stu%y tea/ aske% the res+on%ents *hether beneficiary lists are /o%ifie% as +er the %eliberations /a%e at the 6ra/ Sansa% /eetings( Their conclusion is as follo*s<
#e aske% the 6 functionaries *hether beneficiary lists *ere /o%ifie% at the 6ra/ Sa/sa% /eetings after soliciting the $ie*s of the resi%ents( Enly in se$en %istricts %i% /ore than "! +er cent of the res+on%ents say that this *as %one( 3ost of the +eo+le sai% that beneficiary lists are +re+are% by 6 lea%ers beforehan% an% the Sa/sa% /eetings are not generally seen as e$ents *here these lists can be seriously %iscusse%( ;CSSC< 2!!:<14!=

)nother stu%y, con%ucte% by Debjani Sengu+ta an% Dili+ 6hosh ;Sengut+a an% 6hosh < 2!!.< ",1=, in 2!!:9!-, roughly ca/e to the sa/e conclusion<
In gra/ sansa% /eetings the e0+erience is that co//on +eo+le co/ing to the /eetings /ostly %o not s+eak out( The gra/ +anchayats also %o not feel encourage% to /ake these +eo+le in$ol$e% *ith the +rocess(

Regar%ing the %e/an%s +eo+le /ake in the gra/ sansa%s the stu%y /a%e the follo*ing conclusion<
In gra/ sansa% /eetings +eo+le raise /any %e/an%s in the conte0t of +riorities in the local areaJ>o reflection of the %e/an%s fro/ gra/ sansa%s is generally /a%e in the u+a sa/iti /eetings( The general bo%y of the gra/ +anchayat %irectly %eals *ith these %e/an%s an% takes necessary %ecisions( ;Ibi%< "-,=

1.

)/ong the res+on%ents they inter$ie*e%, .1(1 +er cent state% that they raise% %e/an% in the 6ra/ Sansa% /eetings but only 2-(1 +er cent *ere of the o+inion that their %e/an%s *ere re%resse%( ;Ibi%( ",.= It is not %ifficult to see therefore *hy the enthusias/ regar%ing the 6ra/ Sansa% /eetings is falling o$er the years( The $oice of the +eo+le clearly har%ly e$er gets reflecte% in the %ecisions /a%e by the 6ra/ anchayats( It /ay be /entione% here that so/eti/es the 6 s also %o not function on their o*n an% /erely i/+le/ent sche/es that are sent to the/ fro/ abo$e( ) stu%y by the Institute of Social Sciences on the utili@ation of untie% fun%s by the 6ra/ anchayats, for e0a/+le, has sho*n that 6 s ha$e s+ent less fro/ the Cntie% 'un%s o$er *hich they ha$e greater control than fro/ the sche/atic fun%s they ha$e recei$e% fro/ abo$e( ;ISS< 2!!-< "4= &et /e no* %iscuss the highest le$el of +artici+ation, *here the co//unity /akes +lans for the %e$elo+/ent of their $illages( ;e= Plannin from )elow< C I ;3= in Kerala un%er the lea%ershi+ of E(3(S(

>a/boo%iri+a% carrie% out the first state9*i%e ca/+aign on +lanning fro/ belo*, *hich has beco/e justifiably fa/ous all o$er the *orl%( The history of +lanning fro/ belo* in #est Bengal actually goes back to the early eighties an% *as the first in case of In%ia( Cnfortunately unlike Kerala, the +rocess %i% not recei$e *holehearte% su++ort fro/ the Co//unist arty or the 6o$ern/ent in #est Bengal( #B?DR has acce+te% that fro/ 1,.. on*ar%s there *as a rollback an% by /i%9nineties /ost of the %istricts sto++e% the +rocess( ;#B?DR< 2!!1< 44= Since /i%9nineties there *as another effort at %oing +lanning fro/ belo* in 1! Blocks of the state, *hich *as kno*n as BCon$ergent Co//unity )ctionA ;CC)=( #hat is i/+ortant to re/e/ber here is that at no stage %i% CC) beco/e a +eo+leAs ca/+aign for +lanning like it %i% in case of Kerala( It *as largely carrie% out by certain enthusiastic %e$elo+/ent +ractitioners, ci$il ser$ants at $arious le$els an% so/e +olitical +ersons but the &eft 'ront %i% not gi$e it the kin% of big +ush that *as re8uire% to /ake it a success e$en in these 1! Blocks( In 2!!1, anchayat an% Rural De$elo+/ent De+art/ent carrie% out a stu%y to analyse the strengths an% *eaknesses of the +lanning +rocess in 1. 6 s of 1" Blocks in 4 %istricts( ; NRD< 2!!4= The re+ort ackno*le%ge% a ga+ in ter/s of Bsocial acce+tanceA *here it note% that

1,

H+artici+ation is still to be assure% in %ecision /aking an% trans+arency is nee%e%I ;Ibi%< -=( The CC) +rocess *as largely aban%one% by the /i% of the first %eca%e of the t*enty first century an% *as re+lace% by another effort at +lanning fro/ belo* *hich *as +art of the Strengthening Rural Decentralisation +rogra//e *hich *as initiate% in >o$e/ber 2!!4 after a +iloting in : 6ra/ anchayats earlier( #ith su++ort fro/ British 6o$ern/ent initially it *as starte% in "!1 6 s in : back*ar% %istricts of urulia, Birbhu/, Cttar an% Dakshin Dinaj+ur, 3urshi%aba% an% 3al%a an% later scale% u+ to about .!! 6 s in 12 %istricts( This effort *as largely %ri$en by the contractual +roject staff an% ci$il ser$ants res+onsible for the +roject an% *as restricte% to the 6ra/ Cnnayan Sa/ity an% 6ra/ anchayat le$el an% ha% no integration *ith the +lanning +rocess at the Block an% the District le$el( The Block an% District /ainstrea/ a%/inistration largely re/aine% aloof fro/ the +rocess( 3ore i/+ortantly, neither the &eft +arties, nor the o++osition +arties took any acti$e interest in the +rocess although at the grass9root le$el so/e +olitical lea%ers *ere in$ol$e%( )t best the +olitical +arties %i% not create any hin%rance( ?o*e$er, in s+ite of the best efforts of the +roject staff, it *as a far cry fro/ the +eo+leAs ca/+aign of Kerala( ,' %nco).lete Po(erty Red&ction Di% the +anchayats of #est Bengal significantly re%uce +o$erty in the stateM )ny analysis of +o$erty re%uction by the anchayats has to co+e *ith certain /etho%ological +roble/s( #hile it is +ossible to say ho* far +o$erty has %ecrease% %uring the &eft 'ront +erio%, it is %ifficult to ascertain e0actly ho* far this is because of the role +laye% by the anchayats( )ll factors *hich affect +o$erty are not in control of the +anchayats but in the han%s of %e+art/ents s+eciali@ing in agriculture, health or e%ucation( There is also a lack of syste/atic official %ata trying to track the i/+act of the tie% an% untie% fun%s route% through the +anchayats o$er the last three %eca%es( 6i$en this co/+le0ity, *e /ay take note of so/e of the stu%ies *hich ha$e a%%resse% the issue(

2!

The best %efense of the achie$e/ents &'6 has been recently +resente% by t*o ci$il ser$ants, 3(>( Roy an% Dili+ 6hosh ;Roy an% 6hosh< 2!!.< 1"924=( Roy an% 6hosh ha$e argue% that if one co/+ares the +ercentage of +o+ulation belo* +o$erty line in 1,-"9-1 *ith 2!!19!4 then one can see that 11(: +er cent of the +o+ulation of #est Bengal *ent abo$e the +o$erty line %uring this ti/e, a +ercentage that is only /arginally lo*er to that of Kerala *hich stoo% at 1: +er cent( In all9In%ia ter/s this *as the secon% best +erfor/ance after Kerala( The all9In%ia a$erage is 2.(1 +er cent( Thus the t*o states *here anchayati Raj has been strongly i/+le/ente% the +ercentage of +o$erty re%uction has been the highest( Regar%ing the role of the anchayats in this success story of +o$erty re%uction, the authors +ointe% out the follo*ing areas 7 ;a= creation of rural infrastructure through $arious +o$erty alle$iation +rogra//es, ;b= %istribution of /inikits for far/ers, ;c= increase in *ages of agricultural labourers fro/ 1,.! on*ar%s ;%= i/+ro$e/ent of %rought +rone areas an% /itigation of floo%s, ;e= +ro$ision of rural housing for the B & category, ;f= $arious social security +rogra//es for the B & fa/ilies( Roy an% 6hosh ha$e also +ro$i%e% %etaile% %ata on fun% flo* %uring the . th, ,th an% 1!th 'i$e9Oear lan +erio%s an% the achie$e/ents fro/ such fun% flo*( To this *e can +erha+s a%% that at least in late 1,.!s 6(K( &ieten ha% obser$e% in an ethnogra+hic stu%y carrie% out in Birbhu/ %istrict that &'6As inter$ention in the rural society through lan% refor/ an% anchayti Raj ha% le% to a ne* sense of %ignity a/ong the +oor +easantry $is9P9$is the rural rich(;&ieten < 1,,2= ?o* far *ere the fun%s to *hich Roy an% 6hosh ha% referre% to able to reach the targete% +o+ulationM #as there *i%es+rea% leakage an% %i% the elite ca+ture the fun%s that *ere /eant for the +oorM In a stu%y of ., $illages s+rea% o$er 14 %istricts, ranab Bar%han an% Dili+ 3ookherjee ha$e trie% to fin% ans*ers to these 8uestions ;Bar%han an% 3ookherjee< 2!!1< ,:49,-"=( Base% on a %ata co$ering the +erio% fro/ late se$enties to late nineties, the authors conclu%e% that Ha$erage le$els of targeting an% lan% refor/ effort *as 8uite highI although lan% that *as %istribute% *as only about "9. +er cent of culti$able lan% an% one in se$en househol%s *ere benefite% fro/ the +rogra//e( &eakage of IRD +rogra//es *as /ini/al ;1 +er cent= an% .- +er cent of the /inikits *ent to the lan%less an% s/all lan%9o*ning househol%s( Thus, Hthe #est Bengal

21

+anchayats %irecte% a significant +ortion of benefits of %ifferent %e$elo+/ental an% +o$erty alle$iation +rogra//es to the +oorI;Ibi%< ,-2=( Sunil Sengu+ta an% ?aris 6a@%ar, base% on their analysis in early 1,,!s ca/e to the sa/e conclusion regar%ing targeting of IRD sche/es( In their o+inion, H/ost beneficiaries *ere fro/ the target grou+, an% transaction costs of obtaining the loan *ere relati$ely s/all( This *as in contrast to other +arts of In%ia *here the beneficiaries *ere often the *ell9off relati$es of +anchayat officials, an% inten%e% target grou+s face% high transactions cost inclu%ing the bribing of officials ;Sengu+ta an% 6a@%ar< 1,,:< 14:94-=(I En the other han% Ross 3allick ;3allick< 1,,"< 11.= has argue% on the basis of a 6o$ern/ent of In%ia re+ort ;6oI< 1,..= an% an essay by 3a%hura S*a/inathan ;S*a/inathan< 1,,!< )924= that there *as no significant %ifference bet*een other states an% #est Bengal( The o$erall +ositi$e assess/ent by Bar%han an% 3ookherjee, ho*e$er, accor%ing to the authors the/sel$es nee%s to be 8ualifie% in so/e i/+ortant res+ects( The authors Hconsistently foun% that targeting +erfor/ance *as +oorer *hen the lan% %istribution beca/e less e8ual, the +oor *as less literate, *hen there *as /ajor lo* caste househol%s, an% local elections *ere less conteste%(I ;Bar%han an% 3ookherjee< 2!!1< ,-2= 3oreo$er, H+olitical biases *ere /ore significant in the allocation of resources across $illages, rather than *ithin $illagesI;Ibi%(=( In other *or%s, *here $illagers *ere of lo* caste an% lacke% literacy they ten%e% to lose out fro/ the benefits of the +anchayats as they *ere not able to $oice their %e/an%s a%e8uately( Si/ilarly absence of +olitical co/+etition /eant that the +anchayats *ere less scare% of fa$ouring their o*n su++orters( 'inally, the targeting by the 6ra/ anchayats *as +robably /uch better than the targeting of the u++er t*o9tiers( The %iscourse on +o$erty in #est Bengal nee%s to be 8ualifie% in si0 other i/+ortant *ays( 'irstly, although there is no significant stu%y on this, the &eft 'ront 6o$ern/ent *as not able to arrest the regional i/balance that ha% e/erge% %uring the Congress era( In other *or%s, the rural areas of the %istricts a%joining Calcutta are in general /uch /ore +ros+erous that the %istricts in the north an% the %ry regions of the *est( So/e e$i%ence of this is +resente% in the #B?DR( )ccor%ing to a table +resente% in the re+ort base% on >SSE 44 th roun% ;1,,,92!!!=, *e can see *i%e $ariation in the rural +o$erty ratio of the %istricts ;#B?DR< 2!!1< .!=(

22

Secon%ly, in 2!!1, the 6o$ern/ent itself +ublishe% a list of 1:12 $illages ;about 11 +er cent of the total nu/ber of $illages= *hich *ere ter/e% as Bback*ar% $illagesA base% on the +ro0y in%icators ;a= fe/ale literacy rate less than "! +er cent an% ;b= +ercentage of /arginal *orkers +lus non9*orkers greater than :!( ) stu%y con%ucte% on these $illages in 2!!:9!-, *ith a sa/+le of ,2 $illages in - %istricts foun% a rather sa% +icture(;6hosh et al< 2!!-= The sur$ey %isco$ere% a +o+ulation that has not benefite% fro/ any %e$elo+/ent initiati$e( Significantly a $ery high +ro+ortion of the +o+ulation *as fro/ the Sche%ule% Tribes( )lso a significant 2! +er cent of the ".14 res+on%ents sai% that they ha% no faith in the anchayats( By +lotting the Blocks *hich ha$e at least 1! such back*ar% $illages, it *as foun% that there *as a %istinct +attern to it 7 they for/e% a big re% +atch to the *est of the state( It is +erha+s not a coinci%ence that this is the area that is *itnessing the /a0i/u/ a/ount of 3aoist $iolence in recent ti/es( Thir%ly, base% on the >SSE :1st roun% %ata the state go$ern/ent has acce+te% that , +er cent of the +o+ulation of the state %oes not get a%e8uate foo%(; NRD< 2!1!= This corroborate% the fin%ings of the Rural ?ousehol% Sur$ey that 1:(4 +er cent of the +o+ulation fin%s it %ifficult to arrange t*o /eals a %ay throughout the year( 'ourthly, since 2!!: the &'6 has faile% to successfully i/+le/ent the 3ahat/a 6an%hi >ational Rural E/+loy/ent 6uarantee Sche/e ;36>RE6S=, *hich is the /ost i/+ortant sche/e for the +o$erty alle$iation in In%ia ;Bhattacharya< 2!1!< :G Dey< 2!1!=( 'ifthly, rural #est Bengal largely consists of s/all an% /arginal far/ers for *ho/ agriculture is beco/ing /ore an% /ore un+rofitable( The lanning Co//ission has note% in a recent re+ort that bet*een 2!!!9!1 to 2!!19!4 the $alue +er hectare of Aman +a%%y, the +rinci+al cro+ of the state, increase% by 21(: +er cent, *hile cost of culti$ation +er hectare increase% by "!(1" +er cent( ; lanning Co//ission< 2!1!< 41= 3oreo$er total +o+ulation of #est Bengal has al/ost %ouble% bet*een 1,-1 an% 2!!1 *hereas +ercentage of rural +o+ulation to total +o+ulation has %ecline% by only " +er cent( ;Ibi%< 24= This has resulte% in /assi$e +ressure on lan% *hich has al/ost reache% its li/it in ter/s of +ro%ucti$ity an% has the nu/ber of non9far/ *orkers *ho %o not ha$e any secure source of li$elihoo% an% because of the in%ustrial %ecline in the state cannot be absorbe% in the in%ustrial sector as *ell( (

2"

'inally, by using the >ational 'a/ily ?ealth Sur$ey9" an% calculations base% on ?u/an o$erty In%e0 ;? I= lanning Co//ission has ranke% #est Bengal in the ninth +lace a/ong the fifteen /ajor states in In%ia, ;Ibi%< 2,= thereby in%icating +o$erty is still a serious +roble/ in #est Bengal(

Concl&sion It re/ains true that in the all9In%ia conte0t #est Bengal is still a/ong the better +erfor/ing states as far as anchayats are concerne%( The 3inistry of anchayati Raj in 2!!, an% 2!1! ha% selecte% #est Bengal as one of the to+ four states in the country( #est Bengal is certainly better +lace% than a state like Cttar ra%esh or ?aryana *here /any anchayats %o not e$en ha$e an office of their o*n( The institution has struck %ee+ roots in rural Bengal o$er the last three %eca%es an% +anchayat elections ha$e been hel% regularly( artici+ation in the for/ of $oting an% election of *o/en, Sche%ule% Tribes an% Sche%ule% Castes has taken +lace as +er the constitutional /an%ate( 'inance Co//issions ha$e also been regularly set u+( Se$eral ne* institutions ha$e been create% through legislati$e changes ai/e% at re%ucing +artisan +olitics( This is %efinitely the cre%it of &'6( Cnfortunately in s+ite of these achie$e/ents there are /any unfulfille% +ro/ises( #est Bengal has +erfor/e% ina%e8uately in ter/s of i/+le/enting the reco//en%ations of the successi$e 'inance Co//issions in ter/s of %e$ol$ing fun%s, functions an% functionaries fro/ the line %e+art/ents an% in ensuring higher le$els of +artici+ation through the gra/ sansa% an% +lanning fro/ belo*( arallel bo%ies such as District Rural De$elo+/ent )gency ;DRD)= an% aschi/anchal Cnnayan arisha%, *hich by+ass the authority of the anchayats, ha$e continue% to e0ist( >e* institutions ai/e% at re%ucing +artisan +olitics such as the 6ra/ Cnnayan Sa/ity, the District Council, the District

21

lanning Co//ittees are yet to ha$e the %esire% i/+act( The anchayats of the state, es+ecially in the +oorer %istricts, also nee% to i/+ro$e their ca+acity to i/+le/ent +o$erty alle$iation +rogra//es such as 36>RE6S( Thus, although locate% a/ong the best states in the country, #est Bengal +anchayats un%er &eft 'ront rule see/s to ha$e been s8uee@e% bet*een the +arty on the one han% an% the bureaucracy on the other *ith $ery little in%e+en%ent +o*er of its o*n( Its role un%er &'6 *as to function as an i/+le/enting agency of $arious Central an% state s+onsore% sche/es rather than as Hinstitutions of self9go$ern/entI as en$isage% in the se$enty9thir% a/en%/ent of the In%ian constitution( The +anchayats *ere gi$en $ery little fun%s of their o*n an% *ere har%ly encourage% to act on their o*n( That the +anchayats %i% not function as institutions of self9go$ern/ent beca/e abun%antly clear %uring the Singur an% >an%igra/ agitations *hen the +anchayats coul% har%ly +lay any effecti$e role( If they coul% ha$e +laye% the role of local go$ern/ent then +erha+s it *oul% ha$e been +ossible to ensure that the agitations %i% not s+ark off the anti9 incu/bency *a$e that le% to the %o*nfall of the &eft 'ront itself( Cnfortunately although a ne* 6o$ern/ent is in +o*er in #est Bengal since 2!11 an% the ruling T3C has *on an o$er*hel/ing $er%ict in the 2!1" election the ne* +arty in +o*er %o not see/ to ha$e any clear +olicy regar%ing the anchayats( The future of the institution therefore is +ainfully uncertain( References Bar%han, ranab an% Dili+ 3ookherjee ;2!!1= B o$erty )lle$iation Efforts of

anchayats in #est BengalA, 2conomic and Political (ee%ly, Fol( QQQIQ >o( ,, 'ebruary 2.93arch 4 Bar%han, ranab an% Dili+ 3ookherjee ;2!!-= BDecentralisation in #est Bengal< Erigins, 'unctioning, an% I/+actA in ranab Bar%han an% Dili+ 3ookherjee, .ecentralisation and #ocal $overnance in .evelopin -ountries: A -omparative Perspective ;>e* Delhi< E0for% Cni$ersity ress= Bhattacharya, Debraj ;2!1!= BThe 1!!9%ay *on%er< 'lagshi+ 'ailure of a 'lagshi+ rogra//eA, The *tatesman( 'ebruary 1!(

24

Bhattacharya, 3oitree ;2!!2= Panchayati Raj in (est )en al, ; >e* Delhi< 3anak= Bhattacharyya, D*ai+ayan ;2!!:= B#riters Buil%ings an% Reality of Decentralise% Rural o*er< So/e ara%o0es an% Re$ersals in #est BengalA in >iraja 6o+al Rayal, )/it rakash, ra%ee+ K Shar/a ;e%(= #ocal $overnance in "ndia: .ecentralisation and )eyond, ;>e* Delhi< E0for% Cni$ersity ress=

Bhattacharyya, D*ai+ayan ;2!!,= BEf Control an% 'actions< The Changing B arty9SocietyA in Rural #est BengalA, 2conomic and Political (ee%ly, Fol( Q&IF >o ,, 'ebruary 2.93arch :(

Bhattacharyya, ?arihar ;1,,.= 3icro'foundations of )en al -ommunism, ;>e* Delhi< )janta= Centre for Stu%ies in Social Sciences ;2!!:= *R. Pro ramme: .esi n of Purpose'level "ndicators and )aseline 3easurement in (est )en al .istricts , Re+ort sub/itte% to De+art/ent for International De$elo+/ent, CK(

Chakraborty, Ct+al ;2!!-= $ram Panchayats in Action: A study of *ome -ritical "ssues, anchayats N Rural De$elo+/ent De+art/ent, 6o$ern/ent of #est Bengal, Cn+ublishe%

Chatterjee, artha ;2!!1= The Politics of the $overned: Reflections on Popular Politics in 3ost parts of the (orld, ;>e* Delhi< er/anent Black= Chatto+a%hyay, Raghaben%ra an% Esther Duflo ;2!!1= BI/+act of Reser$ation in anchayati Raj< E$i%ence fro/ a nation*i%e ran%o/i@e% e0+eri/entA in 2conomic and Political (ee%ly! Fol( QQQIQ >o ,, 'ebruary 2. 7 3arch 4(

Chatto+a%hyay, Raghaben%ra, Bhaskar Chakrabarti, Su/an >ath ;2!1!= BFillage foru/s or De$elo+/ent Councils< eo+leAs +artici+ation in %ecision9/aking in rural #est Bengal, In%iaA in -ommonwealth 4ournal of #ocal $overnance! 3arch

Crook, Richar% C an% )lan Sturla S$erisson ;2!!1= .ecentralisation and Poverty Alleviation in .evelopin -ountries: a comparative analysis or! is (est )en al uni5ue6, IDS *orking +a+er 1"!, Institute of De$elo+/ent Stu%ies, Susse0(

2:

Dasgu+ta, Rajarshi ;2!!,= BThe C I ;3= B3achineryA in #est Bengal< T*o Fillage >arrati$es fro/ Koch Bihar an% 3al%aA 2conomic and Political (ee%ly, Fol( Q&IF >o ,, 'ebruary 2.93arch :

Dey, Subhashish ;2!1!= 2valuatin

"ndia&s 7ational Rural 2mployment

$uarantee *cheme: The -ase of )irbhum .istrict! (est )en ali! International Institute of Social Sciences, #orking a+er >o( 1,!( 6anguly, Su+anrna an% Sonali Chakra$arti Bannerjee ;2!!.= B#o/en in 6ra/ anchayatsA in )lok Ku/ar 3ukho+a%hyay, Satyabrata Chakraborty, )+urba Ku/ar 3ukho+a%hyay ;e%(= $ram Panchayats in (est )en al: "nstitutional -apabilities and .evelopmental "nterventions! anchayat N Rural De$elo+/ent De+art/ent, 6o$ern/ent of #est Bengal, $ol(1, Cn+ublishe%( 6hatak, 3aitreesh an% 3aitreya 6hatak ;2!!2= BRecent Refor/s in the anchayat Syste/ of #est Bengal< To*ar%s 6reater artici+atory 6o$ernanceMA 2conomic and Political (ee%ly! Fol(QQQFII >o(1( Ranuary 4911 6hosh, Bu%%ha%eb ;2!!!= B#est BengalA in *tatus of Panchayati Raj in the *tates and ,nion Territories of "ndia ;>e* Delhi< Institute of Social Sciences= 6hosh, Dili+, *tudy, rabhat Datta, )jay Bhattacharyya, Di+ankar Sinha an% Debraj Bhattacharya ;2!!-= The )ac%ward 8illa es of (est )en al: An 2xploratory anchayats an% Rural De$elo+/ent, 6o$ern/ent of #est Bengal,( Cn+ublishe%( 6o$ern/ent of In%ia, De+art/ent of Rural De$elo+/ent, 3inistry of )griculture ;1,,.= -oncurrent 2valuation of "R.P: The 3ain Findin s of the *urvey for 4anuary 9:;<'.ecember 9:;< 6o$ern/ent of #est Bengal ;2!!1= (est )en al =uman .evelopment Report ;Calcutta< 6o$ern/ent of #est Bengal= 6o$ern/ent of #est Bengal ;2!!.= Report of the Third Finance -ommission of (est )en al ;Kolkata< 6o$ern/ent of #est Bengal= 6o$ern/ent of #est Bengal ;2!!.= Report of the Third Finance -ommission of (est )en al ;Kolkata< 6o$ern/ent of #est Bengal=

2-

6o$ern/ent of #est Bengal ;2!!,= Roadmap for the Panchayats in (est )en al: A 8ision .ocument! ;Kolkata< 6o$ern/ent of #est Bengal= Institute of Social Sciences, ;2!!-= A *tudy on ,tilisation of ,ntied Funds by the $ram Panchayats in (est )en al, Re+ort sub/itte% to anchayats an% Rural De$elo+/ent De+art/ent, 6o$ern/ent of #est Bengal( Cn+ublishe%(

Kohli, )tul ;1,.-= The *tate and Poverty in "ndia: The Politics of Reform , ;Ca/bri%ge< Ca/bri%ge Cni$ersity ress=( Ku/ar, 6irish an% Bu%%ha%eb 6hosh ;1,,:= (est )en al Panchayat 2lections 9::>: A *tudy in Participation, >e* Delhi< Conce+t= Kun%u, 3anasen%u ;2!!,= B anchayati Raj or arty RajM Cn%erstan%ing the

>ature of &ocal 6o$ern/ent in #est BengalA in B(S( Ba$iskar an% 6eorge 3athe* ;e%(= "nclusion and 2xclusion in #ocal $overnance: Field *tudies from Rural "ndia, ;>e* Delhi< Sage= &ieten, 6(K( ;1,,2= -ontinuity and -han e in Rural (est )en al ;>e* Delhi< Sage= 3allick, Ross ;1,,"= .evelopment Policies of a -ommunist $overnment: (est )en al *ince 9:<< Ca/bri%ge< Ca/bri%ge Cni$ersity ress= 3ishra, Surya Kanta ;1,,.= *reni .rishtibhon itey Panchayat ; anchayat through Class ers+ecti$e= ;Calcutta< >ational Book )gency= 3ukarji, >ir/al an% D( Ban%yo+a%hyay ;1,,"= 7ew =ori1ons for (est )en al Panchayats: A Report for the $overnment of (est )en al , ;6o$ern/ent of #est Bengal, De+art/ent of anchayats= anchayat N Rural De$elo+/ent De+art/ent, 6o$ern/ent of #est Bengal ;2!!1= Report on the Post'.esi n *tudy on -apacity )uildin of *R., 6o$ern/ent of #est Bengal, Cn+ublishe%( anchayat an% Rural De$elo+/ent De+art/ent, 6o$ern/ent of #est Bengal ;2!!4= 2valuation of Panchayat Plannin (est )en al, Cn+ublishe% and "mplementation 2xperience in

2.

anchayats an% Rural De$elo+/ent De+art/ent, 6o$ern/ent of #est Bengal ;2!!4= Report on the Pilot *tudy on ?r ani1ational "ssues, 6o$ern/ent of #est Bengal, Cn+ublishe%(

lanning Co//ission ;2!1!= (est )en al .evelopment Report ;>e* Delhi< 6o$ern/ent of In%ia= Roy, 3( >( an% Dili+ 6hosh ;2!!.= BDari%ro o anchayat< aschi/banger

EbhigyotaA ; o$erty an% Panchayatiraj, Rune(

anchayat< The #est Bengal E0+erience= in

Sengu+ta, Debjani an% Dili+ 6hosh ;2!!.= B) stu%y of the 6ra/ anchayats in #est Bengal< Their res+onsi$eness to %e/an%s /a%e at the 6ra/ Sansa%A in )lok Ku/ar 3ukho+a%hyay, Satyabrata Chakraborty, )+urba Ku/ar 3ukho+a%hyay ;e%= $ram Panchayats in (est )en al: "nstitutional -apabilities and .evelopmental "nterventions! anchayat N Rural De$elo+/ent De+art/ent, olitics an% Rural 6o$ern/ent of #est Bengal, $ol(1, Cn+ublishe%(

Sengu+ta, Sunil an% ?aris 6a@%ar ;1,,:= B)grarian

De$elo+/ent in #est BengalA in Rean DrS@e an% )/artya Sen ;e%(= "ndian .evelopment: *elected Re ional Perspectives, ;>e* Delhi< E0for% Cni$ersity ress= S*a/inathan, 3a%hura ;1,,!= BFillage &e$el I/+le/entation of IRD < Co/+arison of #est Bengal an% Ta/il >a%uA, 2conomic and Political (ee%ly! 3arch "1(

2,