CONDUCTOR INSULATION The NEC requires that all conductors be insulated,310.2 (A).

There are a few exceptions, such as the permission to use a bare neutral conductor for services, and bare equipment grounding conductors. The classification of insulation, either thermoplastic or thermoset, generally determines its suitability for use under various ambient conditions. Thermoplastic materials, typically plastic resins, soften and flow when they are heated and subjected to pressure, but they become rigid when cooled. Thermoset materials, by contrast, are initially set or cured when heated, but after curing they will not soften, flow, or distort. Some kinds of insulation are approved for wire only if it is to remain in a dry environment, preferably within a building, but other insulating materials have been formulated to stand up to environments that are dry and damp, dry and wet, or wet, and still other materials can withstand extreme temperatures. For example, some insulated wire can perform effectively only up to 60C (140F), while others can perform effectively at temperatures as high as 90C (194F). All modern electrical wire insulation is rated as flame-retardant, but only a few of these insulation materials are capable of remaining effective insulators following long-term exposure to sunlight (ultraviolet radiation), ozone, or nuclear radiation.

PURPOSE Conductors need to be electrically isolated from other conductors and from the environment to prevent short circuits. Insulation is applied around a conductor to provide this isolation. Most wire and cable insulations consist of polymers (plastics), which have a high resistance, to the flow of electric current. A jacket is the outermost layer of a cable whose primary function is to protect the insulation and conductor core from external physical forces and chemical deterioration.

TYPES AND APPLICATIONS Thermoplastic Insulation: Thermo means heat and plastic means formable, thermoplastic is soften and melt if heated above its rated temperature. It can be heated, melted, and reshaped. Thermoplastic insulation will stiffen at temperatures colder than 14F (minus 10C). Thermoplastic is lower in cost and lighter in weight and most commonly used. Thermoplastic compounds are materials that go soft when heated and harden when cooled. PVC (Polyvinyl Chloride): is the most commonly used thermoplastic insulator for cables. It is cheap, durable and widely available. However, the chlorine in PVC (a halogen) causes the production of thick, toxic, black smoke when burnt and can be a health hazard in areas where low smoke and toxicity are required (e.g. confined areas such as tunnels). Sometimes referred to simply as vinyl, PVC does not usually exhibit extremely high- and low-temperature properties in one formulation. Certain formulations may have a 55C to 105C rating, while other common vinyls may have a 20C to 60C rating. The many varieties of PVC also differ in pliability and electrical properties. The price range can vary accordingly. Typical dielectric constant values range from 3.5 to 6.5. When properly formulated, thermoplastic jackets of PVC provide cables with the ability to resist oils, acids, alkalis, sunlight, heat, weathering and abrasion. This range of properties makes PVC a suitable outer covering for such cable types as underground feeders (Type UF), control, aerial, street lighting and cables for direct burial.

PE (Polyethylene) is part of a class of polymers called polyolefins. Polyethylene has lower dielectric losses than PVC and is sensitive to moisture under voltage stress (i.e. for high voltages only).

Polyethylene has excellent electrical properties. It has a low dielectric constant, a stable dielectric constant over a wide frequency range, and very high insulation resistance. However, polyethylene is stiff and very hard, depending on molecular weight and density. Low density PE (LDPE) is the most flexible, with highdensity, high-molecular weight formulations being least flexible. Moisture resistance is excellent. Properly formulated PE has excellent weather resistance. The dielectric constant is 2.3 for solid and 1.6 for cellular (foamed) insulation.

Flame retardant formulations are available, but they tend to have poorer electrical properties. Fluoropolymers Fluoropolymers, with the exception of PTFE Teflon(sometimes called TFE), are extrudable thermoplastics used in a variety of low-voltage insulating situations. Fluoropolymers contain fluorine in their molecular composition, which contributes to their excellent thermal, chemical, mechanical and electrical characteristics. The most commonly used fluoropolymers are Teflon(PTFE, FEP and PFA), Tefzel (ETFE), Halar (ECTFE) and Kynar or Solef (PVDF).Teflon has excellent electrical properties, temperature range and chemical resistance. It is not suitable where subjected to nuclear radiation and does nothave good high-voltage characteristics. FEP Teflon is extrudable in a manner similar to PVC and polyethylene. This means that long wire and cable lengths are available. PTFE Teflon is extrudable in a hydraulic ram type process. Lengths are limited due to the amount of material in the ram, thickness of the insulation and preform size. PTFE must be extruded over a silver- or nickel-coated wire. The nickel- and silver-coated designs are rated 260C and 200C maximum, respectively. The cost of Teflon is approximately 8 to 10 times more per pound than PVC compounds.

Figure

1.

Typical

low

voltage

PVC

cable

Figure 1. Typical low voltage PVC cable

Figure 2. LV/MV cable for outdoor usage with PE sheath

Thermoset: Thermo =heat and set = fixed, thermoset materials do not melt when heated. Onced cured cannot be recycled like thermoplastic. Once the ingredients have been mixed, heated, and formed, it can never be reheated and reshaped. If heated above its rated temperature, it will char and crack. Thermoset is more flexible at lower temperatures.

XLPE (Cross-Linked Polyethylene) has different polyethylene chains linked together (cross-linking) which helps prevent the polymer from melting or separating at elevated temperatures. Therefore XLPE is useful for higher temperature applications. XLPE has higher dielectric losses than PE, but has better ageing characteristics and resistance to water treeing. Normal operating temperatures are typically between 90C and 110C. Temperature limit is 250C. EPR (Ethylene Propylene Rubber) is a copolymer of ethylene and propylene, and commonly called an elastomer. EPR is more flexible than PE and XLPE, but has higher dielectric losses than both. Normal operating temperatures are typically between 90C and 110C. Temperature limit is 250C.

Figure 3. 3-phase EPR insulated cable for MV

Figure 4. MV cable with XLPE insulation, 33 kV

Comparison of Materials A comparison of common insulating materials is as follows: Material Advantages

Disadvantages

PVC

Cheap Durable Widely available Lowest dielectric losses High initial dielectric strength Low dielectric losses Improved material properties at high temperatures Does not melt but thermal expansion occurs Increased flexibility Reduced thermal expansion (relative to XLPE) Low sensitivity to water treeing Low-Medium dielectric losses Not harmed by DC testing Known history of reliability

Highest dielectric losses Melts at high temperatures Contains halogens Not suitable for MV / HV cables Highly sensitive to water treeing Material breaks down at temperatures

PE

high

XLPE

Medium sensitivity to water treeing (although some XLPE polymers are water-tree resistant)

EPR

Medium-High dielectric losses Requires inorganic filler / additive

Paper Oil

High weight High cost Requires hydraulic pressure / pumps for insulating fluid Difficult to repair Degrades with moisture

A letter code has been established to simplify the selection of the optimum insulated wire for specific tasks while considering operating temperatures and application environments. A knowledge of this code will permit the user suffucient background information to make the best selection. Examples of these code designations are RHH, THHN, TW, and XHHW. Copper and aluminum wire are identifiable on sight by their color reddish brown for copper and silver for aluminum. However, it is difficult to identify copper-clad aluminum wire on sight without making a clean cut through the wire to examine the core. On the other hand, even experts have trouble identifying wire insulation. For this reason, manufacturers print an identification code directly on the wire insulation, giving: The trade name of the insulation Maximum operating temperature (H for 75C, HH for 90C, none for 60C) Environments for safe application (dry, damp, wet, or combinations of these) Year of manufacture Maximum voltage rating

Cable selection Generally, all element s relating to cable selection can be broadly categorized as electrical and physical. Electrical consideration range from the more obvious ampere and voltage selection. The physical elements include consideration of tensile strength. Voltage The operating voltage for a given circuit is a primary factor in the choice of insulating material. Incorrect selection of the insulating material may result in insulation breakdown and may cause short circuit. Current Circuit current requirement are used to determine the conductor size. The maximum current carrying capacity for a given size of conductor is determine by the heat dissipation. Frequency When conductors are selected for dc or low frequency application, frequency need not be considered. However, when conductors are used as RF transmission lines, skin effect become a consideration. Environmental Considerations Animal Life Cables covered by lead sheathing and armor are not always adequately protected. Rodents have sometimes destroyed even these protective covering. To prevent damaged, protective sheaths are often painted or impregnated with arsenic or other poisons and repellents. Sunlight Some synthetic rubber sheaths and insulations are subject to damaged by prolonged exposure to sunlight. If prolonged exposure cannot be avoided, the following preventive measures are recommended: 1. Perform frequent inspection

2. Treat cable surface with silicone compound 3. Paint cables with a rubber base preservative paint. Ozone Ozone(O3) is a form of oxygen which, unlike oxygen in its normal state (o2), is harmful to rubber and rubber compounds. The preventive measure should be taken such case. Extreme climatic conditions Extreme cold, salt air, hot humid air, and other climatic conditions must be considered when the type of cable to be used is determined.

Insulation Resistance Testing Insulation starts to age as soon as it's made. As it ages, its insulating performance deteriorates. Any harsh installation environments, especially those with temperature extremes and/or chemical contamination, accelerates this process. This deterioration can result in dangerous conditions in power reliability and personnel safety. As such, it's important to identify this deterioration quickly so that corrective steps can be taken. The most important reason for testing insulation is to insure public and personal safety. By performing a high dc voltage test between de-energized current-carrying (hot), grounded, and grounding conductors, you can eliminate the possibility of having a life-threatening short circuit or short to ground. One of the simplest tests and its required test instrument are not universally understood. Insulation testing components The insulation resistance (IR) test (also commonly known as a Megger) is a spot insulation test which uses an applied DC voltage (typically either 250Vdc, 500Vdc or 1,000Vdc for low voltage equipment <600V and 2,500Vdc and 5,000Vdc for high voltage equipment) to measure insulation resistance in either k, M or G. The measured resistance is intended to indicate the condition of the insulation or dieletric between two conductive parts, where the higher the resistance, the better the condition of the insulation. Ideally, the insulation resistance would be infinite,

but as no insulators are perfect, leakage currents through the dielectric will ensure that a finite (though high) resistance value is measured. The megohmmeter( megger) Megohmmeter (sometimes referred to as a megger) is a special type of ohmmeter used to measure the electrical resistance of insulators. Insulating components, for example cable jackets, must be tested for their insulation strength at the time of commissioning and as part of maintenance of high voltage electrical equipment and installations. For this purpose megohmmeters, which can provide high DC voltages (typically in ranges from 500V to 2kV) at specified current capacity, are used. Acceptable insulator resistance values are typically 1 to 10 megohms, depending on the standards referenced.

A basic megohmmeter hook-up schematic is shown in Fig. 1 (above). The megohmmeter is similar to a multimeter, when the latter is in its ohmmeter function. There are differences, however. First, the megohmmeter's output is much higher than that of a multimeter. Voltages of 100, 250, 500, 1,000, 2500, 5,000, and even 10,000V are. The most common voltages are 500V and 1,000V. Higher voltages are used to stress an insulation to a greater degree and thus obtain more accurate results. econd, the range of a megohmmeter is in megohms, as its name implies, instead of ohms as in a multimeter. Third, a megohmmeter has a relatively high internal resistance, making the instrument less hazardous to use in spite of the higher voltages.

Ground Resistance Measuring Why grounding? Lack of good grounding is dangerous and increases the risk of equipment failure. Without an effective grounding system, we could be exposed to the risk of electric shock, not to mention instrumentation errors, harmonic distortion issues, power factor problems and a host of possible intermittent dilemmas. If fault currents have no path to the ground through a properly designed and maintained grounding system, they will find unintended paths that could include people. However, good grounding isnt only for safety; it is also used to prevent damage to industrial plants and equipment. A good grounding system will improve the reliability of equipment and reduce the likelihood of damage due to lightning or fault currents. Billions are lost each year in the workplace due to electrical fires. This does not account for related litigation costs and loss of personal and corporate productivity. Why test grounding resistance or why determine the soil resistivity?

Soil Resistivity is most necessary when determining the design of the grounding system for new installations (green field applications) to meet your ground resistance requirements. Ideally, you would find a location with the lowest possible resistance. But as we discussed before, poor soil conditions can be overcome with more elaborate grounding systems. The soil composition, moisture content, and temperature all impact the soil resistivity. Soil is rarely homogenous and the resistivity of the soil will vary geographically and at different soil depths. Moisture content changes seasonally, varies according to the nature of the sub layers of earth, and the depth of the permanent water table. Since soil and water are generally more stable at deeper strata, it is recommended that the ground rods be placed as deep as possible into the earth, at the water table if possible. Also, ground rods should be installed where there is a stable temperature, i.e. below the frost line. For a grounding system to be effective, it should be designed to withstand the worst possible conditions.

Over time, corrosive soils with high moisture content, high salt content, and high temperatures can degrade ground rods and their connections. So although the ground system when initially installed, had low earth ground resistance values, the resistance of the grounding system can increase if the ground rods are eaten away. That is why it is highly recommended that all grounds and ground connections are checked at least annually as a part of your normal Predictive Maintenance plan. During these periodic checks, if an increase in resistance of more than 20 % is measured, the technician should investigate the source of the problem, and make the correction to lower the resistance, by replacing or adding ground rods to the ground system. Earth resistance is measured in two ways for two important fields of use: 1. Determining effectiveness of ground grids and connections that are used with electrical systems to protect personnel and equipment. 2. Prospecting for good (low resistance) ground locations, or obtaining measured resistance values that can give specific information about what lies some distance below the earths surface (such as depth to bed rock).

What is a good ground resistance value? There is a good deal of confusion as to what constitutes a good ground and what the ground resistance value needs to be. Ideally a ground should be of zero ohms resistance. There is not one standard ground resistance threshold that is recognized by all agencies. However, the NFPA and IEEE have recommended a ground resistance value of 5.0 ohms or less. The NEC has stated to Make sure that system impedance to ground is less than 25 ohms specified in NEC 250.56. In facilities with sensitive equipment it should be 5.0 ohms or less. The Telecommunications industry has often used 5.0 ohms or less as their value for grounding and bonding.

The goal in ground resistance is to achieve the lowest ground resistance value possible that makes sense economically and physically.