Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profiles BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA

by Senija Alibegovic-Grbic

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FAO 2009

CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION
Administration, population, language and currency Land resources

5
5 5

2. SOILS AND TOPOGRAPHY

Topography Soils Land use change

9
9 9 11

3. CLIMATE AND AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES

Climate Hydrological cycle

11
11 11

4. RUMINANT LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION SYSTEMS

Cattle and sheep Dairy farming Beef production Sheep and goats

13
13 13 15 16

5. THE PASTURE RESOURCE

Grassland

18
18

6. OPPORTUNITIES FOR IMPROVEMENT OF PASTURE RESOURCES 7. RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATIONS AND PERSONNEL 8. REFERENCES 9. CONTACTS

21 22 22 23

Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile

1. INTRODUCTION
Bosnia and Herzegovina1 (B&H) is on the Balkan Peninsula, between 420 26 and 450 15N and 150 45 and 190 41 E, bordered by Croatia (932 km) to the north, west and south, Serbia (302 km) to the east and Montenegro (225 km) to the south (Figure 1). Bosnia and Herzegovina is almost landlocked, except for 26 km of Adriatic coastline centred on the town of Neum. The countrys name comes from the two regions Bosnia and Herzegovina that have a very vaguely defined border between them. Bosnia occupies the northern areas that form roughly four fifths of the country, while Herzegovina occupies the rest in the south. Administration, population, language and currency At State level the administration is a Presidency with Figure 1. Map of Bosnia and Herzegovina a Council of Ministers; the capital is Sarajevo. There are two major administrative divisions as separate entities The Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina with ten cantons and the Republika of Srpska divided into 62 municipalities; there is also an internationally-supervised Brcko District. The country is home to three ethnic constituent peoples: Bosniaks (48%) are the most numerous group, with Serbs (37%) second and Croats (14%) in third place (World Factbook). The population was estimated in July 2009 at 4 613 414, with a growth rate of 0.34% (World Factbook). Languages are Bosnian, Croatian and Serbian, all official and mutually understandable among the three ethnic groups. Croatian and Bosnian are written in the Latin alphabet: Serbian is written in both Latin and Cyrillic. The national currency is the Euro-pegged Convertible Mark (KM), controlled by a currency board. According to Eurostat data, Bosnia and Herzegovinas GDP per capita stood at 30% of the EU average in 2008. Land resources The total area of B&H is 51000 km2, of which 50.3% is agricultural land (25720 km2) and 48.3% under forest. Total arable land amounts to 15850 km2 or 62%; in the Federation 7650 km2 and in the Republika of Srpska 8200 km2. Plough-land amounts to 10180 km2 or 19.9% of the total land. There are about 0.59 ha of agricultural land per capita, of which 0.36 ha are fields and gardens. Land quality classes are given in Table 1. The best quality land (classes I to III ) covers 14.0%, class IV land covers 17.9%, class V 16.7%, class VI 31.83% and classes VII and VIII 19.4% (data according to a classification made by the Institute of Agropedology Sarajevo, see Dugoroni Program Razvoja, 19862000).
FAO Editors Note: Bosnia and Herzegovinas declaration of sovereignty in October 1991 was followed by a declaration of independence from the former Yugoslavia on 3 March 1992. After three war-torn years, a peace agreement was initialled in Dayton, Ohio (USA) on 21 November 1995 (and a final agreement signed in Paris on 14 December 1995), which retained Bosnia and Herzegovinas international boundaries and created a joint multi-ethnic and democratic government charged with conducting foreign, diplomatic and fiscal policy. Also recognized was a second tier of government comprised of two entities roughly equal in size: the Bosniak/Croat Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Bosnian Serb-led Republika Srpska (RS). The Federation and RS governments were charged with overseeing most government functions. The Office of the High Representative (OHR) was established to oversee the implementation of the civilian aspects of the agreement. In 199596, a NATO-led international peacekeeping force (IFOR) served in Bosnia to implement and monitor the military aspects of the agreement. This was succeeded by a smaller, NATO-led Stabilization Force (SFOR) whose mission was to deter renewed hostilities. European Union peacekeeping troops (EUFOR) replaced SFOR in December 2004; their mission is to maintain peace and stability throughout the country. EUFORs mission changed from peacekeeping to civil policing in October 2007, with its presence reduced to less than 2500 troops (for more details see World Factbook).
1

Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile

Forty-five percent of agricultural land is hilly (300 Table 1. Land quality classes in 700m), of medium quality and well suited to semi-intensive Bosnia and Herzegovina Land class Ha % livestock production. Mountain areas (> 700 m.) account for a further 35% of agricultural land but high altitude, I - III 717 600 14.04 steep slopes and lower soil fertility limit the use of this IV 917 500 17.94 land to grazing in spring and summer. Less than 20% of V 856 000 16.74 agricultural land (half of all arable) is suitable for intensive VI 1 627 400 31.83 agriculture, mostly in lowland river valleys. The land base VII - VIII 994 400 19.45 for agriculture is thus very limited in both quantity and Total 5 112 900 100.00 quality. Natural water resources are more abundant, with many unpolluted rivers and readily accessible groundwater. Despite the abundance of water only about 10000 ha (0.1% Table 2. Indicators of land access and of arable land) were irrigated before the war, an area which fragmentation Farm size Number of % of total could be increased significantly. in ha farms area Although the territory is mainly mountainous, little has Up to 1 180 673 33.93 been done to improve water and soil conditions in upland 13 178 138 33.45 areas. Excessive deforestation, inappropriate conversion of 35 86 272 16.20 grassland to arable and uncontrolled cultivation of sloping 58 56 115 10.54 terrain are degrading the land even in the valleys and 810 16 661 3.13 lowland regions. The large sums invested in the protection More than 10 14 669 2.75 of flat areas (river course direction, embankments, outfall Total 532 528 100.00 drains, pumping stations) remain ineffective if soil and water Source: Statistics Bulletin (1983) conservation measures, both of an agricultural engineering and technical nature, are not undertaken in the hillymountainous uplands. Such measures would contribute to revitalizing the mountainous area and would provide better protection for the lowlands. Land use: Agricultural production decreased enormously during the war. A large proportion of the means of production were destroyed, and more than 237000 ha were mined. Now the greater part of the agricultural land (Figure 2) is under meadow and pasture (56%), then comes ploughed fields (40%) and orchard and vineyards (4%). However, agriculture is still one of the most important economic sectors in Bosnia and Herzegovina, providing food security for a significant part of the rural population. According to the Central Bank of B&H, agriculture accounted for 10.1% of GDP in 2007. But most farms are small-scale family subsistence units delivering any surpluses to neighbours or local markets as shown by the data in Table2. More than 66% of farms have less than three hectares. The average size of a household farm is about 3.0 ha divided into 8 to 10 plots. Moreover, for better understanding of the land relationships, it is useful to have an insight into the ratio of different categories of land use per inhabitant in relation to altitude in the layout of the landscape of Bosnia and Herzegovina (Table 3). The largest part of the arable land is under cereals (Table 4); maize is most important. Forage production (although there are no data in Table 4) is in second and vegetables in third place.

Figure 2. Structure of agricultural land in Bosnia and Herzegovina (in 000 ha, 2005)

Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile

Roughly, forage is produced on Table 3. Different categories of land use per inhabitant 30% of arable area (clovers, alfalfa, Ratio of land use Height above sea level grass-legume mixtures and maize Category ha/capita* m % for silage) and on 1 400 000 ha Ploughed fields and gardens 0.23 0200 14.2 of permanent grasslands, which are Total arable 0.36 200500 29.0 mostly in hilly and mountainous areas Total agricultural land 0.59 5001 000 32.1 [FAOSTAT estimate for the area of 1 0001 500 20.8 permanent meadows and pastures is 1 5002 000 3.8 approximately 1 030 0001 057 000 Over 2 000 0.1 ha in the period 20002007]. * Precise population data are still lacking. Current estimates of total population In general, agricultural technology range from 3.6 million (World Bank), to 3.7 million (Reconstruction and Return Task Force - RRTF). is outdated. During the last ten years, there has not been sufficient investment for modernization in state enterprises; private firms lack financial resources as well as know-how to modernize. Product prices have been quite stable since the Convertible Mark (KM) was introduced in 1997. Statistical data are rarely complete nor totally reliable with the countrys unstable recent history. Unfortunately there are no official time series data showing consumption. Data in this section originate from FAOSTAT database, the Chamber of Commerce, the National Agency for Statistics and the Central Bank, considered the best available sources at this stage. In official statistics, data for B&H are often presented by the two entities: the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (FB&H) and the Republika Srpska (RS). In December 2007, for the first time, an Annual Agricultural Report (for 2007) was issued, prepared by Ministry of Foreign Trade and Economic Relations (MoFTER), Sector for Agriculture, Food, Forestry and Rural Development with data regarding all B&H. Agriculture, hunting and forestry contribute around 7% to the GDP in FB&H and 17% in RS. Agricultural households also play a considerable social buffer role providing food security for family members in both rural and urban areas. The role of agriculture is therefore more important than recorded in official statistics; it plays an important role in the hidden economy, which comprises about 40% of GDP (Bojnec, 2005). The role of the hidden economy is usually greater in less-developed transition economies than in functioning market economies (Lacko, 2000). However, the agricultural share in GDP, as shown in Figure 3, is decreasing, having fallen from 13% in 1999 to 8.65% in 2006. The difference between the two entities is significant. In the Republika Srpska, which has the most productive agriculture, agriculture contributes a larger share than in B&H. In B&H there are 2725000 registered working age persons, of which 1170946 are economically active; 662475 people were officially registered as being employed in 2006, the remainder (508 471) is considered unemployed (43.9% of total labour force in 2006). According to official statistics available,
Table 4. Area, production and yield trends in crop production B&H (2000-2007)

Crop area (000 ha) Cereals Oilseeds Pulses Roots and tubers Vegetables Production (000 tonnes) Cereals Oilseeds Pulses Roots and tubers Vegetables
Source: FAOSTAT 2009

2000
365 5 14 44 125 930 1 12 286 673

2001
365 4 15 45 126 1 138 2 18 397 730

2002
342 4 14 43 127 1 307 2 22 404 734

2003
315 5 14 43 138 793 1 18 302 715

2004
324 4 14 43 139 1 439 2 25 447 783

2005
317 6 14 41 139 1 350 3 25 458 765

2006
312 8 14 41 139 1 341 3 27 410 803

2007
310 7 14 41 136 1 000 3 21 387 759

Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile

Figure 3. Agriculture share in GDP (1997-2005)

the share of the agri-food sector (agricultural production, food processing) accounted for 8.7% of GDP in 2006 and share of the agri-food sector in total recorded employment for the whole country in 2006 is about 7.4% (47000 people with 23000 in primary agriculture). In fact most people active in agriculture do not register as being employed in the sector. Consequently the share of agriculture in total employment is reported at below 4%. Having in mind an estimated number of agricultural holdings of about 540000 (with an estimated 159000 units above 5 ha) proves the significant undervaluation of the importance of agriculture in employment. As there is no recent population census it is impossible to quantify any exact data for real agricultural employment. However, it seems reasonable to estimate that at least half of those people officially counted as unemployed are working in agriculture, so the World Bank estimate of 18% share in employment may still be an underestimate. Bosnia and Herzegovina is a net importer of food. Almost all food products are imported, above all wheat, meat products, dairy products and fruit juices. This is not a new situation since the farming sector was not able to satisfy domestic demand before the conflict. However, the trade deficit in agricultural and food products has grown. Bosnia and Herzegovina is a small open economy. In southeastern Europe only B&H and Bulgaria have a trade value higher than GDP. Tariff protection is lower than all neighbouring countries. The simple average of ad valorem duties applied in 2001 was 6.0% for all goods, including 4.8% for agriculture and 6.2% for non-agricultural products (WTO, 2006). It is an exception to the usual trend when countries protect agriculture with higher tariffs than the non-agricultural sectors. This re-emphasizes the need to increase the competitiveness of the countrys agriculture. The trade deficit is larger (relatively) in the agricultural sector than for total trade. In 2005 about 18% of total import consisted of agricultural and food products, whereas the share of exports was 6%. The coverage of exports/imports in percent is 11.7 for agricultural and food products compared with 34.5 for total trade. At present, institutional capacity at state-level to harmonize, coordinate and monitor agriculture and forestry policies, legislation and rural development programmes is almost non-existent. A draft Law on Agriculture, Food and Rural Development has been prepared by MoFTER, with technical support from the EU, involving working groups from the two entities and Brcko district, and the Law was adopted by the Parliamentary Assembly of B&H in June 2008 (Law on Agriculture, Food and Rural Development, Official Gazette B&H 50/08).

Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile

2. SOILS AND TOPOGRAPHY

Topography The country is largely made up of mountainous highlands in the south and the west, hilly lands in the centre and the north, and flat to undulating plains in the northeast, where most of the fertile agricultural lands are situated. Physiographically B&H can be divided as follows: plains or lowland areas (up to 300 m), 11.3%; hilly area (300500 m), and hillymountainous area (500700 m), 26.3%; Mountainous area (above 700 m), Mediterranean-Mountainous area (700500 m above sea level), 57.2%; Mediterranean area (below 500 m above sea level), 5.2%.
Figure 4. Main zones of Bosnia and Herzegovina Soils The Basic Soil Map (BSM) Project was established in 1964 at the scale of 1:50000 and was implemented by the Agropedology Institute from Sarajevo and the first manual for field soil investigation published. The BSM, developed on pedogenetic principles, lasted from 1966 to 1986, and was the largest pedological project in B&H. Classification of soils is based on genetic-evolutionary principles, in which the type of soil was the basic unit of classification system. Map units included type, subtype, variety and even form. Morphological and lithological characteristics were the chief criteria; 1176 mapping units have been identified on the soil map of B&H. The total number of printed sheets is 116. The soil map of B&H at scale 1:50 000 dates from more than 20 years ago. Since then geneticevolutionary classification has been through significant changes, which clearly can be seen from the terminology of the map units in the legend of the map. There were two periods in development of the soil map, which differ from each other in inventory criteria, classification and methods. In the first period from 1963 to 1973, the national classification was based on genetic principles. In the second period, 1973 to 1985, a new classification was adopted, which was influenced by international classifications, and this is readily apparent on soil maps made after 1973. In the second stage of mapping, application of modern methods was used such as telemetric research using aerial photography at various scales. At first, black and white photography was used, followed by colour photography. A very important task for soil scientists is to adapt the national classification to the FAO one, and to carry out adjustments to the database of the BSM of B&H. B&H is very rich in soil types (see Figure 5) whose characteristics derive from its range of geology, morphology, climate conditions and other factors. The lowland zone, in the northern part of B&H, is the most valuable land. There, the degree of development of primary food production is much higher than in the hilly-mountainous areas. The most common soils are: Stagnic Podzoluvisols, Fluvisols, Umbric Gleysols and Eutric Gleysols. The hilly zone is more heterogeneous than the lowland zone in terms of soil. A considerable part has slopes above 13% and the processes of erosion are very marked and are exacerbated by inappropriate ways of farming, lack of water and soil conservation measures and preference for row-crops (maize and potato) on such terrains. The commonest soil types are: Chromic Luvisols, Eutric Cambisols, Leptosols x Rendzic Leptosols and Vertisols. In the mountain zone erosion processes are also present, although these lands are mostly covered by forests and grasslands. Among sown crops, rye, barley, oats and potato dominate. The commonest

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Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile

Figure 5. Soil map of Bosnia and Herzegovina

soil types are: Dystric Cambisols and Dystric Regosols, followed by Leptosols Rendzic Leptosols and Regosols. The Mediterranean zone, with its warmer climatic conditions, can grow a wide variety of crops and support intensive farming, so that as well as traditional arable crops, early vegetables are grown for local markets. Fruit-growing and vine-growing are also developed here. The commonest soil types are: Lithic Leptosols, Regosols, Leptosols Rendzic Leptosols, Chromic Cambisols, Fluvisols in the river valleys, Umbric and Eutric Gleysols in the karst fields. In swamps, Histosols are often present ,which are important environmentally. In summary the main characteristics of soils in Bosnia and Herzegovina are: acid soils occupy more than 1/3 of the land;

Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile

11

humus content is low; content of the most important fertilizer nutrients is low; soils are generally shallow; excess water on about 14% of the territory; inadequate concern for improvement of fertility; individual land holdings are small and fragmented; erosion is a problem particularly on sloping land.

Land use change The conflicts in the 1990s have had a major effect on land cover and land use in B&H. The movement and displacement of people caused significant changes in population distribution and its pattern on the ground. There was a large land use change during the war years 19921995 that is primarily reflected in the area of abandoned land and deforestation. Although before the war there was unused agricultural land because of migration of people from rural areas to towns and abroad, its amount greatly increased during the war. Economic considerations also contribute to the increase of abandoned land. State farms have significant areas of uncultivated land because they cannot sell produce profitably. Significant deforestation occurred mainly during and after the war. Large areas of forest were cut and wood used as firewood as well as a source of funding for the war. At present, it is estimated that 3000 ha of agricultural land are permanently lost to other land uses annually; often the most fertile and accessible cropland, but there is no reliable record of these land use changes although the reliable and timely information on land cover and land use change is essential for sustainable land management. Given the limited availability of agricultural land, its effective is essential for sector development.

3. CLIMATE AND AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES

Climate Bosnia and Herzegovina is equidistant from the Equator and the Pole, thus the climate is not dominated by a single type of weather. There are neither dry seasons nor harsh and long winters. It can be divided into three climatic regions with more or less sharp boundaries or moderate transition zones: Northern region; Hilly mountain region; Southern region. Temperature Northern region, has a temperate continental climate and average temperature in January from 0.2oC to 2.0 oC, in July 20 oC to 22 oC. Hilly-mountain region, with variations of continental, high-mountainous and alpine climate, average temperatures in January from 0.3 oC to 7.4 oC, in July 10.2 oC to 21.2oC. Southern region, with characteristics of Mediterranean climate, average temperatures in January being 2.3 oC, in July 22.5oC to 25.7 oC, and precipitation of about 2000 mm. The varying climatic conditions offer wide possibilities for agricultural production, both in terms of crop choice and cultivation of land farming, fruit-growing, vine-growing, vegetable growing and forage crops and in terms of livestock production. Hydrological cycle About 38 719 km2 (75.7%) of the B&H territory drain via the Sava River to the Black Sea, and 12410,(24.3%) drain via the River Neretva to the Adriatic Sea. The boundary between these catchments is obscured at the local level, especially in the southwest, where rivers flow through karst areas.

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Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile

The spatial variation of the hydrological cycle (Figure 6.) is very characteristic for B&H. For instance, the mean annual precipitation in the southern region is 2.5 times larger than in northern region, and twice that in the central region. In the south, the mostly Mediterranean type precipitation is between 1 500 and 2 000 mm of rain, potential evapotranspiration 900 mm, actual evapotranspiration 600 mm, potential water deficit or irrigation requirement 300 mm and potential outflow or surplus from 900 to 1400 mm. It is interesting that the southern region has the most abundant precipitation, but also the highest water deficit, and highest water surplus in the absolute and relative sense. The mean annual precipitation in the central region of B&H is about 1 000 mm, potential evapotranspiration 650 mm, actual Figure 6. Scheme of spatial distribution of average evapotranspiration 600 mm, potential water annual precipitation (O), potential evapotranspiration (PET), surplus (V) and soil water deficits (M). deficit or irrigation water requirement Agro-ecological zones (also see section 2, above) 50 mm and potential outflow or surplus 400 mm. This region has a much better water-balance than the southern region. In the northern region of B&H mean annual precipitation is about 800 mm, potential evapotranspiration 700 mm, actual evapotranspiration 600 mm, potential water deficit or irrigation water requirement is 100 mm and potential outflow or surplus 200mm. This region, with its continental climate characteristics, is more similar to the central than to the southern region regarding the soil water cycle. The flat or lowlands zone is found in the northern part of B&H and represents the most valuable land resource. The degree of development of primary food production is much higher than in the hillymountainous areas and the most common soil types are: Stagnic Podzoluvisols, Fluvisols, Umbric Gleysols and Eutric Gleysols. The hilly zone is more heterogeneous than the lowland zone in terms of soil. A considerable part of this zone has slopes above 13% and the processes of erosion are very marked and are exacerbated by inappropriate ways of farming, lack of water and soil conservation measures and preference being given to row crops (corn and potato) on such terrains. The most common types of soil are: Chromic Luvisols, Eutric Cambisols, Leptosols Rendzic Leptosols and Vertisols. In the mountain zone the erosion processes are present also, although these lands are mostly covered by forests and grasslands. The main sown crops are rye, barley, oats and potato and the most common types of soil are: Dystric Cambisols and Dystric Regosols, followed by Leptosols Rendzic Leptosols and Regosols. The Mediterranean zone, with its warmer climatic conditions, can grow a wide variety of crops and supports intensive farming, so that as well as traditional arable crops, early vegetables are also being cultivated for local markets. Fruit-growing and vine-growing are also developed here, so that this region is also called the region of southern crops. The most common types of soil are: Lithic Leptosols, Regosols, Leptosols Rendzic Leptosols, Chromic Cambisols, Fluvisols in the river valleys, Umbric and Eutric Gleysols in the karst fields. In swamps Histosols are often present and these are environmentally important.

Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile

13

4. RUMINANT LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION SYSTEMS

The share of livestock in total agricultural production is estimated at 50%, which is much lower than it was and could be, considering natural preconditions for livestock production and the level of animal production before the war. There were 970142 cattle in B&H before the war; they were owned by the state in numerous state concerns and state farms. The breeding system, production and sale was established and organized by the state. After the war the number of cows was 218406, and number in milk production 161452. After the first five years of the post-war livestock fund reconstruction during which the number of livestock was increasing very fast, 2001 and 2002 were characterized with a decrease in cattle numbers and modest increases of sheep, pig and chickens and, since 2003, all livestock categories are increasing except goats (Table 5). Cattle and sheep The predominant cattle breeds are Simmental, estimated as 80%, then HolsteinFriesian 10% and Brown Swiss 5%. Gatako and Buxa, as domestic breeds, are few and small in proportion to the total. Dairy farming is predominantly in lowland and hilly areas with soils and climate suitable for higher yields of roughage. Beef rearing is rare, almost unknown as a specific type of farming as it is connected to dairy farming using male calves/cull cattle for fattening. Cattle are predominantly housed for all or most of the year, or now and then out of doors during the growing season (MayOctober). Sheep are widely distributed, being most evident in hill and especially mountain areas where they are often the only, or the main, farm enterprises. Sheep are predominantly kept out of doors for all or most of the year, or housed in the winter when grazing is unavailable. In Bosnia it is still common practice for sheep to migrate from mountain to hilly or plain areas for grazing during winter. Dairy farming The importance of the sector lies in several facts: more than 80% of the country is suited to livestock production; there is an abundance of underused natural grassland; there is a tradition of livestock farming and livestock production is the most common agricultural activity and employs the majority of the rural population. In addition, there are many processing plants operating at very low capacity, which guarantees a safe distribution outlet for milk. Before the war (19921995), total annual production of milk in B&H was around 875000 tonnes. The main characteristics of the pre-war primary dairy sector were: a dominant share of small producers (up to three head); very low yields (1400 litres/cow/year); low milk collection rate (1215%); poor herd breed composition and no selection activities in the private sector; private producers were not included in incentive and supportive measures of the government; state-owned farms had higher yields but they only produced 30% of the milk, so the majority of milk producers were left to themselves. War damage almost destroyed the sector completely. In 1991, the number of cows in B&H was 623 000
Table 5. Livestock numbers and production (live weight) for period 20002008
Livestock/product
Cattle Goats Sheep/ewes Pigs Chickens Cattle meat Milk Pig meat Poultry meat Sheep/goat meat
Source FAOSTAT, 2009

Units
000 head 000 head 000 head 000 head 000 head 000 tonnes 000 tonnes 000 tonnes 000 tonnes 000 tonnes

2000
462 98 584 450 9 000 16 544 6 6 1

2001
440 101 608 483 9 700 14 525 4 6 1

2002
410 86 633 500 10 400 16 518 6 9 1

2003
440 81 733 540 12 000 18 537 7 12 2

2004
453 72 893 595 8 626 19 601 8 16 2

2005
460 73 903 653 9 540 24 649 9 12 2

2006
515 76 1 004 708 12 300 22 683 10 14 2

2007
468 70 1 033 535 13 800 24 747 9 20 2

2008
460 70 1 031 502 14 000 26 737 9 29 2

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Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile

and average annual yield of 1 410 litres/cow. During Table 6. Number of cows and milk the war the number of cows fell by 60%, and milk production in B&H 2000-2007 Year Number of Total milk Yield per production by even more as the average milk yield also cows (000) production cow p.a. fell. Many farmers became refugees or were displaced (mil. l) so the number of farmers decreased. An estimated 80% 2000 297 529 1781 of farm infrastructure suffered war damage and access 2001 283 532 1879 to agricultural land suitable for livestock production 2002 244 535 2192 was restricted due to the numerous minefields. Channels 2003 279 545 1953 for milk distribution were disrupted and the majority of 2004 291 583 1999 institutions specialized in supporting the dairy sector 2005 298 629 2110 ceased activities. 2006 313 662 2118 The dairy sector in B&H has been the subject of many 2007 307 724 2360 studies and development programmes and projects as a Source: Agency of Statistics of Bosnia and Herzegovina, priority agricultural sector. The Government emphasizes Institute of Statistics of FB&H, Institute of Statistics of RS. that the agriculture and dairy sector are strategic and, although the level of regulation in the dairy sector in B&H is far behind EU member states, it is still the most regulated agricultural sector in the country. Thus, in 2005, Republika Srpska (RS) allocated 26% (4.4 million) and Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (FB&H) allocated 43% (3.5 million) of their total budgets for subsidies for the dairy sector. The trend in milk productions over the 20002007 in terms of cattle numbers, total milk production and yield/cow/year is shown in Table 6 (where figures differ slightly from the FAO data in Table 5). Cattle numbers declined in 2001 and 2002, and have been slowly increasing since. The 2007 number of cows is only 53% of the pre-war one. Milk production over 20002007 recorded constant growth and reached 724 million litres in 2007, which is 39% more than in 2000. It is encouraging that the increased milk production is the result of increased yield/cow, which rose from 1781 litres in 2000 to 2 360 litres in 2006, or 32%. Yield/cow in 2007 is 39% higher than pre-period, thanks to improvement of the breed composition. A farm register has not yet been set up in B&H, so it is impossible to get reliable data on farm numbers and their structure. Average herd size was 2.32 head in 2007 (Table 7), which is far below for example Slovenia (6.6) and other EU countries. Small farms up to two head account for 48.5% of the total cow herd, and 95.5% of the herd is on farms up to 30 head. Even farms that are considered as medium or large for local conditions have few cows. Thus, average size of the farms that have 510 head is 6.72, for farms with 1130 cows average is 16.64 head; 46.11 for those with 31100 head and 259 head for farms with more than 100 head. Only 3.1% of all cows are on farms with over 100 head. Such unfavourable structure with many very small farms has numerous consequences on performance at farm level. This structure also indicates low specialization in agricultural production as most dairy farms are not commercially specialized in milk production, but semi-subsistence farms in which milk is a source of certain and safe income. Milk yield/cow/year in B&H has been recording a constant but very modest increase in the last decade. Average yield of 2360 litres/cow in 2007 is 50% higher than in 1996. Yield/cow is somewhat higher in Republika Srpska than in the Federation of B&H, but, in general, is very low and far below the yields in EU countries. There are many reasons for such poor productivity; first is poor animal nutrition. Grazing is rare due to small farm plots. Hay, as a main component of the diet, is often of poor
Table 7. Size structure of the livestock farms in the Federation of B&H in 2007
Specification
TOTAL 12 head 34 head 510 head 1130 head 31100 head >100 head

Farms No farms
25 057 19 071 4 404 1 367 190 18 7

Cows Cum. %
76.12 93.70 99.15 99.99 99.97 100.00

% of total
100.00 76.12 17.58 5.45 0.75 0.07 0.03

Number
58 334 28 319 15 013 9 197 3 162 830 1 813

% of total
100.00 48.55 25.74 15.77 5.42 1.42 3.10

Cum . %
48.55 74.29 90.06 95.48 96.9 100.00

Average/farm
2.32 1.48 3.4 6.72 16.64 46.11 259

Source: Federal Ministry of Agriculture, Water Management and Forestry

Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile

15

quality. In winter hay is often combined with maize silage. Part of the diet is concentrate or energy feeds like corn. During the growing season animals are fed on green forage of legumes or grass-legume mixtures (temporary grasslands). Besides, there are poor herd breed composition and the poor level of technical and technological knowledge of the farmers. The number of market-oriented farmers who already achieve remarkable results is also increasing in B&H, thanks, among others, to a number of development projects implemented by international organizations during the last decade. As far as delivery of milk to the dairies is concerned, significant progress has been recorded during 20002006. In 20002005, collection increased annually by 22%, and then slowed down in 2006, due to closing down of some dairies. In delivery of milk to the dairies FB&H contributed with 51%, RS with 47% and Brcko District with 2%. In 2006 180 million litres of milk were delivered to the dairies, which was 7% more than in the previous year and amounted to 27% of total milk production. Although this means that significant quantities of milk are still not sold to dairies but consumed or processed domestically or sold locally, milk collection is 71% higher in 2006 than pre-war. Some 31414 farmers are included in milk collection and the average delivery per farmer in 2006 was 5660 l (6416 in FB&H and 5020 in RS). Consumption data are not recorded so it is difficult to provide data about dairy consumption, but taking into account production and import less export the consumption of all milk products is increasing gradually each year. In 2007 the consumption per capita of fluid milk was 43.5 kg, yoghurt 7.71 kg, cheese 3.14 kg, while butter consumption stagnated at 0.55 kg.; these levels are very low compared with most EU countries. Increase of production and consumption of milk and milk products follows the countrys economic and social recovery. Milk production rose gradually on average at an annual rate around 6.5% during 20022007 but this is below the countrys needs. The official statistical office is still in the process of development so it is hard to obtain reliable data about sector economic performance. Total dairy industry sales and exports have been gradually increasing during 20042006. The increase rate of dairy sales was 34% in 2006 compared to 2004. The sector is not an important contributor to the GDP, but its contribution increased from 0.698% of GDP in 2004 to 0.777% in 2006. Sector output share in total industry output is changing slowly from 7.4% in 2004 to 7.9% in 2006. It means the sector is small but its performances are improving each year. More than 20% of dairy production is exported. The share of dairy products value in exports of agriculture and food products is gradually increasing over time and in 2007 it reached 23% of total agribusiness export. Compared with other food sectors dairy export performance is good and more importantly it has been improving over time. Beef production Beef production in B&H is hardly organized as a specific type of farming, but there are a few fattening farms that buy young cattle from dairy farms. Animals are kept housed and fed green forage, hay or silage with the addition of some grain or concentrate. Many small dairy farms keep male calves from 3 to 6 months and then sell them to slaughterhouses. According to data from the Chamber of Foreign Trade, the meat sector is among the least as regards foreign exchange. In 2000, total meat imports amounted to 89.9 million, while the value of exports was only 8.24 millions. In 2006, the situation was even worse at 127.12 million and 8.33 million respectively. Even with the current low average meat consumption per capita, estimated at 34.8 kg, B&H is self-sufficient only in sheep and goat meat. The percentage self-sufficiency is, according to expert estimations, much lower than officially reported due to illegal imports. According to official data, self-sufficiency in beef was 70% in 2006, while in the Mid-term Strategy of the Agricultural Sector in the Federation of Bosnia Herzegovina (FBH), the experts estimated self-sufficiency at only 27%. Selfsufficiency is lower in FBH than in Republika Srpska, but official data do not include trade in illegal imports on the black market so they give the false picture that self-sufficiency is higher than it really is. But, although much lower than in the past, beef is still the single most common meat consumed contributing 35.5% in 2000 and 32.88% in 2006. Records indicate a slow but constant increase in the share provided by sheep and goat meat, rising from 9.3% in 2000 to 12.63% in 2006. Opportunities for further sector development should be sought in very low self-sufficiency. Gaining the trust of consumers in the quality of domestically produced meat should also be considered. Meat producers

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Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile

are not competitive on the market due to the lack of support, lack of efficient control of the border and the consequent large amounts of cheap black market meat, unstable and high prices of inputs, but also their weaknesses at farm level. These weaknesses are easily seen in poor production practices, low levels of technical knowledge, insufficient care of animal feeding and welfare and many other issues, resulting in low yields, high production costs, inefficiency and low competitiveness. Therefore, the main challenge will be to increase the efficiency of meat producers; underused capacity of many slaughterhouses and meat processing plants can accommodate all current and foreseen quantities of domestically produced meat. Sheep and goats Sheep rearing is a long term tradition in B&H. There were round 2 000 000 sheep and 1 000 000 goats before the First World War; thereafter their number decreased especially during the recent war (19921995). Since 1996 sheep numbers are increasing but goats are in slow decline (Table8). Sheep are widely distributed, being most evident in hill and especially mountain areas where they are often the only, or the main, farm enterprises. Sheep farming is historically nomadic; it is still common practice that sheep are moved from mountain to hilly or plain areas for grazing in winter. Otherwise sheep are predominantly grazed outdoors. In future that nomadic system may be forbidden due to changes of arable land utilization, but also because of some sheep diseases. Sheep usually graze on low productive pastures getting also some salt. The number of sheep per flock varies from 50 to 200, rarely more. The dominant sheep breed is Pramenka, a primitive breed adapted to harsh environments and feeding. Body weight of ewes is 2555 and rams 3580 kg, with meat ratio after slaughtering 4050%. This breed is triple-purpose: meat, milk and wool. Depending on where they are developed they are known as follows: Dubska, Privorska, Kupreska, Stolacka and Podveleska. The most important and widespread is the Dubska breed, well known also Vlasicka, in central Bosnia on the Vlasi mountain (Photo 1). In the 1990s there were programmes for improving the Pramenka (see Photo 2) breed by crossing with Wurttemberg, but this lapsed during the war. Pramenka produce 70100 litres of milk and 1.52 kg wool. Milk is used in the family or for making cheese. Famous cheeses include Vlasic cheese, Livno cheese (Photo 3), cheese from sack a fermented cheese (see Photo 3) made in a sheep skin or sack from sheep milk or mixed sheep and cow milk in Herzegovina, and special sheep cheeses. Nowadays efforts are being made to have these cheeses connected to their geographical origin for sale on the European market. Goats do not have such economic importance as sheep. It is thought that goats are more suited to poor people; they are modest concerning food and accommodation but they can provide milk and meat for a poor family. This could be the reason for more goats in 1996 (136 800 head) than in 2007 (70 255 head). Goat milk and meat are of a high quality and demand is increasing. The main breed spread in Bosnia is the Balkanic goat, which can be found in the hilly and mountain region, but now and then at lower Photo 1. Grazing Dubska pramenka on Vlasic altitude. It has good resistance to unfavourable mountain
Table 8. Number of live and slaughtered sheep; sheep milk production and number of goats in recent years
Specification
Sheep (head) Slaughtered (head) Sheep milk (tonnes) Goat (head)
Source FAOSTAT 2009

1996
463000 64000 11600 136800

2000
58400 93000 16000 97700

2005
902731 102941 18800 73474

2006
1004696 107880 20600 76489

2007
1033264 103242 21126 70255

2008
1 030 510 94 679 18 774 70 392

Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile

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Dubska Pramenka type

Kupreska Pramenka type

Privorska Pramenka type Stolack Pramenka type Photo 2. Pramenka sheep types

Vlasic cheese

Livno cheese

Fermented (in a sheep skin or sack) cheese from Herzegovina Photo 3. Vlasic and Livno cheeses (above) and fermented (sack) cheese (below)

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Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile

environmental conditions and is very modest concerning feeding. It can be coloured white, black and brown. Body weight ranges from 30 to 40 kg for females and 40 to 60 kg for males. Milk yield is around 130 litres/year.

5. THE PASTURE RESOURCE

Livestock production is emphasized in all strategies, both in Republic Srpska and FBH and forage production is given high importance. But just as the livestock sector has numerous difficulties so does forage production. The main characteristic of pre-war ruminant production was a dominant share of small producers, up to three head; very low milk yields (1400 litre/cow/year), poor breed composition and they were not included in the supportive measures of the government. They did not pay much attention to forage production and quality. State-owned farms had better breeds and higher yields, but represented only 30% of milk production; they had better organized forage production, with higher yields of forage, usually of better quality. War damage almost destroyed the sector, and forage production shared the same destiny. Data about forage crops on arable (Table 9) land indicate that, 13 years later, there is less sown forage than before the war. However, it seems that forage yield per hectare is increasing. Perennial forage crops occupy the majority of arable land under this type of production. In recent years more attention is given to maize for silage, especially in lowland. Among perennials, by area clovers are more important than alfalfa although the latter is more productive. Soils in B&H are more suitable for red clover or other perennial legumes. In the statistics for B&H clovers include birds foot trefoil and sainfoin. Alibegovic-Grbic (1992) noted dry matter yield for alfalfa, clover and grass legume mixtures (Photos 4 and 5) as follows: 3.36, 2.8 and 2.6 tonnes/ha, respectively. These yields are a third or less of the potential of the most important perennial forages. It is encouraging that yields show an increasing trend and even. Perhaps the greatest problem is poor forage quality due to late mowing; farmers mow perennial legumes at late flowering or even later, as well as grasses. Grass-legume mixtures (temporary grasslands) consist of many species of different maturities that leads to problems in defining time of mowing to get quality forage. These crops are used as green forage during the vegetation season; less often grazed and for haymaking. Silage making from perennials is not common in Bosnia, but lately more and more big bales can be seen. Seed is another problem because most of it is now imported on the black market and through holes along the state border; the quality of imported seed is very questionable (variety, origin, disease status and so on). Domestic seed production is ruined due to the low price of imported seed and its production is now very limited. Farmers mention that they sow alfalfa in spring and by next spring it has disappeared. Formerly there was forage crop breeding, on a modest scale, producing Bosnian cultivars: BL- 422, Banjaluanka, Sonja, Biljana, Olimpik 84 (alfalfa); BL-17, Tera, Butmirka (Birds foot trefoil); BL-4, BL Krajina (Cocksfoot); BL-B (Timothy) and Buki (Red fescue). Unfortunately, seed from domestic cultivars can only be found in very small quantities, or not at all. In the past Bosnia was known as a seed exporter. Grassland Natural and semi-natural grasslands occupy more than half the agricultural land in B&H. Statistics distinguish between meadows and pastures. Meadows are more productive and usually used for hay
Table 10. Perennial forage production
Year
1988 2005 2006

Total ha
164.68 113.95 118.92 82.70 51.19 51.75

Clover yield/ha
2.8 4.4 4.3

Alfalfa ha
43.73 36.72 38.14

Grass-legume mixtures yield/ha

3.4 5.1 4.7

ha
38.25 26.04 29.04

yield/ha
2.6 3.5 3.5

Source: Data based on official statistics of both Republica Srpska and Federation of B&H.

Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile

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production; they are included in the cultivable area and comprise one-third of all grassland (Table 9). Most meadows are in the lowland, lower hilly area, but can be found also on flat areas in mountains regions. Average yields range from 1.2 to 1.6 tonnes/ha. Such low yield indicates poor management, especially poor fertilization. Fertilized meadows can give up to 11 tonnes/ha dry matter if mown at flowering, or up to 6 tonnes/ha dry matter and 950 kg protein if mown earlier (Alibegovic-Grbic et al., 2004). Pastures are low productive areas situated on shallow or rocky soils and, if used, they are permanent lygrazed. Estimated yields ranged from 0.5 to 0.7 tonnes/ha hay. B&H is characterized by very different soil and climate conditions and that is why there are many different types of grassland (Photo 6). Usually they are rich in species but botanical composition varies from acid to calcareous, from wet to dry soils, deep to shallow. There has been much research on grassland associations and their botanical composition, especially after the Second World War, but the inventory is not yet complete. According to the literature and some recent inventories, B&H grassland sinclude: Phragmiteto-Magnocaricetea, wet grasslands can be found in Posvina, karst valleys, along rivers or lakes. Botanical composition of these grasslands includes the following species: Phragmites communis, Iris pseudacorus, Alisma plantago, Cicuta virosa, Oenanthe aquatica, Scirpus lacustris, Typha latifolia, Lysimachia vulgaris, Solanum dulcamara, Typha angustifolia, Myosotis palustris, Acorus calamus, Glyceria acquatica, Sium latifolium, Sparganium neglectum, Phalaris arundinacea, Veronica anagallis, Oenanthe fistulosa, Butomus umbellatus, Galium palustre, Carex riparia, Polygonum amphibium, Beckmannia eruciformis, Alisma plantago, Rorippa amphibia, Carex Photo 4. Grass-Legume mixture vulpina, Carex elata, Galium elongatum, Peucedanum palustre, Carex pseudocyperus, Carex gracilis, Senecio paludosa, Euphorbia palustris, Typhoides arundinacea, Poa palustris, Equisetum limosum, Gratiola officinalis, Lysimachia vulgaris, Cicuta virosa, Scirpus silvaticus, Juncus glaucus. Molinio Arrhenatheretea grasslands are predominantly situated in lowland with fresh to wet soils, used as meadows or pastures. This type is the most productive. The botanical composition includes: Dactylis glomerata, Ranunculus acris, Holcus lanatus, Cerasitum caespitosum, Festuca Photo 5. Grazing dairy cows on pratensis, Vicia cracca, Colchicum autumnale, Alopecurus temporary grassland (grass-legume mixture) pratensis, Lathyrus pratensis, Cirsium oleraceum, Festuca rubra, Lychnis flos cuculi, Potentilla reptans Ranunculus repens, Bellis perennis, Carex nemorosa, Molinia coreulea, Arrhenatherum elatius, Deschampsia caespitosa, Phleum pratensis, Filipendula ulmaria, Scirpus silvaticus, Lotus uliginosus, Cardamine pratensis, Thalictrum lucidum, Sanguisorba officinalis, Lythrum salicaria, Thalictrum flavum, Valeriana officinalis, Angelica silvestris, Cirsium palustre, Succisa inflexa, Gratiola officinalis, Inula salicina, Centaurea jacea, Plantago lanceolata, Lysimachia nummularia, Poa trivialis, Peucedanum coriaceum

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Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile

ssp. Pospichalii, Trifolium pratense, Leotondon autumnalis, Lysimachia vulgaris, Bromus racemosus, Antoxanthum odoratum, Equisetum palustre, Leotondon hispidus, Festuca arundinacea, Prunella vulgaris, Alectrolophus maior, Briza media, Lolium perenne, Alectrolophus minor, Tragopogon orientalis, Cynosurus cristatus, Polygonum bistorta, Trifolium patens. Within this order, on areas with excessive water there are: Molinietum coeruleae Deschampsietum caespitosae, Cynosuretum cristati, Agrostideto-Cynosuretum cristati and AlopecuretoFestucetum pratensis, but also Arrhenatheretum elatioris, Mown meadow (Kupres) Violeto-Festucetum fallacies and Festuceto-Agrostidetum vulgaris on better soils. Festuco-Brometea grasslands occupy more or less dry areas in hilly and mountain areas. As affected by many factors of climate and soil, these grasslands include a lot of grassland associations such as: Brometo-Plantaginetum mediae, Andropogonetum ischaemi, Danthonietum calycinae, Nardetum strictae, Agrostiodetum caninae, Potentillo aureae-Nardetum strictae, Seslerietum tenuifoliae, Caricetum laevis. Caricetum laevisBrometum, late mown Helianthemum alpestre, Anthylleto-Seslerietum rigidae, Carex sempervirens- carex ferruginea, Festucetum pungentis, Hypochoereto Festucetum amethystinae, Seslerietum comosae-Gentiana punctata, Festucetum supinae, Festucetum Halleri- Geum montanum, Poetum violaceae, Potentilla aurea- Agrostis rupestris, Festucetum spadiceae, Festuca pseudoovina-Agrostis castellan, Danthonieto-Scorzoneretum villosae, SchorzoneretoHypochoeretum masculatae. Within these, and also many other associations, the following species can be found: Festuca pseudovina, Bromus erectus, Koeleria pyramidata, Danthonia calycina, Molinia littoralis, Coronilla varia, Grazed meadow (Glamoc) Medicago minima, Orchis morio, Orchis ustulata, Orchis tridentata, Hippocrepis maculata, Scabiosa gramuntia, Centaurea angustifolia, Gentiana ciliata, Prunella laciniata, Spiranthes spiralis, Ophrys sphecodes, Linum flavum, Euphorbia verrucosa, Cirsium pannonicum. Plantago media, Globularia wilkommii, Linum viscosum, Stachys erecta, Carex humilis, Anthyllis vulneraria, Hippocrepis comosa, Salvia pratensis, Koeleria gracilis, Chrysanthemum leucanthemum, Sanguisorba minor, Anthericum ramosum, Asperula chinanchica, Potentilla opaca, Petroselinum oreoselinum, Trifolium montanum, Teucrium chamaedrys, Carum carvi, Trifolium alpestre, Dry pasture (Sujica) Medicago falcata, Medicago lupulina. Nardus stricta, Photo 6. Various pasture types in Bosnia Trisetum flavescens, Festuca ovina, Deschampsia flexuosa, and Herzegovina Danthonia calycina, Sieglingia decumbens, Poa violacea, Festuca rubra, Carex pilulifera, Luzula campestris, Luzula multiflora, Genista sagittalis, Lotus corniculatus, Trifolium repens, Stachys officinalis, Geum montanum, Hieracium pilosella, Leotondon hastilis, Antennaria dioica, Achillea millefolium, Hypochoeris comosa, Potentilla aurea. Seseleria tenuifolia, Festuca Paniiana, Carex laevis, Dryas octopetala, Edraianthus graminifolius, Pedicularis oederi, Oxytropis dinarica, Euphrasia salisburgensis, Silene acaulis f. balcanica, Dianthus pindicola,

Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile

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Aster alpinus f. dolomiticus, Saxifraga porophylla, Scabiosa silenifolia, Veronica saturoides, Gentiana clusii, Pedicularis verticillata, Leontopodium alpinum, Ranunculus hybridus, Androsace villosa, Anthyllis jacquinii, Arctostaphyllos uva ursi, Thesium parnassi, Silene saxifraga. Festuca pungens, Linum capitates, Scabies leucophylla, Scorzonera villosa, Silene sendteri, Helianthemum obscurum, Stachys jacquinii, Gentiana symphyandra, Chrysanthemum heterophyllum, Asperula longifolora. Thymus balcanicus, Calamintha alpina, Anthyllis alpestris, Crepis montana, Iberis sempervirens, Chrysanthemum montanum, Hypochoeris illyrica, Campanula glomerata, Minuratia verna, Dianthus croaticus, Pedicularis brachydonta, Lilium bosniacum, Nigritella nigra, Solidago alpestris, Gymnadenia conopea, Koeleria cristata, Gentiana tergestina, Globularia bellidifolia, Carex laevis, Scabiosa silenifolia, Onobrychis scardica, Campanula eliptica, Carex curvula, Luzula campestris, Luzula spicata, Genista depressa, Juncus trifidus, Deschampsia flexuosa, Festuca supina, Gentiana punctata, Antennaria dioica, Potentilla ternata, Geum montanum, Jasione orbiculata. Chrysopogon gryllus, Festuca valesiaca, Koeleria splendens, Plantago holosteum, Thesium divaricatum, Bupleurum veronense, Gentiana weldeniana, Medicago falcata, Prunella laciniata, Chrysanthemum liburnicum, Salvia pratensis, Linum tenuifolium, Linum gallicum, Hippocrepis comosa, Carex glauca, Sanguisorba muricata, Dianthus tergestinus, Plantago carinata, Genista silvestris, Centaurea rupestris, Teucrium montanum, Satureia subspicata, Satureia montana, Stipa mediterranea.

6. OPPORTUNITIES FOR IMPROVEMENT OF PASTURE RESOURCES

Livestock production is stressed in all national strategies, with forage production of high importance in developing the sector; opportunities for improvement of pasture resources are considerable. True meadows are still managed to produce hay, which is cut in late June to July, sometimes later when plants are in the flowering stage or often at seed set. Pastures are used for continuous sheep grazing. Poor yields are followed by poor quality. All because, first of all the previous state of agriculture, but also poor breeds and small and fragmented farms. There was no need for better quality forage; anything was good enough for poor stock and neglected agriculture. In recent years farms are improving, milk and meat production is rising and the number of market oriented farmers is increasing. There is reason to improve forage production and quality, both on arable land and grasslands. Improvement of forage production on arable land may include: Introducing suitable cultivars of forage legumes (alfalfa, red clover, birds foot trefoil), and paying more attention to farming technology in order to produce more forage per unit area. For better temporary grasslands, better choice of grass and legume species to suit soil conditions, persistence and maturity. Improving forage quality, using the crops in bud stage or early flowering. Stimulate seed production, because the local seeds guarantee safer production than imported seed of unsure origin. More attention has to be paid to grazing, which is cheaper and healthier for animals. Improving forage conservation, making more silage of better quality. If needed there is more than enough arable land that could be used for forage production. Education of farmers concerning forage management in order to get high yields of good forage quality, but also about animal needs. Improvement of forage production on grasslands should include: Bosnian grassland soils are poor and fertilization is needed as a first measure for improving forage yields per unit area. Utilization of grasslands by permanent grazing or late mowing has to be changed. Introduction of rotational grazing and mowing in earlier stage of growth will lead to better botanical composition, better forage quality and also better yields.

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Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile

Forage from grassland, if conserved, is poor-quality hay; this is often left outside. That has to change also by making silage. The big problem is lack of a joint state-level ministry of agriculture. Then there is an open market that makes domestic production uncompetitive. Insufficient budget for support measures is one of the constraints for further development of the ruminant sector. Last but not least, state support to agriculture is declared rather than real.

7. RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATIONS AND PERSONNEL

Organization and contact details
Agricultural Institute Banjaluka Knjaza Miloa. 17. 78000 Banjaluka Tel: +387 51 303 112 +387 51 313 287 Fax: +387 51 312 792 Email: polj.institut.bl@blic.net Web: www.poljinstbl.com University of Banjaluka, Faculty of Agriculture Bulevar Vojvode Bagovica 1 78000 Banjaluka Tel.+387 312 580 Fax: +387 321 393 Web: www.agrofabl.org Faculty of Agriculture and Food Sciences University of Sarajevo, Zmaja od Bosne 8. 7100 Sarajevo Tel: +387 33 653 033 Email: +387 33 667 429 Web:www.ppf.unsa.ba Prof. dr Senija Alibegovic-Grbic Email:s.alibegovic-grbic@ppf.unsa.ba Muamer Bezdrob Email: muamer_be@hotmail. com Education in the field of grasslands, forage crop production, conservation and utilization and research work Prof. dr Djordje Gataric Email:georgije09@teol.net Tel.+387 51 330 954 Djuri Branko Email: duric_branko@yahoo.com Tel.+387 51 330 957 Education and research in the field of forage crops and grassland Education and research in the field of ecology and grassland management

Key personnel/ contacts/e-mail

Dr.Svetko Vojin Email:vojin@blic.net Zeljko Laki Email:zeljko_lakic@inecco.net

Research topic/responsibilities
Research and breeding of grass and legumes Head of the Forage Department Research and breeding of grass and legumes

8. REFERENCES
Alibegovic-Grbic, S. (1992) Proizvodnja krmnog bilja-viegodinje krmno bilje na oranicama. Zadrugar DD, Sarajevo. p 135. Alibegovic-Grbic, S., Custovic, H. (2002) Some measurement in changing botanical composition and increasing of biodiversity on grasslands. Grassland Science in Europe, 7: 754755. Alibegovi-Grbi, S., Civic, H., Cengic, S., Muratovic, S. & Dzomba, E. (2004) Effects of weather conditions, stage of plants growth and application on forage yield and its quality of grasslands. Grassland Science in Europe, 9: 897899. Alibegovic-Grbic, S., Eric, P., Vuckovic, S., Cupina, B., Dubljevic, R., Ivanovski, R. P., Prentovic, T., Gataric, Dj. &Nedovic, B. (2005) Unapregjenje proizvodnje krme na prirodnim travnjacima. Sarajevo. Book, 176 p. Alibegovi-Grbic, S., Murti, S. & Bezdrob, M. (2007) Mountain Vlasic as a possible source of Plant Genetic Resources. V. Symposium of Agriculture, Veterinary, Forestry and Biotechnology. Vlai.

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Alibegovic-Grbic S., Bezdrob M. & Gataric Dj. (2005) Effect of low-rate N application and cutting frequency on botanical composition of short-term natural grassland. Grassland Science in Europe, Volume 10, 360363. Batinica D. (1977) Grasslands, Zadrugar, Sarajevo. Batinica, D. & Baovi, M. (1979) Neki od naina poveanja prinosa i kvaliteta prirodnih livada i panjaka ubrdsko-planinskom podruju. Sobornik af vz v Praze k 80. Narozeninam Akademika Ant. Kleky, 4755. Bojnec, A. (2005), Slovenian retailing market structures, retail prices, and size of marketing margins for food staples. In: Brosig, S and Hockman, H (eds.), How effective is the invisible hand Agricultural and food markets in Central and Eastern Europe, Studies on the agricultural and food sector in Central and Eastern Europe, Vol. 31, Institute of Agricultural Development in Central and Eastern Europe (IMAO), Halle (Saale), 150167. Dugoroni Program Razvoja Agrarne Privredeu Bosni i Hercegovini (19862000).Sarajevo, 1986. p. 192. Gatari , uri B, Radi V, Laki. (2007) Forage production trends in Republic of Srpska from 1995 till 2005. Zbornik radova Instituta za ratarstvo i povrtarstvo 44(1): 243252. Kovaevi, J. (1963): Fitocenologija travnjaka, Zagreb. Lacko, M. (2000) Hidden Economy Unknown Quantity Comparative Analysis of Hidden Economies in Transition Countries, The Economics of Transition Vol. 8 No. 1. Lakui, R. (1982): Ekosistem Vlaia, Bilten Drutva ekologa SR BiH 1, Sarajevo. Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina in Figures, (2009) Federal Office of Statistics, Sarajevo. Republiks Srpska in Figures (2008) Institute of Statistics, Banjaluka. Statistics Bulletin of Institute of Statistics, Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulletin 101 (1983). World Factbook (2009) < https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bk.html > WTO (2006) World Trade Organization, International trade statistics 2006. Directorate for Economic Planning.

9. CONTACTS
Senija Alibegovic-Grbic Faculty of Agriculture and Food Sciences University of Sarajevo, Zmaja od Bosne 8. 7100 -Sarajevo Tel: +387 33 653 033 Email: +387 33 667 429 Web: www.ppf.unsa.ba

[The profile was drafted in the period September to December 2009 and edited by J.M. Suttie and S.G. Reynolds in December 2009.]