MPI Module 5 Physical Laws in Support of Marine Enginnering

Physical Laws in Support
of Marine Engineering
Module 5
Diploma in
Marine Engineering
Surveying
5
2007/08
COURSE CONTENT
! Force, Loads and Motion
! Materials and their Application
! Some of the Theory in Fatigue Development
! An Introduction to Behaviour of Gases
! Fuels and Lubricating Oils
! Engineering Terms
AUTHORS
Mr Fred Cousins
Marine Engineer & Yacht Consultant,
IEng, AMIMarEST, MIIMS
Mr Ian Biles
Master Mariner, BEng (Hons), MA, CEng, DipMarSur,
FNI, MIIMS, MRINA, MIMarEST, MSNAME, MSCMS,
MHCMM, AMS (SAMS), MEWI, MRIN
Module Five Mechanics, Materials and Structures
Diploma in Marine Engineering Surveying
MPI Group, as a body, are not responsible for any opinions expressed in this module by contributors. All rights reserved. No
part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior permission of MPI Group.
Marine Publications International Ltd 2008
Authors
Fred Cousins
IEng, AMIMarEST, MIIMS
Fred trained as a Ship's Engineer Officer with Shell Tankers. Subsequently
he worked ashore in the yacht industry for over 40 years, including 25 years
with Camper and Nicholsons as Chief Engineer and later Technical Director.
Since 1994, Fred has worked as an independent engineer consultant and
Machinery Surveyor. He worked on 75m superyacht "Mirabella V" from the
design stage to sea trials as the Owner's Technical Representative.
He is now retired from active engineering but still enjoys reading and writing
about Ships of all types and their machinery.
Email: fred.cousins@homecall.co.uk
Mr Ian C Biles
Master Mariner, BEng (Hons), MA, CEng, DipMarSur,
FNI, MIIMS, MRINA, MIMarEST, MSNAME, MSCMS,
MHCMM, AMS (SAMS), MEWI, MRIN
Maritime Services (International) Limited
1 Stone Lane, Gosport, PO12 1SS
Ian C Biles - January 2008
Page 1
Mechanics, Materials and Structure MODULE 5
CONTENTS
PREFACE 4
CHAPTER 1 - FORCES, LOADS AND MOTION 6
Introduction 6
Friction 8
Resultant Force 10
Newtons Laws of Motion 18
Work, Energy and Power 21
Density and Relative Density 23
Molecular Properties of Matter 26
CHAPTER 2 - MATERIALS AND STRUCTURES 29
Strength of Materials 29
Ductile and Brittle Fracture 34
Shear Force 36
Bending Moments 37
Materials 39
Structural Configuration 47
Typical Midship Sections 48
Self Assessed Questions 50
CHAPTER 3 - GASES 51
CHAPTER 4 - THERMODYNAMIC CYCLES 61
Measuring I.H.P. in a Steam Engine 61
The Carnot Cycle 63
Reading Data from Modern Engines 65
High Speed Engines 65
Low Speed Crosshead Engines 65
Air Conditioning 70
Bibliography 72
CHAPTER 5 - FUELS 73
Introduction 73
Coal 73
Main Changes Under ISO 8217-2005 80
Summary 81
Page 2
CHAPTER 6 - LUBRICATING OILS 85
Introduction 85
Lubrication Selection for Various Duties and Conditions 85
Qualities of Lubricating Oil 86
Principles of Lubrication 87
CHAPTER 7 - SI UNITS AND EQUIVALENT IMPERIAL UNITS 91
The Systme International d'Units (SI) Units 91
SI Definitions 94
Conversion Factors to Imperial Units 95
CHAPTER 8 - USEFUL EMPIRICAL DATA 97
Thrust Loads Developed by a Propeller 97
Torquing Up Bolts 98
Items Requiring Correctly Tensioned Bolts and Nuts 98
Design Calculations - Precisely Aligned Equipment - Resin Chocks 99
Surveying Resin Chocks 101
Bolts in Couplings in Shafts in High Speed Craft 102
Special Notes 103
Ventilation of a Machinery Compartment 104
Insulation, Thermal, Fire and Acoustic 104
Manufacturers Notebooks 108
CHAPTER 9 - GLOSSARY OF ENGINEERING TERMS AND UNITS 109
Glossary of Engine Parts, Electrical Terms, Ship Parts and Terms 109
TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT 122
Page 3
PREFACE
When planning this Diploma Course, there was a recognition that although the students would be from
various technical backgrounds, they were all likely to be marine engineers of some kind.
Certainly, the term "marine engineer", in its first meaning, describes those men (and women) who have
gone down to the sea to spend their career in the engine room caring for the main and auxiliary machinery
in many types of ship. There is a further subdivision of such ship engineers who serve on the coastal
trade, or on ferries and harbour work, which allows them to be more home-based. Both divisions have the
tasks of:
Working through the maintenance schedules.
Keeping the machinery in operation.
Making sometimes-heroic efforts to repair the machinery at sea and there are wonderful
stories of our grandfathers making jury repairs that still thrill us.
Recording the events associated with the machinery.
Planning shipyard and dry-dock repairs once yearly, or to suit.
If there is a typical career path for our profession, then the better-qualified engineers come ashore in their
30's to work at the shipping line headquarters as superintendents with special responsibilities for fleet
operation and planning refits and new-builds. They give up the spanner for the computer, but they are still
marine engineers, inasmuch as their training and experience work for the fleet to ensure practical work
and maintenance schedules.
Also in this bracket will be the students of this Course who wish to be engineer surveyors. They need to
be able to discern practical problems with the machinery of the subject vessel, almost by instinct, using
their little grey cells to spot the clues indicating a problem, even if the ship's engineers would rather hide
the matter, perhaps a maintenance oversight.
Another family of marine engineers exist in the factories ashore where the sea-going equipment is
designed and built. They must discern the way ahead for main and auxiliary equipment, with several tasks:
To invent and develop solutions for these future trends.
To upgrade equipment to suit upcoming legislation.
To improve operational efficiency of their equipment.
To think how to build the equipment in a cheaper way, without affecting its operational life.
To use new materials.
If engine builders, all the above tasks apply, including shipyard liaison.
These men may not get wet, or seasick, but the ships that they design and build will reflect the thinking
and equipment of the period of its build, as most equipment stays for the life of the ship. If the equipment
does its job well, then it is accepted without comment. However, an ill-chosen ancillary will be roundly
cursed by successive engineers, who will bring obloquy on the makers and choosers of it.
One final class of marine engineers comes to mind. These are the shipyard installation engineers, whose
responsibility it is to fit out the machinery to allow good access and maintenance. Most of such planning
is done at the stage when the ship is still a paper exercise and the engine or other piece of equipment
exists only as a drawing, with very sketchy indications of critical access areas. Such shipyard engineers
must also be propeller designers, steering specialists and have a working understanding of ventilation,
insulation, pipe work systems etc. They may not get to sea until sea-trials, which they must plan in order
to check out operational matters, with the assistance of the ship engineers, equipment suppliers and
superintendents.
Page 4
All the above only highlights that there may be a wide diversity of backgrounds for our Diploma students.
The Technical Committee felt that a module devoted to listing the very basic tenets of engineering would
be useful to ensure that our student is backed up with adequate theoretical knowledge to match concepts
discussed in the following modules. The module is not very theoretical, merely touching on subjects to
remind the student of matters he may not have thought about since his college days, and we have tried
to give introductions to sources of deeper understanding, if that is your bent!
We have also included a glossary of terms to ensure consistency of understanding. We shall try to list all
technical terms, with a simple description and a reference to the appropriate module. Please do not be
annoyed at the listing of obvious and well-known terms as we have found that such expressions are
usually appreciated by some among our students!!
It is a pleasure to advise the students that chapters 1, 2 and part of chapter 7 are derived from a earlier
module written by Ian Biles (who also has written Modules 1,2 and 7 of this course) and the author would
like to acknowledge his skill in presenting concepts in such a clear manner with many excellent
illustrations.
Page 5
CHAPTER 1 - FORCES, LOADS AND MOTION
Learning Outcome
After successfully completing this chapter, you will:
appreciate the many types of force to be recognised;
have been introduced to the resolution of different forces acting together;
appreciate Newtons Laws of Motion;
have a better understanding of the molecular properties of matter.
Introduction
In the physical world around us all things can be related back to three fundamental quantities, length,
mass and time. Therefore, as a surveyor, it is important to understand the basic physical laws that relate
back to these three quantities as, sooner or later, it is one of these three that you will be reporting upon.
It is the purpose of this module to introduce many of the every day concepts of force, energy, materials
and structures that the surveyor needs to understand in order to appreciate exactly what effects he is
seeing when looking at a yacht or small craft.
What is force? To most people it is a description of a push or a pull i.e. they describe the effect of the
force rather than the force itself. This is because we have not yet found a way to describe force other than
by its effect. It is only possible to describe a force by what it can do (or for a surveyor, what it has done).
When a body is acted upon by a force it will begin to move. If the body is already moving the effect of the
force will be to change its motion (speed it up, slow it down, alter its direction). Therefore, at its most basic
level, a force is defined as that which changes a bodys state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight
line.
Gravitational Force
In our daily lives, one force we are very familiar with is that of gravity. Sir Isaac Newton is attributed as
being the individual who first concluded that a gravitational force exists between all bodies. Therefore,
two solid objects are not only attracted towards the Earth but they are also attracted towards each other.
Normally the forces between two adjacent objects are so small we do not notice them. However, by way
of example, if two 50,000 tonne ships are lying side by side, the attraction force between them is
approximately 18 kilograms force (kgf).
Newtons law of gravitational attraction states any two particles of matter attract one another with a
force which is proportional to the square of their distance apart. Newton also realised that gravitational
attraction applies not only to bodies on earth but also to celestial objects.
Centripetal Force
The concept of centripetal force is important as not everything moves in a straight line. In order for a body
to move in a circle, there must be a force directed towards the centre of the circle and this is known as
centripetal force. This is often confused with centrifugal force, that is, the force that motion in a circle has
tending to push the body away from the centre. Whilst this might appear a relatively minor distinction,
when reporting, it could make a significant difference (particularly in court).
Mass and Weight
The mass of a body is the quantity of matter it contains. The standard unit of mass in the System
International (SI) system is the kilogram. The standard kilogram is the mass of a certain cylindrical piece
of platinum-iridium alloy kept at Sevres in France. It was originally intended that the kilogram should be
equal to the mass of 1,000 cubic centimetres of pure water at a temperature of 4C but a slight error
made at the time meant that the standard used was in fact equal to 1000.028 cm
3
.
Page 6
The weight of a body is the force that it exerts on anything that supports it (once again an effect) and
normally it exerts that force owing to the fact that it is being attracted to the Earth by the force of gravity.
In everyday usage the difference between mass sand weight is relatively unimportant. However, for a
surveyor, understanding and using the correct terminology can be important.
The division of mass into different units is as follows: -
1 tonne (t) = 1,000 kilograms (kg)
1 kg = 1,000 grams (g)
1 g = 1,000 milligrams (mg)
Knowingthecorrect weight of a vessel can besignificant
Page 7
Weight as a Unit of Force
For any body to be at rest all forces acting on it must be in equilibrium. On the Earth, the weight of an
object is the force it exerts on its supports. Therefore, we can define weight as the weight of a body with
respect to the Earth is that force which the body exerts on anything which freely supports it.
Action and Reaction
Another concept identified by Sir Isaac Newton was that, whenever a force acts on a body, there must be an
equal and opposite force or reaction acting on some other body. This led to one of the Newton Laws of Motion
that simply states action and reaction are equal and opposite. This is discussed in slightly more detail later.
Friction
Friction is the name given to the force that opposes the relative sliding motion of two surfaces in contact
with one another. It plays a notable role in our daily lives (evidenced every time we slip on ice or a polished
surface). However, friction is not a single entity and there are two concepts of friction that the surveyor
needs to appreciate.
Limiting Friction
If a block is placed on a flat surface and a horizontal force applied in one direction, initially the block will
not move. This is because the frictional resistance is greater than the force being applied. However, as
the force is increased a point is reached where the block will begin to move. At this point the friction
between the block and the surface has reached its maximum value at what is called the limiting friction.
Dynamic Friction
If the block is now pulled along at a steady speed (with all other factors remaining constant) the force
required to continue the motion is less than that needed to instigate the motion. The dynamic (sliding)
friction is, therefore, less than the limiting (static) friction.
Coefficient of Friction
The ratios of the limiting and dynamic friction to the force pressing the surfaces together are called the
coefficients of static and dynamic friction respectively. Coefficient of friction is denoted by the Greek letter
=F/R
Where = coeficient of friction,
F = force of friction,
R = force pressing the two surfaces together (the reaction force).
Page 8
Lubrication
Whilst friction is highly essential in some circumstances, it is a great nusiance in others. In an engine, oil
under pressure is supplied continually to all bearing surfaces. Failure of the oil supply will allow metal-
to-metal contact and the resultant friction will raise the temperature leading to the bearing seizing (with
consequent failure of the engine).
Whilst liquid molecules attract one another, they can move and change position relatively easily. The
opposing frictional force that one layer of a fluids molecules exerts on another is called viscosity. For
liquid lubricants this is very much less than the frictional force most solids exert on each other.
See also Chapter 6.
A whitemetal bearingsurfacewherethelubrication hasfailed
Page 9
Resultant Force
When two or more forces are acting together at a point it is always possible to find a single force which
will have exactly the same effect as these forces. The single force is called the resultant force.
When the forces act in the same straight line, determination of the resultant is simply a matter of addition
or subtraction. However, when the forces act in different directions with respect to each other both the
magnitude and direction need to be taken into account. At its simplest this can be represented by the
parallelogram of forces.
The Parallelogram of Forces
If two forces acting at a single point are represented both in magnitude and direction by the adjacent sides
of a parallelogram, their resultant will be represented both in magnitude and direction by the diagonal of
the parallelogram drawn from the point.
At the most basic level, the parallelogram of forces can be used to explain how a sailing boat can sail
partly against the direction of the wind. From whichever direction the wind blows on the sail it slips over
it smoothly (provided the sail is not stalled) and can be regarded as exerting a force at right angles to the
sail. This force is represented in the diagram below by the line AC. A rectangle ABCD is constructed about
the diagonal AC with the sides AB and AD respectively parallel and at right angles to the keel. The
component AB along the keel is the useful force which drives the boat forward whilst component AD
causes the boat to move sideways (leeway). The underwater profile and keel make the vessel hard to push
sideways (to resist BC) so the relatively small force AB produces forward motion.
An application of theparallelogramof forces
Page 10
Turning Forces
Every time we open a door handle or turn a tap we exert a turning force. In doing this two factors are
involved. The first is the magnitude of the force applied and the second is the distance of the line of
action of the force from the axis (or fulcrum) about which turning takes place. A very large turning force
can be produced by a relatively small force provided the distance from the fulcrum to the line of action of
the force is large and vice versa.
The combined effect of the force and distance that determines the magnitude of the turning force is
called the moment of the force and is defined as: -
The moment of a force about a point is the product of the force and the perpendicular distance of its
line of action from the point.
Principle of Moments
The principle of moments states when a body is in equilibrium, the sum of the anticlockwise moments
about any point is equal to the sum of the clockwise moments about the same point.
When dealing with a problem involving a number of different forces acting on a body that is not in
equilibrium, the first stage is to draw a diagram that represents the forces and their lines of action. In
such a diagram it is convention to give a positive sign to anticlockwise moments and a negative sign to
clockwise moments. The sum of these various forces about any point, when added algebraically (i.e.
added together as moments) taking account of the sign convention will give the resultant moment about
the chosen pivot point.
As an illustration a very simple system is considered, in which there is a weightless beam and two sets
of weights on that beam, one weighing 10 kg at a distance of 10 cm from one end of the beam and
another set of weights weighing 20 kg at a distance of 70 cm from the same end. The particular units in
this case are arbitrary and used purely for the purposes of illustration.
Page 11
A pivot is considered at the left hand end of the beam, which will be called point A. Moments can then
be taken about point A and are calculated as follows:
We know that the overall mass of the system is equal to 30 kg (10 kg + 20 kg).
Accordingly the distance of the centre of gravity from point A is:
Looking at the system as a simple balance it can be seen that if a fulcrum is placed at the centre of
gravity (G), the moments on the two sides are equal.
Page 12
Parallel Forces and Couples
Parallel forces that act in the same direction can always be represented by a single resultant force that
exactly replaces the effect of the various parallel forces. The same is true for forces that are parallel but
act in opposite directions. However, there is one special case in which a single resultant force cannot be
found where the forces are equal and opposite parallel forces. Equal and opposite parallel forces are
called a couple. It is not possible to find a resultant force for a couple. A couple produces rotation and
can only be balanced by an equal and opposite couple.
If the forces are directly opposed as in Figure 1 above there, is no couple on the system.
If the forces are moved apart as in Figure 2, then a couple is applied to the body, but what is the size of
that couple?
Page 13
In Figure 3 above a pivot point is considered at a point half way between the two forces. The overall
moment or couple on the body is then as follows.
Where:
F = 20 N
d = 80 cm
The result is the same if the pivot point is considered in the same position as one of the forces (as in
Figure 4 below).
Page 14
The moment on the body can be calculated as follows:
Centre of Gravity
Any body (ship, sailing yacht, engine, cargo etc.) can be thought of as being made up of a very large
number of tiny equal parts with each individual part being attracted towards the Earth (see the diagram
below). The gravitational pull on the body, therefore, consists of a large number of equal parallel forces.
As discussed earlier these parallel forces can be replaced with a resultant force which is equal to the total
force of gravity that is acting. The single representative force acts through what is called the centre of
gravity of the body.
The centre of gravity of a body is, therefore, defined as the point of application of the resultant force due
to the Earths attraction on it.
Centreof gravity.
Stable, Unstable and Neutral Equilibrium
The concept of stable, unstable and neutral equilibrium is best understood from an example of childhood.
A child playing with a pencil quickly learns that it is not really possible to balance the pencil on its point
whilst it can be balanced upright on the flat end.
The concept is best understood through the use of a cone. As with the pencil, the cone cannot be
balanced on its point. Theoretically this can be achieved if the centre of gravity is exactly in a vertical line
with the tip of the cone. However, even if this was achieved, the slightest vibration or draught would cause
the cone to move such that the centre of gravity moves out of line with the tip. The force of gravity now
causes a turning force about the tip (which acts as the fulcrum) causing the cone to topple over. This is
called unstable equilibrium.
Page 15
If the cone is now stood on its base and tilted by an external force, the vertical line of action of the weight
through the centre of gravity still acts within the base area or footprint. Consequently, the force of gravity
on the cone will have a moment (W x X) about the edge of the base (which has become the fulcrum) and
this pulls the cone back to its original position. This is called stable equilibrium.
If the cone is now placed on its side the base now becomes a straight line. If the cone is rolled the vertical
line of action of the centre of gravity continues to act through the same point on the base line. The force
of gravity exerts no moment about the base or the tip and, therefore, the cone remains at rest. This
condition is described as neutral equilibrium.
Equilibriumof a coneshowingstable, unstableandneutral equilibrium
Page 16
Probably the most graphic example a marine engineer will see is when called to an accident where a
yacht ashore has toppled over. In such a case, initially the yacht would have been in stable equilibrium.
However, with the application of a large enough sideways force the line of action of the centre of gravity
moves outside the base and the yacht falls over. Once at rest, the yacht is in neutral equilibrium (as show
below).
Sailingyacht in neutral equilibrium
Page 17
Newtons Laws of Motion
In 1687 Issac Newton published a book called Philosophiae naturalis principia mathematica which in
translation means The mathematical principles of natural philiosophy. It was in this book that Newton
sums up the basic principles of motion in three laws.
Newtons First Law of Motion
Every body continues in its state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line unless compelled by some
external force to act otherwise.
Certainly the first part of the law is common experience for most people. Objects do not move of their own
accord. However, it is not immediately obvious that a body moving with uniform velocity in a straight line
tends to go on moving forever without coming to rest. The problem is that no one has yet found a means
of eliminating all the various outside forces that can retard a moving body.
It is the concept that is so important. Once a body is moving with uniform speed in a straight line it needs
no force to keep it in motion provided there are no external opposing forces.
The tendency of a body to remain at rest or, if moving, to continue in a straight line is described as
Inertia. Sometimes Newtons First Law is, therefore, also called the Law of Inertia. For some reason the
concept of inertia is one that many people find difficult. However, all it means is the tendency of a body
to keep doing what it is doing at any given time without the application of any external force.
One of the most often seen examples of this is the damage following collision between a boat and some
other object. It is very easy for the inexperienced, when driving a boat, to forget that there are no brakes
as there are in a car. Whilst there are external forces acting, that of water resistance, in relation to the
weight and velocity of the boat (its momentum), these forces are small and it is the inertia of the boat that
carries it on to the point of impact.
An effect of motion goingwrong
Page 18
Momentum
Common experience once again tells us the heavier an object is the harder it is to move and equally, once
moving, it is harder to stop. A heavier object in motion is said to have a greater quantity of momentum
than a lighter body.
The momentum of a body is defined as the product of its mass and its velocity.
The unit of momentum in the SI system is, therefore, 1 kilogramme multiplied by 1 metre per second (kg
m/s).
When two bodies, one light and one heavy, are acted on by the same force at the same time, the lighter
body builds up greater velocity than the heavy one. However, the momentum they each gain is exactly
the same.
Newton recognised the connection between force and momentum which he expresed in his second law.
Newtons Second Law of Motion
The rate of change of momentum of a body is proportional to the applied force and takes place in the
direction in which the force acts.
This leads to the relationship: -
F ma
Where the means proportional to, m is the mass, a the acceleration and F the force.
Mathematically, this relationship can be turned into an equation by the introduction of a constant.
F = constant x ma
It is this equation that allows the definition of an absolute unit of force. If a mass of 1 kg and an
acceleration of 1 m/s
2
is chosen, the unit of value of forces is selected as 1 when the constant is 1.
This leads to the SI unit of forces called the Newton and it is the force that produces an acceleration of
1 m/s
2
when it acts on a mass of 1 kg.
Therefore, when F is in Newtons, m in kilogrammes and a in metres per second squared, we have
the well known equation of the Second Law: -
F = ma
Weight of a Body Expressed in Newtons
Galileo showed that all bodies, whatever their masses, have the same acceleration when they fall under
the action of gravity. Therefore, for a freely falling body, the acceleration can be replaced with the force
of gravity. For a falling body this leads to the equation: -
F = mg
where g = 9.81 m/s
2
If the body is now at rest on the Earths surface, the same force will be pressing down on the surface and
it is this force we call weight.
Page 19
Newtons Third Law of Motion
To every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
The effects of this law have, in fact, already been discussed where reference has been made to objects
being supported (cone on its base, force on a body on the Earths surface).
Probably the best known example of this law comes from people stepping out of boats. As the individual
steps ashore, in order to move in the direction of the shore they need a force to push them in that
direction. Therefore, as they push with their legs and feet the force is reacted against by the boat. If the
boat is not properly fastened and is, therefore, free to move, it moves away in an equal and opposite
manner to the force acting on it. The force on the boat is equal and opposite to the force required to step
ashore.
Summary
The different concepts of mass, weight, force, moments and equilibrium are the essential building blocks
for many of the physical laws that govern our activities on Earth.
Whilst it is recognised that the above concepts are basic, it cannot be stressed enough how important it
is that a surveyor has a very firm grasp of them if they are to understand exactly what goes on in the day
to day activity of marine engineering surveys and the original source of a defect.
Page 20
Work, Energy and Power
Work
In ordinary conversation the word work refers to almost any kind of physical or mental activity. However,
from a technical perspective the term has a very particular meaning that is fundamental to understanding
both energy and power.
Work is done when a force produces motion. When a crane lifts a yacht or a crew man pulls a sail up a
mast, then work is done.
Work is said to be done when the point of application of a force moves and is measured by the product
of the force and the distance moved in the direction of the force.
Work = force x distance moved in direction of force
W = f x d
The SI unit of work is called the joule (J) and is the work done when the point of application of a force of
1 Newton (N) moves through 1 metre (m) in the direction of the force.
The single unit is rather small and, therefore, it is often used in larger amounts of either the kilojoule (kJ)
or the megajoule (MJ).
1kJ = 1,000 J (or 10
3
J)
1MJ = 1,000,000 J (or 10
6
J).
Energy
Anything that is able to do work is said to possess energy and this gives us the definition of energy as
the capacity to perform work. Work and energy are both measured in the same units, namely joules, as
one is nothing more or less than the manifestation of the other.
For the surveyor, it is energy that is one of the most crucial areas of understanding. In terms of structural
failure, more often than not this will be caused by the need for the structure to dissipate energy (collision,
grounding, overloading etc.) although it may be caused by other energy factors such as heat or electricity.
Mechanical Energy
In mechanics, energy is divided into two kinds, potential energy and kinetic energy.
Potential energy is the energy something has by reason of its position or state.
Kinetic energy is the energy a body has by reason of its motion.
Probably the most common form of potential energy is that possessed by a body when it is lifted above
its normal equilibrium position. As the body is lifted, work is done against the weight of the body and this
work becomes stored in the body as gravitational potential energy.
Kinetic energy is seen in the motion of any object. However, such energy does not necessarily need to be
linear. A heavy flywheel stores energy in the form of rotational kinetic energy so as to keep the engine
running smoothly in between the working strokes of its pistons.
Clearly potential energy and kinetic energy are interchangeable and related by what is known as the law
of conservation of energy which states energy cannot be destroyed it only changes into a different form
of energy.
Page 21
Internal Energy
Another kind of energy that is sometimes overlooked is the energy of individual atoms or molecules inside
a body. Such atoms and molecules are in constant motion. This constant motion is kinetic energy whilst
the attraction and repulsion between adjacent atoms and molecules is potential energy.
Heat Energy
In general use the term heat refers to the internal energy of a body. In physical terms, however, heat is
more properly defined as energy which flows from one place to another owing to a temperature
difference (or gradient) between them.
Heat transfer is through one of three processes, conduction, convection and radiation. Heat transfer is
one of the processes that can often do damage to materials without leaving any significant visual sign of
the damage done.
Expansion and Contraction
With very few exceptions, substances expand when heated and contract when cooled. If a substance is
constrained from movement, very large forces can be established within the material sufficient in some
cases to permanently deform the material itself.
The effect is put to use in different ways such as in bi-metallic strips for thermostats or hot riveting as a
means of joining two pieces of metal.
However, not all material expands or contracts the same amount for a given change in temperature and
the difference in material is referred to as the coefficient of linear expansion. This is defined as the
fraction by which a rod of the substance expands per degree rise in temperature.
Clearly material can expand or contract in all directions and the coefficient of linear expansion is valid for
any given direction within the material.
Page 22
Density and Relative Density
The density of a substance is defined as its mass per unit volume. One way of finding the density of a
substance is to take a sample and measure its mass and volume. The density may then be calculated
by dividing the mass by the volume.
The symbol used for density is the Greek letter (rho).
This is written as: -
Density = mass/ volume or
= m/V
The normal unit of measurement of density under the SI system is kilogram per cubic metre (kg/m
3
) or
tonnes per cubic metre (t/m
3
).
Note
1 tonne (sometimes called a metric ton) is equal to 1,000 kg.
1 UK long ton of 2,240 lbs is equal to 1,016 kg or 1.016 tonnes.
The value of knowing the density of any given substance comes from being able to use the measurable
volume in order to determine the weight of an object. Such information is vital in determining whether or
not a particular structure is capable of supporting its own weight.
Volumetric displacement is one way of measuring the weight of a yacht. The drafts of the vessel are noted
when freely floating and, knowing the underwater hull shape and water density, the weight can be
calculated.
Relative Density
Relative density (also sometimes as specific gravity) is the ratio of the mass of any volume to the mass
of an equal volume of water.
This is written as: -
Relative density = mass of any volume of the substance/mass of an equal volume of water.
In normal weighing operations, the mass of a body is proportional to its weight. Therefore, it is also true
to express relative density as: -
Relative density = weight of any volume of the substance/weight of an equal volume of water.
Note well that relative density (specific gravity) is a ratio and, as such, it has no units.
The Principle of Archimedes
When any object is placed in a fluid (liquids and gasses) it experiences an upthrust which causes an
apparent loss of weight.
Experiments to measure the upthrust of a liquid were first carried out by the Greek scientist Archimedes
and it is his discovery that has led to what is called the Principle of Archimedes.
Archimedes Principle states when a body is wholly or partially immersed in a fluid it appears to suffer
a loss in mass equal to the mass of the fluid that it displaces.
Page 23
ThePrincipleof Archimedes
Floating Bodies
When a piece of wood or other material of density less than that of water is placed in water, it sinks until
the weight of water displaced equals its own weight. This is known as the Law of Flotation. It must be
understood that this is not a new principle but rather an expression of Archimedes Principle applied to a
particular case.
Therefore, the force of buoyancy acting on a floating body is equal to the weight of that floating vessel.
The principle holds true for objects that are denser than water when fully immersed. The weight of the
fluid displaced exerts an upthrust on the object such that there is an apparent loss of weight. This factor
can be important in the design of things such as yacht moorings. When ashore, an anchor weight appears
to be more than adequately heavy. However, once immersed its weight may no longer be sufficient to
secure the vessel.
Page 24
Density and Buoyancy
As stated previously, the density of a particular substance is its mass per unit volume. The density of
water varies to a small extent to do with its temperature and to a very small extent with its pressure.
However, the major effect on the density of water is the quantity of dissolved particles in that water. The
most obvious example of this is the fact that seawater has a greater density than fresh water. In some
special areas, most notably the Dead Sea, water has an even greater density because of higher than
normal disolved particles.
Density of fresh water = 1,000 kg/m3
Density of sea water = 1,025 kg/m3
Weight actingdown throughthecentreof gravityisexactlymatchedbytheforceof buoyancyactingup
throughthecentreof buoyancy.
Page 25
Molecular Properties of Matter
Atoms and Molecules
As far back as the ancient Greeks, philosophers believed that all substances were made up of tiny
particles. However, it was not until 1808 that an English chemist, John Dalton, produced experimental
evidence to show that chemical compounds consist of molecules which are groups of atoms of various
elements united in a simple numerical proportion.
For the sake of completeness it is worth defining an element as a substance which cannot be split into
simpler substances, whilst an atom is the smallest portion of an element which can take place in a
chemical change.
The Three States of Matter
Matter commonly exists as either a solid, liquid or gas.
In a solid the molecules vibrate about a fixed position alternately attracting and repelling one another. All
solids have a crystalline structure where the atoms are arranged in a regular pattern called a lattice.
In a liquid the molecules vibrate similarly to that of a solid but, in addition, are free to move relative to one
another. It is this freedom of movement that enables a liquid to take the shape of a container.
In a gas the molecules are even further apart and move with relatively high speed colliding with one
another and with the walls of any container.
The main difference between the three states is essentially the amount of internal energy and this is most
obviously seen in the three states of water: ice, water and steam.
The different states of matter lead to different observable effects.
Diffusion
The speed with which molecules move about inside a gas depends on their mass and temperature. Thus
at a given temperature the heavy molecules (such as carbon dioxide) move more slowly than the lighter
molecules (such as hydrogen). This has a very important relevance to the rate at which one gas will mix
or diffuse into another. Thomas Graham first identified this and Grahams Law of Diffusion states at
constant temperature gases diffuse at rates which are inversely proportional to the square roots of their
densities.
Diffusion is not only limited to gases but is an observable effect in liquids also.
Surface Tension
Most people are aware that it is possible to float a needle on the surface of water. Close examination
shows that the needle rests in a slight depression with the surface of the water acting as if covered with
an elastic skin. The existence of surface tension in liquids leads to a number of different effects.
Page 26
Theeffect of surfacetension
Adhesion and Cohesion
The force of attraction between molecules of the same substance is called cohesion, as distinct from
adhesion that is the force between molecules of different substances.
The adhesion of water to glass is stronger than the cohesion of water. Hence when water is spilled on
glass it spreads out and wets the surface. By contrast, the cohesion of mercury is greater than its
adhesion to glass and, therefore, if placed on glass, forms small spherical droplets.
The difference between the adhesive and cohesive properties of water and mercury explains why the
meniscus of water curves upwards and that of mercury curves downwards when placed in glass vessels.
Whilst this might seem a very insignificant point, when measuring either density (using a hydrometer) or
temperature (using a liquid in glass thermometer) it is important to keep in mind which way the meniscus
turns in order to read the instrument accurately.
Capillarity.
Capillary Attraction
Capillary action is an effect of adhesion of glass to water. The effect can be seen with numerous other
liquids to varying degrees. The ability of a liquid to move through capillary action is a mechanism that
causes migration of water over the long distance when there is no apparent reason as to how or why the
liquid has moved. One classic example of this is a use of a wick as a means of transporting water from
one container to another.
In the marine environment, capillary action is frequently found in any location where two surfaces are
brought together but without bonding. Any gap, no matter how small, is ideal for the migration of water.
Page 27
Osmosis
The effect of osmosis is the passage of water through a semi-permeable membrane from a solution of low
concentration to one of higher concentration. In simple terms, the water moves to balance the solution
on the other side of the membrane.
Osmosis is a vital part of the general functioning of living organisms, however, in some materials
(specifically glass reinforced plastics) its presence can cause problems.
Page 28
CHAPTER 2 - MATERIALS AND STRUCTURES
Learning Outcome
understand the importance of Young's Modulus with reference to the Load Extension curve of
a material;
know how to discern between difference types of fracture;
appreciate the different hull materials;
have an appreciation of the loads that come on the structure of a vessel.
Strength of Materials
Different materials have different abilities to resist forces applied to them. The starting point in
describing the property of a material and how it reacts when subject to a force, was first described by
Robert Hooke who was the Chief Surveyor to the City of London following the Great Fire of London in
1666.
Load
All structures are made up of a number of different parts and, if the structure is in equilibrium when
subject to an external force, then it follows that all the individual parts are in equilibrium. Since the
individual parts are in equilibrium, the resultant of all the forces acting must be zero. However, the force
does not disappear but rather is absorbed by the structure and, in doing so, tends to deform or pull the
structure apart. These forces are resisted by the internal forces of cohesion between the particles of the
material within the structure.
The simplest type of load is a direct pull or push known as either tension or compression. An obvious
example of tension is the wire of a crane being used to lift an object. An example of compression is the
wooden chocks used underneath a boat when landed ashore. In both cases the load consists of two
equal and opposite forces acting in line.
Stress
Within a structure, if a section at a right angle to the load is taken, the force carried (or absorbed) by the
structure must equal the load (otherwise the system is not in equilibrium). This force is distributed among
the internal forces of cohesion of the structure and is called stress.
Stress is, therefore, defined as the force transmitted across any section divided by the area of the
section.
The units of stress are those of force (Newtons) and areas (m
2
) and they are the same as the units of
pressure. In the SI system they are given a particular name, that of Pascal (N/m
2
). A single unit of 1
Pascal (Pa) is a very small amount m
2
, and, therefore, the more usual measure of stress is in kilo pascals
(KPa), mega pascals (MPa) or giga pascals (GPa).
Page 29
Stresscan haveunusual consequences
The Principle of St Venant
This little known principle states the actual distribution of load over the area of its application will not
affect the distribution of stress on sections of the structure which are at an appreciable distance from the
load. Another way of saying this is that the load is carried throughout the structure.
An example to clarify this is a rod in tension. The load may be applied either: -
1. centrally concentrated down the longitudinal axis;
2. distributed around the circumference;
3. distributed over the end cross section.
From a practical perspective, the effect of the three different types of load can be considered to be the
same.
ThePrincipleof St Venant
Page 30
Strain
When a structure is subject to stress, any deformation that takes place is referred to as strain.
When considering the rod described earlier in tension or compression, the stress applied produces a
change in the length of the rod. The amount of strain produced is described as a ratio of the amount of
elongation (or contraction) compared to the original length.
Normally, tensile strains are described as positive and compressive strains as negative. Note that as the
measure of strain is defined as a ratio of two lengths, it has no dimensions.
Hookes Law
Hookes law states provided the elastic limit is not exceeded, the deformation of a material is
proportional to the force applied to it and it is this law that is the fundamental basis of much of the
analysis of structures.
Modulus of Elasticity or Youngs Modulus
As stress and strain are so closely linked, it is possible to use their relationship to describe the response
of any given material to a stress with the resulting strain as a way of describing the material. The ratio of
stress to strain for any given material is known as the Modulus of Elasticity or Youngs Modulus.
Youngs Modulus (E) = stress/strain.
As a general guide, heavy and strong materials (such as metals) have a very high Youngs Modulus, whilst
light and weaker materials (such as rubber or plastics) have a very low Youngs Modulus.
Page 31
Tensile Testing and the Load/Extension Graph
When a rod or wire is subject to a load, it tends to extend slightly. If the applied load (stress) is plotted
on the y axis of a graph and the extension (strain) on the x axis, a number of distinct changes can be
detected in the behaviour of the rod or wire.
Initially, as the stress increases, the strain increases by a corresponding amount (Hookes Law). If the
stress is subsequently removed, the rod or wire will return to its original length and there will be no
discernible difference in the material.
However, as the stress continues to increase, a point is reached (shown as point E on the graph below)
at which, when the load is removed, the rod or wire will no longer return to its original length. This point
is known as the elastic limit. Prior to this point, the material is said to be within its elastic limit.
If the stress is now increased further, permanent deformation of the material begins and this is known as
plastic deformation.
As the load increases still further, the rate of plastic deformation increases and the point at which this
occurs is known as the yield point (shown as point Y on the graph).
As the load continues to increase, measurable signs of deformation will appear with the rod or wire
beginning to narrow in dimension or neck. Shortly after this point any further increase in stress will
cause the material to fail at what is called the maximum or ultimate tensile stress (shown as point B on
the graph).
The ability of a material to deform plastically before breaking is called the ductility of the material.
TheLoad Extension Graph.
Page 32
Tensile strength and factors such as percentage elongation at fracture, are some of the properties that
are used to describe different materials. Below is a table showing some of the properties of a range of
well known materials.
Tableof comparativematerial properties.
Review of the table reveals the relative merits or disadvantages of individual materials for a given
application. Whilst high strength steel has a better ultimate tensile strength, it is more brittle (less
elongation at fracture). Carbon fibre is not actually any stronger than high strength grp but it is about
20% lighter.
Material
Ultimate stress
(MN/m
2
)
Elongation at
fracture (as a
fraction of
original length)
Youngs
Modulus
(GN/m
2
)
Density
Kg/m
3
Medium
strength mild
steel
370 0.3 200 7840
High strength
mild steel
1550 0.1 200 7840
Medium
strength
aluminium alloy
430 0.1 70 2800
Titanium alloy 690 0.15 120 4500
Wrought iron 310 - 190 7670
Cast iron
Tension
Compression
155
700
- 140
140
7200
7200
Concrete
Tension
Compression
3
30
- 14
14
2410
2410
Nylon
(polyamide)
90 1 2 1140
High strength
grp composite
1600 - 60 2000
Carbon fibre
composite
1400 - 170 1600
Page 33
It is the relative difference of each particular material that is important in respect of the application in
which it is used and it is frequently a trade off between conflicting demands that dictates the ultimate
choice (all within the context of price).
Factors of Safety
Knowing the point at which a material will begin to deform and/or eventually fail enables designers to
build in margins of safety for any given structure against the known loads that it will have to withstand.
The ratio between the ultimate tensile stress of a material and the known working stress (within the elastic
limit) is known as the Factor of Safety.
Historically, factors of safety were determined by trial and error. However, as analytical techniques
improved, our ability to calculate the ultimate stress of more complex structures has allowed for
refinements (reductions) in the factors of safety. The process of refining the margins of a particular design
is sometimes referred to as optimisation.
Ductile and Brittle Fracture
Ductile Fracture
As described above, if a material is stressed above its yield point it will begin to deform until a point is
reached where is fails. Such a failure is referred to as a ductile fracture.
Ductile fracture has distinct characteristics such as: -
1. Cup and cone sections to adjacent parts.
2. A dimpled fracture surface.
3. Plastic deformation (necking) around the fracture surface.
4. Relatively slow propagation (as the neck develops).
Neckingwitha cupandconestructureat thefracturesurface.
If any type of failure can be described as desirable, ductile fracture is desirable rather than any other type.
The reason for this is that a ductile fracture has visible warning signs that can be detected prior to failure
and, therefore, allows the possibility of preventing failure by reducing the load on the affected structure.
Page 34
Brittle Fracture
Not all materials deform plastically prior to failure however. Materials with a low ductility (low ability to
deform plastically) will fail quickly and with no warning causing what is called a brittle fracture.
Characteristics of a brittle fracture are: -
1. Very angular (faceted) fracture surface.
2. No plastic deformation.
3. Very rapid crack propagation (no warning).
Typical section of a brittlefracture.
Fatigue
In addition to ductile and brittle fracture, structures can also fail through the repeated application of
relatively low stresses cyclically applied over a period of time. This is known as fatigue.
If a material is subjected to repeated tensile stresses within its elastic range it is found to gradually tire
and then fractures rather suddenly. Failure of a material after a large number of cycles of tensile stress
occurs with little or no permanent deformation but, rather, with the characteristics of brittle fracture.
Fatigue is primarily a problem of repeated tensile stress and this is due to the fact that microscopic cracks
in a material can propagate more easily when the material is stressed in tension. In the case of steel and
titanium, critical stress levels have been identified below which fluctuating stresses cannot cause fatigue
failure and this is known as the endurance limit. No endurance limit has ever been established for any
other non-ferrous metals or other materials.
A major source of fatigue generation is vibration. Whilst relatively innocuous in itself (other than noise
considerations), vibration is nothing more than the application of relatively low stress to a structure in a
cyclical manner. Therefore, whilst not immediately obvious it is probable that for any vibrating structure,
sooner or later some parts are going to fail (notwithstanding the endurance limits discussed earlier).
Page 35
Shear Force
Up to now we have only considered loads applied along the axis of a structure (simple rod or beam) but
clearly loads can be applied from any direction. For a structure, any load can be divided into those that
act along the axis of the structure and those which act at 90 degrees to that axis (sideways loads for want
of a better description).
If a point load is applied to the side of a solid beam there is a tendency for the point of application of the
load on the beam to be pushed down. If the beam is to remain stationary (in equilibrium), the downward
load must be resisted by the rest of the beam pushing back up. Therefore, there is a change within the
beam where the forces change direction so as to be in opposition. This change in the direction of the two
forces causes a sliding or shearing force between the two parts of the beam.
Shear force (abbreviated to SF) at any point in a structure is the algebraic sum of the lateral forces on
either side of the point. The normal sign convention for shear force is positive (+) when the resultant of
the forces to the left is upwards or to the right is downwards.
An easy example to consider is that of a deck stepped mast (without a support underneath the deck). The
mast forces down on the deck at its point of contact, however, the deck pushes back up immediately
adjacent to the point of contact. Therefore, the resistance of the deck to the downward force of the mast
produces a shear force in the deck adjacent to the mast.
Shear force is frequently represented by means of a shear force diagram which shows the variation of
shear force along the length of the structure.
Theeffect of Shear Force.
Force of the structure pushing back
Shear force in
the structure
Force of the mast
pushing down
Page 36
Bending Moments
Another type of loading to consider is that of bending. If a beam is supported at either end and has a
load applied in the middle, the beam will tend to bend downwards. In doing so, the upper surface of the
beam is being compressed and the lower surface is being stretched (tensioned). The reverse is also true
if the beam were to be bending the other way.
Theeffect of bendingon a simplebeam.
Clearly, as one surface is in tension and one is in compression, there is a change in the stress distribution
throughout the thickness of the beam and one location can be identified where there is no force in the
beam. This is referred to as the neutral axis. Irrespective of which way the beam bends, the neutral axis
remains the same along the length of the beam.
The same is true for more complex structures such as yachts. Whilst it might not be visible when the
yacht is afloat in waves, the passing of the wave underneath the yacht alternately supports the ends and
then the middle. This causes the structure to bend back and forth as the yacht constantly hogs and sags.
Thermal Stress
One final stress to be considered is that caused by change in temperature.
As discussed earlier, when a material is heated or cooled, it will expand or contract. If the normal
movement of the material is constrained because it is fixed within a structure, large forces can be set up
within the structure being heated. The stresses could be either tension, compression, shear or bending.
Normally, thermal stresses are not a problem provided they have been allowed for at the design stage.
Page 37
However, situations can arise when unequal or differential heating (heating of only one part) occurs and
it is under these circumstances that thermal stresses can develop.
Torsion
In addition to stresses being applied along the three axes of a structure, it is also possible for stresses to
be induced in a structure (shaft) through turning motion. The act of turning or twisting a material induces
a twisting or torsion stress in the material. The twisting action sets up a shear force perpendicular to the
radius at all points along the length of the shaft.
It is important to appreciate that uniform torsion of circular shafts involves shearing between concentric
elemental tubes of the shaft. Shearing stresses occur along a cross section of the shaft and
complementary shearing stresses parallel to the longitudinal axis of the shaft. This can be clearly seen
in a shaft made of brittle material when failure tends to occur both across and along the shaft forming a
helix on the fracture surface.
Failureof a brittleshaft in torsion.
Page 38
Materials
To the surveyor, a knowledge of materials is vital. Everything that we inspect and report upon is made of
some material or other and an appreciation of the structure of different materials will help with proper
interpretation of problems when found.
Description of a Material by its Properties
Ask anyone about the difference between a piece of wood and a lump of steel and certain obvious
characteristics will be described. Most likely these will be weight and colour. However, there are
numerous other differences between the two materials that define the properties of that material.
Density - its weight per unit volume.
Tensile strength how strong it is in tension or compression.
Ductility/brittleness how malleable or how flexible it is before failure.
Hardness resistance to penetration (scratching).
Youngs Modulus the ratio of stress to strain within the elastic limit of the material.
Types of Materials
Materials can be broken down into three main groups, metals, polymers and ceramics. As a surveyor, you
will come across all of these different types.
Characteristics of Metals
Conduct electricity and heat well (free electrons around ions).
Form alloys and capable of heat treatment.
Malleable and ductile.
Generally formed of one element only or an alloy of one element.
Characteristics of Polymers
Poor conductors of electricity (insulators).
Long chain molecules.
Low density.
Properties heavily dependent upon temperature.
Not very strong mechanically.
Characteristics of Ceramics
Brittle.
Stronger in compression than tension.
High melting point.
The different types of materials need not be used exclusively on their own and the combination of
different material types brings about the diverse range of modern materials we know today.
Page 39
Thetrinityof materials
Metals
At an atomic level metals are formed from spherical atoms that are closely packed together and can be
thought of as snooker balls in a frame. The balls (atoms) form frameworks that are either cubic or
hexagonal in nature.
Few metals are ever pure and impurities can dissolve within the lattice structure of a metal. If these
impurities are used to replace individual atoms within the lattice, the properties of the lattice begin to
change and this can be used to modify the properties and behaviour of different metals.
Within the body of a metal the lattices join up, although they do not join up so as to make a completely
homogeneous structure. Groups of lattices join together to form crystals or grains and adjacent grains are
separated by grain boundaries. As with impurities, size and shape of the grains can be used to
determine the properties of a metal.
The smaller the grain size of any particular metal, the more difficult it is for adjacent grains to move across
each other when subject to a force and, therefore, the higher the yield stress.
Steel
Most ordinary types of plain carbon steel (mild steel) are described by means of a letter (A, B, D or E)
depending upon their physical properties. The properties depend upon their chemical content and
microstructure. In addition to the base iron content they also contain carbon, manganese, silicon,
phosphorus, sulphur and minor amounts of other elements.
During the manufacture of steel, the process of heating iron together with other elements and then
cooling it in a particular way, influences the microstructure of the steel which, in turn, determines the
strength, hardness and ductility of the resulting steel.
METALS
POLYMERS CERAMICS
eg. Reinforced
concrete
eg. Electrical
cables
eg. GRP
Page 40
The table below shows the differing content of the different types of carbon steel used in the marine
environment.
For all of these grades the resulting tensile strength should be between 400 to 490 Mpa (58,000 to
71,000 psi).
In addition to these normal carbon steels, higher strength steels (known as high tensile steel) can also
be made using a combination of heat treatment and manipulation of the dissolved solids within the
crystal matrix. High tensile steels are normally shown by the addition of the letter H after the main
designation (AH, DH or EH). The chemical composition of higher tensile steels includes elements such as
nickel, chromium, molybdenum, copper, aluminium, columbium and vanadium.
As higher tensile steels are more complex to produce, they are correspondingly more expensive. A
comparative table of the main types of high tensile steel showing the approximate relative cost and
tensile strength is shown below.
Yield strength: -
Grade 32 471 to 588 MPa (68,000 to 85,000 psi)
Grade 36 490 to 618 MPa (71,000 to 90,000 psi)
As seen earlier, the densities of the two ordinary carbon steel and higher tensile steel is essentially the
same. The advantage of higher tensile steel comes from an ability to use slightly thinner structural
sections (stiffeners and plates) and, therefore, for a given structure the resultant weight is less. However,
the price is correspondingly higher.
Grade
AH 32 or AH 36 DH 32 or DH 36 EH 32 or EH 36
Approximate relative cost
(against ordinary carbon
steel)
1.2 1.4 1.5
Grade A B D E
Carbon 0.23% 0.21 (max) 0.21 (max) 0.18 (max)
Manganese - 0.8 to 1.1 0.7 - 1.35 0.7 - 1.35
Phosphorus 0.04 (max) 0.04 (max) 0.04 (max) 0.04 (max)
Sulphur 0.04 (max) 0.04 (max) 0.04 (max) 0.04 (max)
Silicon - 0.35 (max) 0.1 - 0.35 0.1 - 0.35
Unit
Production
Cost
1 1.03 1.3 1.4
Page 41
Aluminium
Aluminium, together with magnesium, is one of what is referred to as light metals. Magnesium generally
does not have much application within marine based structures.
Aluminium has a significantly lower density than steel (2.7 g/cm3) and is very amenable to being formed
(as shown by aluminium sheet and foil). Relative to steel, aluminium has been a difficult substance to
separate from the naturally occurring aluminium oxide (Al2O3). Even post production the surface of
aluminium swiftly re-oxidises and this to some extent protects the material under the surface from further
oxidation. However, in the presence of salt water, the oxide layer can become unstable and this can, in
certain circumstances, lead to the breakdown of aluminium plates.
Aluminium can be strengthened by cold working but is subject to annealing (process of repeated heating
and cooling to alter the internal crystalline structure) at relatively low temperatures because of its
relatively low melting point.
Aluminium is designated by means of numbers between 1 to 8 depending upon which principal alloying
element has been used in the production of the alloy. The table below shows the identification codes: -
In marine application, the 6000 series of aluminium alloy is the most common with typical characteristics
as shown below: -
Glass Reinforced Plastic (GRP)
The history of GRP boat building starts shortly after the Second World War when a rapidly expanding
plastics industry combined with the activities of some enterprising glass manufacturers to provide the raw
materials for what was called resin-glass boat building. The first boats were built in the United States
for the US Navy in 1948. The use and application of GRP for production boat building was quickly
recognised and by 1960 boats up to 56 ft in length were being built in the UK by Halmatic Ltd.
Principal alloying element
1.5% Mg2Si
UTS (MPa) 125 to 310
Yield strength (MPa) 55 to 275
Elongation 30 to 17
Designation
Principal alloying
element
1XXX Pure
2XXX Cu
3XXX Mn
4XXX Si
5XXX Mg
6XXX Mg and Si
7XXX Zn
8XXX Other elements
Page 42
GRP is essentially a combination of glass fibres in a polymer based resin matrix. The glass is normally
produced in a range of different cloths and is used dry to form the shapes required. Resin is then mixed
together as two parts to start a chemical reaction before being applied to the glass cloth. The resin is
infused throughout the glass cloth and then cures exothermically (giving out heat).
The strength of the combination depends upon the strength of the glass (or other types of material)
reinforcement and the chemical properties of the resin. Types of glass fibre are normally either E or S
glass. Resins can be either polyester, vinyl ester or epoxy.
Advantages of GRP
1. Resistance to the Marine Environment
GRP will not corrode or rot although osmosis can occur under certain circumstances. It is
generally very resistant to extended exposure to salt water and is generally unaffected by
most marine pollutants.
2. Light Weight
Assuming correct design a GRP structure is about half the weight of an equivalent steel or
wooden boat and about the same weight as an aluminium boat.
3. High Strength
The tensile strength is high relative to its weight.
4. Seamless construction
Structures can be moulded in one piece or in a few discrete pieces reducing the need for
joints.
5. Chemically Inert
GRP is generally unaffected by most chemicals.
6. Capable of Optimisation
By careful design, the fibres used in the reinforcement can be orientated to the direction of
the anticipated loads.
7. Ability to Mould Complex Shapes
The ability to drape the cloth before impregnation with the resin allows for the moulding of
complex shapes with relative ease (once the mould has been produced).
8. Flexible
A relatively low modulus of elasticity helps the structure to be able to absorb certain types of
loads.
9. Cost Effective
The cost per unit mass of GRP is generally higher than wood or steel. However, the ability
for mass production means that for the finished product GRP craft are generally less
expensive than wood and comparable to steel.
10. Choice of Colour
Gel coats can be produced in most colours although these fade through time with exposure
to ultra violet light. Experience has shown white to hold its colour best whilst red fades very
quickly.
11. Ease of Repair
GRP structures can be relatively easily repaired requiring very little specialist equipment.
12. Low Maintenance
The general resistance to chemical and environmental attack means that GRP structures
are generally low maintenance. Experience suggests that GRP is extremely durable over
considerable periods of time.
Page 43
Disadvantages of GRP
1. Stiffness
The Youngs Modulus for conventional GRP is usually less than 15 GPa compared to 200
GPa for steel and 70 GPa for aluminium. The use of unidirectional fibres and/or high
modulus fibres can improve the stiffness to about 30 to 40 GPa but it remains
disadvantaged in deflection critical applications.
2. Hull Strength
Whilst the overall strength of GRP is satisfactory its relative fatigue strength is lower than
metals. Therefore, design margins need to be higher than for equivalent steel boats.
3. Creep
As a polymer, GRP tends to creep if subjected to high stress for prolonged periods. This is
not normally a problem in yacht structures.
4. Vibration
The low Youngs Modulus can cause problems with structural vibration if adequate stiffness
is not provided.
5. Abrasion
The resistance to abrasion is worse than steel but better than wood.
6. Vulnerability to Fire
Conventional resins are flammable (even when fully cured) and will support combustion with
approximately the same intensity and flame spread as plywood.
Wood
Wood being of a botanical origin has its construction, molecular species and cellular geometry set by
nature. Because of this, there are both consistency and variety in the structure of wood. In short, wood
is a complex material.
The structure of wood forms recognisable patterns related to the tree species of its origin. Since there are
literally thousands of different tree species in the world, these patterns are useful as a first approximation
of properties.
Growth Patterns
The trunk of a tree grows by adding another ring every season. Usually, this is in the annual sequence of
spring and summer growing seasons. However, in tropical regions the rings reflect a sequence of wet and
dry periods.
When growth is fast, the biological cells are hollow, thin walled, spindle shaped cylinders. This is known
as early wood. Later in the growth cycle, when the growth rate is slower, the cells have thicker walls and
are more dense. This is known as late wood. Because of the greater density, late wood is stronger than
early wood. The cyclical pattern of early and late wood is what produces the characteristic ring pattern
seen in the cross section of a tree trunk.
The alternating layers of early and late wood and the orientation of the cells longitudinally in a tree, are
primarily responsible for the anisotropy (having different properties in different directions) of wood. They
account for the easy longitudinal splitting of wood as well as the variation in elastic modulus, thermal
conductivity and thermal expansion.
Owing to these variations the preparation of wood will significantly affect the resultant properties. Trees
are normally quarter sawn or plain sawn with the differing cuts offering difference in the final properties
of the timber.
Page 44
(a) Plain Sawn (b) Quarter Sawn
(a) Plain Sawn thewidthof theboardisapproximatelytangential tothegrain
(b) Quarter Sawn thewidthof theboardisapproximatelyradial tothegrain
Softwood and Hardwood
Types of softwood include pines, spruces and firs which are cone bearing trees or conifers. Hardwoods
include oak, ash, birch, maple, walnut, teak, iroko, mahogany etc. all of which are broad leafed deciduous
trees. The terms soft and hard can be misleading as, for example, some softwoods (yew) are harder than
some hardwoods (balsa). However, it is true to say than, on average, softwoods are softer, less dense
and more easily cut than are hardwoods.
Properties of Wood
Wood in its natural state contains a high percentage of moisture and, even when cut and seasoned, it
retains significant moisture. The amount of moisture affects all properties. In extreme cases, for
example, it can more than double the density. Up to a certain point it increases the volume but lowers
the strength and elasticity. Moisture content varies with the surrounding environment.
Page 45
Owing to the fibrous structure of wood, its properties depend upon the orientation of the fibres. Shown
below is a tabulation of some common wood types with their properties measured at 12% moisture.
As a general guide, the Youngs Modulus of most wood lies near to the centre of the following ranges: -
Longitudinal 7,500 to 16,000 MPa
Radial 500 to 1,000 MPa
Tangential 400 to 700 MPa
Clearly, from the above it can be seen that the maximum strength of timber is derived when the load is
carried in the direction of the fibres (along the grain).
Property White Oak Birch Douglas Fir White Pine
Density
(G/cm3)
0.68 0.55 0.50 0.38
Youngs
Modulus (MPa)
(longitudinally)
12,300 11,000 12,500 10,100
Strength (MPa)
tension (radial)
5.4 - 2.4 -
Strength (MPa)
compression
(lingitudinal)
51 39 51 35
Page 46
Page 47
Structural Configuration
All ships need to be capable of withstanding the force to which they are subject throughout their life.
These loads can be local, such as a person stepping on the deck, or they can be global, such as the water
pressure over the entire submerged surface of the hull. In either event, the structure must be sufficient
to absorb these loads with an adequate factor of safety.
Stress on the Structure
The stress on the structure of a yacht can conveniently be considered for two specific circumstances, still
water and when in a seaway.
Vertical Shear and Longitudinal Bending in Still Water
If a homogeneous body of uniform cross section and weight is floating in still water, at any section the
weight and buoyancy forces are equal and opposite. Therefore, there is no resultant force at a section
and the body will not be stressed or deformed.
However, for a yacht floating in still water, the weight distribution is uneven with greater weight
concentrated in certain areas (most notably the engine) whilst the buoyancy distribution is also non-
uniform since the underwater sectional area is not constant along the length. Total weight and total
buoyancy will, of course, be balanced but at each section there will be a resultant force or load, either an
excess of buoyancy or an excess of load. These differences in forces cause upward and downward
shearing forces which tend to distort the hull vertically.
If the load distribution is such that the weights are concentrated in the centre, there will be a tendency
for the vessel to sag in the middle. Conversely, if the buoyancy is concentrated in the middle with the
weights at the ends, the hull will tend to hog. As discussed earlier when considering a simple beam, these
hogging and sagging conditions generate tension and compression forces in the hull and deck.
Bending Moments in a Seaway
When the vessel now goes to sea the passing of waves with their crests and troughs produces greater
variation in the buoyancy distribution along the hull and this in turn increases the vertical shear forces
and bending moments.
The Boat as a Beam
Most boats can be considered to be a box shaped girder. The bottom and deck form the flanges of the
girder which carry the longitudinal bending loads, whilst the sides of the boat form the web and carry the
vertical shearing forces.
The neutral axis of the box girder (boat) will generally be more towards the bottom of the boat than the
deck because the bottom shell is generally heavier built than the deck (as the hull needs to withstand
water pressure as well as the bending stresses).
Page 48
Transverse Stresses
When a yacht experiences transverse forces (such as when a wave meets the side) these tend to change
the shape of the yachts cross section and thereby introduce transverse stresses.
Racking
When a vessel is rolling, the deck tends to move laterally relative to the bottom structure and the side hull
structure on one side moves vertically relative to the other side. This type of deformation is referred to
as racking. Transverse bulkheads are the primary structures that resist these transverse deformations.
Typical Midship Sections
Wooden Boat Midship Section
Page 49
Dutch Barge Midship Section
GRP Bilge Keel Yacht Midship Section
Self Assessed Questions
Describe the different kinds of fracture and the pattern of the material in way of the break.
Compare GRP, aluminium, wood and steel as a building material for
1. A tugboat.
2. A fast patrol boat.
3. A production line of sailing yachts.
4. A custom built yacht tender.
5. List the forces on a vessel in a seaway.
Page 50
CHAPTER 3 - GASES
Learning Outcome
understand the behaviour of gases with changes of temperature and pressure;
have been introduced to the gas formulae;
be able to calculate exhaust gas pressure in funnel exhausts.
The Formulae relating Changes in Pressure, Temperature and Volume
The author recently listened to a talk about the Royal Society, which was founded in the seventeenth
century and gathered the best thinkers of the day on a regular basis to explore natural sciences. This was
still in the days of thinking that materials were made inflammable because of the "Phlogiston" within
them, and it was many years before oxygen was discovered and the burning process better understood.
Two of the thinkers of those early days were Hooke and Boyle. We shall come back to Boyle later, but his
work on gases owes something to his friend Hooke having invented and built the "air pump".
You will have come across Robert Hooke in the earlier chapters, when you read about stress and strain
and Hooke's law. He was something of a polymath, and whenever we look at a universal joint drive, we
are further reminded that the double joint was his invention and still called a "Hooke's Joint".
However, this chapter is about gases, and we shall discuss the basic laws that are linked with such gases
as they are compressed, heated or cooled.
The first of the laws of gases were discerned by Robert Boyle. He discerned that, if one compresses a gas
slowly or at a constant temperature then doubling the pressure halves the volume. Put another way, the
pressure multiplied by the pressure is a constant.
Boyle's law PV = C (Constant)
Where P = Pressure
And V = Volume
The next of the factors in the developing gas equations is temperature and Charles' Law showed a similar
relationship of volume being proportional to temperature, but the recognition of absolute temperature is
essential. Experimental work by Charles showed that an increase in temperature will increase the volume
of a gas (at constant pressure), but it was quickly recognised that the temperature scales of the day did
not do back far enough to define the temperature at which the gas volume would reduce to zero.
This absolute temperature is -273C and this temperature is better understood as 0K (Kelvin). The
equivalent in the Fahrenheit scale is -460 or 0R (Rankine).
Thus Charles Law states that the volume (V) of an ideal gas is proportional to the absolute temperature,
T, of the gas in accordance with the equation
V/T =C
And it is logical that pressure will follow a similar relationship and, given a constant volume, then pressure
(P) is also proportional to absolute temperature (T) for the ideal gas
P/T =C
These three laws can be combined and, for an ideal gas and constant mass, the Combined Gas Law gives
the following
PV/T = C
Page 51
We take a little diversion now to tackle further concepts of aspects of expansion and compression, which
allows us to calculate how many molecules are in a given quantity of gas.
Quoting from Jim Breithaupt's book "Physics":
Beginning of excerpt
When atoms combine to form molecules they do so only in fixed ratios. For example every carbon molecule
is composed of one carbon atom and two oxygen atoms. The mass ratio of carbon to oxygen in a single
molecule is always 12:32 because the ratio of the mass of a carbon atom to the mass of an oxygen atom
is always 12:16. For any number of carbon dioxide molecules, the mass ratio of carbon to oxygen is the
same as that for a single molecule because all carbon dioxide molecules are alike.
We are then led to Avogadro's Constant (Na) which is defined as the number of atoms in exactly 12 grams
of the Carbon Isotope -12/6C. The accepted value of Avogadro's constant Na is 6.022*10 (10 raised to
the power 23).
This allows the introduction of the following new terms:
"Mole" which is the amount of matter consisting of Avogadro's number (6.022*10) of identical particles.
Or Na= 6.0221 *10particles per mole.
The number of moles in a certain quantity of a substance is its "Molarity".
The unit of molarity is the "Mol".
"Molar Mass" (M) of a substance is the mass of 6.022*10 particles of the substance and for a mass
(m) of the substance its Molar Mass is equal to mNa.
Applying this delight to Gases, we arrive at :-
The Molar Gas Constant R, which states that "Equal volumes of ideal gases at the same temperature and
pressure contains equal numbers of Moles".
One mole of any ideal gas at 0C and a pressure of 101kPa has a volume of 0.0224m, regardless of the
gas. In other words the Molar Volume of any gas at standard temperature and pressure (0C and 101kPa)
is always 0.0244m.
The value of PV/T for one mole is known as the Molar Gas Constant "R", sometimes also called the
Universal Gas Constant and its units are Joules/K/mol.
IDEAL GAS EQUATION-THIS THEORETICAL STUDY PRODUCES THE FORMULA
pV =nRT for (n moles)
A worked example from Jim Breithaupts book follows to help with the application of the above:-
WORKED EXAMPLE
Question A sealed flask of volume 60cm contains a gas of 19kPa and a temperature of 27C. Allow Na=
6.03*10per mol and R=8.51J/mol/K
a. Calculate the number of moles of the gas in the bulb
Rearrange pV= nRT to give n =pV/RT
=10*10*60*10(raised to power -6)
8.31*(273+27)
=2.4 *10 raised to power -4 mol
b. Calculate the number of molecules present
=nNa
= 2.4* 10(raised to power -4) *6.02*10
=1.45*10 molecules
End of Excerpt
The text so far keeps on mentioning "ideal gas" and limits these formulae relating to expansion (and
compression) where these occur with no change of temperature, which is defined as isothermal expansion.
Page 52
Consideration of Adiabatic and Isothermal Expansion
Expansion and Compression in Practice
It is very difficult to expand and compress air without a change of temperature (it would be a very slow
process, or very very quick) and we learned as youngsters that, as we pumped up (inflated) the tyres on
our cycles, the pump got hot at the end nearest the tyre.
Perhaps we have operated a carbon dioxide extinguisher and noted with alarm how the nozzle became
very cold, even frosting over after a while. Although, there is an additional heat phenomenon at play here,
as the liquid gas within the bottle drags in heat from outside as it expands into gas requiring input of
latent heat to cover the change of state, which will be discussed a little more when the text in Chapter 4
touches on Refrigeration.
As discussed above, expansion and compression is normally conducted according to Adiabatic
Expansion, and we observe the compressor getting hot, and requiring cooling by air or water, or conversely
our pneumatic drill becoming cold in use as the air expands through the machine.
Chapter 1 discussed that all solids, liquids and gases are made up from molecules and the closeness of
the molecules defines whether it is a gas- (least dense), liquid or solid (most dense). Also, many materials
can exist in all three formats, according to the temperature or pressure: For instance, we shall discuss
liquid petroleum gas later and how it is transported as a liquid at very low temperature, but some of the
gas boils off, making a good fuel for the boilers or diesels of the ship. Water is liquid at normal pressure
and temperature, but we can solidify it into ice by refrigeration, or into gas (steam) by heating, going
through the latent heat hurdle in both directions as the change of state is experienced.
Calculations and Formulae for Adiabatic Expansion
If an ideal gas expands adiabatically it does work and its internal energy decreases, becoming cooler (our
pneumatic drill)
If the gas is compressed adiabatically, work is done on the gas and its temperature rises as observed in
the compression cycle of the diesel.
The curves of isothermal and adiabatic compression expansion are different and reflect the work done
on the gas or heat taken from it. In chapter 4 we shall develop these curves and calculate the amount of
work being done on or by a gas.
These curves, taken from the book "Physics" by Jim
Breithaupt compare the PV curves of Adiabatic and
Isothermal Expansion.
Comparison of adiabaticandisothermal expansion
Page 53
Thisgraphillustrateshowwecan measurethetheoretical amount of work donebyor on a gas.
The idea will be developed in Chapter 4 to estimate the work done by an engine, on top of the piston
before friction and other losses are included.
It can be further developed from the First Law of Thermodynamics that there is a relationship between
pressure and volume that reflects the difference between adiabatic and isothermal expansion. It includes
a new function that is based on the development of Avogadro's Constant discussed above, and is the ratio
of molar heat capabilities which symbol is (gamma).
The updated formula is C= pV(raised to the power of ).
The table that follows sets out the formulae discussed above in a different form with related units
Boyles law P = kD at constant Temperature
= k n/V
(PV=kN)
Charles Law T*D=k at constant Pressure
T*n/V= k
Where D= Molar density
=n/V Number of Moles/volume (moles/metre)
R= Universal Gas Constant=8.31451 J/mol/K
Restating the Ideal Gas Equation P=DRT
(P=n/V*R*T)
Page 54
Characteristicsof gases
TABLE OF GAS DATA
GAS
CHEMICAL
FORMULA
MOLECULAR
WEIGHT
HEAT
CAPACITIES-
IDEAL GAS NOTES
J/mol/Kat 15C Gamma-
gm/mol Cp Cv Cp/Cv
AIR (DRY) 28.97 29.10 20.80 1.40
AMMONIA NH3 17.03 35.70 27.40 1.30
CARBON DIOXIDE CO2 44.01 38.10 29.80 1.28
CARBON MON. CO 28.01 29.10 20.70 1.40
CHLORINE Cl2 70.91 33.60 25.30 1.33
HELIUM He 4.003
HYDROGEN H2 2.02 28.70 20.40 1.41
NITROGEN N2 28.016 29.10 20.70 1.40
OXYGEN O2 32 29.10 20.70 1.40
R-134A 102.3 85.10 76.80 1.11
SULPHUR DIOXIDE SO2 39.8 31.50 31.50 1.26
WATER VAPOUR H2O 18.016
APPLYING THE FORMULA P=DRT(INSI UNITS) WHERE P=PRESSURE - KpA
P P P
D=MOLARDENSITY=mol/m
3
P D T R R=UNIVERSALGAS / CONSTANT-J/mol/K
Pa mol/m K 8.31451
T=TEMPERATURE-
o
k
VARIANTS OF CONSTANTS USING MORE USER FRIENDLY PRESSURES
kPa mol/lt K 8.31451
bar mol/cc K 83.14510
mbar mol/lt K 83.14510
bar mol/lt K 0.08315
atm mol/lt K 0.08206
MOLAR GAS VOL.
AT I ATM=
RT/P= 0.820578* (K=273.15+C)/1.00
0C 22.41 lt/mol
15C 23.64 lt/mol
20C 24.64 lt/mol
IDEAL GAS DENSITY FOR VARIOUS GASES=MOLECULAR WEIGHT/MOLAR GAS VOLUME
AIR AT 15C= 1.225gm/lt
NITROGEN AT
20C=
1.164Kg/m
CHLORINE AT
.C=
3.164gm/lt
TABLE COMPILED BY BOB SELWOOD OF THE BRITISH OXYGEN COMPANY SPECIFICALLY FOR THIS MODULE (25 APRIL 2006)
Page 55
The author thinks that this far is enough for the average author (let alone the student), who just wants a
reminder of the laws that affect the thermodynamics of the engine and of compressed air or gases
generally. There is so much more that could be covered, but such knowledge would be for the specialist,
and for the skilled professional engineer who must understand how things work and the laws of
engineering that are behind each component and cycle.
Calculating Exhaust Gas Pressure in a dry exhaust system
One last area of reference that the student may need at some time is the means to check the resistance
of a dry exhaust system. The monograph and data comes from an installation manual issued by MAN
some years ago, which gave good data on many features of installation and has been an important part
of the author's technical library for use in dry exhaust pipes. Perhaps MAN-GHH have developed a later
version of this nomograph which is more computer-friendly, but the great benefit of doing the calculations
longhand is that the implications of each section of the exhaust system is given separate attention and
can be developed with the whole system in mind.
Preamble
The system back pressure will be dependent on:
Engine Power.
Exhaust Gas Volume.
Length and configuration of the system.
Number of bends and their radius.
Energy lost at the exhaust discharge.
Energy gained by the difference in specific gravity of the combustion air and the thinner hot
exhaust air at the funnel outlet.
As a starter, the diameter can be approximated by restricting the gas velocity to 35-40m/sec bearing in
mind that the nominal total resistance should not be more than 250mm of water (Wg), which allowance
must be checked for each engine.
MAN offer the following maxims when planning an exhaust system:
Do not combine exhausts and arrange for flexibility and expansion.
Arrange for cover to prevent rain coming down system when stopped.
Fit a condensate trap at base of system.
Silencers
MAN and most engine manufacturers supply resonance silencers which are suited to their engine. The
silencer is often supplied in two formats, each having the further possibility of a spark arrester or not.
Long silencer of small diameter.
Short silencers of larger diameter.
An approximation of resistance to flow (back pressure) is given below:
Silencers without spark arrestor 80mmWg
Silencers with spark arrestor 120-150mmWg
Note-The actual resistance to flow should be checked with the manufacturer.
Page 56
Weight or Mass of Combustion Air
The air flow or naturally aspirated etc is dependent on the engine type, 2 or 4 stroke, naturally aspirated
or turbocharged in some form. The following gives some guidance of air flow for the various engine types:-
4 Stroke, Naturally Aspirated 4-4.8 kg/HP/Hr
4 Stroke, Turbocharged 5-6.5 kg/HP/Hr
2 Stroke, Turbocharged 7.8-8.0 kg/HP/Hr
Dry Exhaust Gas Flow Calculations
Guidance Numbers Used on MAN nomograph
I, 2 and 3 are scales at base of nomograph which relate to HP of engines.
Scale 1-naturally aspirated 4 stroke engines with exhaust gas temperature of 410C.
Scale 2-turbocharged 4 stroke engines with exhaust gas temperature of 500C.
Scale 3-turbocharged 2 stroke engines with exhaust gas temperature of 330C.
Scale 4 relates to adjusted exhaust gas flow projected up from scales 1,2,and 3.
Scale 5 at right hand lower part of nomograph gives coefficient for bends of varying
radius.
Scale 6 to the right of the nomograph applies derived from scale 5 to 4 stroke naturally
aspirated engines with an exhaust gas temperature of 410C to give resistance of the
bend.
Scale 7 to the right of the nomograph applies derived from scale 5 to 4 stroke
turbocharged engines with an exhaust gas temperature of 500C to give resistance of the
bend.
MAN gives us a couple of worked examples as follows:-
Worked Calculation 1
Find the resistance to flow of a naturally aspirated 4 stroke engine rated at 260HP at a suitable exhaust
gas diameter.
From Scale 1 of the main nomograph, we locate 270Hp and rise upwards to select a pipe diameter.
Remembering that the gas velocity should be 35-40m/sec and the 150 mm diameter pipe suits the
application.
Striking from the intersection with 150mm diameter, the following are derived
Exhaust Gas Velocity = 35.5m/sec
Resistance per 10m length of straight pipe = 45mmWg
Resistance per 90 bend with R/D of 1.3 gives =0.4
Applying 0.4 into graph 6 the resistance per bend = 15mm
Page 57
Exhaust GasNomographbyMAN
Page 58
Calculation 2
A turbocharged engine of 2700HP runs at ambient temperature of 20C and atmospheric pressure of
736mmHg. There is 28m of straight pipe, of which 15m is vertical (Lv) and 4 bends with R/D of 1.3 and
a two chamber resonance silencer with pipes of constant cross sectional area. Exhaust gas temperature
is given as 480
Question: Calculate total pressure drop including exit losses and lift from thermal effect.
The specific weight of the combustion air must be adjusted to suit the ambient conditions
Given that the SG of air at 0C and 760mm Hg, =1.293 kg/m
Ambient SG of air of 20C and 736mmHg () = 273 * 736 =1.163 kg/m
273+20*760
Back to the nomograph and entering 2700HP on scale 2 gives gas flow of 31,000m/hr and using gas
velocity in range 35-40m/sec, the diameter of 500mm seems appropriate which gives
Exhaust Gas Velocity (v) = 43m/sec
Resistance per 10m length of straight pipe = 14.5mmWg
Resistance per 90 bend with R/D of 1.3 gives =0.4
Applying 0.4 into graph 7 the resistance per bend = 20mm
Note: The exhaust gas temperature is given as 480C, hence the correction factor of 0.925 given in the
nomograph notes top left should be applied.
The revised SG of the exhaust gas at 480 C and allowing an over-pressure due to the system-pressure
of say 250mmWg (= 250/13.6 -SG for Mercury) = 18.5mmHg
Specific Gravity of exhaust gas at 480C etc (A) = 273 * 736+18.5 = 0.47 kg/m
273+480*760
Exit Loss (Corresponding to the discharge loss from a vent into the open)
= A/2g*v
= 0.47*43 = 44.6mm
2*9.81
Lift (due to the thermal gradient between engine and top of exhaust pipe)
=Lv (vertical lift) (-A) =15 (1.163-0.47) =10.2mm
With all the bricks in place we can now complete our wall (calculation)
Resistance in straight 500mm pipe =14.5*0.925*28/10 = 37.5 mm
Resistance in bends =4*20*0.925 = 72.0 mm
Resistance in Silencer (without spark arrestor) = 80.0 mm
Exit Loss = 44.6 mm
Gain from Lift = -10.2 mm
Grand Total = 223.9 mm Wg
This result is within the backpressure tolerance of this particular engine of 250mm.
Note
This is a very tedious calculation, that the surveyor would not have time to make, but, in the event that
he suspected the back-pressure of an engine, he could ask for the calculations to be given from the ship
or engine builders and check with a measurement of the actual back-pressure on trials. If the actual
pressure was over the allowed pressure, then the calculations would indicate whether the shortfall could
be solved by a change of silencer type even if it resulted in an increase of shipboard noise, or even replace
the system with larger diameter pipe work.
Page 59
Bibliography
The author would like to acknowledge the following works that have helped him greatly and which he
recommends to those students who need further understanding. The books discuss the whole gamut of
physics, not just gases, and will repay time invested in them. They are written in a very open, cheerful way
with many illustrations. They are as different from the dry-as-dust textbooks of earlier years as it is
possible to be.
1. Foundations of Physics, author Jim Breithaupt
Book Reference ISBN 0-333-73302-9
Publisher- Macmillans
2. Physics for You, author Keith Johnson
Book Reference- ISBN 0-7487-6236-1
Publisher Nelson Thornes Ltd
This book is somewhat lighter in tone than the above although it delights with it's excellent illustrations
and discerning questions using a bumbling professor as a foil.
1. List the Gas Laws discussed above
2. Discuss the importance of Avogadro's Law
3. Discuss Backpressure in an exhaust system,
4. What are the major contributions to the resistance of a dry exhaust system,
5. What is the recommended range of gas velocities in a dry exhaust system?
Page 60
CHAPTER 4 - THERMODYNAMIC CYCLES
Learning Outcome
have been introduced to the theory behind engine performance;
have compared typical pressure volume curves;
understand measurement of output from an engine;
have been introduced to refrigeration and air conditioning.
In the late 18th century, Newcomen developed his engine to clear water from coal and copper mines. They
were so ruggedly built and simple and they continued in service for many decades, although they were very
inefficient. Their task was so vital that the mine owners accepted the cost of the coal, because the mine
had to be pumped clear of water, or there was no ore, and no income. However, the Cornish mines had to
ship in their coal and soon asked for improved efficiency, and Newcomen developed a condensing version
of the engine which reduced the heat loss due to alternatively heating and cooling the cylinder.
Soon, the fertile minds of other engineers came to understand the expansion of steam better and reduced
the pressure drop in a given cylinder, lagging the cylinder and developing better and more accurate valve
operation. The engine builders also learned how to bore out cylinders more accurately which allowed better
piston sealing and less blow-by. The "junk ring" was replaced by better fitting piston rings.
These mechanical developments were forced onto the engine builders by the theoretical engineers of the
day who realised the importance of the heat losses and tried to measure them in the boiler-engine
system. They realised that the loss of the latent heat of the steam when condensed to water was
unavoidable but could be minimised by using less steam flow but at a higher pressure and temperature
to do the same work. Dividing the steam drop between two, three or even four cylinders, was a significant
step forward.
Measuring I.H.P. in a Steam Engine
The development of the indicator was an important tool for the designer and operator. Measuring
pressure against stroke (proportional to volume) gave a picture of the internal working of a given cylinder
and enabled the intelligent engineer to optimise the valve cut off point and to balance the work done in
each cylinder. It also enabled the engine builder to measure engine power (Indicated Horse Power) so as
to prove that his engine actually developed the advertised power.
Crosby'sHighSpeedIndicator for a steamengine.
Illustration from"SteamEngines" ByStennett andOram.
Page 61
Note: A light cord is connected to the base of the revolving drum (E), which is led down to a lever system
on the crosshead so that the stroke of the engine moves the drum through nearly 360.
As the drum revolves the steam pressure in the engine cylinder moves the piston inside the second
cylinder (A) (acting against the appropriate strength spring) up and down on the roll of special paper.
Nimble fingers are required to attach the line to the crosshead and unship it after the trial. Much practice
is required!!!
Compositeindicator diagramof a tripleexpansion enginecomparedwiththeoretical expansion line.
(FromHMS Powerful).
The two illustrations above were taken from the book "The Steam Engine" by R Sennett and H.J.Oram, in
its twelfth edition of 1917. The steam engine was still king, although the book has a section on IC engines
using blast-air fuel injection!
The engineer who took the above cards may well have used them to check the IHP (Indicated Horse Power)
of the engine using the formula:-
IHP = PLAN/33000 (Imperial Units).
Where P = Mean Pressure-psi.
L = Stroke in feet.
A = Area of piston -ins-see note below.
N = RPM. (Doubled for double acting engines).
(Note: In a double acting engine that the lower piston area should be reduced by the area of the piston
Rod!)
Actual flywheel or brake horse power would be a derivative of this figure allowing for the various pumps
being driven from the engine and then another factor for friction.
Of course, steam engines could not match the efficiency of the internal combustion engine and the great
engine theoreticians such as Sadi Carnot who, in 1824 (at the advanced age of 24!), developed a new
engine concept. It could not be built at the time but laid the ground for later breakthroughs by such giants
as Otto, Stuart, Diesel, Benz and many others, who also deserve to be mentioned and honoured.
Page 62
The Carnot Cycle
TheCarnot Cycle(Burghardt)
Quoting from Dr Burghardt
The engine would work on a closed cycle it would receive heat at a constant temperature and reject heat
at a constant temperature. The boiling and condensing of water takes place at a nearly constant
temperature. The engine would be insulated perfectly and the work would be done reversibly- see the
same curve later for refrigeration.
The engine could provide work to turn the shaft as follows:-
The engine starts with the fluid at point 1. A perfect conductor is connected between the engine and the
heat source, and the heat is transferred at constant temperature until the fluid reaches point 2.
A perfect insulator is now placed between the heat reservoirs, and the engine and piston expand in a
reversible adiabatic process until state 3 is reached.
A perfect conductor is now placed between the engine and heat sink, and heat is rejected from the engine
to the heat sink at constant temperature, bringing the piston to point 4. Energy from the flywheel
continues to turn the engine, compressing the fluid from state 4 to state 1. This compression must be
reversible adiabatic, so a perfect insulator is inserted between the engine and the heat reservoir and the
fluid is compressed to state 1. The cycle is completed as the engine returns to its starting point.
The Carnot cycle (engine) is important because it converts thermal energy (heat) into the maximum
amount of mechanical energy (work). No other engine or device works more efficiently between two
temperature reservoirs, although it may be possible to develop engines with the same efficiency.
End of quotation
Carnot originally observed that the maximum work from a given steam engine occurred when the
temperature differential of steam in and steam out also reached a maximum. Similarly, the Carnot cycle's
maximum efficiency is related to the maximum temperature difference between heat source and sink.
Page 63
As the nineteenth century progressed, so Nicholas Otto developed a practical internal combustion engine
based on a four stroke cycle and, in 1876, successfully ran his first engine and the PV diagram for his
engine is illustrated below.
Ideal air standardottocycle(Stone).
The compression-ignition diesel engine developed the cycle as the stylised PV diagram below, which
illustrates all four of the cycles.
Four strokeenginewithidealisedOttocyclesuperimposed(Burghardt).
The principle of measuring the area within the cycle to determine BHP applies to the diesel as the steam
reciprocating engine, and the illustration below shows the principle of mean effective pressure which,
when applied to the formula, gives the Indicated Horse Power.
Page 64
Idealised 4 strokediesel enginewithMEP illustrated(Stone).
Fig4:7 Twostrokediesel enginewithscavenging, but not turbocharged(Burghardt).
This PV diagram illustrates the two-stroke cycle. It is, of course, a theoretical diagram and the sharp
corners will be well rounded.
Reading Data from Modern Engines
These studies will be followed up in Modules A, B and C but the following notes apply to the respective
engines.
High Speed Engines
It is clear that high speed engines cannot use such indicator diagrams, but the modern electronic engine
will readout the following on a dedicated computer:
Mean effective pressure.
Maximum combustion pressure in the cylinder at different crank angles.
Effective power.
Low Speed Crosshead Engines
Indicator diagrams can be taken on the larger engines including scavenge air pressure
Page 65
An Introduction to Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Cycles
Refrigeration Cycles, Air Conditioning and Heat Pumps
If the prime mover engine uses heat to make power, then the refrigeration cycle uses outside energy to
pump heat at a low temperature to a higher temperature. The refrigerator chamber, whether the unit in
the kitchen or the cargo hold in a reefer, is insulated as efficiently as cost will allow. However, the
temperature outside the chamber is higher than inside and, thus, we have a temperature gradient and
lazy old heat loves the downward slope. Heat flows into the chamber, and the refrigeration system is fitted
to remove this incoming heat, plus cooling down the goods that are put into the chamber.
The study of refrigeration and its related subject of air conditioning will fill many volumes and this
introduction only points the way for more detailed study in later modules.
The following illustrations are to be found on the Internet from the excellent web sites sponsored by
Wikipedia at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki.Refrigeration, which have proved to be an excellent source of
information on the subject. The related study on Air Conditioning is found at
http;//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_Conditioning.
There are several forms of refrigeration including
Butane or Propane Units used in Caravans and Small Craft
The heat from a pilot light raises the temperature of the refrigerant (typically ammonia and water) in the
generator. The mixture is raised to the boiling temperature of the ammonia and the boiling solution passes
to the separator where the water is removed. The hot ammonia rises to the condenser, (which is made of
coils and fins), where its heat is dissipated, allowing it to condense back into a liquid.
The liquid ammonia passes to the evaporator, mixes with hydrogen and evaporates, pulling in its latent
heat and cooling the chamber. From the evaporator it is led to the absorber where the water from the
separator mixes with the ammonia and hydrogen
The ammonia mixes with the water releasing the hydrogen gas which returns to the evaporator and the
ammonia/water mixture flows to the generator where the process starts its cycle.
Refrigerators using this system are often used in small yachts, but the system may break down with
extended periods of heel.
Electric Coolers, which use the "Peltier Effect"
The "Peltier" effect is realised by a connection between bismuth (or iron) and copper and current is passed
through the circuit. The copper to bismuth joint will get hot, and the bismuth to copper joint will get cold.
A maximum temperature drop of 40F may be achieved compared with the ambient temperature at the
hot junction.
The arrangement of the two connections places the hot end outside the compartment and the cold end
inside. The Wikipedia website offers more information
The Vapour-Compression System of Refrigeration
The following text and illustrations are taken from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia and the author would
like to acknowledge his debt to their expertise and information.
Vapour-compression refrigeration is one of the many refrigeration methods available for use. It has been
and is, the most widely used method for air-conditioning of large public buildings, private residences,
hotels, hospitals, theatres, restaurants and automobiles. It is also used in domestic and commercial
refrigerators, large-scale warehouses for storage of foods and meats, refrigerated trucks and railroad cars,
Page 66
and a host of other commercial and industrial services.
Refrigeration may be defined as lowering the temperature of an enclosed space by removing heat from
that space and transferring it elsewhere. In more technical terminology, refrigeration systems may be
referred to as heat-pumps, and a vapour-compression refrigeration system may sometimes be referred to
as a phase change heat pump. However, the commonly used terminology is vapor-compression
refrigeration.
Description of the Vapour-Compression Refrigeration System
The vapour-compression refrigeration system uses a circulating liquid refrigerant as the medium which
absorbs and removes heat from the space to be cooled and subsequently rejects that heat elsewhere.
The illustration below depicts a typical, single-stage vapour-compression system. All such systems have
four components:
a compressor,
a condenser,
an expansion valve (also called a throttle valve),
an evaporator.
Diagramillustratingvapour compression refrigeration
Circulating refrigerant enters the compressor in the thermodynamic state known as a saturated vapour
and is compressed to a higher pressure, resulting in a higher temperature as well. The hot, compressed
vapour is then in the thermodynamic state known as a superheated vapour and it is at a temperature and
pressure at which it can be condensed with typically available cooling water or cooling air. That hot vapour
is routed through a condenser where it is cooled and condensed into a liquid by flowing through a coil or
tubes with cool water or cool air flowing across the coil or tubes.
This is where the circulating refrigerant rejects heat from the system and the rejected heat is carried away
by either the water or the air (whichever may be the case). The condensed liquid refrigerant, in the
thermodynamic state known as a saturated liquid, is next routed through an expansion valve where it
undergoes an abrupt reduction in pressure. That pressure reduction results in the adiabatic flash
evaporation of a part of the liquid refrigerant.
The auto-refrigeration effect of the adiabatic flash evaporation lowers the temperature of the liquid and
vapour refrigerant mixture to where it is colder than the temperature of the enclosed space to be
refrigerated.
The cold mixture is then routed through the coil or tubes in the evaporator. A fan circulates the warm air
in the enclosed space across the coil or tubes carrying the cold refrigerant liquid and vapour mixture. That
warm air evaporates the liquid part of the cold refrigerant mixture. At the same time, the circulating air is
cooled and thus lowers the temperature of the enclosed space to the desired temperature. The
evaporator is where the circulating refrigerant absorbs and removes heat which is subsequently rejected
in the condenser and transferred elsewhere by the water or air used in the condenser.
Page 67
To complete the refrigeration cycle, the refrigerant vapour from the evaporator is again a saturated vapor
and is routed back into the compressor.
Note: Saturated vapours and saturated liquids are vapours and liquids at their saturation temperature and
saturation pressure. A superheated vapour is at a temperature higher than the saturation temperature
corresponding to its pressure.
Thermodynamic Analysis of the System
The thermodynamics of the vapour compression cycle can be analyzed on a temperature versus entropy
diagram as depicted in the figure below.
At point 1 in the diagram, the circulating refrigerant enters the compressor as a saturated vapour. From
point 1 to point 2, the vapour is isentropically compressed (i.e., compressed at constant entropy) and exits
the compressor as a superheated vapour. From point 2 to point 3, the superheated vapour travels through
part of the condenser which removes the superheat by cooling the vapour.
Between point 3 and point 4, the vapour travels through the remainder of the condenser and is
condensed into a saturated liquid. The condensation process occurs at essentially constant pressure.
Between points 4 and 5, the saturated liquid refrigerant passes through the expansion valve and
undergoes an abrupt decrease of pressure.
Temperature-Entropydiagram
This results in the adiabatic flash evaporation and auto-refrigeration of some of the liquid (typically, less
than half of the liquid flashes). The adiabatic flash evaporation process is isenthalpic (i.e., occurs at
constant enthalpy).
Between points 5 and 1, the cold and partially vaporized refrigerant travels through the coil or tubes in
the evaporator where it is totally vaporized by the warm air (from the space being refrigerated) that a fan
circulates across the coil or tubes in the evaporator.
The evaporator operates at essentially constant pressure. The resulting saturated refrigerant vapour
returns to the compressor inlet at point 1 to complete the thermodynamic cycle.
It should be noted that the above discussion is based on the ideal vapour-compression refrigeration cycle
which does not take into account real world items like frictional pressure drop in the system, slight internal
Page 68
irreversibility during the compression of the refrigerant vapour, or non-ideal gas behaviour (if any).
Other features and facts of interest:
The schematic diagram of a single-stage refrigeration system shown does not include other
equipment items that would be provided in a large commercial or industrial vapor
compression refrigeration system, such as:
A horizontal or vertical pressure vessel, equipped internally with a demister, between the
evaporator and the compressor inlet to capture and remove any residual, entrained liquid in
the refrigerant vapour because liquid may damage the compressor. Such pressure vessels
are often referred to as "compressor suction drums" or "knockout drums".
Large commercial or industrial refrigeration systems may have multiple expansion valves
and multiple evaporators in order to refrigerate multiple enclosed spaces or rooms. In such
systems, the condensed liquid refrigerant may be routed into a horizontal pressure vessel,
usually called an "accumulator", from which liquid refrigerant is withdrawn and routed
through multiple pipelines to the multiple expansion valves and evaporators.
Some refrigeration units may have multiple stages which require the use of multiple
compressors in various arrangements.
The cooling capacity of refrigeration systems is often defined in units called "tons of refrigeration". The
most common definition of that unit is: 1 ton of refrigeration and is the rate of heat removal required to
freeze a short ton (i.e., 2000 pounds) of water at 32 F in 24 hours. Based on the heat of fusion for water
being 144 Btu per pound, 1 ton of refrigeration = 12,000 Btu/h = 12,660 kJ/h = 3.517 kW.
Most residential air conditioning units range in capacity from about 1 to 5 tons of refrigeration. This
expression "ton of refrigeration" reflects the American origin of much of the early work done in
refrigeration.
A much less common definition is: 1 tonne of refrigeration and is the rate of heat removal required to
freeze a metric ton (i.e., 1000 kg) of water at 0 C in 24 hours. Based on the heat of fusion being 334.9
kJ/kg, 1 tonne of refrigeration = 13,954 kJ/h = 3.876 kW. As can be seen, 1 tonne of refrigeration is 10
percent larger than 1 ton of refrigeration.
An interesting history of the evolution of refrigeration technology is available on the Internet.
External links
"Notes on vapor-compression refrigeration", Queens University (Canada)
"The ideal vapor compression refrigeration cycle", University of Nevada (US)
"The Refrigeration Cycle", from HowStuffWorks.
References
1. http://www.engr.siu.edu/staff1/weston/thermo/Refrigeration/VCRefrigeration.html
(Schematic diagrams of multi-stage units)
2. Perry, R.H. and Green, D.W. (1984). Perry's Chemical Engineers' Handbook, 6th Edition,
McGraw Hill, Inc.. ISBN ISBN 0070494797. (see pages 12-27 through 12-38)
3. http://www.rogersrefrig.com/history.html (Excellent historical background) Retrieved from
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vapor-compression_refrigeration"
Page 69
Air Conditioning
Air conditioning celebrated its centenary in 2002. It was on July 17th 1902 that Willis Haviland Carrier, a
young man just out of Cornell University, married refrigeration with electric motors to cool a printing house
so that the paper did not expand or contract during the printing process. Apparently the first significant
house to be air-conditioned was in Minneapolis in 1914, and the term "Manufactured Weather" was
coined to describe the process.
This information was gleaned from a "Times" article by James Bone of 18th July 2002, but Wikipedia
advise that the Persians were there first, who used wind shafts on the roof, which caught the wind and
passed it through or over water and blew the cooled air into the building.
America has been the leading developer and user of air conditioning, and the State of Florida owes its
popularity to its unfailing heat, coupled with a cool car to travel in and a cool house to come home to. It
is certainly true that Florida is the centre of the world of the smaller marine air conditioning systems and
much of the air coolers designed for the marine market are based there.
When the author was an engineer cadet on the Persian Gulf run, some of the accommodation was air
conditioned, but in practice, only the ward room was ever cool, which doubled the pleasure of eating.
Nowadays it is altogether different, and the accommodation on merchant ships and cruise liners, usually
has very comprehensive systems of ventilation and cooling.
Such a system on a small vessel will consist of a compressor and an air handler, and sometimes it is
easier to install a combined unit. These small units are quite crude from the standpoint of the ventilation
engineer, as they simply recirculate and cool the air inside the cabin, but can make all the difference to
the sweltering owner, especially by cooling the cabin down prior to sleeping, when it will likely be switched
off, because it is too noisy!! These simple cooler systems discussed above would have been selected
according to a formula crudely based on cabin area, and whether the cabin is directly open to the sun, or
below decks etc.
However, for the larger vessel the simple system discussed above becomes unsatisfactory and a more
formal system is required which gives attention to:
Noise in operation as cooled fresh air replaces vitiated or smoky air.
Condensation caused by coolers requiring good drainage.
Heating and cooling operation.
Insulation of structure.
Solar gain.
Mr. John Morgan of Kelvin Ross contributed the following advice giving the technical background of air
conditioning and the pitfalls that must be considered to make an efficient system.
A room heat balance calculation should be completed to check both the sensible and total cooling load
aspects of the space. Sensible cooling includes gains from solar, structural transmission, occupancy and
internal electrical equipment power and lighting.
Total cooling includes the sensible load plus additional cooling loads from the latent evaporation cooling
from occupants, fresh air infiltration and any other items producing moisture or steam in the space
An analysis of the fresh air requirements from the aspects of respiration air for occupants, ventilation of
compartments and make-up for extract ventilation systems such bathroom/toilet extract systems.
Page 70
On large systems, the fresh air-cooling load can be as much as 30 to 40% of the overall cooling load
Typical external simultaneous ambient conditions are:
Western Mediterranean 35
o
C at 65% RH
Eastern Mediterranean 38
o
C at 65% RH
Gulf Region 45
o
C at 60% RH
The recommended internal temperature is 22
o
C rising to 24
o
C at times of peak external temperature.
The principal systems used on vessels are:
Self-contained units typically used in the smaller vessel.
Separate compressors and coolers where the cooler are placed in individual cabins and
passages, and are connected by the cooling gas lines- also unsophisticated small vessels.
Chilled water produced in seawater cooled water compressor-chillers, usually located in the
engine room. The chilled water is distributed throughout the vessel in well-insulated copper
or rigid plastic pipe work to local air coolers in cabins and spaces. The fresh air is cooled
and ducted separately.
Central air treatment systems ducting air leading to the accommodation and large areas,
often with some local electric heating in individual cabins.
Page 71
Bibliography
The author would like to acknowledge his debt to the following books that have greatly helped him such
as:-
"Engineering Thermodynamics" by M. David Burghardt and James A. Harbach in its Fourth Edition of 1992
(ISBN 0-06-041049-3). Dr Burghardt lectures at Hofstra University in the USA and kindly allowed use of
some his many illustrations of cycles etc. in the text. This book will be a delight to those students who wish
to know the theory behind the great developments in engine-building.
"Introduction to Internal Combustion Engines" Second Edition of 1992 by Professor Richard Stone (now of
Oxford) which is a very approachable study of high speed engines, including some by Ford. Professor
Stone has similarly allowed us to use illustrations and texts from his book.
The author would like to express his appreciation to both Dr Burghardt and Professor Stone and to
acknowledge their erudition.
1. List some of the early engine pioneers and explain their significant development.
2. How has the PV diagram assisted engineers to measure developed power in an engine?
3. How has the PV diagram assisted engineers to improve the efficiency of engines?
4. How does the refrigeration cycle work as a heat pump?
Page 72
CHAPTER 5 - FUELS
Learning Outcome
be able to compare the fuels used in ships;
discern how crude oil becomes fuel oil;
understand the treatment of heavy oils.
Introduction
The early steam engines could burn anything combustible. Of course, that statement is misleading as the
fuel is burned in a boiler, which is usually a separate unit. The early boilers burned coal as this was the
best practical fuel available. Newcomen's atmospheric engine burned coal extravagantly giving a thermal
efficiency of perhaps 0.5%. But mine owners were glad to purchase the locally produced and cheap coal
as the engine pumped water from the mine, which made it viable. Some boilers burned wood and the
furnaces were larger and the bunkers bigger, although the American locomotives managed quite well.
The author's grandfather was a stoker at the turn of the last century and would have known the hell of
the coal-burning stokehold. The 1903 German luxury liner "Kaiser Wilhelm 11" employed 219 stokers to
feed the boilers with 626 tonnes of coal per day to develop enough steam to drive four reciprocating
engines with a total power of 33000kW. His career covered the conversion to oil burning, which must
have been a great relief, although he still was glad of his beer at the end of the day.
The oil burning boiler could be made smaller than the equivalent coal burner due to the higher flame
temperature. So oil was quickly adopted as it was easier to fill the bunkers, which could be in the bottom
of the boat, freeing up usable compartments and improving stability. Coal could also be a dangerous fuel
and bunker fires due to self-ignition were a serious continuing problem
So oil became king and the foundation was laid for all the commercial and political anxieties of today, as
mankind became hungrier for power and the population of the world burgeoned.
Even before engineers became aware of the effects of greenhouse gases, the quest was on for more
economical energy sources and crude oil was refined to give a great range of fuel for engines and ships.
It was clear that the residue of the refinery process was the cheapest fuel and modern diesel engines and
steam ships are designed to burn heavy fuel which is a pretty noxious substance requiring heating and
cleaning to be viable.
Another fuel becoming available is Liquid Natural Gas (LNG) and special tankers bring this product to the
power stations in a very cold liquid form, which has a measure of "boil off" on passage which is used to
power the propulsion steam engine or diesel engine of the tanker.
The following section will further discuss the separate fuels.
Coal
Coal is a solid fuel, dug from deep mines, or from near the surface in open mines. It is available as a very
hard black near-rock called anthracite which was the preferred fuel for ships and varies in form to brown
coal which is much softer. The harder anthracite was said to burn more cleanly and with less smoke.
Feeding the boiler (stoking) required much skill as the coal needs to absorb heat before it gives off the
combustible gases causing the flames and then the solid residue of carbon burns giving up the most
energy. Hence, the new coal must be placed in the furnace so that the gases are ignited rather than
escaping up the funnel.
Page 73
The specific heat of coal is very variable. Quoting from Sennet and Oram's "The Marine Steam Engine" in
its thirteenth issue of 1917, after listing a formula which calculated the calorific value of a pound of coal,
the conclusion is paraphrased as follows :-
If for example we apply this formula to a bituminous coal containing say 80% by weight of carbon, 5% of
hydrogen, 5.5% of oxygen and 9.5% of ash, the heat that can be obtained is 14,268 BTUs, which will
evaporate 14.77 lbs of water with 100% heat exchange.
By comparison a pound of Welsh (deep mined) coal with 90% carbon, 4% of hydrogen, 4% oxygen will give
off approx 15,200 BTU's evaporating 15.75lbs of water, some 6% better.
Even though the figures refer to very low steam pressures, the best Welsh coal in practice evaporated 10-
12 lbs of water due to boiler and associated losses.
The figures highlight the problem facing the chief engineer of the coal burning ship. His owners order coal
for his ship, and might order the cheaper coal with the lower calorific value. In the case of the "Kaiser
Wilhelm 11" mentioned above, if the 626 tonnes quoted consumption was good coal, then for the same
power, the stokers would need to throw in 626*15200/14268=666 tonnes of the poorer coal daily- an
increase of 40 tonnes, which would get the accountants heated up! Clearly the chief engineer would
ensure that his intake of coal was carefully defined to protect himself. Probably the poorer coal would give
less speed as the bunker capacity was defined.
Incidentally, note the ash content at 9.5%, giving perhaps 60 tonnes of ash to be withdrawn from the
furnaces and ejected overboard, usually by an ash pit in the bottom of the hull.
Think also about the task of coaling the ship at the start of each voyage, which in warship practice
required every person on board to assist.
Oil Fuel
Characteristics of Oil Fuel
Oil fuel is defined by several characteristics which enable the engineer to discern its suitability for use.
The major of these characteristics follows:-
Flash Point
This is the temperature at which the fuel ignites when test flame is applied under standardised conditions.
This gives the engineer assurance that the fuel can be handled safely under normal conditions, or warns
him that special precautions must be made.
Water Content
Water is most common contaminant of oil fuel and it is critical that the engineer has an understanding of
this quality before bunkering.
Many bunker tanks are fitted with a stripping line which enables the engineer to remove the most of this
water once it has settled.
Viscosity
This characteristic measures the fluidity of the fuel and many of the heavy fuels require heating to become
pumpable and, in ships burning heavy fuel, the bunker tanks and pipe work systems are heated by steam
or oil in heater coils.
Heavy oil may be rated at 380 Centistokes at 50C for sale, but it is likely that the shore bunker tank may
be only 30C (and thus the oil will be thicker or more viscous at nearly 2000 cST, which is well above the
pumpable viscosity of 900-1000cST).
Page 74
The graph shows the change of viscosity against temperature as Curve IF-380. It shows that the shore
fuel will need to be raised to 35-40C before it can be pumped into the ship, and will need to be kept at
this temperature in the bunker tanks so that it can be pumped to the fuel treatment unit where it will be
cleaned and heated to 120C to give the fluidity required for the spray jets or engine.
The graph shows up several problems in the viscosity/temperature equation. Gasoil may be too thin for
the engine system as the temperature rises and there is a temperature limit that may require the fuel to
be cooled, and the other lighter fuels need to be similarly monitored.
Page 75
ThisgraphbyMAN-GHH showstherelationshipbetween viscosityandtemperaturefor variousfuels
andillustratestheneedfor heatingheavyfuel in theshoretanksandshipsbunkers
Of course, the fuel that we use is greatly refined when compared with the smelly and unpleasant liquid
that comes out of the ground and which is shipped to refineries throughout the world.
Page 76
The process of distillation discussed below illustrates how crude oil is distilled into its constituent fuels
and gases. The modern system is by catalytic cracking and the following page copies an article from
Marine Propulsion Magazine. It was written by Alfa Laval and others and mentions "Catfines", which are
tiny fragments from the catalyst beds which get carried over into the fuel and which become a problem
for the fuel filtration system.
A very fine booklet by Alfa Laval titled "Marine Diesel Engines, Catalytic Fines and a New Standard to
ensure Safe Operation" has these illustrations and develops a better understanding of this problem.
A copy can be had from
www.alfalaval.com/marine
or, www.bpmarine.com
or, www.manbw.com.
The illustration shows how the lighter fractions such as LPG; petrol; naphtha; kerosene; gas oil; Lubricants
and waxes leave a residue or slurry with a density of about 1000kG/m which can be further developed
into bitumen or Heavy Fuel Oil (HFO), beloved by cost conscious ship owners, and which can be burned
by modern engines, after treatment and filtration.
Fig5.2 Illustration of Methodof AtmosphericDistillation of CrudeOil
Page 77
Thistext ispart of an articlein "MarinePropulsion" of Feb/ March2006
andhighlightsthesourceanddangersof Catfines.
Page 78
There are many types of fuel oil ranging from gas oil which approximates to the fuel used in gas heating
systems and the auto industry, and which is the most expensive fuel because it is the most refined. High
speed, high performance marine diesel engines generally burn this fuel and Marine Diesel (MDO) which
is also a refined fuel but heavier than gas oil and which can be burned by more specialised slower
auxiliary engines. Some MDO is often carried in big ships burning Heavy Fuel Oil (HFO), and it is used
during manoeuvring and starting.
The Antwerp price for MDO in March 2006 is $470-475 per tonne. The other fuel oils vary in density and
calorific value and using the Antwerp pricing as guidance, IFO 180 costs $308 per tonne and IFO 380,
$294 per tonne.
However, the old nomenclature for fuel types was revised in November 2005 by ISO to obtain consistent
standards.
The effective changes are described below in simplified format.
The reference temperature for viscosity has been changed from 100C to 50C to reflect the reality of
the bunker market.
The number of categories has been reduced to 10.
The Sulphur limit is aligned to Annex V1 of Marpol.
The maximum water content is lowered to 0.5% (v/v) and density limits for lower viscosity categories
have been reduced.
Limits are now included for zinc, phosphorus and calcium.
Further discussion of limits for sodium, vanadium and acidity.
The following text was received from Shell explaining the new fuel standards:-
ISO 8217-2005
NEW ISO SPECIFICATION FOR MARINE FUELS
The new specification standard of marine fuel quality for diesel engines, ISO 8217-2005, was finalised
on November 1st 2005 and released to the public in the CIMAC (International Council on Combustion
Engines) meeting on 23rd-24th November.
As suppliers of quality fuels to the marine industry, Shell Marine Products companies have adopted and
implemented with immediate effect the new quality standard for the various grades of fuel delivered to
our customers world-wide.
For copyright reasons, Shell Marine Products companies cannot circulate directly copies of the new
specification, but we refer you to the following ISO web site where copies may be purchased: Link to ISO
website download page.
We would like to highlight for you the main differences between the latest ISO 8217-2005 and the
previous edition, ISO 8217-1996.
Page 79
Main Changes Under ISO 8217-2005
1. Fuel Grade Classification and Nomination
Under ISO 8217-2005 the number of residual fuel grades has been reduced from fifteen to ten.
With the viscosity classification of residual fuel grades being measured at 50 C (instead of 100C as
under ISO 8217-1996), the names of the 10 residual fuel grades have been changed as follows under
ISO 8217-2005:
ISO 8217-1996 ISO 8217-2005
RMA 10 RMA 30
RMB 10 RMB 30
RMC 10 -
RMD 80
RME 25 RME 180
RMF 25 RMF 180
RMG 35 RMG 380
RMH 35 RMH 380
RMK 35 RMK 380
RMH 45 -
RMK 45 -
RML 45 -
RMH 55 RMH 700
RMK 55 RMK 700
RML 55 -
It should be noted that 500cst fuels (previously RMH, RMK, RML 45 grades) are no longer defined in the
new ISO specification. Shell Marine Products companies will continue to supply 500cst fuel that will
comply with RMK 700 except for the viscosity, which will be controlled to maximum 500mm2/s at 50C.
The names of the various gas oil and diesel fuel qualities have not been changed under ISO
8217-2005 (remaining DMX, DMA, DMB, DMC).
2. Reduction of Maximum Water Content
Under ISO 8217-2005, the maximum water content of all residual fuel grades has been reduced from
1.0%v to 0.5%v.
3. Reduction of Density for the Lower Viscosity Fuel Grades
The density of the lower viscosity fuel grades has been lowered as follows:
Grade 8217-1996 -Density kg/m3@15C Grade 8217-2005 -Density kg/m3@15C
RMA 10 975.0 RMA 30 960.0
RMB 10 981.0 RMB 30 975.0
RMD 15 985.0 RMD 80 980.0
4. Maximum Sulphur Content Levels of Fuel 1.
The sulphur content levels have been amended to comply with MARPOL 73/78 Annex VI for all the
residual fuel grades with viscosity higher than that of RMD 80. For RMA, RMB and RMD grades the
previous lower sulphur limits have been retained.
ISO 8217-2005 contains additional information regarding the need for fuels with a maximum content of
1.5% sulphur for use in Sulphur oxides Emission Control Areas (SECAs).
Shell Marine Products has already announced its global policy of supplying fuels in compliance with
MARPOL 73/78 Annex VI.
Page 80
5. Composition of Marine Fuels and Materials that are Prohibited
Section 4 of ISO 8217-1996 described the composition of marine fuels and materials prohibited for
inclusion in marine fuels. Under ISO 8217-2005 this information is now contained in Section 5 and the
following two important changes should be noted:
Composition of Marine Fuels "The fuels shall be homogeneous blends of hydrocarbons derived from
petroleum refining."
Materials that are prohibited for inclusion in marine fuels "The fuels shall be free from inorganic acids
and from used lubricating oils."
The use of waste lubricants as a blend component in marine fuels is therefore prohibited. Table 2 in
Section 5 of ISO 8217-2005 specifies that, if the level of calcium, zinc and phosphorous exceeds the
given limits concurrently, the fuel is deemed to contain waste lubricants.
Please note that Shell Marine Products companies already exclude used lubricating oils from all grades
of marine fuels
6. Informative Annexes
The Informative Annexes in ISO 8217-2005 have been extended to include sections on Test Precision,
Sodium and Vanadium, Used Lubricants and Acidity.
Although the Annex regarding Acidity recognises that organic acids can and have caused corrosion, ISO
8217-2005 does not include acid number limits in the main tables. Shell Marine Products companies
have for many years included a maximum acid number limit of 3mgKOH/g for all its fuel deliveries in order
to reduce the risks of corrosion in diesel engines.
Summary
Shell Marine Products companies have a clear policy of delivering fuel oil quality that complies with the
latest ISO 8217 specifications as well as with additional specifications and regulations that may be
required by local legislation. Shell Marine Products companies have adopted and implemented with
immediate effect the new ISO 8217-2005 quality standard for the various grades of fuel delivered to our
customers world-wide.
Shell Marine Products considers the changes adopted in the latest version of the ISO 8217 specification
to be of positive benefit to purchasers of residual fuels for specific use in marine engines. There will be
negligible impact on the quality of fuels supplied by Shell Marine Products companies, as Shell's own
specifications already meet or exceed the newly established ISO8217-2005 specifications.
Adopting standards and limits for marine fuels quality is one matter; ensuring compliance with them is
another. The globally applied Fuel Oil Quality Assurance System (FOQAS) of Shell Marine Products
companies ensures maximum compliance with this policy. By prescribing the various quality controls and
procedures that need to be fulfilled throughout the whole supply chain, FOQAS is key to ensuring that fuel
oil deliveries by Shell Marine Products companies do not only meet agreed specifications all the time but
also satisfy customers' requirements.
Shell Marine Products
December 16th 2005
shell.com/marine
Note: For more information regarding MARPOL 73/78 Annex VI and maximum sulphur content of fuels
in sulphur oxide emission control areas, please see our previous communications - available upon
request from your Shell Marine Products Account Manager:
Page 81
"MARPOL 73/78 Annex VI and Shell Marine Products" (May 16th 2005)
"Marine Fuels Sulphur Legislation" (October 11th 2005).
Author's Note
With reference to the renaming of fuel types, it is interesting to note that the most recent MER magazine
noted the new standards but the world-wide bunkering stations used the old 180 and 380 notations!
Liquid Petroleum Gas
Liquid Petroleum Gas as a fuel is of great interest to the auto industry, as it offers cheaper motoring due
to its lower tax and also lower emissions, aiding in the battle against global warming. It reaches the marine
world in perhaps two forms operating at opposite ends of hull size
a. Small Vessels Operating in Coastal Waters
LPG now is used for many of the small vessels or yachts with limited radius of operation, or within a
network of easily replaced gas bottles, typically river or canal craft. It fuels engines that previously burned
petrol and that have been modified to accept gas.
b. LNG Tankers
The comparatively newly developed range of dual-fuel diesel engines now being fitted to propulsion and
auxiliary engine duties in Liquid Natural Gas (LNG) tankers, using the boil-off gas from the refrigerated
tanks during passage. This niche market of propulsion had previously been the last redoubt of boilers and
steam turbines, but these new diesel engines are more efficient and do not require the fast disappearing
specialised skills of the steam engineer.
The LNG tanker stores the gas in a pressurised (circa 9 bar), cooled and liquid form in two or more large
globes giving a very distinctive profile. The globes are well insulated, but some heat gets through and
raises the pressure in the globes which is released to burn as a flare or used to drive the engines. The
engines must be of dual fuel build to allow the return passage on diesel and for manoeuvring.
Fig5.4 Wartsila dual fuel engine- fromMER magazineOctober 2005.
Several ships have been built using LPG as the main fuel, but the bunker tanks must be pressure vessels
to store the liquid gas, and such tanks are very awkward to position, and use space that could normally
be used for more commercial advantage. The vertical centre of gravity is also raised by such tanks,
compared with double bottom bunker tanks. However, Norway has taken the lead in developing and
Page 82
building such ships and has built a ferry with installed power of 8,080kW with a bunker capacity of 520m
giving a week's duty. The drive arrangement is pictured below.
Fig5.5 An LPG Installation asillustratedin MER MagazineOctober 2005.
The Future of Marine Fuels
The future of fuel is an area of great speculation and activity for the automobile industry which currently
leads the research and development effort. History suggests that the marine engine will catch up on the
developing technology and adapt it to suit the particular requirements of deep sea shipping..
Mankind is rightly aware of the greenhouse effect and pollution from emissions, but the implications of
reducing these to safe levels continues to be a greater task than the nations choose to face.
One of the great hopes for reducing carbon dioxide and the greenhouse effect is the fuel cell, with its
harmless emissions. We shall discuss the current availability of fuel cells later, but they prefer to burn
hydrogen, with all the problems of storage as LPG which was discussed earlier. They can burn diesel and
other fossil fuels but that misses the point.
Then there are the various bio-fuels which drive many of Brazil's cars. Such a fuel is made from green
vegetation, which is fermented to produce ethanol. This is a so-called carbon-neutral fuel, which does not
add to the total load of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere resulting from burning fossil fuels.
In the UK, one can get diesel for the car or small boat with bio-fuel added which again reduces the carbon
dioxide to the atmosphere, but it will not help with a 8-10,000 containers-ship with perhaps a 100,000
BHP propulsion engine burning more than 300 tonnes a day and discharging nearly 900 tonnes per day
of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. These figures are crude, but highlight the problem. All that one can
say is that such a figure is tiny compared with transferring freight by air, where the statistics of carbon
dioxide release to the atmosphere are truly horrendous. Transport of goods by sea is still the most
efficient method in cost and emissions.
The great goal for research may well be radiation-free nuclear energy and this could be the total answer,
but as yet it is way out of sight. We do have nuclear powered propulsion engines for the various Navies,
but the task of breaking up these vessels after their service life is proving to be beyond the financial
muscle of Russia, where we hear of redundant nuclear powered submarines lying on the mud in creeks,
in a virtually abandoned condition, polluting the mud and the environs for centuries.
Page 83
So, it seems that our modern very fuel efficient diesel will continue to power the ships that ply the oceans,
and may be the last area of engineering to get into a pollution-free regime. In the meantime, the legislators
will impose more and more difficult limits on emissions, and the clever back-room boys of MAN-GHH etc.
will be always be endeavouring the meet the changing standards.
Perhaps we could take more advantage of wind and some research has been done in this regard with fixed
wing sails on masts, but the return on capital does not as yet justify the extra cost. However, suppose the
fuel cost increases tenfold, or more?
1. Why has coal been displaced by oil as a fuel?
2. Why is viscosity important when handling and burning heavy fuel oil?
3. What is the current situation and possible future for LPG fueled ships?
4. What is the future for nuclear power in commercial ships?
Page 84
CHAPTER 6 - LUBRICATING OILS
Learning Outcome
the use of grease and oil as lubricants;
the importance of viscosity in an oil;
why motor oils require additives.
Introduction
Oils and lubrication have come a long way since the only lubricant on the ship was the tallow that could
be obtained from the galley as grease from cooking. The old sailing ships of Nelson's day used such
"slush" to ease the friction in the gun carriage wheels and "coigns" which were the wedges used to raise
the elevation of the guns.
However, today, even the most basic modern sailing ship uses oil and grease liberally and the purpose of
this chapter is to remind, or refresh, our understanding of oils and lubrication. In making his survey of the
machinery of a vessel, the surveyor examines bearings for oil and grease maintenance and pays more
than a cursory glance at the oil and grease locker for its general tidiness and range of lubricants carried.
A study in an earlier Kempe's Engineer's yearbook gives an overview of when the duty of a given duty
requires grease or oil. Since then, a new generation of plastic bearings have been introduced that require
very little or no lubrication but generally cannot be so heavily loaded.
During any survey the surveyor will inspect bearing and grease nipples and look for recent application of
grease, rather than a painted over connection, as part of his examination of a given vessel and its
maintenance history.
Lubrication Selection for Various Duties and Conditions
Operating Conditions Lubricant
Inaccessible bearings requiring minimal attention Grease
Corrosion protection required Grease
Long life lubrication Grease
Vertical bearings Grease
High load, reversal of load shock loads Grease
Dirty surroundings Grease
Worn bearings Grease
All the above sounds very familiar for deck equipment, hatch bearings, crane slewing gear etc.
Very high temperature Oil
High speeds Oil
Minimum rolling friction Oil
Complex bearing assemblies Oil
Cooling required Oil
Circulating system to wash away debris Oil
(Typically a stern tube)
Typical Oil Viscosity to Suit Conditions and Bearing Type
Type of Bearing Oil Viscosity
(Redwood No 1 seconds at 60 C)
Small bearings, high speed, low clearance 46-60
Lightly loaded bearings 75-85
General lubrication 75-85
Page 85
Medium loaded bearings-many horizontal thrust bearings 90-110
Slow speed heavily loaded bearings 145-170
Many vertical thrust bearings 250-300
Qualities of Lubricating Oil
Viscosity
There are several systems for measuring viscosity as discerned in the Fuel chapter. Among the list are
SAE (Society of Automobile Engineers)
AGMA (American Gear Manufacturers Association)
SUS (Saybolt Universal Sconds)
cSt (Kinematic Viscosity in centistokes)
Absolute Viscosity ( The true viscosity in the relevant ambient circumstances of temperature, age
of oil etc.) measured in centipoises
Two standards of temperature are used 40C (104F) and 100C (2124F)
In 1997 the International Standards Organisation (ISO) liaised with the leading authorities and developed
the International Standards Organisation Viscosity Grade, ISO-VG
Viscosity is a measure of the oil's resistance to flow (shear stress) under certain conditions, or put another
way the measure of the oil's resistance to be moved when pushed (sheared) by moving components.
This subject is well discussed in Mike Johnson's article "ISO Viscosity Grades" in the Machinery Lubrication
Magazine of July 2001, from which the author has extensively trawled.
There are two standpoints of how the resistance to flow might apply.
How does the fluid behave under pressure, as in an hydraulic circuit. This property is known
as Absolute Viscosity or Dynamic Viscosity and is measured in centipoises (cP).
How the fluid behaves under the influence of gravity only (Kinematic Viscosity- KV) and this
is measured in centistokes ( mm/sec)
Note: The two measurements are related by specific gravity:-
Dynamic viscosity of a liquid (centipoise) = viscosity *specific gravity of the liquid.
A heavily loaded bearing will require a heavy oil (for example - say 1000cSt) so the oil will not be pushed
around and will stay-put to ease the friction. A fast running bearing will want a thin oil (example- water is
0 cST) which can flow back into the bearing quickly.
However, oil viscosity reduces with rising temperature and the ISO committee developed a common
approach to measuring viscosity, using the following criteria:-
Referencing the lubricants at a nominal temperature for industrial systems which was
defined at 40C(104F).
Using a pattern that conforms to uncertainties imposed by dimensional manufacturing
tolerances ( within 10% on the nominal value).
Using a pattern that has a level of repeatability up and down the scale. The classification
defines 20 viscosity graded in the range of 2000- 3200cSt, which covers the range from
paraffin (kerosene) to cylinder oils.
Using a pattern that used a small easily manageable number of viscosity grades. Each grade
is designated by the nearest whole number at its midpoint kinematic viscosity at 40 with a
tolerance of + 10%.
Nonetheless, for all the earnest efforts of the ISO, we still buy oil for the car or boat using the SAE rating
of 15/40 or equivalent, although the industrial world will be quicker to adopt the international standards.
Page 86
Additives
Oil is a very complex fluid and the base can be developed to handle widely varying duties. For engine work
the base oil is supplemented by up to 18% additives and it is the quality and quantity of these additives
that define whether the oil has reached its change time. Several companies have developed oil filtration
systems that replace the additives as they are consumed including a small heater to boil off entrained
water. These bypass filters extend the life of the oil almost indefinitely and there is a Scania truck that
has done over one million kilometres on the same original charge of oil. Vessels fitted with such systems
should also carry their own oil conditioning monitor to ensure that the additives are up to strength.
To protect the crankcase from acid attack, the lubricant contains a degree of reserve alkalinity. This
reserve alkalinity is expressed as mg of KOH/gm of oil and is described as the Total Base Number (TBN).
Diesel fuel also contains sulphur which degrades to sulphur dioxide and trioxide in the combustion
chamber of an engine.
As diesel fuel is burnt the exhaust contains carbon dioxide and water vapour and nitrous oxide
compounds. The water and sulphur derivatives combine to form sulphuric acids and the nitrogen oxide
combines with water to make nitric acid This mixture is a potent acid known to all as "Acid Rain" which
kills trees and must be counteracted by the additives in the oil to combat equivalent damage. This is done
by introducing an alkali, (oil-soluble limestone) into the oil which will neutralise the acid before damage
ensues.
Typical TBN values range from 5 to 15 for most diesel engines and 20-40+ for marine engines, depending
on the amount of sulphur in the fuel.
Total Acid Value (TAN)
Oil will deteriorate with age, and new oil should contain a limited TAN value.
The problem is caused by the oil oxidising (with the oxygen in the air) during normal use and more so if
the oil gets very hot. The oxidised oil forms acids which are corrosive and promote polymerisation of the
oil, leading to oil thickening. The limiting value for used oils (mainly hydraulic oils) is an increase of 1.0
mg/KOH/Gm above the new value.
The surveyor will want to see clear records of the history of the oil, including its purchase date, whether
the drums are still sealed and to check for trends in the oil analysis results
Principles of Lubrication
The following is an excerpt from Mike Johnson's article in "Machinery Lubrication Magazine" of
September 2001 and we appreciate his fine study of the theory behind the journal bearing. Quotation
begins:-
Journal Bearings
There are two broad types of bearings used in machinery today: plain and rolling element bearings. This
article targets the special lubrication requirements of plain bearings, also known as sleeve bearings and
journal bearings.
The plain bearing consists of a shaft, also called a journal, and a supporting component, which may be
a shell around the shaft called a sleeve, a half shell that the shaft fits into, two half shells (top and bottom
parts) or a multipart shell.
Plain bearings are used for high radial loads (perpendicular to the axis of the shaft) and low to high
speeds. Typical applications include turbines, large milling systems, engine cranks, compressors,
gearboxes, shaft bearing supports, etc.
Page 87
The components that are separated by the oil film in a plain bearing are the bearing liner and the shaft.
The shaft is composed of high-quality, wear-resistant, structurally strong steel. The bearing liner may be
made of a single layer or multiple layers, depending on the design features of the equipment.
Lubrication Regime
Under normal operating conditions, the lubrication regime will be a hydrodynamic full-fluid film.
A hydrodynamic film occurs when there is sufficient lubricant between the lubricated surfaces at the point
of loading to form a fluid wedge that separates the sliding surfaces. In this state, the lubricated
components do not touch each another, reducing friction and wear.
Mixed film conditions occur when a loss of the film resulting in momentary contact between the two
surfaces is apparent. This can occur in response to momentary variations in loading, called shock-loading,
that can collapse the film, resulting in physical contact of opposing asperities.
Another condition that can occur is boundary film lubrication. This is when the film that separates the
surfaces undergoes significant loss resulting in a high load of metal-to-metal contact. This happens any
time the relative motion of component surfaces are slow and no oil film is formed.
Lubrication Requirements of a Plain Bearing
Operating under proper speed, surface area, viscosity and oil volume, a plain bearing can support very
heavy loads. The balance between these conditions is important. If the load or the speed changes, the
lubricant viscosity must be adjusted to compensate for the change. There is no simple formula that is used
to calculate the viscosity requirements for oil lubricated plain bearings, but the criteria to consider once
you have identified the proper viscosity grade, include oxidation stability, corrosion inhibition, wear
protection, water and air separation properties, etc. Because plain bearings can be used in a variety of
applications, there is no single set of criteria that should be used. Selection depends on the equipment
design and operating conditions.
Plain bearings are normally oil lubricated, but may be lubricated with grease for slow-speed equipment,
particularly if they are subject to frequent starts and stops or the bearings may be physically difficult to
reach.
The type and amount of grease depends on continuous replenishment of the body of grease that is held
within the dynamic clearances (empty spaces while the bearing is turning) in order to maintain effective
lubricant condition and hydrodynamic lift. Equipment with poor sealing characteristics may require a
heavier body of lubricant and more frequent replenishment cycles.
Under manual (intermittent) lubrication, the volume and the frequency are influenced by operating
conditions, grease quality and available time for the task. Grease selection begins with consideration of
the oil to be used. Heavy oils are used to formulate greases used to manually lubricate plain bearings in
high-duty service.
After the proper viscosity oil has been selected, and then the soap thickener, oxidation and rust
characteristics, worked consistency properties, pumpability (for automatic systems) and load-bearing
(EP/AW) properties are considered.
For long intervals and very heavy loading, solid additives such as molybdenum disulfide or graphite may
be incorporated. The solid additives would serve to mechanically prevent metal contact in mixed film and
boundary lubrication conditions.
Page 88
Lubrication of a Journal Bearing.
The grease should be pumped in the bearing in front of the load zone and at the location of the grease
grooves used for lubrication distribution (figures 5 and 6).
Figure6
Thin Wall bearing.
Wear and Failure Modes in Plain Bearings
There are several factors that can wipe or damage a plain bearing surface. Abrasive wear is one of the
most common. If the wear is caused by a hard particle rubbing between the lubricated surfaces, it is
called three-body wear. Wear caused by an asperity on one surface cutting the other surface is called two-
body abrasion.
Page 89
Wear can also result from insufficient volume of lubricant (starvation leading to boundary conditions),
overheated lubricant (viscosity at operating temperature cannot support the load causing frictional heat
and additional oil thinning), rough surfaces (asperities on the journal cause rubbing), imbalance (improper
loading of the support element causing shock loading), journal eccentricity (egg-shaped journal causing
rubbing on the high spots), and metal fatigue from improper metallurgy. Journal bearing wear can be
effectively monitored by oil and ferrographic analysis.
The tell tale indicators that may point to high wear conditions include high metallic particle counts (two
levels above norm), darkened metal surfaces, blued metal surfaces and wear metals formed into spirals
or platelets. As oils age and become contaminated with moisture or acidic oxidation compounds, we can
see evidence of corrosion and metallic oxidation on stationary surfaces in the reservoir.
"End of Quotation."
1. Discuss viscosity of a lubricating oil, how is it measured?
2. What is the importance of additives to engine sump oils?
3. In a journal bearing as pictured above, what is the benefit of the pressure wedge in lubrication?
Page 90
CHAPTER 7 - SI UNITS AND EQUIVALENT IMPERIAL UNITS
Learning Outcome
understand the structure behind the SI system;
know why the Imperial System needed to be phased out;
be introduced to some conversion factors.
The old Imperial System with pounds and feet and inches has taken a long time to die. Engineers,
practising in the autumn of their career, still think in terms of Imperial Units and have, in their memory
bank, a host of constants or empirical formulae that were inherited from their mentors in their youth.
A typical response from such dinosaurs is "If God had wanted us to go metric; He would not have given
us feet!"
Perhaps a letter to The Times by John Brown on February 1 2006 will amuse you,
"Sir,
Sixty years ago, little children were taught how to convert ounces to tons, inches to miles, gills to bushels,
etc. As a result, they learnt to work, not just in decimal, but in bases 2, 4, 7, 8,14,16,20, 20 and so on.
At six years old of course you are ignorant, you don't know that working in mixed duodecimal, vigesimal
and decimal is difficult, so you go ahead and do it. This turns out to be invaluable for geometry,
trigonometry and algebra, not to mention real life!
And that's part of the problem: real life doesn't come packaged in tens, whether it's eggs, lunations or
football teams. Given the price of a case of wine, anyone brought up immersed in feet and inches can
tell you out of his head the price of a bottle, whereas metrically educated seem to need pencil and paper.
In short, metrication makes many aspects of life easier, but there's no denying it dumbs down both
mathematics and mathematicians."
The author admits to having an abundance of Imperial data imbedded in his consciousness that comes
to the surface when thinking out the mechanics of a problem. He is at ease talking with American
engineers, who have resisted all blandishments to go metric, but acknowledges that the SI system of
derived units is more logical, and assists in consistency of terms- when properly applied- and you can get
the decimal point in the right place!!
However, we must now use SI units and yet also be familiar with the Imperial system as our American
cousins still use feet and inches, and the author even came across feet and tenths of feet in connection
with the petroleum industry.
The Systme International d'Units (SI) Units
Throughout the European Community (including the UK) the system of units generally called the SI system
is obligatory for international commercial transactions. Whilst the use of the Imperial system is still in
place within the UK and, slightly modified, within the United States of America, it is expected that this
continued use will slowly disappear and the marine surveyor should learn to use the SI system at all
times. The full title of this latter system is Systme International d'Units and the units were fully adopted
by a resolution of the Tenth Confrence Gnrale des Poids et Mesures (CGPM) in 1954 and were ratified
some six years later when the above name and abbreviations were approved and finally endorsed by the
International Organisation for Standardization (ISO) some time after that. The SI system, unlike the
Imperial or the American one, is a coherent one in that the quotient or product of any two unit quantities
in the system leads to the unit of the resultant quantity. Whichever system of units is used, coherent or
otherwise, a unit value has to be assigned to arbitrarily selected magnitudes of certain physical
quantities. The magnitudes form the standards but none of them form a coherent relationship with other
Page 91
units within the system or with any of the derivatives. The arbitrarily selected magnitudes are the basic
units and other units obtained from them are called derived units. In the SI, the number of basic units is
six and a unit symbol has been assigned to each and these are listed in Table A.1 below.
TableA.1
It should be noted that the kelvin has exactly the same interval as the degree celsius and the kelvin scale
is also sometimes called the absolute temperature scale.
Some of the derived units in the SI scale that the marine surveyor will come across are given below in
Tables A.2 and A.3 and the decimal prefixes are shown in Table A.4.
THE BASIC SI UNITS
Quantity Name of unit Unit symbol
length metre m
mass kilogramme kg
time second s
electric current ampere A
thermodynamic temperature kelvin K
luminous intensity candela cd
amount of substance mole mol
plane angle radian rad
solid angle steradian sr
Page 92
TableA.2
TableA.3
Page 93
TableA.4
SI Definitions
The following (highly technical) definitions are given for both the basic and the more important derived
units. The marine surveyor is not likely to need these definitions but they are given here for completeness.
The unit of length as defined by the 11th CGPM in 1960, is the metre and is 1,650,763.74 wavelengths
in vacuo of the radiation corresponding to the transition between the energy levels 2 p10 and 5 d5 of the
krypton-86 atom.
The unit of mass is the kilogramme and is the mass of the international prototype which is held in the
custody of the Bureau International des Poids et Mesures (BIPM) at Svres, near Paris, France as agreed
at the 3rd CGPM in 1901.
The unit of time, called the second, is the duration of 9, 192, 631,770 periods of radiation corresponding
to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the caesium 133 atom.
The unit of electric current is called the ampere and is that constant current which, if maintained in two
parallel rectilinear conductors of infinite length and of negligible cross section and placed at a distance
of one metre apart in a vacuum, would produce between these conductors a force equal to 2 10-7
newtons per metre length.
The unit of thermodynamic temperature is called the kelvin. It is the fraction 1/273.16 of the
thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water. The units of the kelvin and celsius scales are
identical and a temperature expressed in degrees celsius is equal to that expressed in kelvin minus
273.15.
The unit of luminous intensity as agreed at the 9th CGPM is the candela and is such that the luminance
of a full radiator at the temperature of solidification of platinum is 60 units of luminous intensity per
square metre.
The unit of force is the newton and is that force which, when applied to a body having a mass of one
kilogram, gives it an acceleration of 1 metre per second squared.
The unit of energy is the joule and is the work done when the point of application of a force of one newton
is displaced through a distance of one metre in the direction of the force.
Page 94
The unit of power is the watt and is equal to one joule per second.
The unit of electric potential is called the volt and is the difference of potential between two points of a
conducting wire carrying a constant current of one ampere when the power dissipated between the points
is one watt.
The unit of electric resistance is called the ohm and is the resistance between two points of a conductor
when a constant difference of potential of one volt applied between these two points produces in this
conductor a current of one ampere, this conductor not being the source of any electromotive force.
Conversion Factors to Imperial Units
It is still current practice within the UK to give small craft principal dimensions in Imperial units but the
marine surveyor should, preferably, give the dimensions within his report in SI units or, better, both. To
help in the conversion, the factors are given in Tables A.5, A.6 and A.7.
TableA.5
1000 litres equals one cubic metre.
To convert C to F multiply by 9/5 and add 32.
Page 95
TableA.6
TableA.7
1. Compare the Imperial Unit System with the SI system.
2. Which is better from a calculation standpoint?
3. What are the SI equivalents of a pressure of 100psi (lbs per square inch)?
Page 96
CHAPTER 8 - USEFUL EMPIRICAL DATA
Learning Outcome
know some practical and empirical formulae that meet special circumstances;
know the application of bolt torques and end load;
understand the duties of insulation in a ship.
Author's Note
This is a curate's egg basket of information and data that, at some time or other, I have been glad to learn
and stash away in my notebook as "Something to note as you do not know when you might need it".
I know this attitude fills the workshops of hoarders, and I have tried to reduce the range of comments to
the level as being "Likely useful to a surveyor, looking at a machinery system about which his instincts tell
him that all is not well, but he cannot think why". The section on Insulation is somewhat different, but the
future surveyor must have a good working knowledge of the subject. I shall be pleased to get feedback
from this chapter and to add to it according to the suggestions of the students.
Thrust Loads Developed by a Propeller
Thrust developed by propellers requires a page or two of calculations and many facts about the propeller,
engine RPM and torque curves and vessel speed. The thrust developed by a given fixed pitch propeller
will further depend on the speed of the vessel, and whether the ship is still accelerating etc.
Bow and stern thrusters in tunnels develop about 10Kg F per HP (sorry about the mixture of units-
certainly not SI). However, this figure will be somewhat low for the very big thrusters and hard to attain for
the thrusters of 600mm and below as found in yachts and fast craft.
Propeller blade loading is the a problem that propellers suffer from at low speeds, in that there is a
definite limit to the pressure that can be developed by a propeller at zero ship's speed, without excessive
damage being done to the blade surface.
In a booklet published by Messrs Newage some years ago, aimed at the trawler and displacement yacht
and written by Wilf Bellew, then Managing Director, he advised the area required per HP as follows (again
we have Imperial units) :-
Speed of Craft-knots Surface Area per Shaft Horse Power
8 3.0 in
10 2.90 in
12 2.8 in
14 2.5 in
16 2.2 in
20 1.2 in
30 0.7 in
40 0.6 in
The data above helps us to understand how propellers in tunnels have very wide blades.
The fragment below was given to me when I joined the Design Office, as I was the new engineer
draughtsmen and all such data came to me. I have never tried to use it as all our ships were free running,
and I have included it as an example of an empirical formula that probably has no place in our technical
world. Presumably in the 50's it still had real technical value.
Page 97
Empirical approachtocalculatingbollardthrust.
Torquing Up Bolts
The engine builder will give the ship's engineer a detailed torque recommendation for each fastener on
the engine. However, there are many situations where the engineer must heave up flanges, or holding
down bolts and offer no data is available for reference.
Items Requiring Correctly Tensioned Bolts and Nuts
Gearbox or Thrust Block Mounting bolts.
The propeller thrust is absorbed by the gearbox/thrust block which transfers the load to the engine
girders. The surveyor should check this area carefully, looking for loose bolts, any evidence of movement
(fretting) and the condition of the structure underneath (especially in way of welds).
Engine Holding Down Bolts
Examine as the thrust block- probably there will be an advised torque rating. Many engines today rest on
setting resin (such as Philadelphia Resin) instead of steel shims between engine girder and engine foot.
It is much easier to use and gives a perfect fit, but has its own limits of bolt loading.
Page 98
Resin Chocks
A well arrangedresin chock under a heavyengine
(courtesyPhiladelpia Resin). Notetheboltsthough
theenginefoot andresin shim.
Design Calculations - Precisely Aligned Equipment - Resin Chocks
The student is recommended to obtain the booklet General Guideline for Marine Chock Designers
bulletin #62900 from ITW Philadelphia Resins. The following text is an exerpt from the bulletin.
ITW Philadelphia Resins, Shannon Industrial Estate, Shannon Free Airport, County Clare, Ireland
Phone 353.61.471299 Fax 353.61.471285 sales@itwprc.com www.philadelphiaresins.com
1. The stress on the chocks due to the weight of the machinery is known as deadweight loading.
Deadweight loading may be limited by the vessel's classification society and must be determined prior
to designing the chocks. Standard values for maximum deadweight loading are from 0.7 N/mm
2
to 0.9
N/mm
2
(100 psi to 130 psi).
2. When designing precisely aligned chocks, first calculate the minimum required chock area. This is
calculated by dividing the total machinery weight (including water, oil, accessories, etc.) by the allowed
deadweight loading. Design the chocks to cover at least this minimum area and follow the general
guidelines for chock design. Remember that this is the MINIMUM area. Keep in mind that you may
need to increase this area as you work through the calculations. The actual chock area should be equal
or greater than the minimum chock area and be based on what is physically possible.
Total Machinery Maximum Allowed Minimum Required
Machinery Deadweight = Chock Area
Weight Loading mm
(N or lbs) (N/mm
2
or lbs/in
2
)
3. Next, find out the total static stress allowed on the chocks by your classification society. Total allowed
static stress is the sum of deadweight loading stress and the bolt stress caused by the tension on all
mounting bolts. Chocks are typically designed to allow a maximum stress of 3.4 N/mm2 (500 psi) on
chocks for precisely aligned machinery. However, most classification societies approve a sliding scale
of static stress vs. chock operating temperature. For example, a number of societies approve 4.41
N/mm
2
(640 psi) at 80
o
C (176
o
F).
4. The total allowable bolt stress is what is left over after you subtract the actual deadweight loading from
the total allowed static stress given by your class society .
Maximum Allowable Total Allowable Bolt
Allowable Static - Deadweight = Stress
Stress Loading (N/mm
2
or lbs/in
2
)
(N/mm2 or lbs/in
2
) (N/mm
2
or lbs/in
2
)
Page 99
5. Multiply the total allowable bolt stress by the effective Chock Area to get the Maximum Chock Stress
Allowed just due to bolt tension. This is also known as total bolt tension and is caused by all bolts
holding the machinery in place. Then determine the individual tension per bolt, divide total bolt tension
by the number of bolts.
Maximum Bolt Actual Chock Total Bolt Tension
Tension x Area = (N or lbs)
(N/mm2 or lbs/in
2
) (mm
2
or in
2
)
Total Bolt Tension Number of = Tension per Bolt
(N or lbs) Bolts (N or lbs)
6. To ensure the machine will not move, the total bolt tension must total at least 2.5 times the machinery
weight. To ensure the bolts stay tight, the tension per bolt divided by the cross sectional area of the
bolt must be at least 46.3 N/mm
2
(6720 psi).
7. Finally, calculate the bolt torque required that will achieve this bolt tension. While there is no absolute
relationship between tightening torque and bolt tension, there are generally accepted formulae for
calculating bolt torque. Using one of the following formulae calculate the torque required to achieve that
tension. As a check, torque and tension must be greater than the minimum values shown in Table below.
Torque (N.m) = 0.2 Tension (N) x Bolt Dia (mm)
1000
Torque (lbf.feet) = 0.2 x Tension (lbf) x Bolt Dia (inches)
12
Minimum Bolt Torque & Tension
ThistableshowstheMINIMUM
desirablebolt tensionsfor varioussize
bolts. It isnormallyadvantageoustouse
morethan theminimumshown here.
When thebolt material isunknown, a
safemaximumbolt tension andtorqueis
3 timesthevaluegiven in thistable.
Page 100
A flexiblefoot of an MTU engineset on
shimmingresin.
Notetheputtyformingthedam.
In the correspondence with Chockfast gathering information for this subject, Mr. Jim Kuly who is Chief
Engineer of Chockfast kindly offered the following comments on surveying cast resin chocks. The
substance of his email follows:-
Surveying Resin Chocks
Chock loading is usually only an issue in the beginning, when an engine is initially installed. The question
is - "What torque should I put on my hold down bolts?" This is an issue because the various classification
societies limit both the deadweight loading and the total loading on epoxy chocks to a small fraction of
the compressive strength of the epoxy. This is to prevent creep or plastic deformation of the epoxy from
allowing the equipment to become misaligned over time. Deadweight loading is just the mass of the
machine divided by the effective chock area. Total loading is the mass plus total bolt tension over the
effective area.
In my opinion, a bigger issue for marine surveyors is "cracked epoxy chocks". This is something a surveyor
might encounter at any time. Epoxy chocks usually (90% of the time) crack in the vertical direction.
Sometimes, however, they can crack horizontally, a combination of horizontally and vertically or they can
spall like concrete.
Vertical cracks can develop for a variety of reasons as follows:
1) Chockfast sticking to the hold down bolts. If the fitted bolts are not well covered with release agent
or non-melt grease, a stress riser will result. The Chockfast will crack when the hold down bolt is
tightened or removed.
2) Excessive deflection of the engine's bedplate or its foundation during operation.
3) Torquing down an improperly seated hold down bolt.
4) Drilling or cutting bolt holes before the Chockfast is properly cured.
5) Not enough release agent on the front dam requiring excessive force to remove them.
6) Removing the front metal dam before the Chockfast is fully cured.
7) Sideways expansion of the engine mounts during operation causing the chock over-pour to break off.
8) Torquing down holding- down bolts before the jacking screws are removed.
9) Weld slag or a sharp fret on the engine bedplate or foundation can act like a wedge to split the chock.
10) Excessively large or thick chocks can crack due to uneven cooling within the chock.
11) Failure to sufficiently round all corners and sharp edges that penetrate the Chockfast. These create
stress risers in the Chockfast which can cause cracking. Putty can also be used to soften corners
and edges.
Page 101
Fortunately, vertical cracks usually result only in the poor appearance of a chock, not in a reduction of its
structural integrity. If the mix ratio, stir method, pouring procedure, ambient temperature and cure cycle
are within ITW Philadelphia Resin's parameters, the structural integrity of the chock should be OK. This
is because vertical cracks parallel the compressive load on the chock so the intimate fit between the
Chockfast and the steel is maintained. No changes in loading or structural integrity occur and the
alignment between the engine and reduction gear should not be affected by a vertical crack in a chock.
A vertical crack within a chock is no cause for concern as long as the crack is in the same direction as the
bolts and pieces of the chock are not falling out. A vertical crack is no different than purposely installing
a foam divider in the middle of the chock. They both separate the chock into two sections. There is no
reduction in the strength or any other physical properties of the Chockfast. It is a good idea, however, to
"V" out the crack with a grinder and to fill it with Phillybond Orange or other good quality sealant to keep
water and oil from getting in.
A horizontal crack is usually an indication that the steel engine mount or sole plate is moving or
expanding. This crack usually only exists in the over-pour area and does not extend under the engine. If
desired, the over-pour can be removed to determine the extent of the crack.
Jim Kuly (Chief Engineer) ITW Philadelphia Resins
Tel: 215-855-8450
Fax: 215-855-4688
Bolts in Couplings in Shafts in High Speed Craft
Very often the shaft coupling bolts in fast craft are not "fitted" as when the holes in the mating flanges are
reamed out so that the bolts fit with only a sliding clearance. This big ship practice ensures that the torque
stress is absorbed by the exactly fitting shanks of the bolts, which are secured by locknuts or equivalent,
but without much torque.
In small craft, the mating flanges have clearance holes, and the bolts are entered and heaved up. The
drive is now not through the bolts, but through the friction between the faces of the flanges as they are
clamped together.
Clearly, the bolts have to be of such quality to allow the tightening torque and the classification society
DNV gives advice for such friction drives in their Rules Part 4 Chapter 4 Section 1B.
Quoting from the Rules:-
Paragraph 307- Torque transmission based only on friction between mating flanges surfaces shall fulfil
a minimum friction torque of twice the maximum Torque in the shaft. The coefficients of friction M
(G
v
M
y
) shall be 0.15 for steel against steel, and steel against bronze, and 0.12 for steel against nodular
cast iron. Other values may be considered for especially treated mating surfaces.
Paragraph 308- Bolts may have a pre-stress up to 70% of the yield strength in the smallest section.
However, when using 10.9 or 12.9 bolts the thread lubrication procedure has to be especially evaluated,
and tightening by twist angle or better is accepted. (e.g. by elongation measurement). If rolled threads,
the pre-stress in the threads may be increased up to 90% of the yield strength.
End of Quotation
The paragraph goes on to discuss corrosive environment and the limit of stress to 1350MPa, and several
other issues and helps us understand that such flange connections, although apparently simple, have
overtones of complexity that are sometimes overlooked.
Page 102
End Load and Recommended Applied Torque
Thistable, andnotesbelowarecopiedfroma VickersHandbook of 1984,
andgivetheendloadsfor a given torquewithseveral bolt strengths.
Note 1 This is a reduced list of bolts sizes using only standard sizes.
Note 2 Thread Pitch from BS 3643 Pt 1 Table 3.
Note 2 Stress area from BS 3643 Pt1 Appendix A3.
Special Notes
Allowable bolt Load: Based on Proof Stress as defined in BS3692 Table 10.
Allowable bolt Load =0.8* Proof Stress *Stress Area.
Torque Figures: Are based on the expression T=0.2PD where P is allowable Bolt Load, D is nominal Bolt
Diameter and 0.2 and 0.2 is a factor which incorporates a Coefficient of Friction of 0.15-0.20.
Universal Joint Drives
NOMINAL
BOLT
DIAM
mm
see
note 1
THREAD
PITCH
mm
see
note 2
STRESS
AREA
mm
see
note 3
BOLT GRADE
4.6 4.6 4.8 4.8 8.8 8.8 10.9 10.9 12.9 12.9
CORRESPONDING NUT MATERIAL GRADE
4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 12.0 12.0 12.0 12.0
End
Load kN
Torque
Nm
End
Load kN
Torque
Nm
End
Load kN
Torque
Nm
End
Load kN
Torque
Nm
End
Load kN
Torque
Nm
8.0 1.25 35.6 6.5 10.4 8.4 13.4 16.7 26.8 22.8 36.4 27.3 43.7
10.0 1.5 58.0 10.3 20.6 13.3 26.5 26.5 53.0 36.0 72.1 43.2 86.5
12.0 1.75 84.3 15.0 35.9 19.3 46.3 38.5 92.4 52.4 125 62.8 151
16.0 2.0 157 27.8 89 35.8 115 71.6 229 97.4 312 117 374
20.0 2.5 245 43.5 174 56.0 224 112 447 152 609 183 730
24.0 3.0 353 62.6 301 80.7 387 161 773 219 1050 263 1260
30.0 3.5 561 99.6 597 128 770 256 1540 349 2090 418 2510
36.0 4.0 817 145 1040 187 1350 373 2690 508 3660 609 4380
42.0 4.5 1121 199 1670 257 2150 512 4300 697 5850 836 7020
48.0 5.0 1473 252 2510 337 3240 673 6460 916 8790 1100 10500
56.0 5.5 2030 361 4040 485 5200 927 10400 1250 14100 1510 17000
64.0 6.0 2675 475 6080 612 7840 1220 15600 1660 21300 2000 25500
Page 103
The various Universal joint drives (Hooke's Joint or Constant Velocity) use the same method of driving
through the friction in the mating flanges, and torque required is dramatic with very strong bolts.
Ventilation of a Machinery Compartment
An engine in a machinery compartment will require air (oxygen) for combustion, which is discharged from
the engine room through the exhaust. The engine and the auxiliary equipment will also warm up the
compartment due to:-
Radiated Heat- Parts of an engine may well run at 90C or more and will radiate heat
according to the relative temperatures of the surrounding areas.
Conduction- There will be a transfer of heat to air the air passes over the engines and rises.
Some engine manufacturers advise the loss of heat to radiation and a figure of 7% is
sometimes quoted. Installation manuals for modern high speed engines give an actual figure
in kW for this loss.
Similarly, the engine builder will often give a specific air requirement in m/Hour.
However during a sea trial, a surveyor may become convinced that a compartment is too hot and he may
like to compare the rated output on the ventilation fans with the simple calculations discussed below.
A typical temperature rise from input air to discharge air should be about 10C.
Combustion Air (from the MAN figures discussed earlier)
4 Stroke, Naturally Aspirated 4-4.8 kg/HP/Hr
4 Stroke, Turbocharged 5-6.5 kg/HP/Hr
2 Stroke, Turbocharged 7.8-8.0 kg/HP/Hr
Multiply the above mass flow figures by 0.85 to give approx air flow volume in m/hour.
Make an allowance for each of the auxiliary equipment, generators, evaporators, boilers etc. Make a
grand total for all the equipment in the compartment. The aggregate will be the basis for the fan sizing
and ventilation trunk area using the data below.
Ventilation Air (Empirical Estimates)
For big ship engine rooms on several decks, for ventilation use the same figure as
combustion air.
For small enclosed machinery spaces, such as yachts and patrol craft use 1.5 times
combustion for ventilation for Europe and the Mediterranean.
For small enclosed machinery spaces, such as yachts and patrol craft use perhaps twice
combustion air for ventilation for the Persian Gulf.
The velocity in the ventilation ducts should be of the order 10-15m/s and the intake air through the
intake louvers under 6m/sec, allowing for the grilles themselves.
Remember to check the results with the engine manufacturer, when you are back at the office.
Insulation, Thermal, Fire and Acoustic
It seems necessary to have some discussion on insulation and its various duties in a ship. The study on
thermodynamics has made us aware of the need to protect machinery and pipe work from heat loss as
this represents a further reduction in overall efficiency of the plant. We have become used to thicker and
thicker insulation in the roof spaces of our homes, as standards become clearer and the cost of fuel rises.
75mm thick which was satisfactory years ago has become 150-200mm, and similarly marine insulation
is fitted throughout the ship, but with several separate duties.
Page 104
1. Thermal Insulation
Thermal insulation is fitted in accommodation spaces of vessels to reduce the heat flow through the hull
into the accommodation and which would overwhelm natural ventilation. Among the critical data of the
air conditioning load of accommodation will be hull plate material, colour of hull and the thickness and
type of insulation. Aluminium clearly allows more heat transfer (heat flow-measured in joules/sec or
watts) than steel and a material's ability to transmit heat is called its Thermal Conductivity (). It is
measured in watts per square metre for a temperature gradient of 1K per metre thickness of the
material, which reduces to Watts/mK.
Thermal conductivity will vary with the mean temperature of the material. The insulation behind the hull
is the real barrier to the flow of heat in a metal hull, although a wooden hull will add greatly to the total
insulation, and some composite hulls do not require insulation at all for accommodation areas.
The insulation system required to protect the globes transporting LNG will be very specialised as the liquid
gas must be maintained at a very low temperature. Similarly, the refrigerated cargo ship will have large
insulated holds to keep the cargo of bananas or meat frozen through the tropics and voyage time.
2. Fire Protection
Another important duty of insulation is to restrict the transfer of heat in the event of a fire on one side of
a bulkhead so that the fire cannot break through to the next compartment. This is the first duty of the
engine room (or the galley etc.) insulation. Insulation is also fitted to the danger (or risk) side of steel
bulkheads throughout the ship, so that the heat from a fire cannot cause the strength of a structural
bulkhead to be reduced. This is called "Structural Fire Protection" and ensures that a local fierce fire can
be contained by the insulation and that any important structure is kept relatively cool.
The standards of the highest class of bulkhead insulation are defined by the letter A followed by a number
such as 30, 60 which gives the time in minutes that the non-combustible insulation will prevent the
passage of smoke and flame and protect the structure from a rise in temperature of not more than 139C
above the original temperature.
Quoting more formally from the standards book, the statement goes on to say that no part of the
bulkhead or joint should rise more that 180C above the original temperature. Protecting a steel
bulkhead is comparatively simple as two layers of rockwool (one layer 50mm thick and one 25mm
layer, both of 110kg/m density) will give the 60 minute protection as illustrated below.
However, an aluminium bulkhead will lose its structural strength in such a case at a much lower
temperature, and insulation must be on both sides. For a GRP or composite bulkhead, the protection
becomes even more critical. The photograph below gives a typical insulation system for an engine room
bulkhead.
Note the two 50mm layers of heavy mineral wool, the lead membrane, the foil surface to avoid wicking of
oil mist and the (not yet fitted) stainless steel sheet that will conceal the system. This very special
bulkhead combined fire protection for the GRP skins of the bulkhead and knocked nearly 50dBA off the
noise levels of the engine room to give guests in the cabins on the other side of the bulkhead a good
night's sleep.
Page 105
Insulation systemfor theforwardengineroombulkheadon a 75mGRP-Compositeconstruction vessel.
To highlight the need for structural fire protection, just imagine a cruise liner with alloy superstructure
which has a fire in the space under the wheelhouse and the insulation fails to protect the structure so that
the wheelhouse (the nerve centre of the ship) collapses into the inferno!
It is said that the cause of the collapse of the Twin Towers in New York was due to the steel structure of the
building being inadequately insulated for the petrol fueled fire and the elevated temperature that was
experienced. This allowed the steel structure to become very hot and eventually to lose its strength, allowing
the floors to collapse, one on the other, in the dreadful concertina effect that horrified the watching world.
Page 106
Typical classA insulation of a steel bulkhead
Note: The illustration shows that 75 mm of insulation is required for a steel bulkhead on one side only
(fire risk side).
Page 107
However, for aluminium 80mm of insulation is usually required for both sides, as the aluminium bulkhead
would melt in the fierce 1000+ degree Celsius test, causing the collapse of the bulkhead.
The Stationary Office publish a book "Survey of Fire Protection Arrangements in Merchant Ships- Guidance
for Surveyors" (ISBM 0 11 550949 6) which should be on the library shelves of every survey office where
such issues may arise.
Acoustic Insulation
Noise is a pollutant that detracts from the pleasure of life and there are standards of maximum noise
levels allowable in working and recreational spaces which protect the crew. However, where passengers
are carried, their cabins require an even lower level of noise and within the joinery bulkheads must
acoustic insulation is fitted. Obviously the insulation of engine room bulkheads require special attention
and the two duties of fire and acoustic protection makes the engine room insulation very specialised.
Messrs Rockwall publish a good technical book (Insulation for Industry) highlighting their products that
students might like to get for their technical library. It has a good section on structural fire protection.
Manufacturers Notebooks
The author recommends the Caterpillar publication "Engine Installation and Service Handbook" which has
been a great aid over the years. It contains 17 chapters with headings such as Cooling, Exhaust,
Ventilation, Fuel, Conversion Factors etc.
Years ago the author was in Augsberg attending engine trials. The engine was of locomotive origin and
fitted with a list of auxiliary parts, such as seawater pump, cooler, header tank and so on. All these had
to be installed by the yard and the author unfavourably compared the MAN engine with the Caterpillar
engine of the day, with all the auxiliaries fitted. I also compared the installation literature available from
them with that of Caterpillar. It is interesting to note that MTU now supply the most complete data in well
produced literature.
A rich source of data can be garnered from the engine builders and it would repay our engineer
surveyors to have a library of the technical data in support of the major engine types that he will
encounter the most.
An interesting footnote is that at the 2006 AGM of the International Institute of Marine Surveying, the
members asked for a special surveyor's notebook, half A5 size, with fixed numbered pages. Also in the
notebook will be a list of the major formulae and key data that the surveyor might need.
1. A 30 metre single screwed vessel running at 10 knots is fitted with an engine of 500HP. What
area of blade surface would you expect in the propeller?
2. Assuming a disc area ratio (actual area of blades/ swept area of the propeller) of 50%, what is
diameter might be expected?
3. Why is structural fire protection vital?
4. Why is an aluminium bulkhead harder to protect?
5. How is the drive arranged in a shaft coupling using standard (non-fitted) bolts?
Page 108
CHAPTER 9 - GLOSSARY OF ENGINEERING TERMS AND UNITS
Learning Outcome
some ship terms;
some engineering terms;
some historic engineering terms,
perhaps even some you don't know!
Glossary of Engine Parts, Electrical Terms, Ship Parts and Terms
A
Absolute Pressure The pressure in space, corresponding to a full vacuum
Absolute Temperature The temperature considered the lowest possible. It is measured in degrees
Kelvin or as -273C or -460F
Actuator A device for remotely operating a valve (or contact breaker etc)-sometimes
pneumatic, electric or hydraulically operated.
Adiabatic Expansion Gas expansion in which no heat transfer occurs
Admiralty Constant An empirical formula used by older naval architects to estimate the effect
of changes in displacement or power on speed
Aft Rear end of the ship
Ahead The direction of the vessel-bow first
Air Blast Injection An early form of fuel injection using air
Air Conditioning The cooling or heating of air in a compartment to ensure it maintains a
desired temperature.
Air Pump The pump to remove air from a condenser, in a steam plant
Alignment The setting up of two or more shafts to ensure that they are in line with
each other.
Alternator Electrical power generator driven by an engine
Amidships The mid-part of the ship
Ammeter Meter to measure current flow
Ampere Measurement of current flow
Anchor Heavy claw device which rests on the sea bottom secured to a chain and
pulled in by a windlass to secure ship in a bay or anchorage.
Anemometer Device for measuring wind or air velocity
Annealing The treatment of slow cooling of metals to remove in-built stresses
Anode a. zinc or magnesium plugs secured to the hull to act as sacrificial Metal to
mask voltage caused by different metals of the hull shaft and hull fittings.
b. Positive terminal in an electrolytic cell or an electron tube
Armature The rotor of a generator
Ash Pit The storage compartment for the ash resulting from coal or wood burning
in a furnace-often open to the sea so that the ash is ejected by the ship's
movement through the water
Ash The residue in a boiler from burning (chiefly) coal or wood
Astern The direction when the vessel is progressing stern first
Atmosphere The pressure exerted by the atmosphere at ground level
Auxiliaries Generators, pumps and other equipment required to support the running
of the engine and ship
Avogadro Constant The number of atoms in exactly 12 grams of carbon-12
Page 109
B
Back-Pressure The pressure of the exhaust system at the manifold required to vent the
gases to atmosphere- often expressed as mm or inches of water Gauge
Bacteria Organisms that grow in water. They are small (circa 0.001mm) and are
grouped into bacilli (rod shaped), cocci (spherical) and spirillum (Spiral)
The measurement of their presence gives a level of the danger inherent in
the water
Balancing Cylinders- in a multistage steam engine it is necessary to balance the
output from each cylinder to reduce vibration.
Crankshaft- weights are added to the webs of the crankshaft to minimise
reciprocating forces in the engine.
Ballast Removable mass carried in a vessel to improve stability when the ship is
unloaded (in ballast). For large vessels it is likely to be water. For sailing
yachts the ballast is usually in the form of an external lead or iron keel.
Barometer Instrument used to measure atmospheric pressure
Batteries Electrical power storage device
Bearing The support of a moving shaft or item
Bed Plate The very heavy bottom casting of an engine-often includes the main
bearings
Boiler A device for heating water to create steam
Bottom End (Big end)) The bearing at the crankshaft end of a connecting rod
Brake Horse Power The power developed by an engine in test bed conditions when driving a
dynamometer. Also the power developed by a diesel or petrol engine at the
flywheel, after all the parasitic loads of pumps and alternator have been
allowed
Brass A mixture of copper and zinc. No longer a real technical term in itself, and
is often used to describe fittings of poor quality
Broach To cut a keyway- or, In the case of a ship in heavy weather to be driven
broadside on to the waves
Bronze An imprecise description. Usually a 60:40 mix of copper and zinc with some
additions, such as manganese, aluminium, nickel and silicon. Can be
extruded or cast.
BTU (British Thermal Unit) The heat required to raise I lb of water through 1
Fahrenheit
Bunker Storage tank or compartment for fuel
Burner The oil spray device for burning oil in a boiler
C
Cable a) An electrical conductor
b) A strong thick rope made from wire strands
c) A unit of distance equivalent to
1
/10 of a mile
Calorifier A hot water cylinder heated by an internal coil with a primary circuit from a
boiler or equivalent
Cam A contoured bearing surface on a shaft, which operates a valve or push rod
Camshaft The shaft, usually driven at half-crankshaft speed, which operates valves or
fuel pump
Capacitance Measure of quantity of stored energy in a condenser
Capacitor A device that can store an electrical charge
Capstan A powered winch usually on the deck for handling warps
Carbon Dioxide A gas obtained from burning carbon, one of the serious gases in the
exhausts of diesel engines and other burning processes.
Carbon Monoxide Similar to above, but poisonous
Cast Iron The basic low carbon iron which is used for casting.
Page 110
Cathode Negative terminal in an electrolytic cell or an electron tube or of a battery
Cathodic Protection Corrosion Inhibiting System for the underwater part of a ships hull
Cavitation Development of bubbles on the after faces of the blades of a propeller due
to excessive thrust (pressure). The collapsing bubbles can cause deep
holes in the metal surface
Celsius Measurement of temperature developed by Celsius based on 0 being the
freezing point of water and 100 being the boiling point at sea level-see
also Kelvin Scale
Centrifugal Force The force generated by rotation, which tries to throw the rotating object at
a tangent to the circle of rotation
Chain A linked steel drive connecting sprockets
Chlorination The addition of chlorine to potable water to inhibit bacterial spoiling
Chock Shim or alignment plate under the feet of an engine
Circuit Breaker A current limiting device to protect overloading of an electrical circuit
Clutch A device which connects or dis-engages a rotary drive
Coal Fuel-black rock-like-dug from coal mines
Commutator A sleeve on a DC motor with individual slots or segments directing the
current to the appropriate armature winding
Compound Engine A steam engine in which the steam expansion is shared between two
cylinders
Compressed Air Air compressed to 6-10 bar for general pneumatic tools and higher
pressures for air-starting of large engines.
Compression Ignition Engines where the fuel is ignited by the temperature rise of the
combustion air as it is compressed by the rising piston
Compressor Reciprocating piston or rotary vane machines which compress air
Condensate (ion) a. Water condensing from humid air onto a cold surface as the
temperature drops below the dewpoint.
b. The water in the bottom of a condenser as waste stem is condensed into
water
Condenser a. A heat exchanger in a steam plant to cool the exhausted system from
steam into water, creating a vacuum which improves output and efficiency.
b. A capacitorwhich stores electrical power
Conduction Heat transfer from one metal to another through space contact of the
surfaces
Connecting Rod The steel rod or link between the little-end bearing in the piston and the
big-end bearing at the crankshaft
Convection Heat transfer in air due to air currents as hot air rises
Corrosion Wastage of a metal due to oxidation, galvanic and other causes
Crane A lifting arrangement which may work off a jib
Crank Pin The journal or steel pin at the throw of a crankshaft
Crankcase The casting of an engine joining crankshaft and cylinders
Crankshaft The main shaft at the base of an engine with crank-arms to convert the
reciprocating movement of the connecting rods into rotary movement.
Crosshead Engine An engine -perhaps double acting-with a crosshead bearing
Crosshead A sliding bearing assembly which converts the up and down vertical
movement of the piston and piston rod in a large engine and connects to
the upper or little end bearing of the connecting rod.
Cylinder The upper part of an engine incorporating the piston
May also be a pressure vessel to hold hot water etc
D
Bilge Ejector A venture-device that uses high velocity water from a pump to draw
contaminated water from another source, without the contaminated water
passing through the pump
Page 111
Damper Flap in ventilation or boiler flue, or
Special small flywheel fitted at the free end of crankshaft to dampen
torsional vibration
Davit Crane device for launching lifeboats
Deck The near horizontal areas of the hull defining the access areas or weather
seal of the hull. Internally the deck is sometimes called the "sole"
Density The mass of a substance per unit volume
De-Rating The reduction in output of an engine or motor due to local factors of air or
water temperature, atmospheric pressure etc
Derrick A simple crane, generally using separate winches, for unloading cargo
Detent Small recess on a shaft to ensure correct location of moving part
Detergent Special cleaning additives to lubricating oil to neutralise the acids etc
formed from burning fuel
Dew Point The temperature at which water vapour in the air begins to condense
Diameter The maximum dimension of a circle equal to twice the radius
Diesel (Dr) Dr Rudolf Diesel- the main inventor of the compression ignition engine
named after him
Doxford An obsolete type of vertical opposed piston engine used in
cargo vessels
Draught A flow of air of low velocity,
or The vertical submergence of a hull
Dynamo DC generator
E
Earth Grounding of electrical cable
Eccentric A circular surface running as part of a shaft, but with a different centre
which imparts sideways movement to a follower as the main shaft is
revolved. Often seen on steam engines to operate steam valves
e-coliform count A measure of contamination from a sewage discharge
Economiser A heat exchanger in a boiler flue to regain heat from the hot gases- also
used in gas turbine installations
Efficiency Thermal-A measure of the comparison of the work or heat given out from a
engine or boiler with the heat given to the unit, or
Mechanical- as above- often applied to a block and tackle or such as a
gearbox
Ejector A venturi device using steam or water to discharge or withdraw liquid from
a source
Elastic Limit See Hooke's law-Chapter 1
Electrolysis Corrosion of metals in a solvent
Electron H-Negative particle in an atom
Engine A mechanism for doing work- often a prime mover
Entablature The heavy casting making up the crankcase and cylinder
Enthalpy A thermodynamic property of a system equal to the sum of its internal
energy and the product of its pressure and Volume- Symbol H- Sometimes
called Heat Content or Total Heat
Entropy A thermodynamic quantity that changes in a reversible process by an
amount equal to the heat absorbed or emitted divided by the
thermodynamic temperature. It is measured in Joules per Kelvin
Erosion Wastage of material in a pipe due to high velocity of water passing through
the pipe
Estimated Horse Power The calculated horsepower developed within the engine before frictional
and other losses are allowed, or
An early estimate of engine power required to propel a hull at given speed
and displacement
Page 112
Evaporator A method of making fresh water from seawater by boiling the seawater
under a vacuum and condensing it
Exhaust Gas Boiler A boiler in the exhaust of a diesel or gas turbine to retrieve heat and make
steam for bunker heating or auxiliaries
Exhaust The hot gases from a boiler or engine, or simliar
Expansion Change in volume due to increase of temperature or reduction of pressure
F
Fahrenheit An early temperature scale, developed by Fahrenheit and based on a
misunderstanding of the minimum attainable temperature, which defines
the freezing point of water as 32 and the boiling point of water at sea level
at 212
Fan A mechanical means of blowing gas in ventilation ducting
Farad Measure of capacitance
Feed-Water Treated water contained in the feed water circuit from the condenser back
to the boiler
Filters Strainers with mesh systems stopping debris in a circuit
Fire Grate The bars in a coal fired furnace which support the fire
Fire Tube The large bore tubes which pass through the water in a boiler carrying the
hot combustion air from the furnace
Flash Point The temperature at which a fuel oil will burn if exposed to a naked flame
Flux (Magnetic) Measurement of magnetism
Force A thrust or push
Forging A metal component made from solid steel or iron hammered into shape
when very hot
Forward (Forrad) In the direction of the bows of a vessel
Foundation The heavy structure under engines, boilers, masts etc
Four Stroke Cycle The common engine cycle comprising of two up and two down strokes of
the piston in a cylinder, giving compression, expansion, exhaust and
induction
Fracture A break in a structure
Freon A series of gases which were commonly used in refrigeration systems. It is
based on chlorine and is now banned because of its deleterious effect on
the ozone layer in the atmosphere
Fretting A rubbing together of two surfaces under load, perhaps due to vibration,
which wears away the overlapping areas
Friction The resistance to movement between two surfaces
Fuel The energy source for engines and boilers which may be wood, coal, oil gas
and other such materials
Fuel Injector The specialised nozzle on an engine which injects a known amount of fuel
into the cylinder at a defined point and time period
Fuel Pump The specialised pump which delivers fuel oil under high pressure to the
injector
Funnel The vertical chimney arrangement on steamships to carry the exhaust
gases away, also used on motor ships
Furnace The volume given to the burning of fuel in a boiler
Fuse A thin wire that melts when excess current passes through it.
G
Galvanic Corrosion See Electrolysis-- See Module I
Galvanised Iron The protection of steel by a layer of zinc
Gangway The side access of a ship by a folding stairway
Page 113
Gauge a. A meter measuring pressure, temperature or other
b. A table of limits for wire and drills
c. Male and female slip gauges to define bores
Gearwheel A wheel on a shaft, with gear teeth cut around rim
Gearbox Reduction Gearbox- A mechanism to reduce the RPM from a prime mover
to suit the duty
Reverse reduction gearbox- lowers the input RPM from a prime mover to
improve the efficiency of the propeller, and which allows the reversal of
propeller rotation from a uni-directional engine
Generator Electric power maker
Gimbals The nest of yokes and bearings which allows a compass to maintain level
operation
Governor A speed-limiting device
Guard Rail The arrangement of stanchions and wires at the deck side to protect crew
and guests from falling overboard
Gunmetal Widely used for pumps, valves and miscellaneous castings. There are many
alloys based on variants of Admiralty Gunmetal, 88% copper, 10% tin, 2%
zinc and 1.5% lead
H
Halon The chlorine based gas used for fire extinguishing systems- now banned
Heads Historical slang expression for marine toilets
Heat A form of energy
Heat Exchangers A device for cooling a liquid or gas, using another medium that is cooler.
The media do not mix
Hertz Measurement of frequency of AC circuit
Holding Tank A tank used for holding black or grey water till it is convenient to pump it
ashore or overboard
Hooke's Law The extension of a spring is proportional to the tension in the spring stress,
or, resulting strain are constant up to a known limit
Hot-Bulb Engine A delightful old obsolete compression ignition engine which uses a
chamber off the cylinder head that was kept red hot when the engine was
running, and which was externally heated by a blowlamp as the engine was
warming up to start or manoeuvre. The author has only seen one in
operation, in a water tanker many years ago in Lagos
Humidity A measure of the amount of water vapour in air
Hunting Gear The arrangement in old steam steering engines in order for the engine to
respond to different rudder angles
Hydraulics The use of oil as a power transmission medium
Hydrometer A device for measuring the density of a liquid, such as battery acid or
treated cooling water in an engine.
I
Ignition The means of starting the burn of fuel in an engine. In a petrol engine it is
spark plugs, in a diesel it is the temperature of the compressed gases that
ignites the spray of fuel
Indicated Horse Power The measure of the power developed in an engine before friction and
parasitic losses are allowed.
Indicator The device to measure pressure in a cylinder on the basis of stroke
Induction a. The intake stroke of an engine
b. Voltage induced in a conductor due to alternating current creating
magnetism in a adjacent cable
Inert Gas System Gas from the engine exhaust, with very low oxygen, is pumped into the
ullage volume in oil tanks on a tanker to inhibit fire
Page 114
Inertia The inbuilt force to maintain a velocity or action, which will require an
external agency to change it. It is well illustrated by a bull terrier running flat
out and then trying to turn!!
Inhibitor (Cooling Water) Chemicals added to engine cooling water to inhibit corrosion of the engine
casting and waterways
Injector a. A venture-based arrangement to inject feed water into a boiler using
high velocity steam from the boiler.
b. The unit which takes high pressure fuel oil and injects it into the cylinder
at the right time and a metered amount
Insulation a. Material used to inhibit the loss of heat from a unit, or in the case of
refrigerated compartments, to inhibit the flow of heat into the space.
b. The protective layers around an electric cable to prevent the leakage of
current or voltage and to protect it from damage
Insulator A substance that inhibits flow of heat, electricity etc
Intercooler In high performance engines, the turbocharger compresses the intake air,
raising its temperature, which would reduce the engine performance,
which is restored by cooling the air either using engine cooling water, or
even seawater for maximum output
Internal Combustion A term from the start of engine building, as the early (steam) engines
burned their fuel in the separate boiler. Much weight and practicality was
gained by burning the fuel in the cylinder.
Iron A metal element- (Fe), which when cast becomes cast iron, but when mixed
with carbon and other elements becomes steel
J
Jacket The water chamber that surrounds the cylinder to maintain temperature
Jet a. A nozzle which increases the velocity of water in the hose, allowing
better direction and distance for the flow of water
b. A form of engine giving thrust
Jockey Pump A small pump which maintains pressure in a fire main
Joule A rate of energy or work
Journal a. A log of events kept daily
b. A sleeve bearing
Junk Ring Another echo from the days of Newcomen. Early cylinder bores were not
very accurate and the first piston rings were said to use whatever would fill
the gap, hence junk! (So the tale goes!)
Jury Repair A temporary repair to get the ship to port.
K
Keel The centreline hull structure, often extending below the hull
Key A method of transmitting power from a wheel or gear into a shaft (and vice-
versa)
Keyway The keyway is a rectangular slot cut along the shaft, and the wheel, and the
key fits snugly into both, tying the shaft and wheel together.
Kilowatt/Hour Measurement of power consumed or stored
Kingston Valve Large, quickly opened, shipside valves, used for exhausts in a submarine
and key seawater intakes in ships
L
Lag To insulate against heat transfer
Lagging A term describing insulation
Laser A light source that produces a coherent, mono-chromatic parallel beam of
light- useful to set levels and measurements
Page 115
Page 116
Latent Heat The energy required to change the state of a liquid into gas and vice versa.
The loss of energy to latent heat as steam is condensed back into water
(which loss is doubled as the water is heated back into steam) is the chief
loss in a steam cycle and among the main reasons why the steam engine
diesel cannot match the efficiency of a diesel.
Lead A dull grey heavy element (Pb)
Leclanche Cell Early form of battery
Lever A beam which can be used in several formats to increase the force exerted
compared with the applied effort
Lignum Vitae Bearings Early stern tube bearings, mostly seawater lubricated. Lignum Vitae is a
very hard black wood, that was cut into staves making the bearing. The
lower staves were cut across the grain to give better wearing capacity and
the upper staves cut with grain
Liner Sleeves that fit into the upper crankcase that take the wear of the pistons
in an engine
LNG Liquefied Natural Gas
LPG Liquefied Petroleum Gas
Lubrication The addition of grease or oil to a bearing to reduce friction and perhaps to
take away heat
M
Magnetism The attracting or repelling force created in a magnet
Maintenance The schedule of attending to machinery in a planned manner, attending to
oil changes and lubrication, according to the hours used or time periods
Manoeuvring The movements of a vessel, ahead and stern, together with steering
changes required to dock a ship or adjust its position relative to other
vessels.
Mast The vertical columns on a vessel on which the navigation lights and signals
are hung, together with aerials etc.
On a sailing vessel the sails are attached to the masts
Mean Effective Pressure The mean of the pressure recorded in an engine cylinder by an indicator
Megger Instrument Meter to measure resistance
Membrane A semi-permeable skin or layer used in Reverse Osmosis water makers and
modern waste water treatment units
Michell Thrust Block A bearing designed to take the thrust developed by a propeller to avoid this
thrust being absorbed by the crankshaft, which is not designed to handle
such an axial load. Michell is the bearing type, based on floating kidney
shaped pads
Modulus of Elasticity See Chapter 1
Monel metal A trade mark of Henry Wiggin and is an alloy which is used for high stress
propeller shafts etc.
Available in alloys 400 and K500
Muntz Metal A straight 60/40 copper/zinc alloy, for hot working.
N
Napier a. A form of logarithm
b. An opposed piston two stroke engine developed during the war with the
cylinders set out in a delta format (Napier Deltic)
Newton a. One of our greatest scientific thinkers
b. A unit of thrust (Newton- N)
Nozzle Similar to a jet
Nut The screwed female unit, often six sided that screws onto a bolt to make a
reliable fastening
Nylon A form of plastic that is very useful for bearings and sliding services
O
Oil The hydrocarbon liquid that can be refined into a viscous liquid with good
sliding capabilities and heat transfer
Opposed Piston Engine A range of engines, mostly two stroke, in which two pistons operate in one
cylinder, coming together to create compression, and moving apart due to
expansion. The biggest marine engines known to the author of this type
were Doxford and lightweight high performance engines made by Napier
Deltic for minesweepers and railway locomotives. The inherent problem
with opposed piston engines is the need for two or more crankshafts or a
transmission system to transmit the thrust back to one crankshaft from the
second piston in a cylinder.
Osmosis (Reverse) The mechanism where the natural process of osmosis is reversed to make
the saltwater pass across to freshwater
Otto Cycle The engine cycle developed by Otto to allow the development of the
internal combustion engine
Output A measure of performance using recognised units
Overhaul The disassembly of a machine to examine for wear and the systematic
replacement of worn or outmoded parts and the rebuild of the unit to as
new or better
P
Packing a. The square material rings fitted inside a stuffing box or gland to prevent
leakage
b. The steel or resin shims placed under the feet of machinery to ensure
alignment or correct seating.
Paddle Wheels The first method of converting the rotary motion of an engine into
propulsion thrust
Paralleling (alternators) Arrangement of running alternator together
Parson's Steam Turbine Sir Charles Parsons is rightly credited with the development of the steam
turbine in which the expansion of steam is a continuous smooth process
over rows of blades, compared with the much less smooth flow of steam
through a reciprocating engine. His engine (and its derivatives) is capable
of being built in the largest power requirements
Pilgrim Nut A propeller securing arrangement which does not rely on hammers and
high torque devices to force a large propeller onto a taper, but uses
hydraulic power to secure the required thrust. This arrangement also eases
the removal of the nut.
The principle is also used to secure cylinder nuts in the larger engines
Piston The cylindrical unit (often made of alloy or steel or a combination of metals)
that fits inside the cylinder liner and moves up and down inside the cylinder
as the engine turns. The piston fits closely inside the cylinder, and to
complete the seal, piston rings are fitted to the piston which are generally
of cast iron or chromed rings which fit closely the cylinder wall and have a
small butt gap in them to accommodate any small change in cylinder
diameter due to wear or machining tolerance
Piston Rings See piston
Piston Rod In a crosshead engine, the piston is connected to the crosshead by the
piston rod
Pitch The amount of notional screw in a propeller, assuming it is rotated one turn
in a near solid material which allowed the movement but did not allow any
slip. It is measured in metres (Or feet)
Peltier Effect A simple form of portable refrigeration-see chapter 4
Page 117
Plummer Block A typical intermediate shaft bearing. Often split to allow the bearing top to
be removed for inspection. Large bearings may be water-cooled and may
have bearing shells in only the lower half
Pneumatic Systems A system of valves and equipment operated by compressed air
Poppet Valve On triple expansion steam engines, the high pressure cylinder was often
controlled by poppet valves which are very similar to the normal valves in a
diesel engine. They were used to give greater accuracy of steam cut-off. The
other cylinders were often fitted with "D" type slide valves which gave great
openings for the higher volumes of steam at lower pressures.
Propeller The screw device which converts the rotary movement of the engine into
thrust. Propellers are generally three bladed, but may have four or more
blades to give greater smoothness
Psychrometry The study of the qualities of air in air conditioning calculations
PTO Power Take Off shaft at the free end of the crankshaft and other drives on
an engine
Pump A mechanical device for moving liquids, which can be powered or hand-
driven. There are many types of pump for specific duties
Q
Quadruple Expansion Engine A steam engine with four cylinders and three or four expansion levels
Propulsion Coefficient A notional relationship between the estimated thrust required for a vessel
or a given speed and displacement as developed by a test tank and the
actual power delivered by the engines to give that speed
Quick Closing Valve A valve- perhaps for a fuel line- which can be operated quickly, without the
time required for closing a normal screwed valve. The closure is often
arranged by a spring, which is reset as required
R
Radiation The heat energy given from a hot source, which is not dependent on
convection or conduction e.g. the heat from the sun
Rake The blades of modern propellers are sometimes swept back (raked) to give
better performance or reduced vibration
Rapson's Slide An arrangement, often used on a tiller, where the tiller arm is fitted with a
slot and a crosshead bearing so that the rams operate along a fixed path.
Rating The performance of a plant using standard dimensions or measurements
Receiver (Air Start) The bottles or cylinders used to store high-pressure-air for starting large
engines
Refrigeration The system of removal of heat from a compartment, to keep the
compartment at a given temperature to suit the storage of food etc
Reverse Osmosis See Osmosis in chapter 1
Rigging a. Standing Rigging is the system of fixed wired, lines or rods to hold a mast
vertical against the loads that may come on it.
b. Running rigging is the system of halyards and sheets to handle the sails
that may be fitted plus other lines or handle flags and signal etc
Rivet A fastening used in old steel or iron vessels where the adjoining plates
shared a series of countersunk holes in which rivets were fitted. Rivets are
close fitting steel or iron pan headed shanks which are heated red hot,
inserted into the hole and then hammered so that both sides develop a pan
head within the countersink. As the rivet cools it shrinks and tightens the
overlapping plates to watertightness
Rudder A blade, equal to a proportion of the longitudinal underwater area of the
hull is turned by a rudder stock with an internal tiller arm. The rudder may
be balanced with some of the area in front of the stock to reduce the
operating torque
Page 118
Rust Iron or steel combines with air to form a red oxide on the surface, which will
develop into flaky layers of rust unless well protected by paint and anodes
S
Sanitary System Also known as the "Grey water system" which is the waste water from
showers, basins, and the galley
Saturated Steam Steam which contains some carried over water vapour.
Scantlings A general term covering the thickness of the plates, floors and frames of a
vessel
Screw-shaft The final part of the propeller shaft, passing through the stern tube
Sea Cock A valve fitted at the hull side. The valve is likely to be of the tapered plug
type
Sensible Heat The heat in water or liquid which is not related to Latent Heat
Sewage System Also known as "Black Water" and is the waste from the toilets
Slip (Propeller) Slip is the percentage overrun of the propeller, when the actual distance
run is compared with the result of multiplying slip by number of revolutions
Soot blowers Soot blowers use steam to blow soot from the internal surfaces of the
boiler furnace
Stabilizers Stabilizers are pivoting blades extending beyond the hull. By pivoting the
blades in the water passing the hull a righting moment is obtained which
eases the roll
Stanchion A post at deck aft side supporting the lifelines
Start Delta A starting system for electric motors
Stay Tubes Tubes in a Scotch boiler which tie the two end plates
Together.
Steam Water raised in temperature to become water vapour
Steam Tables The properties of steam at various pressures and temperatures
Steel An alloy of iron and carbon, which has many variants of further
alloying metals for strength or other qualities
Steering System The method of operating the rudder from the bridge which includes the
signal from the wheel and the mechanism to apply the operating torque to
the tiller and rudder
Stern tube The tube which passes through the deadwood or after hull to
accommodate the angle between buttock plates and shaft line
Strain The extension in a rod due to the stress applied by a force
Strainer A filter or mesh placed in a pipe to remove debris
Strake A line of planks or plates from bow to stern
Stuffing Box A seal on a shaft made by packing contained in a gland or stuffing box
Sulphur A yellow element found in fuel and compounded into acids in exhaust
emissions
Supercharger A mechanically operated compressor fitted to an engine to improve the
flow of air through the engine, giving a rise in output
Superheated Steam Steam raised above the level at which the latent heat has been fully
supplied. This is also dry steam
Switchboard The main panel for controlling power generation and distribution
Synchronism AC generators running in parallel
T
Tanks The containers for the various liquids carried aboard. They may be loose
tanks for ready-use lubricating oil, header tanks for ready use fuel; double
bottom tanks for bunkers etc
Telegraph The historical method of signalling movement orders to the engine room
Thermocouples When two thin plates of different metals are joined together, a small
electric voltage is generated. This effect is used in some thermometers
Page 119
Torque The turning moment in a shaft
Transformer An electrical device for changing input voltage to a higher or lower value in
AC currents
Transmission The means of transferring power or torque from the engine to its work
location. The transmission system could be electrical, hydraulic or by
shafting
Triple Expansion engine A steam engine with three cylinders, or three expansion paths or stages
Trunk Engine A trunk engine has the pistons directly connected to the crankshaft with
connecting rods, such as in auto engines and high speed diesels
Trunnion A pair of bosses or shafts connected to a main structural item which fits in
bearings allowing angular movement to the main item.
Turbine A rotary engine which allows the gas expansion path to pass smoothly
through series of blades.
Turbocharger A turbine impeller in the exhaust of a high performance engine, which
absorbs energy from the high speed gases and drives a second impeller
which increases the flow and pressure of the intake air
Turning Engine A means of barring over or slowly turning an engine to allow inspection of
parts, or as part of a warming up process
Two-Stroke Cycle An engine which combines the intake and compression strokes and the
expansion and exhaust strokes so that each cylinder gives one power
stroke per cycle. The engine requires a powered scavenge air system to
clear the exhaust quickly and to supply the combustion air.
The system comes into its own in very large engines such as Sulzer.
U
"U" Value A measure of the conductivity of heat of a substance
Ultimate Tensile Strength The stress at which a material breaks -see chapter 1
Ultrasonic Testing A method of sensing hull plate thickness
Ultra-Violet Sterilizer A method of sterilizing water by passing the water through an ultra violet
ray. The process does not pass any bacteriological qualities to the water,
which can deteriorate in quality in the tanks
Uptake The vertical trunk through the decks allowing passage of the exhausts and
ventilation trunks
V
Vacuum A depression or pressure below atmospheric pressure, typically as obtained
in a condenser
Velocity Speed (of gases in a pipe etc)
Ventilation a. The supply of air to a compartment or unit to take away stray heat.
b. the supply of air to a compartment to care for personnel
Vibration Stray energy in a structure caused by out of balance forces in equipment,
or propellers, or the engine etc
Viscosity A measure of the force needed to make a liquid flow:
Flow characteristics of an oil or heavy liquid. See chapter 6
Voltmeter Meter to measure voltage
W
Water Tube Boiler A boiler with several drums in which the gases of the furnace pass over the
tubes carrying water from the lower drum to the upper steam drum
Watt (James) Along with Savery, Newcomen and others, he was a giant in the
development of steam engine power
Watt A unit measuring the rate of work
Welding A method of joining steel by depositing molten metal to the heated plate
ends
Page 120
White Metal A bearing material of great versatility, lead or tin based with 7-19%
antimony and 3-5% copper. The lead base version is inferior to the tin
based. Modern bearings are often steel backed with very thin white metal
bearing skin
Winch A geared drum on which a rope or wire can be pulled in- say the warps of
a vessel coming alongside
Windlass A geared and powered winch fitted with gypsies to match the anchor chain
for hauling and launching the anchors
X
X Ray Special rays which can pass through human bodies to give an image of the
main tissues onto photosensitive paper
Y
Yacht A vessel owned by an individual for his personal pleasure, which may be a
motor or sailing boat.
Yield Point See also Hooke's law. The yield point is the uppermost elastic limit for
which a strain or extension caused by a stress is proportionate. Above this
stress the extension caused by the stress becomes permanent.
Youngs's Modulus The ratio of the relationship of stress/strain which applies to a material
Z
Zinc Anodes Anodes are bolted to the hull to reduce corrosion due to different materials
connected to the hull
Note:
The author has listed every term that came to his mind and also checked on similar lists in technical
books. However, he would appreciate suggestions from the students to include other terms and also
better or alternative definitions for the terms discussed above.
1. List up to 10 words that you had not come across before.
2. List 10 (or more) words and concise definitions that you think should be in this glossary
Page 121
TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT
Please write an essay of approximately 1000 words on the following question:
Based on the module material and other textbooks, compare the commonly used materials (steel,
Aluminium alloy, GRP and wood) for hull construction and comment on their strengths and weaknesses.
List the types of vessel that may use the respective materials. Describe the forces that act on a vessel
under way in heavy seas, and comment on the various hull materials in their ability to handle such loads
over the life of the vessel.
Participants taking the full Diploma option and Certificate must complete the tutor marked assignments
for each module. Each assignment will attract 5 marks, giving a total of 30 marks. This leaves 70 marks
for the examinations.
A Pass is 75%.
A Merit is 85%.
A Distinction is 95%.
Each assignment must reach a standard. Tutors may ask for you to re-submit an assignment if this
standard is not met.
The Assignments must be typed and NOT hand written. It is preferred that they are sent in hard copy. In
this way the presentation of the answers can be properly assessed. The tutor may accept fax or e-mail if
this is the most expedient method due to logistic/geographical problems.
But remember if the tutor is not satisfied with the assignment he may ask for this to be submitted in hard
copy format.
It is NOT necessary to submit assignments in strict order. Although it is easier for the participant to
co-ordinate their work if they are done in sequence.
The main objective must be to complete ALL assignments BEFORE sitting the examination.
ALL tutor marked assignments must be sent to the following :-
Diploma in Marine Engineering Surveying Administrator.
c/o International Institute of Marine Surveying.
The Administration Office
Stone Lane, Gosport, Hampshire
PO12 1SS
UK.
Fax: +44 (0) 2392 588 002
E-mail education@iims.org.uk
The participant will receive a TMA result sheet with comments as appropriate from the tutor and /or
course director. This will be sent by ordinary mail.
Page 122
Page 123
944 07/08 V1

MPI Module 5 Physical Laws in Support of Marine Enginnering

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Originalbeschreibung:

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

MPI Module 5 Physical Laws in Support of Marine Enginnering

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Physical Laws in Support

Das könnte Ihnen auch gefallen