Escola de Hotelaria e Turismo do Algarve

Microbiology, Allergies and Nutrition

Andreia Couto

Bacteria cell
Structurally, a prokaryotic cell has three

architectural

regions:

appendages

(attachments to the cell surface) in the form of flagella and pili (or fimbriae); a cell envelope consisting of a capsule, cell wall and plasma or inner membrane; and a cytoplasmic region that contains the cell genome (DNA), ribosomes and various sorts of inclusions. Following is a brief discussion components.
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of

these

structural

Cell envelope- is made of three layers: cytoplasmic membrane (inner layer), the cell wall (relatively rigid outer layer called peptidoglycan), and in some bacterial species- an outer capsule. The role of the bacterial capsule is to keep the bacterium from drying, can serve as a virulence factor and as an antigen for identification, mediate adherence of cells to surface (crucial in biofilm formation), and confer protection against engulfment and attack by antimicrobial agents of plants, animals, and the environment.

Cell wall composition varies widely amongst bacteria and is an important factor in bacterial species analyses and differentiation. The main functions are to give the cell its shape (rod, sphere, helix, or comma) and surround the cytoplasmic membrane, protecting it from the environment. The profiles of the cell walls of bacteria, as seen with the electron microscope, make it possible to distinguish two basic types of bacteria Gram-positive or Gram-negative.

Gram stain
Most species of bacteria can be grouped into TWO Categories based on their response to a laboratory technique called GRAM STAINING. Bacteria can be divided into various subgroups including GRAM-POSITIVE AND GRAM-NEGATIVE BACTERIA. The Gram Staining technique involves STAINING Bacteria with a PURPLE DYE (Crystal Violet), and iodine, and rinsed with alcohol. Then Restained with A PINK DYE (Safarinin).

Depending on structure of their cell walls, the bacteria absorb either the purple dye or the pink dye.

Gram-positive bacteria will retain the purple dye and appear purple. Gram-negative bacteria will appear pink from the pink dye.
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Gram-positive bacteria have a thicker layer of peptidoglycan in their cell walls, made of a protein-sugar complex that takes on the purple color during gram staining. Gram-positive bacteria include organisms that produce beneficial substances and organisms that cause important disease. They are used to make yogurt, pickles and buttermilk. Another group of gram-positive bacteria, are used to make antibiotics, including tetracycline and streptomycin. these bacteria are called actinomycetes. Antibiotics kill other gram-positive bacteria by preventing them from making proteins and they affect only the growth of bacteria without harming the body cells of humans. Gram-positive bacteria cause many human diseases, including scarlet fever, toxic shock syndrome, and pneumonia.
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Gram-negative bacteria have an extra layer of lipid on the outside of the cell wall and appear pink after gram staining. The extra lipid layer becomes dehidrated by the alcohol and the purple stain is readily extracted from the cell. A gram-negative cell will lose its outer lipopolysaccharide membrane and the inner peptidoglycan layer is left exposed. So they do absorb the pink stain, so they are easily distinguished with a microscope.

The extra lipid layer also stops many antibiotics from entering the bacteria. treatment for these requires a different antibiotic than those used for infections caused by grampositive bacteria.

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The cell wall of bacteria is dynamic and extremely important for several reasons: 1. They are an essential structure for viability; protects the cell protoplast from mechanical damage and from osmotic rupture or lysis.

2. They are composed of unique components found nowhere else in nature.

3. They are one of the most important sites for attack by antibiotics. 4. They provide ligands for adherence and receptor sites for drugs or viruses.

5. They cause symptoms of disease in humans and animals.

6. They provide for immunological distinction and immunological variation among strains of bacteria. 7. They can be modified to protect the cell against harsh environmental conditions like heat, pH, antimicrobials, etc.

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Chromosome- where the bacteriums genetic information is contained. It is a crucial tool for genetic fingerprinting.

Cytoplasm- is where the function for cell growth, metabolism, and replication are carried out. It is composed of water, enzymes, nutrients, metabolic wastes, and gases; it also contains the ribosomes, chromosomes, and plasmids. As mentioned before, the cell envelope encases the cytoplasm and all its components.
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Flagella - are hair-like structures that serve as propellers to help bacterium move toward nutrients and away from toxic chemicals. This structure can be found at either or both ends or all over the bacterium surface and serve as antigen (Hantigen) for serotyping. Also, this organelle is a contributor for biofilm formation.

Pili and fimbriae- many species of bacteria have these small hair-like projections emerging from the outside cell surface. Its function is to assist in attaching to other cells and surfaces. Specialized pili are used for passing nuclear material between bacterial cells (conjugation).
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Plasmid - short length of extra-chromosomal genetic structure (circles or loops) which are carried by many strains of bacteria. They are not involved in reproduction but replicate independently of the chromosome and are instrumental in the transmission of special properties, such as antibiotic drug resistance, resistance to heavy metals, and virulence factors necessary for infection of animal and human hosts. Plasmids are extremely useful tools in the area of genetic engineering.

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Ribosomes - these are organelles that translate the genetic code DNA to amino acids which are the building blocks of proteins. They are also an important tool in the fields of molecular biology and genetics.

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Spores

- produced by some species and they are resistant to hostile conditions such as heat and drying. They serve as survival mechanisms when environmental conditions are not suitable for growth and replication. The original cell replicates its genetic material, and one copy of this becomes surrounded by a tough coating. The outer cell then disintegrates, releasing the spore which is now well protected against a variety of trauma, including extremes of heat and cold, radiation, and an absence of nutrients, water, or air.

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Molds, some yeasts and some bacteria can form spores. In molds and yeasts, sporulation is associated with reproduction (and multiplication), whereas in bacteria it is a process of survival in an unfavorable environment. Among the spores, bacterial spores have special significance in foods, because of their resistance to many processing and preservation treatments used in food. Compared with bacterial spores, molds and yeast spores are less resistant to such treatments.

Mold spores

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Fungi
A fungus is a member of a large group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts and molds, as well as the more familiar mushrooms.

The Kingdom Fungi includes some of the most important organisms, both in terms of their ecological and economic roles. By breaking down dead organic material, they continue the cycle of nutrients through ecosystems. In addition, most vascular plants could not grow without the symbiotic fungi, or mycorrhizae, that inhabit their roots and supply essential nutrients.

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Other fungi provide numerous drugs (such as penicillin and other antibiotics), foods like mushrooms, truffles and morels, and the bubbles in bread, champagne, and beer.

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Yeast
Yeasts are unicellular, although some species with yeast forms may become multicellular through the formation of a string of connected budding cells known as pseudohyphae, or false hyphae, as seen in most molds. Yeast size can vary greatly depending on the species, typically measuring 34 m in diameter, although some yeasts can reach over 40 m.

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Molds
Molds are microscopic fungi that live on plant or animal matter. Most are filamentous (threadlike) organisms and the production of spores is characteristic of fungi in general.

These spores can be transported by air, water, or insects.

Unlike bacteria that are on e-celled, molds are made of many cells (multicellular) and can sometimes be seen with the naked eye. Under a microscope, they look like skinny mushrooms. In many molds, the body consists of: root threads that invade the food it lives on, a stalk rising above the food, and

spores that form at the ends of the stalks.

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