Reading selections for ID-1112

Students name:__________________________________ Teacher:________________________ Section:________

January 2011

Reading selections for ID-1112 version 2011

Selections have been compiled from Reading Selections for ID-1111 (St.Louis & Pereira, 2005) and Reading Selections for ID-1112 ( Cartaya, Ferrari & Pereira, 2006) Original exercises contributed by Noela Cartaya Yris Casart Virna Ferrari Dafne Gonzlez Clia Guido Berta Leiva Marianela Najul Silvia Pereira Juan Pino Ana Mara Posada Magaly Rodrguez Mara Luisa Rosenblat
Wilfredo Sequera

Carlos Torrealba Marta Tras

Departamento de Idiomas Universidad Simn Bolvar Apartado 89.000 Caracas 1080A, Venezuela (212) 906-3780 phone

Copyright 2008 Noela Cartaya, Virna Ferrari and Silvia Pereira for the compilation, adaptation and edition. Editing and formatting Rubena St.Louis and Carlos Mayora Proof-reading by Yris Casart

The materials in this reading guide have been written, adapted and/or selected for their value in helping university students become better readers of science and technology English texts. Credit for selections is given to the respective copyright holders. Please get in touch with us if you think credit is due for any particular section. This guide is solely intended for compulsory academic use in the course ID-1112. Commercialization outside the USB is strictly prohibited.

Table of Contents
The Definition of Learning ............................................................................................... 1 Exercises ....................................................................................................................... 2 What is a Predator? .......................................................................................................... 4 Exercises ....................................................................................................................... 5 Classification of Matter .................................................................................................... 6 Exercises ....................................................................................................................... 7 The Nutrients in Food ...................................................................................................... 9 Exercises ..................................................................................................................... 11 The Branches of Mathematics ........................................................................................ 13 Exercises ..................................................................................................................... 14 How Male and Female Brains Differ ............................................................................. 16 Exercises ..................................................................................................................... 19 Waterproof Coats: ........................................................................................................... 20 Exercises ..................................................................................................................... 21 Biography Albert Einstein ......................................................................................... 22 Exercises ..................................................................................................................... 24 Biography Ernest Rutherford .................................................................................... 25 Exercises ..................................................................................................................... 28 A brief history of the iPod............................................................................................... 29 Exercises ..................................................................................................................... 31 Internet history............................................................................................................... 33 Exercises ..................................................................................................................... 34 The oceanic cycle ............................................................................................................. 36 Exercises ..................................................................................................................... 37 Clouds in the greenhouse ............................................................................................... 39 Exercises ..................................................................................................................... 41 How to make ice in five minutes .................................................................................... 43 Exercises ..................................................................................................................... 43 Aye-aye ............................................................................................................................ 45 Grubs on tap for the aye-aye .......................................................................................... 46 Exercises ..................................................................................................................... 47 Exercises ..................................................................................................................... 51 What causes tsunamis? .................................................................................................. 53 Exercises ..................................................................................................................... 54

Before reading Discussion: Look at these questions and discuss your ideas with your classmates. 1. Do you think there is a link between intelligence and our ability to learn? 2. How would you describe an intelligent person? 3. How would you define learning? Skimming: Read the first line of each paragraph of the text. Is the authors definition of learning different or similar to yours? In what ways?

The Definition of Learning

Learning may be defined as the process whereby an organism changes its behavior as a result of experience. Because this definition is deceptively simple, we should look closely at its various components. The idea that learning involves change in an organism means that learning takes time. To measure learning, we compare the way in which the organism behaves at Time I with the way it behaves at Time II under similar circumstances. If the behavior under similar circumstances differs on the two occasions, we may infer that learning has occurred. Further, it is change in behavior that occurs in the process of learning. Changes in physical characteristics, such as height and weight, do not count as learning. Neither do changes in physical strength, such as lifting ability, which occur as a result of physiological change in the size of muscles or the efficiency of circulatory and respiratory processes. Learning is what we infer has taken place when the behavior of animals, including humans, has changed. Behavior refers to some action, muscular or glandular, and combinations of these actions. The verbal behavior is of prime interest, because from the writing and speaking actions of humans we can determine whether changes in those behaviors have taken place. The changes from da-da to father, from an essay about How I Feel Today to one about Transcendental Meditation, and from writing shool to writing school enable us to infer that learning has taken place. The overt behaviors of talking, writing, moving, and the like, allow us to study the psychological behaviors of interest to us thinking, feeling, wanting, remembering, problemsolving, creativity, and so on. The overt behavior of the organism pigeon or schoolage child, worm or teacher is always our starting point. Some psychologists focus only on overt behavior. They are often called behaviorists. Other psychologists regard overt behavior as a clue for inferring what goes on in a person's mind. They are often called cognitive psychologists. But all psychologists need to value overt behavior in order to determine if change has occurred. Typically, in school learning, the change in behavior refers to the ability to remember or comprehend various things and the tendency to have certain kinds of attitudes and values, of the kind set forth in statements of educational objectives. The final component of the definition of learning is as a result of experience. The term experience limits the kinds of changes in behavior that can be considered to

represent learning. The limitation is important and difficult to define. Usually the limitation is made by pointing to various causes of change in behavior that should not be considered to reflect experience. We have already referred to some of these kinds of change in our attempt to specify behavior. Thus, behavior changes resulting from fatigue, sensory adaptation, drugs, and mechanical forces are not considered to be changes caused by experience and hence are not considered to reflect learning. So, if a person lifts a 50-pound weight repeatedly, he eventually must do it more slowly and finally become incapable of continuing to lift the weight; the change in his behavior would be due to fatigue, a physiological process. When a person enters a darkened room, she gradually sees more clearly; this change in her behavioral capability resulting from dilation of the pupil and photochemical changes in the retina. It is also considered to be physiological and does not represent learning. Changes in behavior because of the ingestion of alcohol or other drugs are not considered to represent learning because they also reflect physiological changes. Changes resulting from being pushed or tripped are mechanical changes, not learning. Another process that produces change in behavior, for reasons other than learning is maturation. Behavioral change is attributed to maturation if it is due to changes that occur in the normal process of the organism's physiological growth and development. Walking and talking develop in human beings to a large extent because of such maturation rather than through learning. A certain level of maturity is prerequisite to learning to talk, although experience with talking adults is necessary to capitalize on the readiness brought about through maturation. After all of the foregoing types of changes (i.e., those resulting from physiological, mechanical, and maturational processes) have been excluded from the category of those reflecting learning, what kinds of changes in behavior remain to be included? The answer is that learning results from experience with the environment whereby relationships between stimuli and responses are established.
Taken from: Gage, N.L. & Berliner, D.C (1975). Educational Psychology. Chicago: Rand McNally Publishing Co.

Exercises References What do the following words in italics refer to in the text? Par. Line 1. 1 1 organism changes its behavior 2. 4 12 They are often called behaviorists 3. 6 2 if it is due to changes

____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________

Vocabulary Each of the following sentences has a word underlined. Select the best replacement from the words found in the box. Write the letter in the space provided. 1. Learning may be defined as the process whereby an organism changes its behavior as a result of experience. _____ 2. This definition has various components. _____ 3. We can infer that learning has taken place when there has been a change in behavior. _____ 4. Behavior refers to some action, muscular or glandular, and the combination of these actions. _____ 5. All psychologists need to value overt behavior to determine if change has occurred. _____ a. allows to e. deduce After reading Select the correct alternative for the following questions. 1. Which of the following cannot be considered learning: a. Overt changes in behavior b. Accomplishment of educational objectives c. Behavioral changes produced by physiological growth d. Experiences which establish stimulus-response relationships 2. Which of the following is a result of learning: a. psychological changes b. behavioral changes c. mechanical changes d. physical changes 3. Which of the following is an example of learning: a. gaining two kilos b. lifting a heavy box c. speaking d. breathing The authors purpose in writing this article is to________________________________. He does this by _______________________________________________________________. b. elements f. observable c. cognitive g. through which d. deals with h. as a result

Before reading What do you know about predators? Can you think of any animals that live by predation? Write your ideas in the space provided. Check your ideas against the authors as you read. What they do What predators are

Predator

What is a Predator?
In the broadest sense of the word predators are organisms that eat all or parts of other live organisms as an energy source. By this definition any consumer organism is a predator, and herbivores as well as carnivores are included. Here we will restrict the definition of predator to an animal whose feeding removes the prey individual from the population. Because of this removal, the prey taken no longer will deplete further the resources used by the prey population or contribute to their growth in numbers. Although grazing herbivores that do not destroy their prey require different theoretical treatment than is given in this chapter, they will be included in the discussion of predator strategies where useful. However, consumer organisms that move plant reproductive parts to new areas are not included. A fruit-eating bird, for instance, that disperses the seed of a plant is not a predator in the same sense as a beetle larva that destructively eats a seed. Parasites are not included because they usually have evolved a sufficiently close relation with their normal host to allow it to remain alive and continue to provide them with energy. Parasitoids, organisms that are parasitic but kill the host, albeit gradually, are, however, usually included in predator-prey discussions. The adult parasitoid locates the host or prey and lays an egg in or on the host. The larva then parasitizes and eventually kills the host. Thus different stages of the life cycle of the parasitoid are responsible for finding and killing the prey and the time lag from attack to death is usually considered as minimal in classical predator-prey interactions.

Taken from: McNaughton, S.J. & Wolf, L.L. (1973). General Ecology. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, Inc.

Exercises References. What do the following words in italics refer to in the text? Line 1. 2. 3. 4. 6 7 12 13 Word contribute to their growth destroy their prey included because they normal host to allow it to Answer ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________

Vocabulary. Match the words in column A with their meaning in column B by writing the corresponding number in the space provided. A 1. broadest 2. source 3. prey B a. to lessen markedly in quantity, content, power, or value b. having ample extent from side to side or between limits c. to stay in the same place or with the same person or group d. an animal taken by a predator as food e. a point of origin f. to a greater degree or extent Match _____ _____

_____ _____ _____ _____

4. deplete 5. further 6. remain

Checking comprehension of text Based on the information in the text, indicate if the following sentences are True (T) or False (F). 1. A herbivore is a predator in a broad sense of the term. 2. Parasitoids are considered predators while parasites are not. Finally, what are the definitions of predator given in the text? 1. Broad: (T) (F). (T) (F).

2. Restricted:

Before reading Discuss the following questions with a classmate. What do you know about matter? If you were told to classify matter, how would you do it? What criteria would you use? Put your ideas in the graphic organizer.

What it is

Matter

How I would classify it

Now skim the text. Did you and the author use the same criteria? ________

Classification of Matter
Matter exists in countless different forms, and it is necessary to develop broad categories for its description. For example, it is generally classified into the categories substance and mixture. Particularly important among substances are those that cannot be made into simpler materials either by physical or chemical changes, that is, not by heating, cooling, crushing, exposing to acids, and so on. These substances are the chemical elements. At present, 106 different elements are known. They range from such common materials as iron, copper, silver, and gold to uncommon ones such as lutetium, promethium, and thulium. About 90 of the elements can be extracted from natural sources; the rest have been created through nuclear processes. A complete listing of the elements is presented on the inside back cover. A special tabular arrangement known as the periodic table is shown on the inside front cover. Chemical compounds comprise a second class of substances. These are chemical combinations of two or more elements. Clearly, the potential number of different combinations of the 106 elements is enormous. The number of chemical compounds now known is in the millions, ranging in complexity from ordinary water to the protein hemoglobin. Chemical compounds retain their identities during physical changes but can be separated into their component elements by appropriate chemical changes. The composition and properties of an element or a compound are uniform throughout a given sample and from one sample to another. Elements and compounds are said to be pure and are called substances. Some mixtures of substances also have compositions and properties that are uniform throughout a given sample but variable from one sample to another. These are homogeneous mixtures or solutions. A homogeneous mixture can be separated into its two or more components by appropriate physical changes. Ordinary air is a solution of several gases, principally the elements nitrogen and oxygen. Seawater is a solution of the compounds water, sodium chloride (salt), and a host of others.

In some mixtures sand and water, for example the components separate into physically distinct regions. As a result, the composition and physical properties vary from one part of the mixture to another. Such mixtures are said to be heterogeneous. Samples of matter ranging from a glass of iced tea to a slab of concrete to the leaf of a plant are heterogeneous.
Taken from: Perucci, R.(1982). General chemistry: Principles and Modern Applications.(3rd edition). New York: Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc.

Exercises References. What do the words in italics refer to in the text?

Paragraph Line 1 1 1 2 3 2 4 7 6 6

Word categories for its description are those that cannot be made They range from such common separated into their component separated into its two

Answer _____________________ ______________________ ______________________ ______________________ ______________________

Vocabulary Find the following words in the text and match them to their synonym from the box below. Paragraph 1 1 1 3 4 Word develop broad through several distinct Synonym _____________________________________ _____________________________________ _____________________________________ _____________________________________ _____________________________________

extensive various

different elaborate

by same

How is matter classified? Use the information in the text to show this classification on the graphic organizer below. Give an example (Ex.)

Ex.

Ex.

Ex.

Ex.

Checking comprehension Using the chart above, decide if these statements are True (T) or False (F). Circle your choice. 1. 2. 3. 4. Substances are made up of elements and compounds. Mixtures are divided into heterogeneous and homogeneous. Ordinary air is a good example of a solution. Solutions are homogeneous mixtures. (T) (T) (T) (T) (F) (F) (F) (F)

After reading activity Select the correct option to complete the statement below. The author wrote this text to: a. b. c. d. define matter define and describe matter show how matter is classified compare and contrast types of matter

Before reading Work with a partner or in a small group and write as many words as possible for each of these categories. Then skim the text to find any you may have missed. Fruits Vegetables

Nutrients in foods
Meats Starches

What is the importance of these foods to our daily diet? There are 13 paragraphs in this text. Read the first line of each and underline the topic sentence. Then read the first and last paragraph of the text. Whats the main idea?

The Nutrients in Food

Nutrients are the parts of food that are important for life and health. Nutrients are important for three reasons. First, some nutrients provide fuel for energy. Second, some nutrients build and repair body tissues. Third, some nutrients help control different processes of the body like the absorption of minerals and the clotting of blood. Scientists think there are 40 to 50 nutrients. These nutrients are divided into five general groups: carbohydrates, fats, proteins, minerals, and vitamins. The first group of nutrients is carbohydrates. There are two kinds of carbohydrates: starches and sugars. Bread, potatoes, and rice are starches. They have many carbohydrates: candy, soft drinks, jelly, and other foods with sugar also have carbohydrates. Carbohydrates are important because they provide the body with heat and energy. Sugar, for instance, is 100 percent energy. It has no other food value. Sugar does not build body tissues or control body processes. If there are too many carbohydrates in the body, they are stored as body fat. The body stores fuel as fat. There are two types of fats: animal and vegetable. Butter, cream, and the fat in bacon are animal fats. Olive oil, corn oil, and peanut oil are vegetable fats. The body has fat under the skin and around some of the organs inside. The average adult has 10 to 11 kilograms (20 to 25 pounds) of body fat. If adults eat too many carbohydrates and fats,

10

they can add another 45 kilograms (100 pounds) to their bodies. Fat is extra fuel. When the body needs energy, it changes the fat into carbohydrates. The carbohydrates are used for energy. Fat also keeps the body warm. The third group of nutrients is proteins. The word protein comes from a Greek word that means of first importance. Proteins are of first importance because they are necessary for life. Proteins are made of amino acids which build and repair body tissue. They are an important part of all the muscles, organs. Skin, and hair. The body has 22 different amino acids. Nutritionists call eight of these amino acids essential because the body does not manufacture them. There are two kinds or proteins: complete proteins and incomplete proteins. Complete proteins, which the body needs for growth, have all the essential amino acids. Meat, fish, poultry, eggs, milk, and cheese have complete proteins. The body needs complete proteins every day. Incomplete proteins do not have all the essential amino acids. The proteins in vegetables and grains, for instance, are incomplete proteins. Two ways to form complete proteins from incomplete proteins are: (1) to mix vegetables and grains correctly or (2) to add a small amount of meat or milk to a large amount of grains. The body can then use the complete proteins which result from the mixtures. Extra protein in the body can be changed to fat and stored as body fat. It can also be changed to carbohydrates and used for energy. If people do not eat enough carbohydrates and fats for the energy that they need, their body uses proteins for energy. Then the body does not have the proteins that it needs to build and repair tissues. A nutritious diet includes carbohydrates and fat for energy, and proteins for growth. The fourth group of nutrients is minerals. More than twenty different minerals are in the body. Three of the most important minerals are calcium, phosphorus, and iron. Calcium and phosphorus work together. The bones and the teeth, have 99 percent of the calcium in the body. If people have enough calcium and phosphorus, their bones and teeth will be strong and hard. In addition, muscles, nerves and heart will work correctly. Milk and hard cheeses are the best sources of calcium. After the age of 19, people need 400 to 500 milligrams of calcium a day. People who do not drink three glasses of milk daily can eat 50 hamburgers or 56 apples to get the calcium they need. Iron is the mineral that makes blood look red. All lean meats have iron; liver is an especially good source of iron. Whole grains, nuts, some vegetables, and dried fruits also have iron. If there is not enough iron in their diets, people will get a disease that is commonly called anemia. Anemia is found all over the world. People with anemia do not have enough iron in their blood. Because iron carries oxygen, people who do not have enough iron do not get enough oxygen for their normal activities. Their hearts beat faster so their bodies can get more oxygen. People who have anemia often get tired easily. Sometimes their skin looks white: it does not look pink and healthy. Nutritionists think there are thirteen vitamins that humans need. Vitamins are important because they prevent diseases and help control body processes. Vitamin A is important for healthy skin and eyes. People who do not have enough vitamin A may have night blindness. Some automobile accidents happen in the evening because people who lack vitamin A do not see the road well after they look at the bright

11

headlights of a car. Vitamin A in the diet comes from deep yellow fruits and vegetables, dark green leafy vegetables, and whole milk. When people have enough B vitamins, their appetite is good and their nerves are calm. B vitamins in the diet come from some meats and vegetables, milk, cottage cheese, and whole grains. When a grain is processed, it loses vitamins. For example, there is a big difference between brown and white rice. When rice is processed, the brown outside is lost. The brown outside of rice has an important B vitamin which white rice lacks. In short, brown rice has more B vitamins than processed rice. Vitamin C keeps the cells of the body together. It helps skin tissue recover from cuts and burns. Vitamin C in the diet comes from tomatoes, citrus fruits like lemons and oranges, and some vegetables such as cabbage and green peppers. Vitamin D is called the sunshine vitamin. When people sit outside, ultraviolet rays from the sun change a fat in their skin to vitamin D. Vitamin D is also in cod liver oil and the yellow of eggs. It is sometimes added to milk. Vitamin D helps the body absorb calcium. It helps build strong bones, and it prevents a disease in children that is called rickets. When children have this disease, their bones bend because they do not become hard. Rickets is seldom found in sunny, tropical countries. Rickets is more common in countries that have long winters with little sunshine, in cities that have pollution that keeps the sun out, and in towns surrounded by mountains that keep the sun out. There is no one food that is essential, but there are nutrients that are necessary for good health. If people want to be healthy and active, they need to get all the essential nutrients. A healthy body needs carbohydrates, fats, proteins, minerals, and vitamins.
Taken from: Sonka, A. (1981). Skillful Reading. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, p. 91

The main idea of the article is: ___________________________________________________

Exercises Read the questions below then scan the text to find the answers. 1. What is the difference between complete and in complete proteins? 2. Why is a diet low in carbohydrates and fats unhealthy for a child? 3. Which of these two is more nutritious: brown or white rice? Why? 4. Why would it be advisable for children who live in cold countries or in very large industrialized cities to take vitamin D supplements?

12

Fill in the chart with the information found in the text. Give examples of local foods when possible.
Carbohydrates Fats Minerals Vitamins Proteins

starches

vegetable

phosphorus

After reading Using the chart above, select the foods you would choose for your diet.

Discussion. Talk to your classmates about the following: What differences might there be in a diet for: a young child, an adult and an elderly person. What advice would you give to someone with the following problems: Cuts that take long to heal Poor appetite and nervous tension Loose teeth and fragile bones Lack of energy, feelings of tiredness.

13

Before reading What is Mathematics? How many areas of mathematics do you know? ____________ What do these images represent and how are they related to Mathematics? How many of the words in the box can you match to the images below.

a. angle b. circle

c. cube d. plane

e. square f. triangle

Skim the text. How many areas of mathematics are mentioned in the text. ______

The Branches of Mathematics

Mathematics is an essential and fascinating branch of human knowledge. It has important uses in many areas of modern life, including science, industry, and business. Mathematics can be defined simply as the study of quantities and relations. It uses numbers and symbols to do this. This definition, however, does not explain that mathematics can be divided into many different branches. There are at least eight areas of math generally studied by elementary, secondary, and college students: arithmetic, algebra, geometry, trigonometry, analytic geometry, calculus, probability, and statistics. Arithmetic can be divided into four basic operations: addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. It is the simplest branch of math and is usually studied in school. After arithmetic, students usually study algebra. Algebra is more general than arithmetic. It uses letters such as x and y to find unknown numbers. One interesting invention of algebra is logarithms. They are usually found by referring to a logarithm table. Geometry is generally learned in secondary schools. This branch of math deals with lines, angles, planes, and solids. For purposes of teaching, geometry is often divided into two branches, plane geometry and solid geometry. Plane geometry deals with shapes, such as circles and squares that lie on a flat surface. Such shapes are in two dimensions. Solid geometry deals with shapes that have three dimensions. Such shapes are spheres, cubes, and pyramids. The branch of math that deals with the relation between the sides and angles of triangles is trigonometry. Trigonometry also is often divided into two branches: plane

14

trigonometry and spherical trigonometry. Plane trigonometry deals with triangles on a flat surface. Spherical trigonometry deals with triangles on the surface of a sphere. Trigonometry is very useful to navigators, astronomers, and surveyors. Analytic geometry is the branch of math that applies algebra to geometry. It is often used by engineers and physicists. An example of analytic geometry is the drawing of a curved line to represent an algebraic equation (e.g. y = x2). The branch of math that deals with changing quantities is calculus. Calculus has many applications in all areas of science. Without calculus, the calculations necessary for landing on the moon could not have been made. Two final subdivisions of mathematics are probability and statistics. Probability is used to make predictions about whether something will happen, and has a wide range of applications. Statistics is used to analyze large bodies of numbers. It is used in all the sciences to organize and analyze masses of facts and draw conclusions from them.
Taken from: Drobnic, K., Abrams, S., & Murray, M. (1981). SCI Tech. Reading and writing: The English of science and technology. ELS Publications, p. 74.

Exercises Vocabulary. Using the dictionary Choose the best dictionary meaning for the words found in bold print. 1. This branch of math deals with lines, angles, planes, and solids. a. b. c. part of a complex body as an area of knowledge that may be considered a part from related areas a natural subdivision of a plant stem a division of an organization

2. This branch of math deals with lines, angles, planes, and solids. a. b. c. powered heavier-than-air aircraft that has fixed wings from which it derives most of its lift flat or level surface level of existence, consciousness, or development

3. Plane geometry deals with shapes, such as circles and squares that lie on a flat surface. a. b. c. a person who is conventional or conservative in taste or way of life the product of a number multiplied by itself a rectangle with all four sides equal

4. Plane geometry deals with shapes, such as circles and squares that lie on a flat surface. a. b. c. an apartment on one floor a deflated tire a level part

15

Creating a graphic organizer Using the information in the text, create your own graphic organizer to show the different branches of mathematics. Things to consider: a. What criteria does the author use to separate the different areas of mathematics? b. What examples does he give to illustrate them?

After reading activity How well did you select the information for your organizer? See if you can answer the questions that follow using only the information that is found there. 1. Which branch of mathematics a. is used for analyzing large amounts of data? _______________________ b. applies algebra to geometry? c. deals with changing quantities? _______________________ d. deals with lines, angles, planes and solids? _______________________ 2. What is the difference between: a. plane and solid geometry? b. plane and spherical trigonometry? ___________________________________ ___________________________________ _______________________

16

How Male and Female Brains Differ

Researchers reveal sex differences in the brain's form and function. Recent studies highlight a long-held suspicion about the brains of males and females. They're not the same. So how does the brain of a female look and function differently from a male's brain, and what accounts for these differences? Disparities Start Early in Life Scientists now know that sex hormones begin to exert their influence during development of the fetus. A recent study by Israeli researchers that examined male and female brains found distinct differences in the developing fetus at just 26 weeks of pregnancy. The disparities could be seen when using an ultrasound scanner. The corpus callosum the bridge of nerve tissue that connects the right and left sides of the brain had a thicker measurement in female fetuses than in male fetuses. Observations of adult brains show that this area may remain stronger in females. Females seem to have language functioning in both sides of the brain, says Martha Bridge Denckla, PhD, a research scientist at Kennedy Krieger Institute. Consider these recent findings. Researchers, using brain imaging technology that captures blood flow to working parts of the brain, analyzed how men and women process language. All subjects listened to a novel. When males listened, only the left hemisphere of their brains was activated. The brains of female subjects, however, showed activity on both the left and right hemispheres. This activity across both hemispheres of the brain may result in the strong language skills typically displayed by females. If there's more area dedicated to a set of skills, it follows that the skills will be more refined, says David Geary, PhD, professor of psychological sciences at the University of Missouri. As a whole, girls outperform boys in the use of language and fine motor skills until puberty, notes Denckla. Boys also fall prey to learning disabilities more frequently than girls. Clinics see a preponderance of boys with dyslexia, Denckla tells WebMD. ADHD also strikes more boys than girls. The symptoms displayed by girls and boys with ADHD differ, too. Girls with ADHD usually exhibit inattention, while affected boys are prone to lack of impulse control. But not all differences favor girls. Boys generally demonstrate superiority over female peers in areas of the brain involved in math and geometry. These areas of the brain mature about four years earlier in boys than in girls, according to a recent study that measured brain development in more than 500 children. Researchers concluded that when it comes to math, the brain of a 12-year-old girl resembles that of an 8-year-old boy. Conversely, the same researchers found that areas of the brain involved in language and fine motor skills (such as handwriting) mature about six years earlier in girls than in boys. So, do these sex differences even out over time?

17

Sex Differences in Adulthood Females and males maintain unique brain characteristics throughout life. Male brains, for instance, are about 10% larger than female brains. But bigger doesn't necessarily mean smarter. Disparities in how certain brain substances are distributed may be more revealing. Notably, male brains contain about 6.5 times more gray matter sometimes called 'thinking matter than women. Female brains have more than 9.5 times as much white matter, the stuff that connects various parts of the brain, than male brains. That's not all. The frontal area of the cortex and the temporal area of the cortex are more precisely organized in women, and are bigger in volume, Geary tells WebMD. This difference in form may explain a lasting functional advantage that females seem to have over males: dominant language skills. How Males and Females Use Mental Skills Geary suggests that women use language skills to their advantage. Females use language more when they compete. They gossip, manipulate information, he says. Geary suggests that this behavior, referred to as relational aggression, may have given females a survival advantage long ago. If the ability to use language to organize relationships was of benefit during evolutionary history, and used more frequently by women, we would expect language differences to become exaggerated, he tells WebMD. Women also use language to build relationships, theorizes Geary. Women pause more, allow the other friend to speak more, offer facilitative gestures, he says. When it comes to performing activities that require spatial skills, like navigating directions, men generally do better. Women use the cerebral cortex for solving problems that require navigational skills. Men use an entirely different area, mainly the left hippocampus -- a nucleus deep inside the brain that's not activated in the women's brains during navigational tasks, Geary tells WebMD. The hippocampus, he explains, automatically codes where you are in space. As a result, Geary says: Women are more likely to rely on landmark cues: they might suggest you turn at the 7-11 and make a right at the church, whereas men are more likely to navigate via depth reckoning go east, then west, etc. Emotional Reactions Differ, Too While the brain allows us to think, it also drives our emotions. It may not come as a surprise, then, that the ability to identify and control emotions varies between sexes. Women are faster and more accurate at identifying emotions, says Ruben Gur, PhD, a neurologist at the University of Pennsylvania. Studies have shown women to be more adept than men at encoding facial differences and determining changing vocal intonations.

18

Women, as a whole, may also be better than men at controlling their emotions. Gur and colleagues at the University of Pennsylvania recently discovered that sections of the brain used to control aggression and anger responses are larger in women than in men. Gender-Based Skills Overlap and Complement Recent studies that highlight sex-associated brain differences may lead us to believe that men and women have little in common upstairs. That's not the case. Men and women do have lots of brain areas that are the same, Geary tells WebMD. Moreover, members of both sexes excel at skills that are commonly labeled gender specific. All of these things have overlapping distributions. There are many women with betterthan-average spatial skills, and men with good writing skills, Geary says. Some researchers believe that nurturing one's brain can enhance what nature has provided. Consider, for instance, the general superiority of males' spatial abilities. There's a lot of evidence that we build up our brain's representation of space by moving through it, Denckla tells WebMD. As anyone who spends a significant time around children knows, boys tend to get a lot more practice moving through space chasing a ball, for instance than girls do. My hypothesis is that we could possibly erase this difference if we pushed girls out into the exploratory mode, Denckla says. She predicts that as more and more girls engage in sports traditionally reserved for boys, like soccer, the data on spatial ability will show fewer disparities between females and males. Others believe brain variations between sexes are for the best. Most of these differences are complementary. They increase the chances of males and females joining together. It helps the whole species, Gur says.
By Elizabeth Heubeck, MA. WebMD Feature Reviewed By Brunilda Nazario, MD SOURCES: Martha Bridge Denckla, PhD, research scientist, Kennedy Krieger Institute / David Geary, PhD, professor of psychological sciences, University of Missouri / Ruben Gur, PhD, neurologist, University of Pennsylvania. Published April 11, 2005. Taken from: http://my.webmd.com/content/Article/104/107367.htm

19

Exercises Working with graphic organizers Using the information in the text, create your own graphic organizer to show the differences that researchers have found in terms of the configuration of male and female brains. Things to consider: a. Keep in mind that differences between male and female brains are stated in terms of a set of skills. Be sure to represent your comparison/contrast based on that. b. What examples does the author give to illustrate the consequences of those differences?

20

Waterproof Coats:
Materials Repel Water with Simplicity, Style Scientists have long sought new coatings that zealously repel water. This week, publications describe two promising finds. Research from Japan shows that waterrepellant materials can also be decorative. In a separate report, Turkish researchers describe a way to convert a plastic into a new type of cheap, easily produced waterproofing. Although their final coatings are different, both teams took their inspiration from naturefrom the wings of a butterfly and the leaves of the lotus plant. The microscopically rough surfaces of these organisms prevent water drops from flattening, so the drops roll off and carry away dirt. Because water beads so well on these surfaces, they're called superhydrophobic. Using the brilliantly blue Morpho sulkowskyi butterfly as their model, Zhong-Ze Gu of the Kanagawa Academy of Science and Technology in Japan and his coworkers designed a synthetic superhydrophobic coating in a variety of bright colors. The microstructure of the insect's wings not only shuns water but also scatters and diffracts light to create an iridescent color.

RAIN COAT. Water beads atop a new hydrophobic material (above) modeled after the wings of the Morpho sulkowskyi butterfly (below). In both cases, a rough microstructure shuns water. Gu et al., Angew. Chem. Int. Ed.

Similarly, the microstructure of the new, decorative coating repels water while producing striking colors. Gu's team made the material by permitting 6-nanometer-wide silica particles and several-hundredmicrometer-wide polystyrene spheres to assemble into a film. The researchers then heated the film to remove the polystyrene, leaving the silica particles uniformly spaced with air gaps between them. To this rough surface, the scientists added a layer of fluoroalkylsilane, a commercially available waterproofing compound. The researchers describe the procedure in the Feb. 24 Angewandte Chemie International Edition. The bumpy topography enhanced the fluoroalkylsilane's water-repelling power, says Gu. By varying the distance between air gaps, the team created materials in colors ranging from red to blue and versions with no apparent color. It's a very clever trick, comments Manoj K. Chaudhury of Lehigh University in Bethlehem, Pa. The new technique may lead to self-cleaning photonic crystals for decoration and optical circuitry, adds Ray Baughman of the University of Texas at Dallas. The new material may also provide a colorful, self-cleaning coating for cameras or windows, says Gu. It would be environmentally friendly because no organic dye would

21

be required to create color and no detergent would be needed to clean the surface, he adds. The Turkish research team set its sights on low-cost coatings that are easy to make and use. In the Feb. 28 Science, A. Levent Demirel of Ko University in Istanbul and researchers at Kocaeli University report that they've created a superhydrophobic coating from a low-cost, widely produced plastic called isotactic polypropylene, or iPP. Making the coating is simple, inexpensive, and time-saving, says Demirel. The Turkish group dissolved iPP in organic solvents, dropped the solution onto glass slides, and then evaporated the solvents. This procedure produced a porous plastic film that, when viewed with a microscope, resembles a bird's nest made of branched and intermingled sticks and bumps, the researchers report. Just as they do on rough lotus leaves, water drops readily bead up on the rough plastic coating.
Jessica Gorman Science News Online. Week of March 1, 2003; Vol. 163, No. 9, p. 132 Taken from: http://www.sciencenews.org/articles/20030301/fob4.asp

Exercises Skimming Skim the text and answer: a. What two things are being compared in this article? _____________________________________________________________________________ b. How are they similar? _____________________________________________________________________________ c. How are they different? _____________________________________________________________________________

Vocabulary 1. If you look up the term superhydrophobic in the dictionary, you are not going to find it. What to do? a. Try to guess the meaning of the term. _____________________________________________________________________________ b. Are there any contextual/morphological clues helped you identify its meaning? _____________________________________________________________________________ 2. What is the meaning of the term fluoroalkylsilane? Could you use the same clues to find out its meaning? ____________________________________________________________________________

22

Before reading What do you know about Albert Einstein? Inside the balloons, write key words or phrases to indicate what you know about him:

Nobel Prize in Physics 1921

Biography Albert Einstein

The Nobel Prize in Physics 1921
Albert Einstein was born at Ulm, in Wrttemberg, Germany, on March 14, 1879. Six weeks later the family moved to Munich and he began his schooling there at the Luitpold Gymnasium. Later, they moved to Italy and Albert continued his education at Aarau, Switzerland and in 1896 he entered the Swiss Federal Polytechnic School in Zurich to be trained as a teacher in physics and mathematics. In 1901, the year he gained his diploma, he acquired Swiss citizenship and, as he was unable to find a teaching post, he accepted a position as technical assistant in the Swiss Patent Office. In 1905 he obtained his doctor's degree. During his stay at the Patent Office, and in his spare time, he produced much of his remarkable work and in 1908 he was appointed Privatdozent in Berne. In 1909 he became Professor Extraordinary at Zurich, in 1911 Professor of Theoretical Physics at Prague, returning to Zurich in the following year to fill a similar post. In 1914 he was appointed Director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Physical Institute and Professor in the University of Berlin. He became a German citizen in 1914 and remained in Berlin until 1933 when he renounced his citizenship for political reasons and emigrated to America to take the position of Professor of Theoretical Physics at Princeton*. He became a United States citizen in 1940 and retired from his post in 1945. After World War II, Einstein was a leading figure in the World Government Movement, he was offered the Presidency of the State of Israel, which he declined, and he collaborated with Dr. Chaim Weizmann in establishing the Hebrew University of Jerusalem.

23

Einstein always appeared to have a clear view of the problems of physics and the determination to solve them. He had a strategy of his own and was able to visualize the main stages on the way to his goal. He regarded his major achievements as mere stepping-stones for the next advance. At the start of his scientific work, Einstein realized the inadequacies of Newtonian mechanics and his special theory of relativity stemmed from an attempt to reconcile the laws of mechanics with the laws of the electromagnetic field. He dealt with classical problems of statistical mechanics and problems in which they were merged with quantum theory: this led to an explanation of the Brownian movement of molecules. He investigated the thermal properties of light with a low radiation density and his observations laid the foundation of the photon theory of light. In his early days in Berlin, Einstein postulated that the correct interpretation of the special theory of relativity must also furnish a theory of gravitation and in 1916 he published his paper on the general theory of relativity. During this time he also contributed to the problems of the theory of radiation and statistical mechanics. In the 1920s, Einstein embarked on the construction of unified field theories, although he continued to work on the probabilistic interpretation of quantum theory, and he persevered with this work in America. He contributed to statistical mechanics by his development of the quantum theory of a monatomic gas and he has also accomplished valuable work in connection with atomic transition probabilities and relativistic cosmology. After his retirement he continued to work towards the unification of the basic concepts of physics, taking the opposite approach, geometrisation, to the majority of physicists. Einstein's researches are, of course, well chronicled and his more important works include Special Theory of Relativity (1905), Relativity (English translations, 1920 and 1950), General Theory of Relativity (1916), Investigations on Theory of Brownian Movement (1926), and The Evolution of Physics (1938). Among his non-scientific works, About Zionism (1930), Why War? (1933), My Philosophy (1934), and Out of My Later Years (1950) are perhaps the most important. Albert Einstein received honorary doctorate degrees in science, medicine and philosophy from many European and American universities. During the 1920s he lectured in Europe, America and the Far East and he was awarded Fellowships or Memberships of all the leading scientific academies throughout the world. He gained numerous awards in recognition of his work, including the Copley Medal of the Royal Society of London in 1925, and the Franklin Medal of the Franklin Institute in 1935. Einstein's gifts inevitably resulted in his dwelling much in intellectual solitude and, for relaxation, music played an important part in his life. He married Mileva Maric in 1903 and they had a daughter and two sons; their marriage was dissolved in 1919 and in the same year he married his cousin, Elsa Lwenthal, who died in 1936. He died on April 18, 1955 at Princeton, New Jersey.
Taken from: Nobel Lectures, Physics 1901-1921, Elsevier Publishing Company, Amsterdam, 1967. First published in the book series Les Prix Nobel. It was later edited and republished in Nobel Lectures. Copyright The Nobel Foundation 1921. Available at: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1921/einstein-bio.html

___________________ * Albert Einstein was formally associated with the Institute for Advanced Study located in Princeton,
New Jersey.

24

Exercises Working with the text Now that you have learnt a great deal about Albert Einstein, in the following table summarize the main aspects of his life: Born _________________________________________________________________ Lived in _________________________________________________________________ Nationalities _________________________________________________________________ Major field _________________________________________________________________ Level of instruction_________________________________________________________________ Known for _________________________________________________________________ Wrote _________________________________________________________________ Notable Prize ________________________________________________________________

Died _________________________________________________________________

When did Einstein realize the inadequacies of Newtonian Mechanics? become a Swiss citizen? decline the offer of becoming the President of Israel? .give lectures in Europe? _________________________________ _________________________________ _________________________________ _________________________________

Activities for this text were prepared by Prof. Magaly Rodrguez. Pictures were taken from www.wikipedia.com

25

Before reading Group and class discussion: Discuss the following questions in small groups. Then, if appropriate, discuss them with the whole class. 1. What do you know about Ernest Rutherford? Do you know why he was given the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1908? 2. What is the Nobel Prize in Chemistry? 3. Do you remember the name of another person who has won it? Classwork: Think about words that you believe you will find in the reading. Your teacher will write them on the board.

Biography Ernest Rutherford

The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1908 Ernest Rutherford was born on August 30, 1871, in Nelson, New Zealand, the fourth child and second son in a family of seven sons and five daughters. His father James Rutherford, a Scottish wheelwright, emigrated to New Zealand with Ernest's grandfather and the whole family in 1842. His mother, ne Martha Thompson, was an English schoolteacher, who, with her widowed mother, also went to live there in 1855. Ernest received his early education in Government schools and at the age of 16 entered Nelson Collegiate School. In 1889 he was awarded a University scholarship and he proceeded to the University of New Zealand, Wellington, where he entered Canterbury College*. He graduated M.A. in 1893 with a double first in Mathematics and Physical Science and he continued with research work at the College for a short time, receiving the B.Sc. degree the following year. That same year, 1894, he was awarded an 1851 Exhibition Science Scholarship, enabling him to go to Trinity College, Cambridge, as a research student at the Cavendish Laboratory under J.J. Thomson. In 1897 he was awarded the B.A. Research Degree and the Coutts-Trotter Studentship of Trinity College. An opportunity came when the Macdonald Chair of Physics at McGill University, Montreal, became vacant, and in 1898 he left for Canada to take up the post. Rutherford returned to England in 1907 to become Langworthy Professor of Physics in the University of Manchester, succeeding Sir Arthur Schuster, and in 1919 he accepted an invitation to succeed Sir Joseph Thomson as Cavendish Professor of Physics at Cambridge. He also became Chairman of the Advisory Council, H.M. Government, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research; Professor of Natural Philosophy, Royal Institution, London; and Director of the Royal Society Mond Laboratory, Cambridge.

26

Rutherford's first researches, in New Zealand, were concerned with the magnetic properties of iron exposed to high-frequency oscillations, and his thesis was entitled Magnetization of Iron by High-Frequency Discharges. He was one of the first to design highly original experiments with high-frequency, alternating currents. His second paper, Magnetic Viscosity, was published in the Transactions of the New Zealand Institute (1896) and contains a description of a time-apparatus capable of measuring time intervals of a hundred-thousandth of a second. On his arrival at Cambridge his talents were quickly recognized by Professor Thomson. During his first spell at the Cavendish Laboratory, he invented a detector for electromagnetic waves, an essential feature being an ingenious magnetizing coil containing tiny bundles of magnetized iron wire. He worked jointly with Thomson on the behaviour of the ions observed in gases which had been treated with X-rays, and also, in 1897, on the mobility of ions in relation to the strength of the electric field, and on related topics such as the photoelectric effect. In 1898 he reported the existence of alpha and beta rays in uranium radiation and indicated some of their properties. In Montreal, there were ample opportunities for research at McGill, and his work on radioactive bodies, particularly on the emission of alpha rays, was continued in the Macdonald Laboratory. With R.B. Owens he studied the "emanation" of thorium and discovered a new noble gas, an isotope of radon, which was later to be known as thoron. Frederick Soddy arrived at McGill in 1900 from Oxford, and he collaborated with Rutherford in creating the "disintegration theory" of radioactivity which regards radioactive phenomena as atomic not molecular processes. The theory was supported by a large amount of experimental evidence, a number of new radioactive substances were discovered and their position in the series of transformations was fixed. Otto Hahn, who later discovered atomic fission, worked under Rutherford at the Montreal Laboratory in 1905-06. At Manchester, Rutherford continued his research on the properties of the radium emanation and of the alpha rays and, in conjunction with H. Geiger, a method of detecting a single alpha particle and counting the number emitted from radium was devised. In 1910, his investigations into the scattering of alpha rays and the nature of the inner structure of the atom which caused such scattering led to the postulation of his concept of the "nucleus", his greatest contribution to physics. According to him practically the whole mass of the atom and at the same time all positive charge of the atom is concentrated in a minute space at the centre. In 1912 Niels Bohr joined him at Manchester and he adapted Rutherford's nuclear structure to Max Planck's quantum theory and so obtained a theory of atomic structure which, with later improvements, mainly as a result of Heisenberg's concepts, remains valid to this day. In 1913, together with H. G. Moseley, he used cathode rays to bombard atoms of various elements and showed that the inner structures correspond with a group of lines which characterize the elements. Each element could then be assigned an atomic number and, more important, the properties of each element could be defined by this number. In 1919, during his last year at Manchester, he discovered that the nuclei of certain light elements, such as nitrogen, could be "disintegrated" by the impact of energetic alpha particles coming from some radioactive source, and that during this process fast protons were emitted. Blackett later proved, with the cloud chamber, that the nitrogen

27

in this process was actually transformed into an oxygen isotope, so that Rutherford was the first to deliberately transmute one element into another. G. de Hevesy was also one of Rutherford's collaborators at Manchester. An inspiring leader of the Cavendish Laboratory, he steered numerous future Nobel Prize winners towards their great achievements: Chadwick, Blackett, Cockcroft and Walton; while other laureates worked with him at the Cavendish for shorter or longer periods: G.P. Thomson, Appleton, Powell, and Aston. C.D. Ellis, his co-author in 1919 and 1930, pointed out "that the majority of the experiments at the Cavendish were really started by Rutherford's direct or indirect suggestion". He remained active and working to the very end of his life. Rutherford published several books: Radioactivity (1904); Radioactive Transformations (1906), being his Silliman Lectures at Yale University; Radiation from Radioactive Substances, with James Chadwick and C.D. Ellis (1919, 1930) a thoroughly documented book which serves as a chronological list of his many papers to learned societies, etc.; The Electrical Structure of Matter (1926); The Artificial Transmutation of the Elements (1933); The Newer Alchemy (1937). Rutherford was knighted in 1914; he was appointed to the Order of Merit in 1925, and in 1931 he was created First Baron Rutherford of Nelson, New Zealand, and Cambridge. He was elected Fellow of the Royal Society in 1903 and was its President from 1925 to 1930. Amongst his many honours, he was awarded the Rumford Medal (1905) and the Copley Medal (1922) of the Royal Society, the Bressa Prize (1910) of the Turin Academy of Science, the Albert Medal (1928) of the Royal Society of Arts, the Faraday Medal (1930) of the Institution of Electrical Engineers, the D.Sc. degree of the University of New Zealand, and honorary doctorates from the Universities of Pennsylvania, Wisconsin, McGill, Birmingham, Edinburgh, Melbourne, Yale, Glasgow, Giessen, Copenhagen, Cambridge, Dublin, Durham, Oxford, Liverpool, Toronto, Bristol, Cape Town, London and Leeds. Rutherford married Mary Newton, only daughter of Arthur and Mary de Renzy Newton, in 1900. Their only child, Eileen, married the physicist R.H. Fowler. Rutherford's chief recreations were golf and motoring. He died in Cambridge on October 19, 1937. His ashes were buried in the nave of Westminster Abbey, just west of Sir Isaac Newton's tomb and by that of Lord Kelvin.
Taken from Nobel Lectures, Chemistry 1901-1921, Elsevier Publishing Company, Amsterdam, 1966. This biography was first published in the book series Les Prix Nobel. It was later edited and republished in Nobel Lectures. Copyright The Nobel Foundation 1908 Available at: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1908/rutherfordbio.html ___________________ * Canterbury College (now Canterbury University) was located in Christchurch, but was administered from the University of New Zealand, Wellington.

28

Exercises Group work. When you finish reading the article find out: 1. How many of the words on the board are in the reading? 2. Which ones you dont know? Find them in your dictionaries. References. What do the following words in italics refer to in the text? Paragraph 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 1 2 5 6 7 12 Line 7-8 12 3 4 9 2 Word
also went to live there in 1855. for Canada to take up the post. an essential feature being an ,which was later to be known theory of atomic structure which and by that of Lord Kelvin.

Answer _______________________ _______________________ _______________________ _______________________ _______________________ _______________________

Text organization. Make a timeline in which you show at least five of the most important events in t he life of Ernest Rutherford.

After reading Answer the following questions: 1. Why is Ernest Rutherford called an inspiring leader of the Cavendish Laboratory? 2. How many books did Ernest Rutherford write? 3. How many and which prizes did Ernest Rutherford win? Why did he win those prizes?
Activities for this text were prepared by Prof. Virna Ferrari.

29

Before reading 1. Quickly skim the text. Which kind of information do you think the text will provide about iPods? a. _____________________________________________________________ b. _____________________________________________________________ c. _____________________________________________________________ 2. How many types of iPods do you know? Can you describe what they have in common and which characteristics separate them from each other? iPods ______________________ ______________________ ______________________ ______________________ Characteristics ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________

A brief history of the iPod

Definition The iPod is a brand of portable media players designed and marketed by Apple Computer. Devices in the iPod family are designed around a central scroll wheel (except for the iPod shuffle) and the full-sized model stores media on an internal hard drive, while the smaller iPod nano and iPod shuffle use flash memory. Like many digital audio players, iPods can also serve as external data storage devices. Apple chose to focus its development on the iPod's simple user interface and its ease of use, rather than on technical capability. As of 2006, the lineup consists of the 5th generation iPod that plays videos; the smaller, second generation iPod nano; and the display-less iPod shuffle. These models were updated in 2006. The bundled software used for transferring music, photos and videos is called iTunes. As a jukebox application, iTunes stores a comprehensive library of music on the user's computer and can play, burn, and rip music from a CD. The most recent versions have photo and video synchronization features. These features open up the possibility of playing back standard definition quality television and movies from the iPod onto a television set. In addition to iTunes others sources of legal television content prepared for iPods include Mobovivo and Google. Many of these services work only in the US, including iTunes.

30

The iPod is currently the world's best-selling digital audio player and its worldwide mainstream adoption makes it one of the most popular consumer brands. Some of Apple's design choices and proprietary actions have, however, led to criticism and legal battles. History and design The iPod came from Apple's digital hub strategy, as the company began creating software for the growing market of digital devices purchased by consumers. While digital cameras, camcorders and organizers had well-established mainstream markets, the company found digital music players lacking in user interface and decided to develop its own. Tony Fadell, a former Philips executive in the company's Windows CE division, left Philips to create a hard drive based MP3 player and a music service. He founded a company, Fuse, to develop and sell the idea to major media companies. After RealNetworks turned him down, Apple accepted and they began developing the iPod in February 2001, one month after iTunes was released. It was announced to the public on 23 October 2001 as a Mac-compatible product with a 5 GB hard drive that put "1000 songs in your pocket." Uncharacteristically, Apple decided not to develop the iPod's software in-house. Instead, Apple used a Design Chain and contracted with PortalPlayer, who already had a reference design (based on 2 ARM cores) with rudimentary software running on top of a commercial microkernel embedded operating system. PortalPlayer had been working on an IBM-branded MP3 player with Bluetooth headphones. Apple contracted another company, Pixo, to create and refine the user interface, under the direct supervision of CEO Steve Jobs. Once established, Apple continued to refine the look-and-feel. Starting with the iPod mini, the Chicago font (once used on early Macintosh computers) was replaced with Espy Sans, which was originally used in eWorld and Copland. The most recent iPods have switched fonts again to Myriad Apple's new corporate font. The iPods with color displays adopted some Mac OS X themes like Aqua progress bars and brushed metal in the FM tuner and lock interfaces.

31

Each new generation usually has more features and refinements whilst typically being smaller and lighter than its predecessor. Notable changes include the touch sensitive wheel replacing the mechanical scroll wheel, color displays with anti-aliased text, and flash memory replacing hard disks. Their reliability has steadily improved, although there were some reported problems with the iPod shuffle. Discontinued iPods include four generations of the full-sized model, two generations of the iPod mini and the first generations of the nano and shuffle. The first generation iPods were Mac compatible only. Apple later added limited Windows support and, at this time, Windows users required third-party software such as Musicmatch Jukebox, ephPod or XPlay to manage the music on their iPods. Musicmatch was included on the bundled CD. From July 2004 and onwards, every iPod was made fully compatible with either Mac or Windows, after Apple released the Windows version of iTunes on 16 October 2003.
Source: IPod. (2006, November 29). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 19:27, November 29, 2006, from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IPod&oldid=90902589

Exercises Working with the text Now that you have read the text, go back to your answer to question 2 on page 14 and complete it with some new information the text might have given you about iPods. Chronology. Fill in the blanks below with the information given in the History and designsection. Date _____n/d_____ _____n/d_____ _____n/d_____ _____n/d_____ _____n/d_____ January 2001 ____________ ____________ ____________ Nowadays Event _____________________________________________________________ Tony Fadell left Philips________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________
Apple accepted to work with Tony Fadell on the development of his idea__

_____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ The iPod was announced to the public__________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________

32

Identify the words and phrases in the text that helped you complete the precedent activity. ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________

Look at the timeline included in the text and write down for each iPod model the information required. First launched Model (year) Generation Capacity iPod iPod photo iPod mini iPod nano iPod shuffle ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________

General comprehension. Now go to the last paragraphs of the text. Identify the differences between the first and last generations of iPods. Criteria ___ size____ ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ __reliability_ First generation iPods ________________________ ________________________ ________________________ ________________________ ________________________ ________________________ Last generation iPods ________________________ ________________________ ________________________ ________________________ ________________________ ________________________

Activities for this text were prepared by Prof. Clia Guido.

33

Before reading Before reading the text, discuss the following questions with your classmates and teacher. 1. What do you know about the history of the Internet? 2. Why, how, and when was the internet created? 3. How has the internet changed your daily life? Glossary. These are some acronyms that you will find in the text. ARPA IPTO ARPANET IP NCP CSNET NSFNET EUNET SAGE TPC Advanced Research Project Agency Information Processing Techniques Office The first internet Internet Protocol Network Control Program Computer Science Network National Science Foundation Network European Network

Internet history
The Internet is named after the Internet Protocol, the standard communications protocol used by every computer on the Internet. The Internet can powerfully leverage your ability to find, manage, and share information. Never before in human history has such a valuable resource been available to so many people at such little cost. You are incredibly lucky. The conceptual foundation for creation of the Internet was significantly developed by three individuals and a research conference, each of which changed the way we thought about technology by accurately predicting its future:

Vannevar Bush wrote the first visionary description of the potential uses for information technology with his description of the "memex" automated library system. Norbert Wiener invented the field of Cybernetics, inspiring future researchers to focus on the use of technology to extend human capabilities. The 1956 Dartmouth Artificial Intelligence conference crystallized the concept that technology was improving at an exponential rate, and provided the first serious consideration of the consequences. Marshall McLuhan made the idea of a global village interconnected by an electronic nervous system part of our popular culture.

34

In 1957, the Soviet Union launched the first satellite, Sputnik I, triggering US President Dwight Eisenhower to create the ARPA agency to regain the technological lead in the arms race. ARPA appointed J.C.R. Licklider to head the new IPTO organization with a mandate to further the research of the SAGE program and help protect the US against a space-based nuclear attack. Licklider evangelized within the IPTO about the potential benefits of a country-wide communications network, influencing his successors to hire Lawrence Roberts to implement his vision. Roberts led development of the network, based on the new idea of packet switching discovered by Paul Baran at RAND, and a few years later by Donald Davies at the UK National Physical Laboratory. A special computer called an Interface Message Processor was developed to realize the design, and the ARPANET went live in early October, 1969. The first communications were between Leonard Kleinrock's research center at the University of California at Los Angeles, and Douglas Engelbart's center at the Stanford Research Institute. The first networking protocol used on the ARPANET was the Network Control Program. In 1983, it was replaced with the TCP/IP protocol developed by Robert Kahn, Vinton Cerf, and others, which quickly became the most widely used network protocol in the world. In 1990, the ARPANET was retired and transferred to the NSFNET. The NSFNET was soon connected to the CSNET, which linked Universities around North America, and then to the EUnet, which connected research facilities in Europe. Thanks in part to the NSF's enlightened management, and fuelled by the popularity of the web, the use of the Internet exploded after 1990, causing the US Government to transfer management to independent organizations starting in 1995. And here we are.
Source: Internet history - One page summary. (2006, November 29). In Living Internet. Retrieved November 29, 2006 from: http://www.livinginternet.com/i/ii_summary.htm

Exercises Working with the text Vocabulary. The following words appear in paragraphs 1 and 2. Match each word with its corresponding synonym. It will help you to understand the text better. Word 1. leverage 2. ability 3. find 4. manage 5. share Synonym a. build up (v) b. communicate (v) c. discover (v) d. handle (v) e. influence (n) Match 1. _______________ 2. _______________ 3. _______________ 4. _______________ 5. _______________

35

6. resource 7. available 8. develop 9. research 10. accurately

f.

investigation (n)

6. _______________ 7. _______________ 8. _______________ 9. _______________ 10. ______________

g. on hand (adv) h. precisely (adv) i. j. skill (n) source (n)

References. What do these referents stand for in the text? Par. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 1 2 2 3 6 Line 4 2 3 6 1 Word You each its his it Answer _____________________________ _____________________________ _____________________________ _____________________________ _____________________________

Chronology. Fill in the following chart by tracing the history of the internet based on the information found in the article. Date 1956 ____________ ____________ 1983 ____________ 1995 Event _____________________________________________________________ Sputnik I was launched_______________________________________ ARPANET appeared__________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ ARPANET was retired________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________

Comprehension questions. Use your own words to answer the following questions. Do not copy from the text. 1. What is the internet protocol? 2. Name the three people who first contributed to the creation of the internet. 3. Explain the meaning of the following sentence taken from the article: each of which changed the way we thought about technology by accurately predicting its future (paragraph 2, lines 2-3).

Activities for this text were prepared by Prof. Silvia Pereira.

36

Before reading Look at the chart which accompanies the text. From the information given, can you determine: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. What is plankton? What is its function? Which factors influence plankton growth? How many different types of plankton are there? In which months there is an increase and a decrease in plankton?

Now read the text. See if your answers are correct. How many of your answers were correct? ________.

The oceanic cycle

The conditions in northern temperate regions serve as an example of an annual plankton cycle. The growth of the phytoplankton is dependent upon adequate amounts of required nutrients and light.

Temperature is not a critical factor because species with low temperature optima prevail during cold seasons and in low temperature areas. During the cold winter months, the nutrient situation is excellent in northern temperate oceans, but low light levels and complete mixing of water masses (i.e. unstabilized waters), which in the North Atlantic prevails down to several hundred meters, combine to give the phytoplankton population below the light zone. As a result no photosynthesis occurs and primary production is impossible. During spring, the upper water masses are warmed by the sun; this results in lighter water layers on top of colder, heavier ones (i.e. stabilized waters). The phytoplankton remain within the light zone; nutrients are

37

available; and a burst in phytoplankton population, consisting of diatoms (i.e. spring diatom bloom), occurs. The high population level falls quickly because the phytoplankton are consumed by the zooplankton whose numbers now increase. As dead organisms and feces sink, the upper water masses become depleted of plant nutrients, resulting in moderate production during the summer months. During the autumn months, cooling of nutrient-poor surface water layers makes them heavier and results in their mixing with deeper water rich in nutrients; an autumn increase in phytoplankton of short duration occurs. As the mixing of water masses extends far below the light zone during winter, primary production again diminishes. In polar regions only one summer maximum occurs, while in tropical areas the production is either uniform or irregular throughout the year.
Source: Encyclopedia Britannica, Macropedia, Vol. 14, 1984, p. 496.

Exercises Working with the text 1. Match the season in the left column with the event which occurs in the right column. a. Autumn b. Winter c. Spring d. Summer ______ ______ ______ ______ water is stabilized water is unstabilized visibility is in its lowest point zooplankton population rises

2. Read the statements below. Write a T if they are true and an F if they are false. Then change the information to make the false statements true. a. ____ b. ____ c. ____ d. ____ e. ____ f. ____ g. ____ h. ____ Enough nutrients and light help phytoplankton to grow. ________________________________________________________________ During the winter months, the nutrient situation is not very good. ________________________________________________________________ Low light levels and stabilized water combine during winter months. ________________________________________________________________ During spring, the phytoplankton population is below the light level. ________________________________________________________________ Phytoplankton population is high in spring months. ________________________________________________________________ The zooplankton population is wiped out by phytoplankton. ________________________________________________________________ Plant nutrients are reduced because of dead organisms and feces. ________________________________________________________________ In polar and tropical areas, the phytoplankton production is uniform throughout the year. ________________________________________________________________

38

3. Opposites. Write an antonym next to each of the following words from the text. adequate unstabilized available upper possible regular decrease (v) ______________________ ______________________ ______________________ ______________________ ______________________ ______________________ ______________________ low cold fall (v) heavier depleted (v) tropical ______________________ ______________________ ______________________ ______________________ ______________________ ______________________ ______________________

After reading 1. Why do you think the author wrote this text? To____________________. a. show that nutrients and light vary in temperate regions b. highlight that water masses are warmer during the summer c. describe northern temperate regions d. describe the annual plankton cycle 2. What information in the text led you to the answer?

________________________________________________________________________________

3.

Fill in the blanks with information from the text. Critical factors Seasons Winter Spring Summer Autumn Nutrients Light

Plankton production

____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________

Activities for this text were prepared by Profs. Dafne Gonzlez, Carlos Torrealba and Yris Casart.

39

Before reading Using the information found in the title of the text Clouds in the greenhouse, discuss with your classmates the following: 1. What is the greenhouse effect? 2. What is the link between clouds and this phenomenon? 3. How can you explain the title of the text?

Clouds in the greenhouse

As vexing as they are beautiful, clouds play an important role in Earth's planetary greenhouse. Clouds may be a delight to children lying in a field on a summer day, letting their imaginations bend the wispy shapes into ducks or boats or dinosaurs. But clouds can be a real pain in the neck for climate researchers.To understand why, consider again that summer day: If a big, fluffy cumulus cloud comes drifting by, it's usually good news for hot cloudwatchers. Low thick clouds cast a refreshing shadow and reflect sunlight back into space. They cool the planet and the people beneath them.

The complex role of clouds in Earth's energy balance. Credit: NASA/Langley.

On the other hand, high wispy clouds drifting by are less refreshing. Such clouds cast meager shadows and, because they are themselves cold, they trap heat radiated from the planet below. The air temperature near the ground might actually increase. It is this schizophrenic behavior that makes clouds so vexing to researchers who are trying to predict the course of climate change. Clouds are an important part of Earth's planetary greenhouse. Greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide and methane are perhaps more widely discussed, but clouds can do the same thing: they warm our planet by trapping heat beneath them. Yet unlike greenhouse gases, sunlight-reflecting clouds also have a cooling influence.

40

Furthermore, the air temperature, which is affected by clouds, in turn affects cloud formation. It's a circular relationship that makes climate research all the more difficult. "Clouds remain one of the largest uncertainties in the climate system's response to temperature changes," laments Bruce Wielicki, a scientist at NASA's Langley Research Center. "We need more data to understand how real clouds behave." How much sunlight do different kinds of clouds reflect? How much heat do they absorb? And how do they respond to ambient temperature changes? Wielicki is the principal investigator for an orbiting instrument that will answer some of these questions. "It's called CERES," he says, "short for Cloud and the Earth's Radiant Energy System." CERES is a package of three telescopes that watch our planet from Earth orbit. "One telescope is sensitive to ordinary sunlight," says Wielicki. "It tells us how much solar radiation is reflected from clouds or ice." The other two telescopes sense longerwavelength infrared heat. They reveal how much heat is trapped by clouds and how much of it escapes back to space. CERES is orbiting Earth now on board NASA's Terra satellite. The instrument was monitoring our planet last summer when a heat wave struck California and produced a remarkable surge in infrared radiation from that region. CERES revealed not only the infrared glow on the ground, but also how much of that heat was absorbed by the atmosphere -- key data for global warming studies. NASA's Aqua satellite, slated to launch on May 2nd, will soon carry another package of CERES telescopes to orbit. "Having CERES on board two satellites (Aqua and Terra) will help us cover the entire planet -- to study, for example, day-night variations in Earth's energy balance," explains Wielicki. CERES is a welcome development for scientists who are often forced to test their ideas about climate change using computer models -- models that may or may not faithfully represent our complicated planet. Using CERES, researchers can now examine some of those theories in the real world.

Clouds containing many aerosols (left) also contain many water droplets. Such clouds reflect light well. Clouds containing fewer aerosols (right) tend to harbor larger water droplets; they transmit more solar energy to the planet below.

41

For example, a group of scientists recently proposed an idea called the "iris hypothesis." They suggested that the canopy of clouds over the tropical Pacific Ocean recedes when the water's surface temperature increases. Fewer clouds would open a window through which heat could escape to space and thus cool the planet. Earth, they argued, has a natural response that counteracts rising temperatures -- a bit like an iris in a human eye dilating to adapt to low light. But does Earth really respond that way? Wielicki and other NASA scientists used CERES to test the idea. It turned out that such clouds did trap infrared heat. But even more so they reflected visible sunlight back into space. Fewer of the clouds would mean more global warming, not less. The iris hypothesis was wrong. Another problem CERES will tackle concerns aerosols. Aerosols are tiny particles like volcanic dust, pollution and even sea spray suspended in the air. Aerosols reflect sunlight. They also help clouds form by serving as "nucleation sites" around which water droplets grow. No one knows if increasing numbers of aerosols will cool or warm our planet. "The aerosols are a mess," says Thomas Charlock, a senior scientist at NASA's Langley Research Center and co-investigator for CERES. "We don't know how much is out there, and every gosh-darned aerosol particle looks different from every other one. So we just can't estimate their influence with calculations alone." "What we can do is look at the energy balance in a dusty area and a non-dusty area," Charlock continues. "That's where CERES and MODIS (a Terra instrument that can sense aerosol properties) used together will be very powerful." When Aqua joins Terra in orbit, it will bring its own special set of tools to bear on climate research. Says Charlock: "Part of our mission we can do much better with [instruments on board] Aqua -- things relating to humidity and water clouds." Scientists hope the unprecedented "cloud watching" power of these two satellites will reveal much about the inner workings of climate change. Don't expect any pictures of ducks or dinosaurs, though. Neither satellite has that kind of imagination. Yet in their own way, they will reveal the complex beauty of clouds as never before.
Source: Phillips, T. & Barry, P.L. (2002, April 22). Clouds in the greenhouse. In Science@NASA. Retrieved November 29, 2007, from: http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2002/22apr_ceres.htm

Exercises What is the main idea of the text? _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________

42

Working with vocabulary and referents 1. Match the words in column A to their synonym or definition in column B. A B 1. fluffy (adj) ____ relating to conversion of solar radiation into heat 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. drifting (v) beneath (p) wispy (adj) meager (adj) vexing (adj) greenhouse (adj) ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ directly under: underneath lacking desirable qualities: deficient in quality or quantity being carried along (as by a current of wind): to float effortlessly being light and soft or airy: puffed up something that is frail, slight, or fleeting causing or likely to cause trouble

2. What do these pronouns refer to in the text? Paragraph 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 1 3 5 6 9 12 16 Line 4 2 2 1 1 2 3 Word their themselves we they their they their Answer __________________________________________ __________________________________________ __________________________________________ __________________________________________ __________________________________________ __________________________________________ _______________________________________

General comprehension questions 1. Whats the greenhouse effect? 2. Whats the difference between the effect produced on earth by greenhouse gases and the ones that result from clouds? 3. Why do authors describe clouds behavior as schizophrenic? 4. What do CERES stand for? 5. Whats the iris hypothesis? 6. Whats the role of aerosols on earths climate?

Activities for this text were based on those prepared by Profs. Marianela Najul and Carlos Torrealba.

43

Before reading Read the title and try to predict the content of the article. How do you think ice could be made in five minutes? Write down your ideas! Now read the text.

How to make ice in five minutes

Patience may be a virtue, but it's impatience that drives sales of such timesavers as microwave ovens and Cuisinarts. Now disciples of 10-minute dinners will soon have a new toy in their kitchen: a refrigeration technology that makes ice in as little as five minutes. Like conventional refrigerators, the quick-chill technology relies on the condensation and evaporation of refrigerants to move heat from one place to another. But it does so by chemical reactions without the mechanical compressor or ozonedepleting refrigerants in current models. The reverse microwave uses metalbased salts, which when heated release gaseous ammonia. As the pressure rises, the ammonia is pushed to a condenser, then to an evaporator and finally back to the original chamber, where it gets reabsorbed in the salts. Continual repeating of the cycle can drop the temperature in the chiller a lot to as low as minus 15 degrees Celsius. Since the chiller doesnt require a bulky compressor, it can be small enough to replace the cooling fan in your computer or big enough to chill a locker full of beef, says inventor Uwe Rockenfeller of Rocky Research in Boulder City, Nevada. The company is currently developing the technology for counter-top freezers, air conditioners and industrial coolers. But Rockenfeller expects that it will be about 18 months before any new devices land on store shelves .
Source: Communications Systems (1993, November).

Exercises. References. What do the following words refer to in the article?

Paragraph

Line 2 2 6 1

Word their it it it

Answer _______________________ _______________________ _______________________ _______________________

1. 2. 3. 4.

1 2 2 3

Activities for this text were originally prepared by Prof. Silvia Pereira. The activities on skimming and graphic organizers were prepared by Prof. Cartaya.

44

Skimming. Skim the text and answer the following questions: 1. How is quick chill technology similar to conventional refrigeration technology? 2. How does quick chill technology deal with the elimination of heat? 3. What are the advantages of this technology? Vocabulary. Find the underlined expressions listed below. Explain their meaning in your own words. Use the context to help you.
such timesavers as the quick-chill technology ozone-depleting refrigerants reverse microwave land on store shelves.

____________________________________________ ____________________________________________ ____________________________________________ ____________________________________________ ____________________________________________

Graphic organizers. Fill in the bubbles below with a summary of each of the steps in the process of reverse microwave technology.

Sequence of events. The sentences that describe the process of how to make ice in five minutes are in the wrong order. Number the stages in the correct order. Ammonia is sent to a condenser Gaseous ammonia is released Ammonia is reabsorbed in the salts It is delivered to an evaporator The pressure is increased The cycle is repeated It is sent back to the chamber Metal-based salts are heated _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____

45

Aye-aye

The aye-aye is a mammal that lives in rain forests of Madagascar, a large island off the southeast coast of Africa. This solitary animal is nocturnal (most active at night). The aye-aye spends most of its time in trees. During the day, the aye-aye sleeps in a nest which is located in the fork of a tree. It builds the nest out of leaves and twigs. The aye-aye is an endangered species. The scientific name of the aye-aye is Daubentonia madagascariensis (Genus and species). Aye-ayes are primates, mammals closely related to monkeys, apes, and people. Anatomy: The Aye-aye has large eyes, black hair, big ears, and a long, bushy tail. The body is 16 inches (40 cm) long plus a tail that is 2 feet (61 cm) long. It weighs about 4 pounds (2 kg). It has 5-fingered hands with flat nails, and the middle finger is very long. Diet: The aye-aye eats insects, insect larvae, and fruit (especially coconuts). The aye-aye chews an opening in the bark of a tree, and it digs out insects or larvae of wood-boring insects with its long middle finger. It gnaws on the tree with its continuously growing incisors (sharp teeth at the front of the mouth). Aye-ayes are like a mammalian version of the woodpecker.

Source: Aye-aye. (2005, February 21). In EnchantedLearning.com. Retrieved February 21, 2005, from: http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/mammals/primate/Ayeayeprintout.shtml.

46

Before reading Be sure to check below the meaning of the following words in this particular context. They will help you understand the main ideas of the text: tap (v) to strike lightly especially with a slight sound grub (n) a soft thick wormlike larva of an insect (as a beetle) to bite or chew on with the teeth; to wear away by persistent biting or nibbling e.g. a gnaw (v) dog gnawing a bone prise (v) to estimate the value of spindly of a disproportionately tall or long and thin appearance that often suggests physical (adj) weakness e.g. spindly legs morsel (n) a small piece of food devoid (adj) being without a usual, typical, or expected attribute or accompaniment --used with of e.g. an argument devoid of sense borehole (n) a hole bored or drilled in the earth bark (n) the tough exterior covering of a woody root or stem forage (n) food for animals especially when taken by browsing or grazing larvae (n) Plural of larva, the immature, wingless, and often wormlike feeding form that hatches from the egg of many insects cup (v) to curve into the shape of a cup e.g. cupped his hands around his mouth

Grubs on tap for the aye-aye

The AYE-AYE, one of the strangest and rarest species of primates in the world, has an equally unusual method of finding food. Zoologists have discovered that it taps wood to locate cavities under the surface. Its skills are so well developed that it can tell holes containing grubs from those that are empty. It is the only mammal known to use such a technique. The aye-aye (Daubentonia madagascariensis) is one of Madagascars most endangered species of lemur and has several remarkable features. Measuring 80 centimeters nose tall, it is the largest nocturnal primate species of the world. It has big hairless batlike ears, large incisors which grow continuously like those of a rodent, and a middle finger on each hand which is remarkably elongated. It feeds on fruit, nuts and insect larvae. It uses its incisors, which are bevel-edged and curve forwards, to gnaw through nutshells and to reach grubs living in wood, and its spindly middle finger to prise them out. Woodpeckers use a similar technique, opening up cavities with their chisel-like bills and probing out edible morsels with their long flexible tongues. In fact, the aye-aye, living on an island devoid of woodpeckers, may have evolved to fill the ecological niche which is occupied by woodpeckers in other parts of the world.

47

A recent study at Duke University, in North Carolina, is revealing just how specialized aye-ayes are for finding their larva prey. Carl Erickson conducted a series of experiments on four captive animals (Animal Behaviour, vol 41, p.793). He found that when mealworms were hidden in cavities in a piece of wood, the animals would always locate them accurately they were obviously not searching at random. Nor were they relying on visual cues such as boreholes on the surface of the wood. When Erickson added surface holes to his experimental woodblock, this did not distract the animals from finding the cavities. He also found that they would open up empty cavities, even detecting ones as far as 2 centimeters below the wood surface. This showed that movement of prey is not needed for the aye-ayes to find hidden cavities. But given the choice between empty cavities and ones containing actives mealworms, the primates would be able to locate the grub every time. Aye-ayes are obviously very skilful. But what exactly are they doing? When foraging, the animals use their long middle fingers to tap the wood. They work with their faces close to bark and huge ears cupped forwards and down. Erickson had observed that aye-ayes would tap hollow objects, such as the lens of his camera, with particular interest, and he suggests that the tapping in some way enables them to detect cavities. Perhaps the quality of sound changes, becoming more reflective. Or perhaps the skin of the finger is so sensitive that it can detect unusual elasticity in the wood surface. How the animal manages to detect those cavities that contain prey is more mysterious. It may hear movements the tapping may stimulate the larvae to give themselves away, or it may use its sense of smell. Either way, the aye-ayes use of tapping, which Erickson has dubbed percussive foraging, is unique among mammals.

Source: New Scientist (1991, June 21). Exercises References. What do these terms refer to in the text?
Paragraph Line Word

Answer _________________________________ _________________________________ _________________________________ _________________________________ _________________________________

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

5 5 7 9 9

4 5 4 1 2

the animals they the primates it it

48

Comprehension questions 1. What is the general purpose of this text? _______________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________

2. Write an outline of this text stating the topics of the following paragraphs or groups of paragraphs:

Paragraph 1 Paragraph 2 Paragraph 3 Paragraph 4 Paragraphs 5-7 Paragraphs 8-9

___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________

3. From reading paragraph 4 it can be inferred that: a. b. c. The aye-aye coexisted with woodpeckers in other parts of the world. If woodpeckers had lived in Madagascar, the aye-aye would probably not have evolved. The aye-aye and woodpeckers probably evolved from the same species.

4. List five possible reasons given in the text to explain the animals accurate detection of cavities:

a. _____________________________________________________________________________ b. _____________________________________________________________________________ c. _____________________________________________________________________________ d. _____________________________________________________________________________ e. _____________________________________________________________________________

Activities for this text were prepared by Prof. Mara Luisa Rosenblat.

49

Before reading 1. Have you ever gotten really drunk? What changes do you notice in your behavior or your friends behavior when drunk? ________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________ 2. Have you ever heard the term designated driver? What do you think it means? ________________________________________________________________________________ 3. Do you think its a good idea to have one? Why? _______________________________________________________________________________ While you read

What happens when you drink?

While you read, pay attention to the processes described in this text. Circle signal words 0(if any). Draw arrows ( ) to show cause and effect relationships, underline content key terms. You will use this information later on to complete a chart. Normal metabolism Though a person's capacity for alcohol may vary with age, sex, weight, and drinking history, most healthy bodies process alcohol in the same way: With the first sip, alcohol briefly irritates tissues of the mouth and esophagus (1). In the stomach (2) some alcohol is absorbed, but most moves on to the small intestine (3), where it passes rapidly into the bloodstream; the presence of food can delay absorption. Distributed throughout the body by the blood, alcohol in moderation may reduce coronary heart disease, although heavy drinking can eventually damage muscle tissue in the heart (4). Alcohol is metabolized mostly in the liver (5), where enzymes begin the conversion of ethanol into carbon dioxide and water. The liver metabolizes pure alcohol at the rate of one third ounce every hour.

50
A

What happens when you drink The mind-bending effects of alcohol begin soon, after it gets into the bloodstream. Within minutes, alcohol enters the brain, numbing nerve cells and slowing their messages to the body. In the heart, cardiac muscles strain to cope with alcohol's depressive action, and the pulse quickens. If drinking continues, alcohol builds in the bloodstream, and the nerve centers in the brain governing speech, vision, balance, and judgment go haywire. As even more alcohol is ingested, the drinker may lose consciousness. With extremely high levels of alcohol in the blood, the inebriate is in danger of dying from respiratory failure.

Brain Even a healthy brain (A) loses cells, but long-term heavy drinking can speed degeneration. The alcoholic brain (B) often shows signs of atrophy.

Alcoholism increases the risk of heart disease and cancer and liver failure. When alcohol is present in the liver (below), it preempts the breakdown of fats, which accumulate within liver cells (1). As fatty cells enlarge they can rupture (2) or grow into cysts (3) that replace normal cells. After years of heavy drinking, fibrous scar tissue (4), or cirrhosis, impedes the normal flow of arterial and venous blood (arrows) through the organ.

Liver Heavy drinking can cause a healthy liver (C) to become fatty and enlarged (D), an early and reversible stage of liver disease: Cirrhosis (E), or scarring, can lead to liver failure and death.
Source: unknown, 1990s.

51

Exercises. Vocabulary 1. Try to guess the possible meaning of the words in italics taken from the section Normal Metabolism. Think about the context that helped you understand the meaning. With the first sip, alcohol. irritates tissues of the mouth Distributed throughout the body damage muscle tissue in the heart damage muscle tissue in the heart metabolized mostly in the liver, where... _________________________________ _________________________________ _________________________________ _________________________________ _________________________________ _________________________________

2. Match the words or expressions in column A with their synonyms in column B. A damage haywire to cope with fibrous scar tissue inebriate B cirrhosis adjust drunk atrophy confused

a. b. c. d. e.

_____ _____ _____ _____ _____

3. Find words in the two pages of this text that are related to the headings of the chart below. Parts of the body or brain functions mouth, esophagus, Related to drinking alcohol, Verbs related to body functions preempt,

Negative ideas disease,

52

After reading . Inferences and conclusions. Select the best alternative to complete the following statements: 1. From the section Normal Metabolism we can conclude that a. doctors may never recommend patients to drink small amounts of alcohol b. the liver and the heart are the two organs least affected by alcohol c. the liver is able to process an ounce of alcohol in three hours 2. From the last paragraph in the section Normal Metabolism, we can infer that a. our body needs liver enzymes to transform pure alcohol into ethanol b. alcohol can be broken down into ethanol, carbon dioxide and water c. our body eliminates alcohol by converting it into water and carbon dioxide 3. After reading the text, one can conclude that alcohol is the main cause of a. coronary heart disease b. respiratory failure c. scarring General comprehension questions 1. The main purpose of the author is to describe how a. alcohol affects the functioning of the liver b. alcohol affects the overall functioning of the organism c. alcohol consumption affects the functioning of the brain 2. Read the statements below. Write a T if they are true and an F if they are false. Then change the information to make the false statements true. Alcohol has no positive effect on the functioning of our organism. a. ____ ____________________________________________________ Alcohol particularly affects both the liver and the brain. b. ____ ____________________________________________________ The liver needs two hours to metabolize one ounce of pure alcohol. _____________________________________________________ Most alcohol is metabolized in the bloodstream. d. ____ _____________________________________________________ Alcohol affects the normal growth of cysts in the cells. e. ____ ____________________________________________________
Activities for this text were prepared by Profs. Berta Leiva and Ana Mara Posada.

c.

____

53

What causes tsunamis?

Tsunamis, also called seismic sea waves or, incorrectly, tidal waves, generally are caused by earthquakes, less commonly by submarine landslides, infrequently by submarine volcanic eruptions and very rarely by a large meteorite impact in the ocean. Submarine volcanic eruptions have the potential to produce truly awesome tsunami waves. The Great Krakatau volcanic eruption of 1883 generated giant waves reaching heights of 125 feet above sea-level, killing thousands of people and wiping out numerous coastal villages. The 1992 Nicaragua tsunami may have been the result of a "slow" earthquake comprised of very long-period movement occurring beneath the sea floor. This earthquake generated a devastating tsunami with localized damage to coastal communities in Nicaragua. Not all earthquakes generate tsunamis. To generate tsunamis, earthquakes must occur underneath or near the ocean, be large and create movements in the sea floor. All oceanic regions of the world can experience tsunamis, but in the Pacific Ocean there is a much more frequent occurrence of large, destructive tsunamis because of the many large earthquakes along the margins of the Pacific Ocean. Ring of fire About two-thirds of the Earth is covered by the waters of the four oceans. The Pacific Ocean is the world's largest, covering more than one third of the total surface area of our planet. The Pacific Ocean is surrounded by a series of mountain chains, deep ocean trenches and island arcs, sometimes called a "ring of fire." The great size of the Pacific Ocean and the large earthquakes associated with the "ring of fire" combine to produce deadly tsunamis. In less than a day, these tsunamis can travel from one side of the Pacific to the other. However, people living near areas where large earthquakes occur may find that the tsunami waves will reach their shores within minutes of the earthquake. For these reasons, the tsunami threat to many areas (Alaska, the Philippines, Japan or the U.S. West Coast) can be immediate (for tsunamis from nearby earthquakes taking only a few minutes to reach coastal areas) or less urgent (for tsunamis from distant earthquakes taking from 3 to 22 hours to reach coastal areas).

54

Earth and earthquakes The continents and sea floor that cover the Earth's surface are part of a worldwide system of plates that are in motion. These motions are very slow, only an inch or two per year. Earthquakes occur where the edges of plates run into one another. Such edges are called fault lines or faults. Sometimes the forces along faults can build-up over long periods of time so that when the rocks finally break an earthquake occurs. Examples of features produced by forces released along plate edge faults are the Andes Mountains in South America (on land) and the Aleutian Trench near Alaska (under water). When powerful, rapid faulting occurs underneath or near the ocean, a large earthquake is produced and, possibly, a tsunami. The deep ocean trenches off the coasts of Alaska, the Kuril Islands, Russia, and South America are well known for their violent underwater earthquakes and as the source area for destructive Pacific-wide tsunamis. The tsunami generating process is more complicated than a sudden push against the column of ocean water. The earthquake's magnitude and depth, water depth in the region of tsunami generation, the amount of vertical motion of the sea floor, the velocity of such motion, whether there is coincident slumping of sediments and the efficiency with which energy is transferred from the earth's crust to ocean water are all part of the generation mechanism.
Source: What causes tsunamis? (2006, November 29). In NOAAs National Weather Center. Retrieved 17:13, November 29, 2006, from: http://www.nws.noaa.gov/om/brochures/tsunami2.htm.

Exercises Cause-effect relationships 1. Make a bar / pie chart representing the different causes of tsunamis, as they are presented in paragraph

55

2. Choose expressions from the box below to fill in the blank spaces. Each expression can be used only once.
produce can cause meteorites is the result of are caused by seismic sea waves earthquakes landslides source
the size of the Pacific Ocean

a. Another correct name for tsunamis is _________________________. b. The least frequent cause of tsunamis is ________________________. c. Seismic sea waves ________________________ earthquakes. d. Large earthquakes ________________________ destructive tsunamis in the Pacific Ocean. e. Two elements cause tsunamis in the Pacific Ocean: ______________________ and ________________________. f. Violent water earthquakes and deep ocean trenches are the ________________ of deadly tsunamis.

3. What elements do the following signal words connect? Signal Word

are caused by may have been the result because of for these reasons Par. / line
par. 1, line 1 par. 2, line 2 par. 3, line 8 par. 5, line 3

Elements connected _____________________________________ _____________________________________ _____________________________________ _____________________________________

Comprehension questions 1. What is the main cause of tsunamis according to the text? 2. What is the area of the world most affected by deadly tsunamis? 3. What are the three conditions that an earthquake must have in order to generate tsunamis? 4. What causes earthquakes? 5. What makes the Pacific Ocean be the most frequent source of tsunamis?

Activities for this text were prepared by Prof. Marta Tras.