Interval Scale/ Data A scale of measurement of data according to which the differences between values can be quantified in absolute

but not relative terms and for which any zero is merely arbitrary: for instance, dates are measured on an interval scale since differences can be measured in years, but no sense can be given to a ratio of times. Examples of interval data: Temperature (Degrees F) -Dates -Dollars -Years -Most personality measures. -WAIS intelligence score. -Sea Level Example: A student who scores 90% is probably a better student than someone who scores 70%. The difference between the two scores is 20%. In an interval scale, the data can be ranked and for which the difference between the two values can be calculated and interpreted.

Interval scales keep the same rank characteristic as ordinal scales, but interval scales also show the differences between each data point. That is, the difference between 1 and 2 on an interval scale is the same as the difference between 4 and 5, or 8 and 9, or 100 and 101. In other words, the interval is the same. Oftentimes in psychology things are measured by a Likert scale in which one rates a statement (often by how much they agree with the statement). Here's an example: Indicate your agreement with the following statement: I am satisfied with psychology as my major. 1 Strongly Disagree 2 Disagree 3 Neutral 4 Agree 5 Strongly Agree

We can generally assume that the interval (psychologically speaking) between 1 and 2 is the same as the interval between 4 and 5. It's very difficult to demonstrate equal intervals here, but it's often assumed in order to analyze data. What an interval doesn't mean is that a rating of 4 is twice as great as 2. In fact, the numbers themselves don't tell you anything about the meaning of the numbers themselves. In the scale above, we could have used a scale from -2 to 2, like this: -2 Strongly Disagree -1 Disagree 0 Neutral 1 Agree 2 Strongly Agree

Reference: http://psych.csufresno.edu/psy144/Content/Measurement/scales.html

It very important to understand that zero doesn't have any meaning in an interval scale. As you can see from the two Likert scales above, the choice of numbers is fairly arbitrary since the scale need not begin with any particular number. What is important (once again) is that the interval between each value on the scale is the same. Examples of Interval Scale Use

IQ Scores. (The difference between an IQ of 92 and 98 is the same as the difference between 130 and 136. Using 100 as the average is arbitrary.) Thermometer readings on a Fahrenheit scale. (The difference between 98.6 and 99.6 is the same as the difference between 101.8 and 102.8 -- 1 degree. The value of zero doesn't mean "the absence of heat."

Ratio Data/ Scale A scale of measurement of data which permits the comparison of differences of values; a scale having a fixed zero value. The distances travelled by a projectile, for instance, are measured on a ratio scale since it makes sense to talk of one projectile travelling twice as far as another. The most precise and powerful of scales, ratio scales have all the components of an interval scale but here, the zero point is meaningful and means the absence of whatever it is you're measuring. Thus, you cannot have a negative data point using a ratio scale. Not only are the intervals the same but here, you can compare scores in ratio to other scores. That is, a score of 20 is 20 times greater than 1 (20:1) and 10 times greater than 2 (20:2) and twice as great as 10 (20:10). For example, measuring something with a ruler would give you a measure in a ratio scale. Zero literally means "no length" (i.e., that it doesn't exist). Something that is twice inches is half the length of something that is four inches. This is not true in an interval scale. Examples of Ratio Scale Use

A speedometer. Walking speed Really, any time or length measurement would be on a ratio scale. The cost of a cup of coffee Maps usually contain ratios telling you how many inches on the map relate to how many miles of the actual area covered by the map. For example, "1 inch = 1.5 miles".

Reference: https://onlinecourses.science.psu.edu/stat504/book/export/html/102

 Nominal Scale This is basically a way of categorizing or grouping behavior, where the actual numbers are simply labels or identifiers. For example, let's say you were interested in whether a particular display in a store was more effective in inducing males or females in purchasing the product. You could categorize your observations into two categories of 'look but fail to purchase' and 'look and purchase.' You could then assign a '1' to females and '2' to males and record your data in each category. Using '1' for females is completely arbitrary -- it's just an identifier. You could have used 'A,' '2', 'bluk,' or whatever. The point here is that your data are in categories with the number being simply used as a label without any meaning or indicating of order. Usually, nominal data are presented in terms of percentages in each category. Examples of Nominal Scale Use

Counting how many people help someone else in a set-up scene (e.g., someone pretending to be blind cross the street). Counting the number of people out of a group of 30 who are relieved from their depression three months after treatment. Examining whether extroverts or introverts are more likely to engage in altruistic behavior. Asking whether females or males have higher self-esteem.

Ordinal Scale Ordinal scales, more precise than nominal scales, are basically sets of rankings. There is no way to know the size of the differences between any data points--just that one is greater than the other. A simple example of this is to arrange a class by height and assign each person a number according to their height ranking. If number 1 is the shortest, all we know is that number 2 is taller, 3 is taller than 2, and so on. We don't know how much taller 1 is from 2, 2 from 3, etc. Not only do we not know the differences, we don't know the actual height of anyone. Examples of Ordinal Scale Use

High school class rankings. Social economic class (low, middle, high).

Reference: http://psych.csufresno.edu/psy144/Content/Measurement/scales.html

Reference: https://onlinecourses.science.psu.edu/stat504/book/export/html/102

 Data - facts or information used usually to calculate, analyze, or plan something actual information (as measurements or statistics) used as a basis for reasoning, discussion, or calculation Scale- a series of marks or points at known intervals used to measure distances (as the height of the mercury in a thermometer); an indication of the relationship between the distances on a map and the corresponding actual distances Variable- something that changes or that can be changed: something that varies; a quantity that can have any one of a set of values or a symbol that represents such a quantity Reference: http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary Types of Chi-square Tests Tests of goodness of fit e.g., does the frequency of education follow a normal distribution Tests of independence e.g., is there a relationship between treatment and outcome Tests of homogeneity e.g., is the relationship between treatment and outcome the same across gender Reference:https://www.google.com.ph/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=2&cad=rja&ved=0CC8QFjAB&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.comp
uting.dcu.ie%2F~asharkasi%2FLecture7_1.pdf&ei=w2HSUq3RJouziQe0vYEQ&usg=AFQjCNGl8IYny_EWaeFnQ3YGvQftoZcVjQ&bvm=bv.59026428,d.a Gc

Regression- a functional relationship between two or more correlated variables that is often empirically determined from data and is used especially to predict values of one variable when given values of the others <the regression of y on x is linear>;specifically : a function that yields the mean value of a random variable under the condition that one or more independent variables have specified values - In statistics, a process for determining a line or curve that best represents the general trend of a data set. Linear regression results in a line of best fit, for which the sum of the squares of the vertical distances between the proposed line and the points of the data set are minimized (see LEAST SQUARES METHOD). Other types of regression may be based on higher-degree POLYNOMIAL functions or EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS. A quadratic regression, for example, uses a quadratic function (second-degree polynomial function) to produce a PARABOLAof best fit. Estimation- In mathematics, use of a FUNCTION or formula to derive a solution or make a prediction. Unlike approximation, it has precise connotations. In statistics, for example, it connotes the careful selection and testing of a function called an estimator. In calculus, it usually refers to an initial guess for a solution to an equation, which is gradually refined by a process that generates closer estimates. The difference between the estimate and the exact value is the ERROR. Reference: http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary

Reference: https://onlinecourses.science.psu.edu/stat504/book/export/html/102

 Contingency Tables- two-way table, with the explanatory variable values as rows and the response variable values as columns. Each combination of explanatory and response variable values constitutes; a group of subjects, represented by a cell in the table. Contingency tables are two-way frequency tables used to organize data that has been collected on two categorical random variables. We are interested in discovering whether the two variables are dependent upon one another. There are two types of contingency tables that are most often used. The first type organizes the data we collect or observe. We call this the table of observed counts. Observed Counts Variable 2 Level a Level b Total Variable 1 Level a Level b o11 o12 o21 o22 Col 2 total Col 1 total

Total Row 1 total Row 2 total Grand Total n=sample size

The second type, the table of expected counts, organizes our expected counts in the same way as the table of observed counts. The expected counts are the values that we would expect to obtain for each cell under the assumption that the categorical variables are independent. Expected Counts Variable 2 Level a Level b Total Variable 1 Level a Level b e11 e12 e21 e22 Col 2 total Col 1 total

Total Row 1 total Row 2 total Grand Total

n=sample size The expected counts can be computed by multiplying the row and column totals of our table of observed counts and then dividing by the grand total or total number observations. The eij are the expected frequencies for the cell located in row i and column j. Notice in the tables above that the contingency tables should always have row and column labels along with the type of table, either observed or expected. Reference: https://ideal.stat.wvu.edu:8443/ideal/resource/modules/1/Cont_Tables/cont_tables.html

Reference: https://onlinecourses.science.psu.edu/stat504/book/export/html/102

For example, consider a sample of N=200 beer-drinkers. For each drinker we have information on sex (variable X, taking on 2 possible values: "Male" and "Female") and preferred category of beer (variable Y, taking on 3 possible values: "Light", "Regular", "Dark"). A contingency table for these data might look like the following Light Regular Dark Total Male Total: 20 70 40 20 60 50 20 70 110 90 200 This is a two-way 2x3 contingency table (i.e. two rows and three columns). Female 50

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mu.edu%2F~gklein%2Fdiscrete%2FOpeningExamples-2011.pdf&ei=DmTSUor0CYWuiQetuIDgAg&usg=AFQjCNEa8QThNoweOmqRsTNsp8VdtDuSg&bvm=bv.59026428,d.aGc

A three-way contingency table is a cross-classification of observations by the levels of three categorical variables. More generally, K-way contigency tables classify observations by levels of K categorical variables. Levels may be ordinal or nominal.

Example- Death Penalty A 2 2 2 Table. Radlet (1981) studied effects of racial characteristics on whether individuals convicted of homicide received the death penalty. The 326 subjects were defendants in homicide indictments in 20 Florida counties during 1976-1977 (from Agresti (1990)).
Defendants Race Victims Race Death penalty Yes White White Black White Black 19 0 11 6 No 132 9 52 97

Black

Reference: https://onlinecourses.science.psu.edu/stat504/book/export/html/102

Reference: https://onlinecourses.science.psu.edu/stat504/book/export/html/102