Theory of Metal Cutting

THEORY OF METAL CUTTING
Table of Continents
3...........................................................................................................LIST OF FIGURES
6.............................................................................................................LIST OF TABLES
6.............................................................................................................INTRODUCTION
PARTS MANUFACTURED BY CASTING, FORMING, AND VARIOUS SHAPING
PROCESSES REQUIRE FURTHER PROCESSING OR FINISHING OPERATIONS. THIS IS
TO IMPART SPECIFIC CHARACTERISTICS, SUCH AS DIMENSIONAL AND
GEOMETRICAL ACCURACIES AND SURFACE FINISH, BEFORE THE PRODUCT IS
7............................................................................................................READY FOR USE.
THESE PROCESSES ARE MATERIAL REMOVAL PROCESSES . BECAUSE THEY ARE
CAPABLE OF PRODUCING SHAPES COMPETITIVE WITH THOSE PRODUCED BY
OTHER METHODS , CRITICAL CHOICES HAVE OFTEN TO BE MADE ABOUT THE
EXTENT OF SHAPING AND FORMING VERSUS THE EXTEND OF MACHINING TO BE
7............................... DONE ON A WORK PART TO PRODUCE AN ACCEPTABLE PART .
7.................................................................................................................LIMITATIONS
7.................................REMOVAL PROCESSES GENERALLY REQUIRE MORE ENERGY.
7........................................................IT TAKES ALONGER TIME THAN DOES SHAPING.
7................................IT MAY AFFECTS THE SURFACE INTEGRITY OF THE PRODUCT.
7.............................................................................. MECHANICS OF CHIP FORMATION
10........................................................................................................CHIP FORMATION
1.A DISCONTINUOUS CHIP.......................................................................................................................10
2.A CONTINUOUS CHIP ...........................................................................................................................11
3. CONTINUOUS CHIPS WITH A BUILT UP EDGE ....................................................................................12
12..................................................................................THE MECHANISM OF CUTTING

FORCE CALCULATIONS ..........................................................................................................................15
POWER CONSUMED IN CUTTING ................................................................................................19
20........................................................................................................ DYNAMOMETERS
(I) GENERAL PRINCIPLE OF MEASUREMENT. .......................................................................................20
(II) DIFFERENT TYPES OF TRANSDUCERS USED IN DYNAMOMETERS FOR MEASURING MACHINING
FORCES....................................................................................................................................................22
1.MEASURING DEFLECTION CAUSED BY THE CUTTING FORCE(S) .......................................................22
1.MEASURING CUTTING FORCE BY MONITORING ELASTIC STRAIN CAUSED BY THE FORCE. ...........25
1. MEASURING CUTTING FORCES BY PRESSURE CAUSED BY THE FORCE ...........................................26
(III) DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR TOOL FORCE DYNAMOMETERS .................................................27
DYNAMOMETERS APPLICATIONS............................................................................................................28
31..................................................................THERMAL ASPECTS OF METAL CUTTING

(I) SOURCES AND CAUSES OF HEAT GENERATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF TEMPERATURE IN
MACHINING .............................................................................................................................................32
37...........................................................................................TOOL WEAR &TOOL LIFE

TOOLS WEAR DEFINITION:.....................................................................................................................37
TOOL-CONDITION MONITORING............................................................................................................41
TOOL LIFE DEFINITION...........................................................................................................................42
44......................................................................THE ECONOMICS OF METAL CUTTING

50.......................................................................................................................MILLING
1

INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................................50
TYPES OF MILLING MACHINE ..............................................................................................................50
CUTTING TOOLS.....................................................................................................................................52
MILLING PROCESSES .............................................................................................................................54
SPINDLE SPEED ......................................................................................................................................54
FEED RATE .............................................................................................................................................54
DEPTH OF CUT .......................................................................................................................................55
DIRECTION OF CUTTER ROTATION ......................................................................................................55
A. UP CUT MILLING................................................................................................................................55
B. DOWN CUT MILLING..........................................................................................................................56
TYPICAL MILLING OPERATIONS ...........................................................................................................56
WORK HOLDING METHOD ....................................................................................................................59
60....................................................................................................................GRINDING
SELECTION OF GRINDING WHEELS........................................................................................................61
TYPE OF ABRASIVES................................................................................................................................61
GRIT SIZE................................................................................................................................................62
GRINDING OPERATIONS..........................................................................................................................67
3...........................................................................................................LIST OF FIGURES
6.............................................................................................................LIST OF TABLES
6.............................................................................................................INTRODUCTION
PARTS MANUFACTURED BY CASTING, FORMING, AND VARIOUS SHAPING
PROCESSES REQUIRE FURTHER PROCESSING OR FINISHING OPERATIONS. THIS IS
TO IMPART SPECIFIC CHARACTERISTICS, SUCH AS DIMENSIONAL AND
GEOMETRICAL ACCURACIES AND SURFACE FINISH, BEFORE THE PRODUCT IS
7............................................................................................................READY FOR USE.
THESE PROCESSES ARE MATERIAL REMOVAL PROCESSES . BECAUSE THEY ARE
CAPABLE OF PRODUCING SHAPES COMPETITIVE WITH THOSE PRODUCED BY
OTHER METHODS , CRITICAL CHOICES HAVE OFTEN TO BE MADE ABOUT THE
EXTENT OF SHAPING AND FORMING VERSUS THE EXTEND OF MACHINING TO BE
7............................... DONE ON A WORK PART TO PRODUCE AN ACCEPTABLE PART .
7.................................................................................................................LIMITATIONS
7.................................REMOVAL PROCESSES GENERALLY REQUIRE MORE ENERGY.
7........................................................IT TAKES ALONGER TIME THAN DOES SHAPING.
7................................IT MAY AFFECTS THE SURFACE INTEGRITY OF THE PRODUCT.
7.............................................................................. MECHANICS OF CHIP FORMATION
10........................................................................................................CHIP FORMATION
1.A DISCONTINUOUS CHIP.......................................................................................................................10
2.A CONTINUOUS CHIP ...........................................................................................................................11
3. CONTINUOUS CHIPS WITH A BUILT UP EDGE ....................................................................................12
12..................................................................................THE MECHANISM OF CUTTING

FORCE CALCULATIONS ..........................................................................................................................15
15 ........................................................................Merchant's Force Circle With Drafting

16 .......................................................................................................Vectors analysis
POWER CONSUMED IN CUTTING ................................................................................................19
20........................................................................................................ DYNAMOMETERS
(I) GENERAL PRINCIPLE OF MEASUREMENT. .......................................................................................20

(II) DIFFERENT TYPES OF TRANSDUCERS USED IN DYNAMOMETERS FOR MEASURING MACHINING
FORCES....................................................................................................................................................22
1.MEASURING DEFLECTION CAUSED BY THE CUTTING FORCE(S) .......................................................22
1.MEASURING CUTTING FORCE BY MONITORING ELASTIC STRAIN CAUSED BY THE FORCE. ...........25
1. MEASURING CUTTING FORCES BY PRESSURE CAUSED BY THE FORCE ...........................................26
(III) DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR TOOL FORCE DYNAMOMETERS .................................................27
DYNAMOMETERS APPLICATIONS............................................................................................................28
28 ......................................................................................... Turning Dynamometer .1
29 .......................................................................................... Drilling dynamometer .2
30 ........................................................................................... Milling dynamometer .3
31 .......................................................................................... Grinding dynamometer .4
31..................................................................THERMAL ASPECTS OF METAL CUTTING

(I) SOURCES AND CAUSES OF HEAT GENERATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF TEMPERATURE IN
MACHINING .............................................................................................................................................32
34 ...................................................Analytically using mathematical models (equations .1
34 ......................................Experimental methods of determination of cutting temperature .2
37...........................................................................................TOOL WEAR &TOOL LIFE

TOOLS WEAR DEFINITION:.....................................................................................................................37
39 ...........................................................................................................Flank wear .1
40 ........................................................................................................ Crater wear .2
41 ............................................................................................................ Chipping .3
TOOL-CONDITION MONITORING............................................................................................................41
TOOL LIFE DEFINITION...........................................................................................................................42
44......................................................................THE ECONOMICS OF METAL CUTTING

50.......................................................................................................................MILLING
INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................................50
TYPES OF MILLING MACHINE ..............................................................................................................50
CUTTING TOOLS.....................................................................................................................................52
MILLING PROCESSES .............................................................................................................................54
SPINDLE SPEED ......................................................................................................................................54
FEED RATE .............................................................................................................................................54
DEPTH OF CUT .......................................................................................................................................55
DIRECTION OF CUTTER ROTATION ......................................................................................................55
A. UP CUT MILLING................................................................................................................................55
B. DOWN CUT MILLING..........................................................................................................................56
TYPICAL MILLING OPERATIONS ...........................................................................................................56
WORK HOLDING METHOD ....................................................................................................................59
60....................................................................................................................GRINDING
SELECTION OF GRINDING WHEELS........................................................................................................61
TYPE OF ABRASIVES................................................................................................................................61
GRIT SIZE................................................................................................................................................62
GRINDING OPERATIONS..........................................................................................................................67
List of Figures
10.......FIGURE 1 TWO DIMENSIONAL CUTTING PROCESS : ORTHOGONAL CUTTING
3

11.............................................................................FIGURE 2 A DISCONTINUOUS CHIP
11......................................................................................FIGURE 3 CONTINUOUS CHIP
12....................................................................FIGURE 4 CONTINUOUS CHIP WITH BUE
13..........................................................................FIGURE 5 MECHANISM OF CUTTING
14........................................FIGURE 6 PHYSICAL GEOMETRY OF CUTTING
14..........FIGURE 7 TWO PERPENDICULAR CUTTING FORCES
16......FIGURE 8 MERCHANT'S FORCE CIRCLE MERCHANT CIRCLE
18........................FIGURE 9 THE BASIC MECHANISM OF CHIP FORMATION CUTTING
21......FIGURE 10 GENERAL PRINCIPLE OF MEASUREMENT.
FIGURE 11 CUTTING TOOL UNDERGOING DEFLECTION, DUE TO CUTTING FORCE,
23..................................................................................................................................PZ
FIGURE 12 ELECTRICAL TRANSDUCERS WORKING BASED ON DEFLECTION
24.............................................................................. MEASUREMENT (A) LINEAR POT.
25.......FIGURE 13 MEASURING CUTTING FORCES BY STRAIN GAUGES

26........FIGURE 14 FORCE MEASUREMENT BY STRAIN GAUGE BASED TRANSDUCER.
FIGURE 15 PIEZOELECTRIC TRANSDUCER FOR MEASURING
27.................................................................................................FORCE OR PRESSURE.
FIGURE 16 SCHEMATIC VIEW OF A STRAIN GAUGE TYPE 2 D TURNING
28..........................................................................................................DYNAMOMETER.
FIGURE 17 PHOTOGRAPHS OF A STRAIN GAUGE TYPE 2 D TURNING
29......................................................DYNAMOMETER AND ITS MAJOR COMPONENTS

29............FIGURE 18 USE OF 3 D PIEZOELECTRIC TYPE TURNING DYNAMOMETER
FIGURE 19 STRAIN GAUGE TYPE DRILLING DYNAMOMETER AND ITS MAJOR
30.............................................................................................................COMPONENTS.
FIGURE 20 SCHEMATIC VIEW OF CONSTRUCTION OF A STRAIN
GAUGE TYPE
30.....................................................................................................................DRILLING
30...... FIGURE 21 SCHEME OF STRAIN GAUGE TYPE 3 D MILLING DYNAMOMETER

30.........FIGURE 22 A TYPICAL STRAIN GAUGE TYPE 3 D MILLING DYNAMOMETER
31....FIGURE 23 A TYPICAL STRAIN GAUGE TYPE 2 D GRINDING DYNAMOMETER
31......FIGURE 24 PIEZOELECTRIC TYPE GRINDING DYNAMOMETER IN OPERATION
31..................FIGURE 25 FRICTION ON THE CUTTING FACE
32........................FIGURE 26 SOURCES OF HEAT GENERATION
FIGURE 27 APPORTIONMENT OF HEAT AMONGST
33..............................................................................................TOOL,CHIP,AND BLANK
35...................................FIGURE 28 THE EXPERIMENTAL SET UP OF THE EMBEDDED
FIGURE 29 MEASURING TEMPERATURE AT SHEAR PLANE AND TOOL FLANK BY
35................................................................................................................PHOTO CELL
FIGURE 30 TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION AT THE TOOL TIP DETECTED BY
36....................................................................................................................INFRARED

FIGURE 31 (A) TYPES OF WEAR OBSERVED IN CUTTING TOOLS. THE THERMAL
CRACKS SHOWN ARE USUALLY OBSERVED IN INTERRUPTED CUTTING
OPERATIONS. (B) CATASTROPHIC FAILURE OF TOOL.(C) FEATURES OF TOOL
39.............................................................................WEAR IN A TURNING OPERATION.
FIGURE 32 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CRATER- WEAR RATE AND AVERAGE TOOL41........................................................CHIP INTERFACE TEMPERATURE IN TURNING.
FIGURE 33 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MEAN FLANK WEAR, MAXIMUM CRATER
42..............WEAR, AND ACOUSTIC EMISSION AS A FUNCTION OF MACHINING TIME.
FIGURE 34 EFFECT OF WORK PIECE MICROSTRUCTURE ON TOOL LIFE IN
43.....................................................................................................................TURNING.
45.....FIGURE 35 THE LOG-LOG SCALE GRAPH OF TAYLOR'S TOOL LIFE EQUATION
FIGURE 36 .RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE CUTTING SPEED AND THE COST PER
46.............................................................................................................UNIT VOLUME.
FIGURE 37 DEPICTS THE CONDITION OF MINIMUM COST PRODUCTION WHEN
49..................................................................................CUTTING SPEED IS INCREASED.

50............................................................FIGURE 38 HORIZONTAL MILLING MACHINE
51.................................................................FIGURE 39 VERTICAL MILLING MACHINE
52......................................................................................FIGURE 40 SLAB MILL
52..........................................................................FIGURE 41 SIDE AND FACE CUTTERS
52...........................................................................................FIGURE 42 SLITTING SAW
54.....................................................................................FIGURE 43 MILLING PROCESS
56.......................................................................................FIGURE 44 UP CUT MILLING
56.................................................................................FIGURE 45 DOWN CUT MILLING
FIGURE 46 PLAIN MILLING
57......................................................................................................................................
FIGURE 47 END MILLING
58......................................................................................................................................
58..........................................................................................FIGURE 48 GANG MILLING
FIGURE 49 HOLDING METHOD BY USING A MACHINE VICE
59.....................................................................................................................................
60............................................................................FIGURE 50 END SURFACE MILLING
61................................................FIGURE 51 CUTTING ACTION OF ABRASIVE GRAINS.
FIGURE 52 A VARIETY OF BONDED ABRASIVE USED IN ABRASIVE MACHINING
64.................................................................................................................. PROCESSES
FIGURE 53 .PHYSICAL MODEL OF A GRINDING WHEEL, SHOWING IS STRUCTURE
64....................................................................AND WEAR AND FRACTURE PATTERNS.
65. .FIGURE 54 SOME OF THE MORE COMMNLY USED TYPES OF GRINDING WHEELS
65..................FIGURE 55 .EXAMPLES OF SUPERABRASIVE WHEEL CONFIGURATION.
66........................................................................................FIGURE 56 GRINDING CHIPS
66...................................................FIGURE 57 SHAPING USING COMPUTER CONTROL

FIGURE 58 EXAMPLES OF VARIOUS CYLINDRICAL GRINDING OPERATIONS (A)
67.........TRAVERSE GRINDING, (B) PLUNGE GRINDING, AND (C) PROFILE GRINDING.

FIGURE 59 PLUNGE GRINDING OF A WORKPIECE ON A CYLINDRICAL GRINDER
67................................................. WITH THE WHEEL DRESSED TO A STEPPED SHAPE.

68......FIGURE 60 THREAD GRINDING BY (A) TRAVERSE, AND (B) PLUNGE GRINDING
68........................................................FIGURE 61 .INTERNAL GRINDING OPERATIONS
List of Tables
TABLE 1 THE HORSEPOWER REQUIRED FOR CUTTING A
20......................................................................................................................MATRILA
43...................................................................................TABLE 2 RANGE OF N VALUES
52............................................TABLE 3 CUTTING TOOLS FOR HORIZONTAL MILLING
53...........TABLE 4 CTTING TOOLS FOR VERTICAL MILLING
55..............................TABLE 5 C.S. AND FEED RATE FOR SOME COMMON MATERIAL
Introduction

Parts manufactured by casting, forming, and various shaping processes
require further processing or finishing operations. This is to impart specific
characteristics, such as dimensional and geometrical accuracies and
surface finish, before the product is ready for use.
These processes are material removal processes . because they are capable
of producing shapes competitive with those produced by other methods ,
critical choices have often to be made about the extent of shaping and
forming versus the extend of machining to be done on a work part to
produce an acceptable part .
Machining is a semi-finishing or finishing process essentially done to impart
required or stipulated dimensional and form accuracy and surface finish to
enable the product to fulfill its basic functional requirements , provide better
or improved performance ,and render long service life .
Machining covers several processes which are usually divided in to the
following :
1. Cutting process
This generally involves single point tool or multi-point cutting tool processes
such as turning, drilling, boring, tapping, and broaching.
2. Abrasive processes
Such as grinding, honing and polishing .
3. Advanced machining processes
Which use electrical, thermal, hydrodynamic, and optical sources of energy to
remove material from the work part.
When to use machining processes?
Closer dimensional accuracy may be required than is available in

casting, forming, or shaping processes alone .
Parts may be possess external and internal geometric features , as
well as sharp corners that cannot be produced by forming and shaping
processes.
Some parts are heat treated for unproved hardness and wear
resistance, since heat treated parts may undergo distortion and surface
discoloration, they generally require additional finishing operations to
obtain the desired characteristics.
Special surfaces characteristics or textures that can not produced bu
other means
Limitations
Removal processes generally require more energy.

It takes alonger time than does shaping.
It may affects the surface integrity of the product.
Mechanics of Chip Formation

7

The basic mechanic of chip formation

Figure 1 Two dimensional cutting process : orthogonal cutting
A tool moves along the work piece at a certain velocity V and a depth of cut t. A chip
is produced just ahead of the tool by shearing of material continuously along the shear
plane.
Major independent variables in cutting process
Tool material and its condition

Tool shape, surface finish and sharpness
Workpiece material and its condition and temperature
Cutting conditions, such as speed, feed and depth of cut
Type of cutting fluids, if used
Characteristics of the machine tool, such as its structure, stiffness and damping
Work holding and fixturing devices
Major dependent variables in cutting process
Type of chip produced

Force and energy dissipated in the cutting process
Temperature rise in the work piece, the chip and the tool
Wear and failure of the tool
Surface finish and integrity of the workpiece after machining
CHIP FORMATION
The type of chip produced depends on the material being machined and the cutting
conditions at the time. These conditions include the type of tool used tool, rate of
cutting condition of the machine and the use or absence of a cutting fluid.
There are three types of chips that are commonly produced in cutting,
1. discontinuous chips
2. continuous chips
3. continuous with built up edge
1. A discontinuous chip
10

A discontinuous chip comes off as small chunks or particles. When we get this chip it
may indicate,
Figure 2 a discontinuous Chip
brittle work material

small rake angles
coarse feeds and low speeds
The chip leaves the tool as small segments of metal resulted from cutting brittle
metals such as cast iron and cast brass with tools having small rake angles. There is
nothing wrong with this type of chip in these circumstances.
2. A continuous chip
A continuous chip looks like a long ribbon with a smooth shining surface. This chip
type may indicate,
Figure 3 Continuous Chip
ductile work materials

large rake angles
fine feeds and high speeds
use of coolant and good chip flow
11

This leaves the tool as a long ribbon and is common when cutting most ductile
materials such as mild steel, copper and Aluminum. It is associated with good tool
angles, correct speeds and feeds, and the use of cutting fluid.
3. Continuous chips with a built up

edge
It still look like a long ribbon, but the surface is no
longer smooth and shining. This type of chip tends to
indicate, high friction between work and tool causes high
temperatures that will occasionally weld the chip to the tool.
This will break free, but the effects are a rough cutting action.
Note That
Continuous chips and subsequently continuous
cutting action is generally desired.
Figure 4 Continuous Chip with BUE
THE MECHANISM OF CUTTING
12

Orthogonal Cutting - assumes that the cutting edge of the tool is set in a position that
is perpendicular to the direction of relative work or tool motion. This allows us to deal
with forces that act only in one plane.
Figure 5 mechanism of cutting
We can obtain orthogonal cutting by turning a thin walled tube, and setting the lath
bit cutting edge perpendicular to the tube axis. Next, we can begin to consider cutting
forces, chip thicknesses, etc.
First, consider the physical geometry of cutting,
13
Figure 6 Physical geometry of cutting
Next, we assume that we are also measuring two perpendicular cutting forces that are
horizontal, and perpendicular to the figure above. The cutting forces in the figure
below (Fc and Ft) are measured using a tool force dynamometer mounted on the athe.
Figure 7 two perpendicular cutting forces
14
Force Calculations
Merchant's Force Circle With Drafting
The procedure to construct a merchants force circle diagram (using drafting
techniques/instruments) is,
1. Set up x-y axis labeled with forces, and the origin in the centre of the page.
The scale should be enough to include both the measured forces. The cutting
force (Fc) is drawn horizontally, and the tangential force (Ft) is drawn
vertically. (These forces will all be in the lower left hand quadrant) .
2. Draw in the resultant (R) of Fc and Ft.
3. Locate the centre of R, and draw a circle that encloses vector R. If done
correctly, the heads and tails of all 3 vectors will lie on this circle.
4. Draw in the cutting tool in the upper right hand quadrant, taking care to draw
the correct rake angle () from the vertical axis.
5. Extend the line that is the cutting face of the tool (at the same rake angle)
through the circle. This now gives the friction vector (F).
6. A line can now be drawn from the head of the friction vector, to the head of
the resultant vector (R). This gives the normal vector (N). Also add a friction
angle () between vectors R and N.
7. We next use the chip thickness, compared to the cut depth to find the shear
force. To do this, the chip is drawn on before and after cut. Before drawing,
select some magnification factor (e.g., 200 times) to multiply both values by.
Draw a feed thickness line (t1) parallel to the horizontal axis. Next draw a chip
thickness line parallel to the tool cutting face.
8. Draw a vector from the origin (tool point) towards the intersection of the two
chip lines, stopping at the circle. The result will be a shear force vector (Fs).
Also measure the shear force angle between Fs and Fc.
9. Finally add the shear force normal (Fn) from the head of Fs to the head of R.
15

10.
Use a scale and protractor to measure off all distances (forces) and angles.
Figure 8 Merchant's Force Circle merchant circle
Vectors analysis
By making vector analysis from figure 8 we can obtain
16
The velocities are also important, and can be calculated for later use in power
calculations. The Velocity diagram below can also be drawn to find cutting velocities.
17
Shear strain
The shear strain that the material undergoes,
Figure 9 the basic mechanism of chip

formation cutting
Note that
large shear strains are associated with low shear angle and low or negative
rake angles
18
The shear strain rate ' represents the ratio of Vs to the thickness y of the
shear zone
POWER CONSUMED IN CUTTING

There are a number of reasons for wanting to calculate the power consumed in
cutting. These numbers can tell us how fast we can cut, or how large the motor on a
machine must be.
Having both the forces and velocities found with the Merchant for Circle, we are able
to calculate the power,
We can relate the energy used in cutting to the mrr.
The horsepower required for cutting can be found using empirical methods,
19
Table 1 The horsepower required for cutting a matrila
Dynamometers
(i) General principle of measurement.
The existence of some physical variables like force, temperature etc and its magnitude
or strength cannot be detected or quantified directly but can be so through their
effect(s) only. For example, a force which can neither be seen nor be gripped but can
be detected and also quantified respectively by its effect(s) and the amount of those
effects (on some material) like elastic deflection, deformation, pressure, strain etc.
These effects, called signals, often need proper conditioning for easy, accurate and
reliable detection and measurement. The basic principle and general method of
.measurement is schematically shown in Fig 10
:The measurement process is comprised of three stages
Stage 1 : The target physical variable (say force) is converted proportionally into
another suitable variable (say voltage) called signal, by using appropriate sensor or
.transducer
Stage 2 : The feeble and noisy signal is amplified, filtered, rectified (if necessary)
.and stabilized for convenience and accuracy of measurement
Stage 3 : where the conditioned signal (say voltage) is quantitatively determined
and recorded by using some read out unit like galvanometer, oscilloscope, recorder or
computer
20
Figure 10 General principle of measurement.
21
(ii) Different types of transducers used in dynamometers for

measuring machining forces.
: Measurement of cutting force(s) is based on three basic principles
a) Measurement of elastic deflection of a body subjected to the cutting force)
b) Measurement of elastic deformation, i.e. strain induced by the force)
.c) Measurement of pressure developed in a medium by the force)
The type of the transducer depends upon how that deflection, strain or pressure is
detected and quantified.
1. Measuring deflection caused by the cutting force(s)

Under the action of the cutting force, say PZ in turning, the tool or tool holder
elastically deflects as indicated in Fig.11. Such tool deflection, is proportional to the
,magnitude of the cutting force, PZ, simply as
,Where
(L = overhang or equivalent projected length of the cantilever type tool (holder
( E = physical property (Youngs modulus of elasticity of the beam
.I = size (plane moment of inertia) of the beam section
Since for a given cutting tool and its holder, E and I are fixed and the equation
,becomes
where, k is a constant of proportionali
22
Figure 11 Cutting tool undergoing deflection, due to cutting force, PZ
The deflection, , can be measured
(Mechanically by dial gauge (mechanical transducer

;electrically by using several transducers like
potentiometer; linear or circular
capacitive pickup
inductive pickup
LVDT
.a
.b
.c
.d
.as schematically shown in Fig. 12

Opto-electronically by photocell where the length of the slit through
which light passes to the photocell changes proportionally with the tool
deflection
23
Figure 12 Electrical transducers working based on deflection measurement (a) Linear Pot.
(b) Circular pot, (c) capacitor transducer, (d) LVDT
Note that
All such transducers need proper calibration before use.
24
1. Measuring cutting force by monitoring elastic strain

caused by the force.
Increasing deflection, enhances sensitivity of the dynamometer but may affect
machining accuracy where large value of is restricted, the cutting forces are suitably
measured by using the change in strain caused by the force. Fig. 13 shows the
principle of force measurement by measuring strain, , which would be proportional
with the magnitude of the force, F (say PZ) as,
Where
M = bending moment
Z = sectional modulus (I/y) of the tool section
I = plane moment of inertia of the plane section
y = distance of the straining surface from the neutral plane of the beam (tool)
Figure 13 Measuring cutting forces by strain gauges
The strain, induced by the force changes the electrical resistance, R, of the strain
gauges which are firmly pasted on the surface of the tool-holding beam as
Where,
G = gauge factor (around 2.0 for conductive gauges)
25

The change in resistance of the gauges connected in a wheatstone bridge produces
voltage output V, through a strain measuring bridge (SMB) as indicated in Fig. 14.
Out of the four gauges, R1, R2, R3 and R4, two are put in tension and two in
compression as shown in Fig. 10.6. The output voltage, V, depends upon the
,constant, G and the summation of strains as
Where,
1 and 2 are in tension and - 3 and - 4 are in compression
The gauge connections may be
full bridge (all 4 gauges alive) giving full sensitivity

half bridge (only 2 gauges alive) half sensitive
quarter bridge (only 1 gauge alive) th sensitivity
Figure 14 Force measurement by strain gauge based transducer.
1. Measuring cutting forces by pressure caused by the

force
This type of transducer functions in two ways:
the force creates hydraulic pressure (through a diaphragm or piston) which
is monitored directly by pressure gauge
the force causes pressure on a piezoelectric crystal and produces an emf
proportional to the force or pressure as indicated in Fig 15
26
Figure 15 Piezoelectric transducer for measuring force or pressure.
Here, emf = tp
Where
= voltage sensitivity of the crystal
t = thickness of the crystal
p = pressure
(iii) Design requirements for Tool force Dynamometers

For consistently accurate and reliable measurement, the following requirements are
considered during design and construction of any tool force dynamometers :
Sensitivity : the dynamometer should be reasonably sensitive for

precision measurement
Rigidity : the dynamometer need to be quite rigid to withstand the forces
without causing much deflection which may affect the machining
condition
Cross sensitivity : the dynamometer should be free from cross sensitivity
such that one force (say PZ) does not affect measurement of the other
forces (say PX and PY)
Stability against humidity and temperature
Quick time response
High frequency response such that the readings are not affected by
vibration within a reasonably high range of frequency
Consistency, i.e. the dynamometer should work desirably over a long
period.
(iv) Construction and working principle of some common tool

force dynamometers.
The dynamometers being commonly used now-a-days for measuring machining
forces desirably accurately and precisely (both static and dynamic characteristics) are
Either strain gauge type
Or piezoelectric type
27

Strain gauge type dynamometers are inexpensive but less accurate and consistent,
whereas, the piezoelectric type are highly accurate, reliable and consistent but very
.expensive for high material cost and stringent construction
Dynamometers applications
1. Turning Dynamometer
Turning dynamometers may be strain gauge or piezoelectric type and may be of one,
two or three dimensions capable to monitor all of PX, PY and PZ. For ease of
manufacture and low cost, strain gauge type turning dynamometers are widely used
and preferably of 2 D (dimension) for simpler construction, lower cost and ability to
provide almost all the desired force values. Design and construction of a strain
gauge type 2 D turning dynamometer are shown schematically in Fig16 and
photographically in Fig. 17 Two full bridges comprising four live strain gauges are
provided for PZ and PX channels which are connected with the strain measuring
bridge for detection and measurement of strain in terms of voltage which provides the
magnitude of the cutting forces through calibration. Fig18 pictorially shows use of 3
D turning dynamometer having piezoelectric transducers inside.
Figure 16 Schematic view of a strain gauge type 2 D turning dynamometer.
28
Figure 17 Photographs of a strain gauge type 2

D turning dynamometer and its major
Figure 18 Use of 3 D piezoelectric type turning

dynamometer
2. Drilling dynamometer
Physical construction of a strain gauge type 2 D drilling dynamometer for
measuring torque and thrust force is typically shown schematically in Fig. 20 and
pictorially in Fig. 19. Four strain gauges are mounted on the upper and lower surfaces
of the two opposite ribs for PX channel and four on the side surfaces of the other
two ribs for the torque channel. Before use, the dynamometer must be calibrated to
enable determination of the actual values of T and PX from the voltage values or
reading taken in SMB or PC.
29
Figure 19 strain gauge type drilling dynamometer

and its major components.
Figure 20 Schematic view of construction of a strain

gauge type drilling
3. Milling dynamometer
Since the cutting or loading point is not fixed w.r.t. the job and the dynamometer, the
job platform rests on four symmetrically located supports in the form of four O-rings.
The forces on each O-ring are monitored and summed up correspondingly for getting
the total magnitude of all the three forces in X, Y and Z direction respectively.
Figure 21 Scheme of strain gauge type 3 D milling

dynamometer
Figure 22 A typical strain gauge type 3 D milling

dynamometer
30
4.Grinding dynamometer
The construction and application of a strain gauge type (extended O-ring) grinding
surface dynamometer and another piezoelectric type are typically shown in Fig. 23
and Fig. 24 respectively.
Figure 23 A typical strain gauge type 2 D

grinding dynamometer
Figure 24 Piezoelectric type grinding dynamometer

in operation
Unlike strain gauge type dynamometers, the sophisticated piezoelectric type

(KISTLER) dynamometers can be used directly more accurately and reliably even
without calibration by the user.
Thermal Aspects of Metal Cutting

There are three main sources of heat when cutting,
Heat is produced as the tool deforms (works) the metal

Friction on the cutting face
Friction on the tool flank
Figure 25 friction on the cutting face
31

Heat is mostly dissipated by,
The discarded chip carries away heat

Coolant will help draw away heat
The workpiece acts as a heat sink
The cutting tool will also draw away heat.
factors 1 & 2 dissipate 75 to 80%, factors 3 and 4 dissipate 10% each [Krar, ]
(i) Sources and causes of heat generation and development of

temperature in machining
During machining heat is generated at the cutting point from three sources, as
indicated in Fig26. Those sources and causes of development of cutting temperature
:are
Primary shear zone (1) where the major part of the energy is converted
into heat
Secondary deformation zone (2) at the chip tool interface where
further heat is generated due to rubbing and / or shear
At the worn out flanks (3) due to rubbing between the tool and the
finished surfaces
Figure 26 sources of heat generation
The heat generated is shared by the chip, cutting tool and the blank. The
apportionment of sharing that heat depends upon the configuration, size and thermal
conductivity of the tool work material and the cutting condition. Fig. 27 visualises
that maximum amount of heat is carried away by the flowing chip. From 10 to 20% of
the total heat goes into the tool and some heat is absorbed in the blank. With the
increase in cutting velocity, the chip shares
32
Figure 27 apportionment of heat amongst tool,chip,and blank
(ii) Effects of high temperature on tool and job

The possible detrimental effects of the high cutting temperature on
cutting tool (edge) are
.1
Rapid tool wear, that affect the tool life
plastic deformation of the cutting edge if the tool material is not
enough hot-hard and hot-strong

thermal flaking and fracturing of the cutting edges due to thermal
shocks
Built up edge formation
33

The possible detrimental effects of the high cutting temperature on
machined job are
Dimensional inaccuracy of the job
surface damage by oxidation, rapid corrosion, burn
induction of tensile residual stresses and microcracks at the surface
subsurface
.2
However, often the high cutting temperature helps in reducing the magnitude of the
cutting forces and cutting power consumption to some extent by softening or reducing
.the shear strength
(iii) Determination of cutting temperature

:Cutting temperature can be determined by two ways
Analytically using mathematical models (equations) if available or can
be developed. This method is simple, quick and inexpensive but less
.accurate and precise
.Experimentally this method is more accurate, precise and reliable
1.Analytically using mathematical models (equations

References are available to revise all used equations
2.
Experimental methods of determination of cutting

temperature
a. The embedded thermocouple method
34
Figure 28 The experimental set up of the embedded
The set-up was prepared to be mounted on a precision lathe. The tool holder used was
Stellram SSBRC 2525M12 and the carbide inserts used were Stellram
SCMW12M508E (P10-P20). The work piece used was an AISI 1040. A Standard Ktype, thermocouple was inserted the tool. PLCD 780 wiring terminal board, PCI 1710
HG data acquisition and control card and a computer were used. Tool and workpiece
were insulated from the machine tool. The insulated termocouple was inserted in
sensitive hole in the tool drilled using EDM. After thermoelectric circuit was made,
one of the copper wires was connectted the cold junction were maintained in an icebath. After these, copper wires were connected to PCI 1710 HG data acquisition and
control card. The thermoelectric circuit was connected as shown in Figure28.
thermocouple were inserted and the tool formed the hot junction whereas another wire
which was inserted in an ice-bath formed the cold junction. PC 710 HG card was used
to measure the emf genareted at this junction.
b. Photo-cell technique
This unique technique enables accurate measurement of the temperature along the
shear zone and tool flank as can be seen in Fig4. The electrical resistance of the cell,
like PbS cell, changes when it is exposed to any heat radiation. The amount of change
in the resistance depends upon the temperature of the heat radiating source and is
measured in terms of voltage, which is calibrated with the source temperature. It is
evident from Fig. 29 that the cell starts receiving radiation through the small hole only
when it enters the shear zone where the hole at the upper end faces a hot surface.
Receiving radiation and measurement of temperature continues until the hole passes
through the entire shear zone and then the tool flank.
Figure 29 Measuring temperature at shear plane and tool flank by photo cell
c. Infra-red photographic technique

This modern and powerful method is based on taking infra-red photograph of the hot
surfaces of the tool, chip, and/or job and get temperature distribution at those surfaces.
Proper calibration is to be done before that. This way the temperature profiles can be
35

recorded in PC as indicated in Fig. 30. The fringe pattern readily changes with the
change in any machining parameter which affects cutting temperature.
Figure 30 Temperature distribution at the tool tip detected by Infrared
(iv) Role of variation of the various machining parameters on

cutting temperature
The magnitude of cutting temperature is more or less governed or influenced by all
the machining parameters like :
1. Work material
Specific energy requirement
ductility
thermal properties (, cv)
2. process parameters :
cutting velocity (VC)

feed (so)
depth of cut (t)
3. cutting tool material : thermal properties

wear resistance
chemical stability
4. tool geometry : rake angle ()
cutting edge angle ()
clearance angle ()
nose radius (r)
5. cutting fluid : thermal and lubricating properties
36
method of application
Tool wear &Tool life

Tools wear definition:
The change of shape of the tool from its original shape, during cutting, resulting from
the gradual loss of tool material. Tool wear is one of the important factors of
machining operations.
Wear is caused by:
1. Temperature,
2. Sliding, and
3. Force.
Tool wear depends on:
.1
Cutting speed is an independent variable;
the forces and temperatures generated in cutting are dependent variables and
are functions of numerous parameters,
37

.2
Tool geometry, cutting fluid, and
.3
Tool material work piece material.
The various regions of wear are identified as:
1. Flank wear,
2.crater wear,
3. Nose wear, and
4. Chipping of the cutting edge.
Figure 31 show the following:

(a) Types of wear observed in cutting tools. The thermal cracks shown are usually
observed in interrupted cutting operations.
(b) Catastrophic failure of tool.
(c) Features of tool wear in a turning operation.
38
Figure 31 (a) Types of wear observed in cutting tools. The thermal cracks shown are usually
observed in interrupted cutting operations. (b) Catastrophic failure of tool.(c) Features of tool
wear in a turning operation.
1. Flank wear
Wear on the flank (relief) face is called Flank wear and results in the formation of a
wear land. Wear land formation is not always uniform along the major and minor
cutting edges of the tool.
39

Flank wear is normally caused by:
1. Sliding of tool over work piece; causes adhesion, adhesive wear,

2. Temperature; famous Taylors equation (FW Taylor, 1907).
Where: V=cutting speed, T= time that it takes to develop flank wear,

n=exponent depend on cutting condition, c=constant.
2. Crater wear
The chip flows across the rake face, resulting in severe friction between the chip and
rake face, and leaves a scar on the rake face which usually parallels to the major
cutting edge.
Crater wear is normally caused by:
1. Chemical affinity between tool and work piece,

2. Temperature rise.
Note That:
Maximum temperature leads to Maximum depth of crater wear.
40
Figure 32 Relationship between crater- wear rate and average tool-chip interface temperature in
turning.
3. Chipping
Breaking away of a piece from the cutting edge of the tool.
Chipping of the cutting edge is normally caused by:
1. Mechanical shock,
2. Thermal fatigue.
Note That :
Very small chipped pieces lead to micro or macro chipping.
Large fragments lead to gross chipping or fracture.
Tool-condition monitoring
Direct method: optical measurement of wear.
Indirect method: acoustic emissions; Transducers.
41
Figure 33 Relationship between mean flank wear, maximum crater wear, and acoustic emission
as a function of machining time.
Tool life definition

Tool life generally indicates the amount of satisfactory performance or service
rendered by a fresh tool or a cutting point till it is declared failed.
Tool life is given in terms of the time (in minutes) required to reach a flank wear land
of a specified dimension.
42
Figure 34 Effect of work piece microstructure on tool life in turning.
Notes:
Rapid decrease in tool life as the cutting speed increases.

Tool life vs. cutting speed is plotted on a log-log graph. We can directly
obtain n from it.
Range of n values:
Cutting tools
High speed steel
Carbides
Ceramics
Range of "n" values

0.08 to 0.2
0.2 to 0.5
0.5 to 0.7
Table 2 Range of n values
Temperature:
Since temperature effect physical properties experiments have been done to
prove it.
43
Fig.5. (a) Tool-life curves for a variety of cutting-tool materials. The negative inverse
of the slope of these curves is the exponent n in tool-life equations.(b) Relationship
between measured temperatures during cutting and tool life (flank wear).
Note :
High cutting temperatures severely reduce tool life.
Extended Taylor's equation
OR,
Where: d=Depth of cut, f=Feed rate.

Note:
For obtaining constant tool life:
1. "f" increases or d.o.c. increases, speed decreases.
2. Reduction feed rate or d.o.c (more volume removed).
The Economics of Metal Cutting

44

As with most engineering problems we want to get the highest return, with
the minimum investment. In this case we want to minimize costs, while
increasing cutting speeds.
EFFICIENCY will be the key term - it suggests that good quality parts are
produced at reasonable cost.
Cost is a primarily affected by:
1. Tool life.
2. Power consumed.
The production throughput is primarily affected by:
1. Accuracy including dimensions and surface finish.
2. M.R.R (metal removal rate).
The factors that can be modified to optimize the process are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Cutting velocity (biggest effect).

Feed and depth.
Work material.
Tool material.
Tool shape.
Cutting fluid.
We previously considered the log-log scale graph of Taylor's tool life equation,
but we may also graph it normally to emphasize the effects.
Figure 35 the log-log scale graph of Taylor's tool life equation
There are two basic conditions to trade off,
45

1) Low cost - exemplified by low speeds, low mrr, longer tool life,
2) High production rates - exemplified by high speeds, short tool life, high
mrr,and
There are many factors in addition to these, but these are the most commonly
considered.
Figure 36 .relationship between the cutting speed and the cost per unit volume.
A simplified treatment of the problem is given below for optimizing cost,
46
47
We can also look at optimizing production rates,
48
We can now put the two optimums in perspective,

Since t1< Ct/Rc then tool life for maximum production is less than economical tool
life and as a result, cutting velocity for maximum production is > velocity for lowest
cost.
.Figure 37 Depicts the condition of minimum cost production when cutting speed is increased
49
Milling
Introduction
Milling machine is one of the most versatile conventional machine tools with a wide
range of metal cutting capability. Many complicated operations such as indexing,
gang milling, and straddle milling etc. can be carried out on a milling machine. This
training module is intended to give you a good appreciation on the type of milling
machines and the various types of milling processes. Emphasis is placed on its
industrial applications, operations, and the selection of appropriate cutting tools.
On completion of this module, you will acquire some of these techniques from the
training exercises as illustrated in figure 1. However, to gain maximum benefit, you
are strongly advised to make yourself familiar with the following notes before
undertaking the training activities, and to have a good interaction between yourself
and the staff in charge of your training. Assessment of your training will be based on
a combination of your skill and attitude in getting the work done.
Types of Milling Machine

Most of the milling machine are constructed of column and knee structure and they
are classified into two main types namely Horizontal Milling Machine and Vertical
Milling Machine. The name Horizontal or Vertical is given to the machine by virtue
of its spindle axis. Horizontal machines can be further classified into Plain Horizontal
and Universal Milling Machine. The main difference between the two is that the table
of an Universal Milling Machine can be set at an angle for helical milling while the
table of a Plain Horizontal Milling Machine is not.
1) Horizontal Milling Machine
Figure 38 Horizontal Milling Machine
50

Figure 38.shows the main features of a Plain Horizontal Milling Machine.
Their functions are:
a. Column
The column houses the spindle, the bearings, the gear box, the clutches, the shafts, the
pumps, and the shifting mechanisms for transmitting power from the electric motor to
the spindle at a selected speed.
b. Knee
The knee mounted in front of the column is for supporting the table and to provide an
up or down motion along the Z axis.
c. Saddle
The saddle consists of two slideways, one on the top and one at the bottom located at
90 to each other, for providing motions in the X or Y axes by means of lead screws.
d. Table
The table is mounted on top of the saddle and can be moved along the X axis. On top
of the table are some T-slots for the mounting of workpiece or clamping fixtures.
e. Arbor
The arbor is an extension of the spindle for mounting cutters. Usually, the thread end
of an arbor is of left hand helix.
2) Vertical Milling Machine
Figure 39 Vertical Milling Machine
51
Figure(10) shows a vertical milling machine which is of similar construction to a

horizontal milling machine except that the spindle is mounted in the vertical position.
Its additional features are :a. Milling head
The milling head consisting the spindle, the motor, and the feed control unit is
mounted on a swivel base such that it can be set at any angle to the table.
b.Ram
The ram on which the milling head is attached can be positioned forward and
backward along the slideway on the top of the column.
Cutting Tools
1. Cutting Tools for Horizontal Milling
Slab Mills
Figure 40 Slab Mill
For heavy cutting of large and flat

surfaces.
Side and Face Cutters
Slitting Saws
Figure 41 Side and Face

Cutters
Figure 42 Slitting Saw
This type of cutters has

cutting edges on the
periphery and sides of the
teeth for cutting shoulders
and slots.
For cutting deep slots or

for parting off.
Table 3 Cutting tools for horizontal Milling
2. Cutting tools for Vertical Milling

52
End Mills
Commonly used for facing, slotting and

profile milling.
Rough Cut End Mills
For rapid metal removal.
Slot Drills
For producing pockets without drilling a

hole before hand.
Face Milling Cutters
For heavy cutting.

Table 4 Ctting Tools for Vertical Milling
53
Milling Processes
Milling is a metal removal process by means of using a rotating cutter having one or
more cutting teeth as illustrated in figure(43) .
Cutting action is carried out by feeding the workpiece against the rotating cutter.
Thus, the spindle speed, the table feed, the depth of cut, and the rotating direction of
the cutter become the main parameters of the process. Good results can only be
achieved with well balanced settings of these parameters.
Figure 43 Milling Process
Spindle Speed
Spindle speed in revolution per minute (R.P.M.) for the cutter can be calculated from
the equation :-
where:
N = R.P.M. of the cutter.
CS = Linear Cutting Speed of the material in m/min. ( see table 1 ).
d = Diameter of cutter in mm.
Feed Rate
Feed rate (F) is defined as the rate of travel of the workpiece in mm/min. But most
tool suppliers recommend it as the movement per tooth of the cutter (f). Thus,
54
where :
F = table feed in mm/min
f = movement per tooth of cutter in mm ( see table 1 )
u = number of teeth of cutter
N = R.P.M. of the cutter
C.S. and feed rate for some common material:
High Speed Steel
Tool Material
Material
Carbide
Cutting Speed
Feed (f)
Cutting Speed
Feed (f)
Mild Steel
25
0.08
100
0.15
Aluminum
100
0.15
500
0.3
---
---
50
0.1
Hardened Steel
Table 5 C.S. and feed rate for some common material
Depth of Cut
Depth of cut is directly related to the efficiency of the cutting process. The deeper the
cut the faster will be the production rate. Yet, it still depends on the strength of the
cutter and the material to be cut.
For a certain type of cutter, a typical range of cut will be recommended by the
supplier. Nevertheless, it should be noted that a finer cut is usually associated with a
better surface finish as well as a long tool life.
Direction of Cutter Rotation

a. Up Cut Milling
In up cut milling, the cutter rotates in a direction opposite to the table feed as
illustrated in figure(44). It is conventionally used in most milling operations because
the backlash between the leadscrew and the nut of the machine table can be
eliminated.
55
Figure 44 Up Cut Milling
b. Down Cut Milling

In down cut milling, the cutter rotates in the same direction as the table feed as
illustrated in figure(45). This method is also known as Climb Milling and can
only be used on machines equipped with a backlash eliminator or on a CNC
milling machine. This method, when properly treated, will require less power in
feeding the table and give a better surface finish on the workpiece.
Figure 45 Down Cut Milling
Typical Milling Operations

1. Plain Milling
Plain milling is the milling of a flat surface with the axis of the cutter parallel to the
machining surface. It can be carried out either on a horizontal machine or a vertical
machine as shown in figure(46) .
56
Figure 46 Plain Milling
2.
End Milling
End Milling is the milling of a flat surface with the axis of the cutter perpendicular to
the machining surface as shown in figure(47) .
57
Figure 47 End Milling
3.
Gang Milling
Gang milling is a horizontal milling operation that utilises three or more milling
cutters grouped together for the milling of a complex surface in one pass. As
illustrated in figure(48), different type and size of cutters should be selected for
achieving the desire profile on the workpiece.
Figure 48 Gang Milling
58
Work Holding Method

In the machining of a complex component, it is usually started off with the milling of
a rectangular block. To ensure that each surface of the rectangular block is
perpendicular to its neighbouring surfaces, the following points should be noted:
The vice jaws and the workpiece must be free from burrs, chips, and cutting
fluid.
Smaller workpiece should be supported by parallel bars to provide the
supporting datum.
Round bar must be placed between the workpiece and the movable jaw to
ensure that the workpiece is in perfect contact with the fix jaw.
The vice handle should be tightened by hand to avoid over clamping of the
workpiece as well as the vice. Hide face hammer should be used to assure that
the workpiece is in perfect contact with the supporting base.
On completion of the milling of the first face, the workpiece should be
unloaded, deburred, and cleaned before the next operation.
To machine the second and the third faces, the workpiece should be clamped
with its preceding machined surface facing against the fix jaw of the vice as
shown in figure(49).
Similar clamping method can be applied in the machining of the fourth face.
Yet it can also be clamped on the vice without the round bar.
Both ends of the workpiece can be machined with the periphery flutes of the
cutter using up cut milling as shown in figure(50) .
Figure 49 Holding Method by Using a Machine Vice
59
Figure 50 End Surface Milling
Grinding
Grinding is the most common form of abrasive machining. It is a material cutting
process which engages an abrasive tool whose cutting elements are grains of abrasive
material known as grit. These grits are characterized by sharp cutting points, high hot
hardness, chemical stability and wear resistance. The grits are held together by a
suitable bonding material to give shape of an abrasive tool.
60
Figure 51 Cutting action of abrasive grains.
Selection of grinding wheels

Selection of grinding wheel means selection of composition of the grinding wheel and
this depends upon the following factors:
1. Physical and chemical characteristics of the work material.
2. Grinding conditions.
3. Type of grinding (stock removal grinding or form finish grinding).
Type of abrasives
1. Aluminium oxide:
Aluminum oxide may have variation in properties arising out of differences in
chemical composition and structure associated with the manufacturing process.
Pure Al2O3 grit with defect structure like voids leads to unusually sharp free cutting
action with low strength and is advantageous in fine tool grinding operation, and heat
sensitive operations on hard, ferrous materials.
Regular or brown aluminium oxide (doped with TiO2) possesses lower hardness and
higher toughness than the white Al2O3 and is recommended heavy duty grinding to
semi finishing.
Al2O3 alloyed with chromium oxide (<3%) is pink in colour. Monocrystalline Al2O3
grits make a balance between hardness and toughness and are efficient in medium
pressure heat sensitive operation on ferrous materials.
Microcrystalline Al2O3 grits of enhanced toughness are practically suitable for stock
removal grinding. Al2O3 alloyed with zirconia also makes extremely tough grit mostly
suitably for high pressure, high material removal grinding on ferrous material and are
not recommended for precision grinding. Microcrystalline sintered Al2O3 grit is the
latest development particularly known for its toughness and self sharpening
characteristics.
61
2. Silicon carbide:
Silicon carbide is harder than alumina but less tough. Silicon carbide is also inferior to
Al2O3 because of its chemical reactivity with iron and steel.
Black carbide containing at least 95% SiC is less hard but tougher than green SiC and
is efficient for grinding soft nonferrous materials.
Green silicon carbide contains at least 97% SiC. It is harder than black variety and is
used for grinding cemented carbide.
3. Diamond:
Diamond grit is best suited for grinding cemented carbides, glass, sapphire, stone,
granite, marble, concrete, oxide, non-oxide ceramic, fiber reinforced plastics, ferrite,
graphite.
Natural diamond grit is characterized by its random shape, very sharp cutting edge and
free cutting action and is exclusively used in metallic, electroplated and brazed bond.
Monocrystalline diamond grits are known for their strength and designed for
particularly demanding application. These are also used in metallic, galvanic an brazed
bond.
Polycrystalline diamond grits are more friable than monocrystalline one and found to
be most suitable for gr inding of cemented carbide with low pressure. These grits are
used in resin bond.
4. CBN (cubic boron nitride):

Diamond though hardest is not suitable for grinding ferrous materials because of its
reactivity. In contrast, cBN the second hardest material, because of its chemical
stability is the abrasive material of choice for efficient grinding of HSS, alloy steels,
HSTR alloys.Presently cBN grits are available as monocrystalline type with medium
strength and blocky monocrystals with much higher strength. Medium strength crystals
are more friable and used in resin bond for those applications where grinding force is
not so . High strength crystals are used with vitrified, electroplated or brazed bond
where large grinding force is expected.
Microcrystalline cBN is known for its highest toughness and auto sharpening
character and found to be best candidate for HEDG and abrasive milling. It can be
used in all types of bond.
Grit size
The grain size affects material removal rate and the surface quality of workpiece in
grinding.
Large grit- big grinding capacity, rough workpiece surface.

Fine grit- small grinding capacity, smooth workpiece surface.
Grade
62

The worn out grit must pull out from the bond and make room for fresh sharp grit in
order to avoid excessive rise of grinding force and temperature. Therefore, a soft grade
should be chosen for grinding hard material. On the other hand, during grinding of low
strength soft material grit does not wear out so quickly. Therefore, the grit can be held
with strong bond so that premature grit dislodgement can be avoided.
Structure / concentration
The structure should be open for grinding wheels engaged in high material removal to
provide chip accommodation space. The space between the grits also serves as pocket
for holding grinding fluid. On the other hand dense structured wheels are used for
longer wheel life, for holding precision forms and profiles.
Bond Types
vitrified bond
Vitrified bond is suitable for high stock removal even at dry condition. It can also be
safely used in wet grinding. It can not be used where mechanical impact or thermal
variations are like to occur. This bond is also not recommended for very high speed
grinding because of possible breakage of the bond under centrifugal force.
Resin bond
Conventional abrasive resin bonded wheels are widely used for heavy duty grinding
because of their ability to withstand shock load. This bond is also known for its
vibration absorbing characteristics and finds its use with diamond and cBN in grinding
of cemented carbide and steel respectively. Resin bond is not recommended with
alkaline grinding fluid for a possible chemical attack leading to bond weakening.
Fiberglass reinforced resin bond is used with cut off wheels which requires added
strength under high speed operation.
Rubber bond
Its principal use is in thin wheels for wet cut-off operation. Rubber bond was once
popular for finish grinding on bearings and cutting tools.
Metal bond
Metal bond is extensively used with superabrasive wheels . Extremely high toughness
of metal bonded wheels makes these very effective in those applications where form
accuracy as well as large stock removal is desired.
Examples of Bonded Abrasives
63
Figure 52 A variety of bonded abrasive used in abrasive machining processes
Grinding Wheel
Figure 53 .Physical model of a grinding wheel, showing is structure and wear and fracture
patterns.
Wheel Shapes
64
Figure 54 Some of the more commnly used types of grinding wheels
Superabrasive Wheel Configuration
Figure 55 .Examples of Superabrasive Wheel Configuration.
Figure 55 show examples of Superabrasive Wheel Configuration.The annular regions

(rim) are superabrasive grinding surfaces, and the wheel itself (core) is generally
made of metal or composites. The bonding materials for the super abrasives are: (a),
65

(d), and (e) resinoid, metal, or vitrified, (b) metal, (c) vitrified, and (f) resinoid
Grinding Chips
Figure 56 Grinding Chips
Fig.56 show (a) Grinding chip being produced by a single abrasive grain. (A) chip,
(B) workpiece, (C) abrasive grain. Note the large negative rake angle of the grain. The
inscribed circle is 0.065mm in diameter. (b) Chip formation by an abrasive grain with
a wear flat. Note the negative rake angle of the grain and the small shear angle
Shaping using Computer Control
Figure 57 Shaping using Computer Control
66

Fig.57 show the shaping the grinding face of a wheel by dressing it with computer
control. Note that the diamond dressing tool is normal to the surface at point of
contact with the wheel.
Grinding operations
1. Cylindrical Grinding Operations
Figure 58 Examples of various cylindrical grinding operations (a) Traverse grinding, (b) plunge
grinding, and (c) profile grinding.
2. Plunge and Noncylindrical Grinding
Figure 59 Plunge Grinding of a workpiece on a cylindrical grinder with the wheel dressed to a
stepped shape.
67
3. Thread and Internal Grinding
Figure 60 Thread grinding by (a) traverse, and (b) plunge grinding
Figure 61 .Internal grinding operations
References
68
http://www.onlinefreeebooks.net/engineering-ebooks
mmu.ic.polyu.edu.hk/handout/0102/0102.htm
http://www.technologystudent.com
http://www.mini-lathe.com
http://www.americanmachinetools.com
http://en.wikipedia.org
http://www.public.iastate.edu
http://mmu.ic.polyu.edu.hk
http://www.roymech.co.uk
http://www.technologystudent.com
http://www.mfg.mtu.edu
69

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THEORY OF METAL CUTTING

12..................................................................................THE MECHANISM OF CUTTING

31..................................................................THERMAL ASPECTS OF METAL CUTTING

37...........................................................................................TOOL WEAR &TOOL LIFE

44......................................................................THE ECONOMICS OF METAL CUTTING