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from the online learning library series of

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Simple and Compound

Machines

rom the six simple machines to complex kinematic linkages,

every engineer needs to be familiar with the basics of machinery
movement. If your knowledge base requires refreshment, this fact-

filled, illustrated eBook Simple and Compound Machines presents

a colorful and enlightening reminder of how machines do their work. The
following topics are covered: Kinematic linkages, transducers, simple
machines, rotary-to-linear conversion, and drive mechanism basics.

Up

Brushing

Simple and Compound Machines

table of contents

Six simple machines: No matter how complex, all

machines are based on one or more simple machines that
change the direction or magnitude of an applied force.

Simple machines include the lever, wheel and axle, pulley, inclined
plane, wedge, and screw.

Kinematic linkages: Connecting linkages at joints form

mechanisms, the building blocks of higher systems and
machines. Kinematics, first coined by Andre Marie Ampere

from the Greek word cinematique for motion, is the study of this
motion without regard to forces.

The ultimate map of transducers: Here we map the

family of motion devices that convert energy to and from
four common forms: Fluidic, mechanical translational,

mechanical rotational, and electrical.

10
12

Drive mechanisms: Theres more than one way to

drive a load. Whats best depends on what youre
trying to do.

Rotary to linear motion: Ballscrews, threaded

shafts, and belts are among the most commonly used
elements to convert rotary motion to linear motion.

Each fits specific application needs for speed, accuracy, life, and
cost and affects a systems frequency response.
2

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Up

Brushing

Six simple machines

Pulley

Machines consist of elements,

such as gears and bearings, that
work together to transmit force
and produce work. No matter how
complex, all machines are based
on one or more simple machines
that change the direction or
magnitude of an applied force.
Simple machines include the lever,
wheel and axle, pulley, inclined
plane, wedge, and screw.

Lever

Resembling a wheel and axle, a pulley has a rope or belt

that passes over it to lift a load. A fixed pulley attached to
a support changes the direction of a force. This makes it
easier to lift a load by pulling down on a rope and using
body weight as an assist. With a movable pulley, a rope
supported at one end wraps around the pulley and is
pulled up at the other. Pulling upward lifts the load (and
pulley) with only half the effort -- the support gives the
added effort. In another form, pulleys drive a belt or chain.

A lever consists of a bar pivoted

on a support or fulcrum, and used
to increase an applied force.
In a first class lever, such as a
crowbar, the fulcrum is between
the load and applied force. In
a second class lever, such as
a wheelbarrow, the load lies
between fulcrum and force. In
a third class lever, the force is
between load and fulcrum.

Inclined plane

Wheel and axle

This device consists of a wheel attached

to an axle where torque applied to the
wheel winds a rope or chain onto the
axle. Its a lever in principle, but it can
move a load farther than a lever can. In
a winch, the rope that carries a load is
wrapped around the axle. A light force
applied to a crank handle on the side of
the wheel creates torque about the axle
centerline (the fulcrum) to lift a heavy
load.

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Wedge

The wedge is an adaptation of the

inclined plane. It is thick at one
end and tapered to a thin edge at
the other for insertion in a narrow
crevice. It can raise a heavy load
over a short distance, tighten
an assembly, or split a log when
driven by a hammer. The smaller
the angle of the thin end, the less
force is required to raise a load.
Shaft locking devices use the
wedge principle.

The inclined plane is a flat

object positioned at a slope or
incline to aid in lifting. Consider
the difficulty in trying to lift a
200-lb load up into the rear of a
truck. But placing a 10-ft plank
from the truck to the ground lets
you slide the load up into the
truck easily. The inclined plane
principle is used in conveyors.

Screw

The screw is an
inclined plane cut
in a spiral around a
cylinder. A jackscrew,
used to raise large
structures, combines
the usefulness of both
the screw and lever.
The lever turns the
screw, and only a small
effort is needed to raise
a heavy load. Screws
also provide linear
motion in ball screws
and screw conveyors.

AUTOMATIONDIRECT.COM MACHINES eBook

Kinematics, first coined by Andre Marie Ampere from the Greek word cinematique for
motion, is the study of this motion without regard to forces. Because every input requires an
actuator and must be coordinated with other inputs, keeping system complexity and degrees
of freedom as low as possible helps keep cost low too.

Kinematics

Sometimes a set of links can

be connected into different
isomers to give different
motion. For an isomer to be
valid, the degrees of freedom
cannot be concentrated in a
subchain.

Let freedom ring

Connecting linkages at joints form mechanisms, the

Stevensons sixbar

building blocks of higher systems and machines. The

Freedom fighters

mobility of any mechanism can be quantified by its

degrees of freedom, which is defined as the number of
inputs needed to fully control output motion.

Fourbar family

Geneva
mechanism

Fourbars are so prevalent because

of their simple elegance; they
contain the fewest parts while still
returning a degree of freedom.
Capable of many types of motion,
possible forms include the sliders,
cranks, and rockers.

greubler
Kutzbach
Grashof

Cam

Any link floating in a plane has three degrees of freedom. Adding linkages
to a system tends to increase degrees of freedom, while engaging or
grounding their joints tends to have the opposite effect. Considering links
in three-dimensional space is more cumbersome and less common; a
link floating in space will have six degrees of freedom.
The Kutzbach modification determines a systems degrees of
freedom as Greublers equation does, but makes working with
grounded links and half-joints easier:
M = 3(L-1) - 2F - H
where M is the degrees of freedom, L is the number of links, F is
the number of full links, and H is the number of half links.

Fivebar
mechanism

The Grashof condition determines whether a fourbar contains

a link capable of full revolution or only partial rotation:
S+LX+Y
where S is the shortest links length, L is the longest links
length, and X and Y are the remaining links lengths. When
the condition is met with both sides equal, full linkage
revolution will be possible, but at two positions the output
will be indeterminate.

Crank

Spring-loaded structure

Fourbar
mechanism
Roller mechanism

Structure

0 degrees of freedom

Exchanging actuators for linkage

constraints is common
practice when building robots with
multiple degrees of freedom.
The resulting motion is more complex
but comes at a cost.

2 degrees of freedom

1 degree of freedom

3 degrees of freedom

Dx

Du

Dy
Pin joint

Roll or slide joint

Du

Pin-slot joint

Du
Df

Dx

Dc

Dx
Dx

Du
Slider joint
MACHINES eBook

Du

Du

Helical joint

Watts sixbar

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Joints with two degrees

of freedom are also
known as half-joints.

Planar joint
Du

Spherical joint

Cylindric joint
AUTOMATIONDIRECT.COM MACHINES eBook

The ultimate map of motion transducers

Air motors

Compressed air pushes pistons, vanes,

gerotors, or turbines for continuous rotary
power. Application considerations: Useful in
volatile atmospheres, they have higher power
densities than electric counterparts, but at
higher operating costs due to the need for
compressed air.

Sprockets, chains, belts,

and pulleys

Gears
Gears on input shafts engage variously sized gears to change direction,
torque and speed usually for slower, more forceful motion. Application
considerations: Spur, helical, and bevel gears average about 98% efficiency,
while worm gear efficiency can dip to 50%. Bending fatigue in tooth root fillets
and contact fatigue on tooth surfaces limit life. Though gear drives are
rugged, they require lubrication and can induce backlash.

Belts and chains pass around pulleys and sprockets to transmit

rotation or traverse loads. Application considerations: Belts offer
the highest operating speeds, but low repeatability and
positioning accuracy. They dampen shocks and convert
more than 90% of motor energy to thrust, but tensile
strength limits thrust and increases backdriving.
Though louder than belts and restricted to one
plane, chains stretch less and typically operate
longer.

Shafts

Fluidic
Cylinders

Pressurized fluid floods a barrel, causing a

piston and attached rod (or load) to
advance or retract. Fluid pressure and flow
is converted into force and velocity.
Application considerations: Drawbacks of
complex installation and possible leakage
are offset by cylinders high force linear
motion (to 20,000 psi stress at rated
system pressures).

Ballscrews, lead screws,

and screw jacks
Threaded nut or ball circuits travel a threaded
screw. Application considerations: Ballscrews
convert more than 90% of motor torque to
thrust, allowing use of small gears, clutches,
and drive motors. Maximum speed depends on
critical screw speed and ball recirculation
speed. Jack screws have lower efficiency,
converting 30 to 50% of motor torque
to thrust. Remaining energy dissipates as heat,
with duty cycles up to 50%. On the other hand,
jack screws are locking, quiet, and have a high
tolerance for shock loads.

Axles support rotating members; shafts

accept and drive gears, pulleys, and
sprockets. Application considerations:
Overly ductile shafts can deflect and
misalign. Operation at critical speed
induces resonance and allows centrifugal
forces to exaggerate eccentricity, possibly
to failure. When rates beyond critical
speed are required, quickly moving
through it helps. Stepped geometries to
accommodate gears and pulleys (and
restrict axial displacement) are local
stress intensifiers and potential fatiguing
trouble spots.

Seals

Rack and pinion sets

Mechanical
translational

A driving gear engages another with infinite

radius to advance a load. Application
considerations: Most error comes from racks.
Though rugged and efficient, they induce backlash,
require brakes for vertical mounting, and are limited
in speed by mass and length. Rack and pinion
benefits include economical,
light open-loop
actuation for
accurate drives.

Gaskets fill space between two clamped

components, while elastomeric static
seals rest in grooves on one component
or the other ensure tight mating.
Mechanical packing, contacting radial lip,
as well as non-contacting labyrinth and
visco seals are dynamic seals that keep
lubricants in and foreign particles out.
Placed between components that move
relative to one another, they are subject
to wear and dynamic forces. Application
considerations: Special textures and
helices on dynamic seals can actually
pump lubricants back to their origin.
Nitrile seals are low in cost; neoprene is
weather-resistant; and ethylene
propylene resists even powerful acids
and alkalis. However, excessive heat
causes most synthetics to dry, crack,
and fail.

Solenoids
Coil current produces a magnetic field that draws a
plunger into an iron C-shaped stack, which further
intensifies magnetic flux and solenoid force. Cutting
current lets the plunger retract; a spring usually helps
this along. Application considerations: To stem noise
and increase holding power, sometimes additional
windings, or shading coils atop the C-shaped stack,
magnetically latch onto the plunger. Cycling too quickly
can cause detrimental heat buildup; insulating steel
laminations help here.

MACHINES eBook

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Couplings

Couplings connect shafts to transmit torque and

angular velocity while allowing for some misalignment.
Application considerations: Couplings can be used to
tweak system dynamics. Metallics are torsionally stiff
and impart high natural frequencies to systems, while
elastomeric servo-insert couplings have natural
frequencies below operating points to absorb motor
excitation. Windup varies from about 0.05 with bellows,
up to 5 with beam couplings.

Rings and springs

Bearings and bushings

Bushings, or journal bearings, are
sleeves that transmit load by sliding on
an oil film. In anti-friction bearings rolling,
load-carrying elements carry axial and
radial loads on a shaft. Application
considerations: Though negligible
compared to that of bushings,
roller bearing starting friction is
still twice running friction.

Rings and springs hold components on shafts

or in a housing. Under constant loading, both
can also act as spacers to compensate for
radial and axial dimensional variation and to
isolate vibration. Application considerations:
Rings and springs increase precision and
predictability of load-deflection curves. By
taking up additional clearance in bearings and
other components, springs also decrease
wear and increase life. Other uses include oil
dam and oil slinger ring.

Mechanical
rotational

Brakes and clutches

Clutches engage and disengage an

output shaft to transfer torque from an
input shaft. Brakes stop and hold loads.
Both can be electrically, fluidically,
mechanically, or self-actuated.
Application considerations: Electric
brakes are more conveniently
controlled and can cycle quickly: up to
1,600 cpm in some cases. Air-actuated,
the most common brake and clutch
type, produce little heat and maintain
grip with minimal power. Disc, drum,
and cone friction brakes are good
emergency brakes because of their
failsafe holding.

Gear lubes
Oil or grease coats gears to prevent tooth-to-tooth contact. Application
considerations: Only a small amount keeps gears lubricated, but larger
volumes are needed for heat removal. Most commonly used greases
can break down into oil and thickener components when
temperatures run too high.

Motors

A moving magnetic field produced in the coils (stator) of a electromagnetic machine opposes
a current or magnet-induced field surrounding a moving element (rotor) causing it to turn.
Servo-driven ac and dc motors provide self-correcting closed-loop control, using work as the
controlled variable. A stepper-driven motor doesnt operate continuously; rather, it pulses
in a "meter as you go" (usually) open-loop motion. Application considerations: All dc motors
ride smoothly down to zero, and even when switching directions. Generally speaking, ac
induction motors are powerful constant-speed motors suitable for industrial use. Common
dc brush motors (and their expensive, more reliable brushless cousins) are suited for closed-loop servo use.

Electrical
AUTOMATIONDIRECT.COM MACHINES eBook

Drive
mechanisms
The following illustrations are a reminder that theres more than one way
to drive a load. You can use gears, belts, cams, screws, or even a rack-

Direct drive
Pros & cons
3 Simplicity
3 Speed and precision
7 Low inertia
7 Mounting limitations

Motor

Load

Load

Pros & cons

3 Speed and precision
3 Rugged
7 Must be customized
7 Short travel

Rack-and-pinion
Motor

and-pinion. Whats best depends on what youre trying to do. If you

want to achieve, say, a complex cyclic motion in a nasty environment,

Cam drive

Coupling

Load
Drive

you might consider using a cam. If simplicity is the goal and you have a

Motor

relatively low-inertia load, direct drive may be the answer to your needs.

Belt or chain
drive

Pros & cons

Chain drive
3 Rugged
3 No slipping or stretching
7 Noisy
7 Low speed

Gear drive

Load

Drive

Pros & cons

3
Rugged
3
Efficient
7
Backlash
7
Needs brakes for vertical mounting

Load
Motor
Drive

Pros & cons

Belt drive
3 No lubrication
3 Low cost
7 Belts slip and stretch
7 Lubrication needs

10

MACHINES eBook

Drive

Load
Motor

Pros & cons

3 High reduction ratio
3 Rugged
7 Backlash
7 Lubrication needs

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Pros & cons

3 Rugged
3 Low cost
7 Low efficiency
7 Backlash

Screw drive

Motor

Drive

AUTOMATIONDIRECT.COM MACHINES eBook

11

Rotary to linear motion

More on

Ballscrews, threaded shafts, and belts are among the most commonly
used elements to convert rotary motion to linear motion. Each fits
specific application needs for speed, accuracy, life, and cost. Also,
each affects a systems frequency response through backlash or
torsional and axial stiffness.

Timing belt

In-line reciprocator

Operation: A toothed belt attached to a carriage

passes around a pulley in each end of an actuator.
A carriage, joined to the belt and supported by
a linear bearing system, is pulled back and forth
along the length of travel.
Application considerations: Offers highest
operating speeds, but low repeatability and
positioning accuracy. Converts more than 90%
of motor energy to thrust. However, tensile
strength of transport belt limits thrust capability,
and it backdrives easily.

12

MACHINES eBook

Operation: In a simple
reciprocating device, the
input and output shafts
are in line with each other.
Rotating the input crank
causes the second link to
oscillate, resulting in the
output shaft moving back
and forth in linear motion.

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Ballscrews

Operation: One or more circuits of recirculating

balls roll between the ballnut and threaded
screw.
Application considerations: Converts more
than 90% of motor torque to thrust, allowing
use of small gears, clutches, and drive
motors. High positioning accuracy and
repeatability, with duty cycle to 100%.
Maximum operating speed depends
on screws critical speed and ball
recirculation speed. Theres a tendency to
backdrive, so you may need a brake or holding
device. Plus, they can be noisy and they have
a low tolerance for shock loads.

Rolling-ring device

Operation: Two or more rings, suspended through ball bearings, are

held at non-ninety degree angles on a smooth shaft. The shaft rotates
the bearings in the rings, resulting in the rings moving linearly along
the shaft.
Application considerations: Low friction and noise. Some models
backdrive easily, but a third ring can be used to control this. Very high
speed, can double that of ballscrew systems. Converts about 90% of
energy into motion.

AUTOMATIONDIRECT.COM MACHINES eBook

13

Acme screws
Operation: Threaded plastic or
bronze solid nut slides along threaded screw.
Application considerations: Converts 30 to 50% of motor torque to
thrust. Remaining energy dissipated
through heat and friction. Duty cycle
can be up to 50%. Plus, these devices are self-locking, quiet, and have a
high tolerance for shock loads.

Cycloid gear mechanism

Operation: Adjustable ring gear meshes with
worm gear for infinitely variable stroke length.
Rotating inside the ring gear is a planet gear
that is half the ring gears diameter. One
end of the connecting rod is pinned to the
planet and moves back and forth as the gear
rotates in the ring.

Adjusting
handle

Worm gear

Connecting rod

Ring gear
Planet gear
Pin

Have you seen the newest products launched by

AutomationDirect? Now you can watch short videos
with product descriptions, features and tips. Our new
KICKSTART video program can be found on our Learn
site. Check out these short two-minute videos on products
such as our new compact air cylinders, coiled air hoses,
compact fuse switches and more.
Visit http://learn.automationdirect.com and look for the
Kickstart tab along the top.

14

MACHINES eBook

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15