Grammar Handout (Consolidated) 2nd Edition

2011
SECOND EDITION
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GRAMMAR HANDOUT
for class X, SMA SUTOMO 1
This handout contains lessons on English grammar, intended for the first-year students of SMA SUTOMO 1.
CHAPTER 1 CHAPTER 2 CHAPTER 3 CHAPTER 4 CHAPTER 5 CHAPTER 6 CHAPTER 7 CHAPTER 7 CHAPTER 8 CHAPTER 9 CHAPTER 10 CHAPTER 11 CHAPTER 12 APPENDIX 1 APPENDIX 2
GERUNDS, INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES CONNECTORS OF TIME, SEQUENCE AND CAUSE-AND-EFFECT NOUN PHRASES AND CLAUSES SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT SUBJECT AND PREDICATE MODAL AUXILIARIES POETRY AND LYRICS supplementary ADVERBIAL PHRASES AND CLAUSES DIRECT AND INDRECT SPEECH SENTENCE CONSTRUCTIONS PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES CONNECTORS OF REASON, CONDITION AND CHOICE ELLIPTICAL CLAUSES LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS FORMULA OF TENSES IN ENGLISH
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Compiled by : Davi $uk$e$

SUTOMO 1 7/8/2011
http://www.davisukses.weebly.com | Davi $uk$e$
GRADE : X, SMA SUT-1; STEP AHEAD 3
UNIT 1 GERUNDS, INFINITIVES & PARTICIPLES
GERUND verb + ing (e.g., talking, playing, swimming) Function : Acts as a Noun a. Subject (e.g., Playing tennis is fun) b. Object of a verb (e.g., We enjoy playing tennis) c. Object of a preposition (e.g., He is excited about playing tennis) d. Subjective Complement (e.g., My hobby is playing tennis)
INFINITIVE
(to) + verb (e.g., to go, to eat, to kiss)
Function : 1. Acts as a Noun a. Subject (e.g., To fly without a parachute is dangerous) b. Object of a verb i. I like to fly by Garuda Air ii. He wanted to marry the girl iii. We try harder to finish the job on time c. Object of a preposition (I thought of nothing except to watch the movie) d. Subjective Complement (e.g., The main thing is to stay calm) e. Appositive (e.g., I have only one desire - to fly by Garuda Air) 2. Acts as an Adjective a. Describing noun i. She brought a lot of food to eat ii. She had no time to read the book b. Describing pronoun i. I tell him to work harder ii. I dont have anything to lose iii. I asked her to help me 3. Acts as an Adverb [usually tells why] a. Describing verb i. She slept to refresh her energy ii. I sing to entertain my friends iii. He climbed higher to get a better view
b. Describing adjective i. The kids were ready to play ii. I am glad to hear the news PARTICIPLE Present Participle verb + ing (e.g., crying, falling) Past Participle verb + -d/-ed [general] (e.g., cried, fallen) Function : 1. Acts as a Verb a. It was raining when I got home (present participle) b. I have sent the letter (past participle) 2. Acts as an Adjective a. Describing noun i. I like the noise of falling rain (present participle) ii. She has just got a broken heart (past participle) b. Subjective Complement i. I am amazed because the show is amazing ii. The students test result were pleasing (present participle) iii. My mother was delighted with the present (past participle) 3. Acts as an Adverb a. She ran screaming out of the room. b. It came gliding over the floor towards her. 4. Participle Clause a. Closing her eyes, she started praying. (present participle) b. Raising her voice, she scolded her sister (present participle) c. Supported by her friends, she took part in the contest (past participle) d. The man sitting in the corner is a doctor (present participle) e. Most of the people invited to the party did not turn up (past participle)
UNIT 2 CONNECTORS OF TIME, SEQUENCE AND CAUSE-AND-EFFECT
CONNECTORS OF TIME AND SEQUENCE
as = saat, ketika while = saat when = ketika before = sebelum after = setelah firstly = pertama next = selanjutnya then = lalu since = sejak until = sampai now = sekarang once = pada saat / sekali whenever = kapanpun as soon as = segera
(e.g. (e.g. (e.g. (e.g. (e.g. (e.g. (e.g. (e.g. (e.g. (e.g. (e.g. (e.g. (e.g.
As I walking down the street, I saw Melyssa driving a BMW) While she is having a bath, the phone rings) When I was a child, I lived in the country) Before you finish your homework, you are not allowed to go) After she had learned to drive, she felt more independent) Firstly, you add some sugar) Next, mix the dough) Then, insert the dough into an oven) I lived with my grandparents until I was ten) Now that spring is here, we can expect milder weather) Once he realized his fault, everything would be fine) Whenever you need me, I will be there) As soon as it stopped raining, we would go out)
(e.g. Since they were in primary school, they have been good friends)
CONNECTORS OF CAUSE-AND-EFFECT since = sebab as = karena because = karena for = atas dasar whereas = karena so = maka unless = jika tidak so that = sehingga if = jika therefore = oleh karena itu (e.g. Since it was still light, children were allowed to play in the park) (e.g. As I was very tired, I went to bed early) (e.g. Because she is always friendly, I like her very much) (e.g. I left in haste, for I was already late for the appointment) (e.g. Whereas you have proven your worth, you are welcome to join the team) (e.g. It rained heavily, so we just stayed at home) (e.g. I wont bring an umbrella unless the sky is dark) (e.g. We study diligently so that we can pass the exam) (e.g. If you study hard, you will pass the exam) (e.g. This statement is true; therefore that statement must be false)
UNIT 3 NOUN PHRASES AND CLAUSES

Noun Phrase Noun Clause NOUN PHRASE determiner(s) a the two those that Position : 1. Subject 2. Object The badly needed competent staff for the branch office will get paid high. I lend my friend some new mystery books which I read two days ago. That is a powerful computer for monitoring the whole building. very important premodifier(s) very small red and blue wonderful head dog chairs recipes afternoons somebody meeting for children of yours for blueberry pie (that) we spent skiing tall, dark, and handsome attended by board of directors in the four-star hotel postmodifier(s) a group of words functioning as a noun a clause functioning as a noun
3. Complement
Determiner
Some other queer examples : 1. the book
the history book the American history book the illustrated American history book the recent illustrated American history book the recent controversial illustrated American history book the recent controversial illustrated leather-bound American history book
Premodifier Postmodifier Head
2. This is the house that Jack built. This is the malt that lay in the house that Jack built. This is the mouse that ate the malt that lay in the house that Jack built. This is the cat that scared the mouse that ate the malt that lay in the house that Jack built. This is the dog that chased the cat that scared the mouse that ate the malt that lay in the house that Jack built. This is the boy who loves the dog that chased the cat that scared the mouse that ate the malt that lay in the house that Jack built.
NOUN CLAUSE Introductory Conjunction : 1. a statement that 2. a question a. YES NO answer whether, if b. Interrogative word who, what, which, when, where, why, how 3. a request that 4. an exclamation what, how Position : 1. Subject a. Why he did not pass the test is hard to understand. [ Question, Interrogative Word ] b. That coffee grows in Brazil is well known to all. [ Statement ] 2. Object a. b. c. of the Verb I know that coffee grows in Brazil. [ Statement ] He suggested that I write the letter soon. [ Request ] I had not realized what a pretty girl she was. [ Exclamation ]
3. Object of the Preposition a. We were concerned about whether she would win the contest. [ Question, YES NO ] b. I was dreaming of how we had spent our last holiday. [ Question, Interrogative Word ] 4. Subjective Complement (Predicate Nominative) a. My hope is that we can complete this mission on time. [ Statement ] b. The question is how we can complete this mission on time. [ Question, Interrogative Word ]
Introductory Conjunction Subject Verb
DETERMINER 1. Pre-Determiner a. Quantifier b. Multiplier
all, both, half double, triple, twice one-third, one-fifth, two-third
c. Fraction
a. Article
2. Central Determiner i. Definite ii. Indefinite b. Pronoun i. Demonstrative (Deictic) ii. Possessive Adjective iii. Indefinite iv. Interrogative c. Negative 3. Post-Determiner a. Number i. Cardinal ii. Ordinal iii. Quantifier
the a, an this, that, these, those my, his, her, its, your, our, their
some, any, several, much, many which, what, where, who, whom, whose
no
one, two, three first, second, third some, several, few, many, much
UNIT 4 SUBJECT VERB AGREEMENT
1. Some nouns end in s but they are SINGULAR mathematics, physics, economics, news, athletics, statistics, gymnastics e.g. Athletics IS my favorite sport. 2. Some nouns do not end in s but they are PLURAL men, women, children, teeth, mice, oxen, feet e.g. The women ARE assigned to do the job. 3. AMOUNT, DISTANCE, NUMBER, TIME, MONEY, TITLES and PLACES are SINGULAR if used as subjects. e.g. 1. THREE YEARS IS a long time to be without a job. 2. TEN THOUSAND RUPIAHS WAS the amount needed to purchase the pen. 3. THREE METERS IS the length we need. 4. VERB AGREEMENT WITH THE EXPLETIVE THERE The subject (which determines the number of the verb) comes after the verb e.g. 1. There IS an apple on the table. 2. There ARE two apples on the table. 5. VERB AGREEMENT WITH COLLECTIVE NOUN a. When regarded as a WHOLE UNIT, use SINGULAR VERB e.g. 1. The family HAS a happy life. 2. The class IS in English session. b. When regarded as a SEPARATE UNIT within the group, use PLURAL VERB e.g. 1. The family HAVE their own duties. 2. The class ARE taking tests today. 6. VERB AGREEMENT WITH INDEFINITE PRONOUNS a. These pronouns are always used with SINGULAR VERBS one, no one, anyone, someone, everyone nobody, anybody, somebody, everybody nothing, anything, something, everything each, either, neither e.g. 1. Someone HAS to be responsible. 2. Everyone associated with the projects IS responsible.
b. These pronouns are always used with PLURAL VERBS several, few, both, most, many e.g. 1. Few books ARE lying on the shelves. 2. In China, most people only HAVE one child. c. These pronouns may take either a SINGULAR or PLURAL verb depending on whether the pronoun refers to something countable or not all, half, none, any, some, fractional expressions (one half, two third) e.g. 1. Some of the students in this class ARE good. 2. Some of the grain IS ruined by the flood. 7. VERB AGREEMENT WHEN THE SUBJECT AND VERB ARE SEPARATED e.g. 1. A box of chocolates IS given to her as a present. 2. John, as well as Rina, IS a smart student. 3. The businessman who HAS two homes and three cars IS very wealthy. 8. VERB AGREEMENT WITH COMPOUND SUBJECTS a. Subject joined by AND takes PLURAL verb e.g. John and Mary ARE good friends. b. When either and neither appear as a subject alone, they are SINGULAR e.g. Neither of these choices IS beneficial. c. When either and neither act as correlative conjunction, the subject that is closer to the verb determines the number (singular or plural) of the verb e.g. Either the leader or the members ARE at fault. Either the members or the leader IS at fault.
UNIT 5 SUBJECT AND PREDICATE Subject e.g. 1. Word, phrase or clause functioning as a noun 2. Telling who or what 1. Rina lives in Medan. [word] 2. Such a smart pretty girl with a smiley face is loved by all. [phrase] 3. What the girl had done surprised everyone. [clause] 1. Parts of the sentence giving information about the subject 2. Must contain a verb The verb requires, permits or precludes other sentence elements to complete the predicate. The elements are: objects (direct, indirect, prepositional) complements (subj comp, obj comp) adverbial (obligatory, optional) She dances (verb only) I invite Rina (transitive verb) I sleep (intransitive verb) She sings [a song] (can be either transitive or intransitive)
Predicate
e.g.
1. 2. 3. 4.
5. I write a letter (direct object) 6. I write her a letter (indirect object) 7. I write it for Rina (prepositional object) 8. Subj complement 1. John is the manager (predicate noun / nominative) 2. John is happy (predicate adjective) 3. John is at home (predicate adverb) 9. Obj complement 1. They elected John the manager (noun) 2. The students in this class always make me happy (adjective) 10. She is at the bust stop (adverbial [obligatory]) 11. She is waiting at the bus stop (adverbial [optional])
Some confusing verbs
TRANSITIVE raise, raised, raised lay, laid, laid INTRANSITIVE rise, rose, risen lie, lay, lain lie, lied, lied be, appear, get, become, continue, feel, grow, look, remain, seem, smell, sound, stay, taste
Linking / Copular Verb
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UNIT 6 MODAL AUXILIARIES CAN / COULD 1. Permission; e.g. a. You can leave the room. b. You could use my phone. 2. Request (informal); e.g. a. Can you switch on the light? (informal) b. Could I borrow your pen? (more polite than can) 3. Possibility; e.g. a. I dont think the car can be repaired. b. Where is John? He could be at home. 4. Suggestion; e.g. a. We can try asking Melyssa for help. (more definite) b. When you are in Spain, you could go and see Rina. (less definite) 5. Offer; e.g. a. Can I help you? (more definite) b. I could mend your bicycle for you. (less definite) CAN 1. Ability [e.g., I can lift the box] COULD 1. Criticism; e.g. a. You could ask before you borrow my car. (present) b. You could have told me you were getting married. (past) CANNOT / COULD NOT 1. Impossibility [e.g., My favorite team cannot / could not lose] HAD BETTER 1. Strong Advice; e.g., a. You had better be on time, or we will leave without you. b. I had better not go out tonight, because I have to get up early tomorrow. 2. Threat [e.g., You had better help me or else] HAVE TO / HAVE GOT TO 1. Necessity, e.g., a. I have to go to class today. b. I have got to get up early tomorrow. 2. Obligation, e.g., a. Rina has to clean her bedroom every morning. b. You dont have to come to the meeting.
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3. Certainty, e.g., a. I dont believe you. You have (got) to be joking. b. Only five oclock! It has got to be later than that! MAY / MIGHT 1. Permission; e.g. a. You may use my phone. (formal) b. You might bring your friend to the party. (more formal than may) 2. Possibility or uncertainty; e.g. a. Where is John? He may be at the library. (50%) b. Where is John? He might be at the library. (30%) MAY 1. Request (very polite & formal) [e.g., May I borrow your pen?] MAY NOT 1. Prohibition [e.g. You may not talk during the exam] MIGHT 1. Suggestion [e.g., You might try asking your uncle for a job] 2. Criticism [e.g., You might ask before you borrow your car] MUST 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Strong Necessity [e.g., I must go to the dentist today] Certainty (95%) [e.g., Mary is not in class. She must be sick] Obligation [e.g. You must be a member to join the weekly meeting] Order / Strong Suggestion [e.g., You must stop smoking or you will get lung cancer] Prohibition (negative) [e.g., You must not open this parcel until Christmas Day]
NEED 1. Necessity [The plants need watering] OUGHT TO 1. Advisability / Recommendations [e.g., I ought to study tonight] 2. Necessity [e.g. We ought to reply the invitation] 3. Certainty (90%) [e.g., She ought to do well on the test] 4. Expectation [e.g., If you like Picasso, you ought to enjoy the exhibition] 5. Deduction [e.g., Henry ought to be here soon he left home at six] 6. Criticism [e.g., You ought not to shout at your mother like that]
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SHALL / WILL 1. Prediction; e.g., a. We shall need the money on the 15th. b. All the family will be at the wedding. 2. Suggestion (polite question) [e.g., Shall we go out for a meal?] 3. Offer (polite question) [e.g., Shall I open the window?] WILL 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
Certainty (100%) [e.g., He will be there at 6.00] Willingness [e.g., The phone is ringing. I will get it] Request (friendly) [e.g., Will you please pass the salt?] Insistence [e.g., I will do whatever you say] Promise [e.g., I will do that for you] Threat [e.g., I will hit you if you do that again]
SHOULD 1. Advisability / Suggestion [e.g., You should go to the dentist] 2. Obligation [e.g., She should be at work before 09.00] 3. Deduction [e.g., Henry should get here now he left home at six] 4. Expectation [e.g., If you like Picasso, you should enjoy the exhibition] 5. Instruction (polite order) [e.g., Applications should be sent by 3rd January] 6. Certainty (90%) [e.g., She should do well on the test] WOULD 1. Request (polite) [e.g., Would you please pass the salt?] 2. Offer / Invitation [e.g., Would you like a cup of tea?]
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UNIT 7 POETRY and LYRICS [ supplementary ] DEFINITION 1. Poetry 2. Lyrics

a piece of writing in which language is used for its aesthetic qualities in addition to its meaning; expressing ideas, emotions and experiences in short lines through the use of a small number of words.
a set of words which are set to music, mostly to entertain the listeners.
FEATURES 1. THEME a. The main idea or the primary thoughts and feelings about the subject. b. The underlying meaning, moral or message of literary works. 2. CONTENT / SUBJECT MATTER 3. ATMOSPHERE the emotional topics that inspire strong feelings through the use of language that brings images to mind.
the emotional feeling inspired by a work, created by diction, setting, imagery and description.
SOUND PATTERNS 1. RHYTHM pattern through the arrangement of stressed and unstressed syllables e.g. Love is like a lump of gold Hard to get and hard to hold Of all the girls Ive ever met You are the one I cant forget [Loy Bowman] 2. RHYME a similarity in the sound of word endings. e.g. 1. An apple a day keeps the doctor away 2. Dont lose your way [rhyme scheme] With each passing day 3. Columbus sailed the ocean blue In fourteen-hundred-ninety-two 3. REPETITION the use of the same words or phrases for emphasis. e.g. I love you more than anything More than a diamond ring You smell like the flowers in the spring You bring the joy of everything I love you more than anything [Audra]
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POETIC / LITERARY DEVICES 1. To create images and feelings a. SIMILE the comparison between two different things using the word like or as. e.g. 1. He is very brave like a lion. [comparing brave to a lion] 2. Some students are as busy as a bee. [comparing busy to a bee] b. METAPHOR Implicit comparison between two unlike objects, to show that the two things have the same qualities and to make the description more powerful (without the use of the words like or as). e.g. 1. You are my sunshine. [comparing you to sunshine] noun Sunshine source of good feelings. 2. His uncle always barks a command at him. [comparing uncle to a dog] verb Barks the way his uncle commands him seems like a dog, violent or forceful. c. PERSONIFICATION Giving human qualities to animals, abstracts or inanimate objects. e.g. 1. The birds expressed their joy. [animal] 2. Wind yells while blowing. [object] 3. Time never stops running. [abstract] d. HYPERBOLE Making something sound bigger, better or more than it is. e.g. 1. The bag weighed a ton. [the bag was heavy, not actually weighed a ton] 2. John has an appetite of a starving lion. [Johns appetite is very strong] e. ALLUSION Indirect reference to something such as character, place or event. e.g. 1. Get off that roof! Who do you think you are, Spiderman ? 2. Oh, dont be such a Romeo to me ! 3. When it came to calculus, I had met my Waterloo. 2. To create a sense of sound a. ONOMATOPOEIA imitation of sounds in words. e.g. hiss (snakes sound), buzz (bees sound), boom (explosion sound). b. ALLITERATION the use of two or more words close together that start with the same consonant sounds. e.g. 1. Brands Dunkin Donuts, PayPal, Coca-Cola, Bed Bath & Beyond. 2. People Ronald Reagan, Mickey Mouse, Donald Duck, Fred Flinstone, Bernard Bear. 3. Sayings now or never, do or die, swim or sink, crack the code. 4. Statements Dont drink and drive. Proper planning prevents poor performance. Careless cars cutting corners create confusion. It is the poison that we must purge from our politics.
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c. ASSONANCE (vowel rhyme) the similarity of two or more vowel sounds in words that are close together. e.g. strike & grind [aI] hat & man [] cloak & moan [u] free & eagle [i:] moon & June [u:] growl & crowd [au] 1. I try to light the fire. [aI] 2. I lie down by the side of my bride. [aI] d. CONSONANCE the use of two or more words close together with the same consonant sounds within the words. e.g. short & sweet [t] first & last [st] fish & brush [] blank & think [k] strong & string [] 1. Some mammals are clammy. 2. I want to be part of your heart.
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UNIT 7 ADVERBIAL PHRASES AND CLAUSES

Adverb [I saw the movie yesterday] Adverbial Phrase [I saw the movie on Friday] Adverbial Clause [I saw the movie before I left for Paris] ADVERBIAL PHRASE 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. a group of words functioning as an adverb
Manner [e.g., The carpenter hit the nail with a hammer] Place [e.g., The woman who lives next door is a doctor] Time [e.g., We must finish the projects before the holidays] Frequency [e.g., Sally buys two CDs every month] Purpose [e.g., John bought the flowers for his mother] a clause functioning as an adverb
ADVERBIAL CLAUSE
1. TIME a. Conjunction when, while, since, as, before, after, until, as soon as, by the time (that), now that, once b. Examples : i. I can see you when I finish my work. ii. It started raining while I was watering the flowers. iii. I have not seen him since he returned to the country. iv. As they are having their lunch, their neighbors scream Fire! v. They will leave before you get here. vi. After the fruit is harvested, it is sold at the market. vii. He read until his guests arrived. viii. As soon as the sun goes down, the temperature drops dramatically. ix. I will have finished my task by the time he arrives. x. Now that she has got married, she looks happier than ever. xi. Once you finish your homework, you can go out and play. 2. PLACE a. Conjunction where, wherever b. Examples : i. We live where the road crosses the river. ii. My dog always tails me wherever I go. 3. CAUSE / REASON a. Conjunction because, since, as, now that, as long as, inasmuch as, owing to the fact that, on account of the fact that, in view of the fact that, because of the fact that, due to the fact that b. Examples : i. We did not enjoy the day because the day was so awful.
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ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. ix. x. xi.
He could not come since he was ill. As you are leaving last, please turn off the lights. Now that he has passed the exam, he can get his degree. As long as we keep playing well, we will win the games. He was a very unusual musician inasmuch as he was totally deaf. [formal] Owing to the fact that they lack of funds, they will not continue the project next year. [formal] On account of the fact that she had back problem, she was told to wear flat shoes. In view of the fact that the weather turned unfriendly, the event will be held indoors. [formal] Because of the fact that we forget our umbrella, we spend three hours walking under the rain. Due to the fact that the circumstances are beyond control, the concert is canceled.
4. CONDITION a. Conjunction if, unless, on condition that, provided that, providing that; in the event that, in case that, whether or not b. Examples : i. If it rains, we wont have the picnic. ii. We wont have the picnic unless the weather is good. iii. She accepted the position on condition that there would be opportunity for advancement. [formal] iv. I will go provided / providing that the others go too. v. In the event that you are late, we will just leave without you. vi. In case that I am late, you just go first. vii. Whether we go or stay, it does not make any difference to me. 5. CONTRAST a. Conjunction although, though, even though (real), even if (unreal), in spite of (the fact that), despite (the fact that), notwithstanding (the fact) that b. Examples : i. Although / Though I felt very tired, I tried to finish the work. ii. The scientists keep going ahead with the experiment, even though they know it is dangerous. iii. Even if I had time, I would not do it. iv. In spite of the fact that prices went down recently, the company made a huge profit. v. Kelly loved her husband despite the fact that he drank too much. vi. It was the same material, notwithstanding the texture seemed different. [formal] 6. ADVERSATIVE a. Conjunction while, whereas, where b. Examples : i. Some people spend their spare time reading, while others watch TV.
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ii. One arrived promptly, whereas the others hung back. iii. Where others might have been satisfied, John had higher ambitions. 7. PURPOSE a. Conjunction that, so, so that, in order that, for the purpose that b. Examples : i. Give us strength that we may stand against them. [formal] ii. I bathe my dog every day so it is always clean. iii. They climbed higher so that they might get a better view. iv. He is saving his money in order that he can go to college. v. I established a charity foundation for the purpose that I wanted to help as many people as I could. 8. RESULT a. Conjunction so + adj or adv + that, such (a) + noun + that, so that b. Examples : i. She is so pretty that she attracts a lot of attention. ii. She sang so beautifully that everyone applauded her performance. iii. She has such pretty hair that we all enjoy looking at it. iv. It is such a hot day that I must go to the beach. v. They climbed higher, so that they got a better view. 9. COMPARISON a. Conjunction i. as + adj or adv + as ii. (not) so + adj or adv + as iii. -er/more + adj or adv + than b. Examples : i. She works just as hard as her sister works. ii. She doesnt work so hard as her sister works. iii. She works harder than her sister works. 10. MANNER a. Conjunction as if, as though b. Example : i. He looks as if he needs more sleep. ii. It was as though the world had come to an end. iii. Gary was behaving as though nothing had happened.
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UNIT 8 DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH Direct Speech spoken directly by someone (enclosed by quotations) Indirect Speech recites someones speech, involving certain grammatical changes (no quotation) There 1. 2. 3. are 3 kinds of Indirect Speech : Declarative (statement) Imperative (command / request) Interrogative (question)
GRAMMATICAL CHANGES PRONOUN & POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVE DIRECT I You (Subj) You (Obj) My Our Your INDIRECT He / She I / He / She Me / Him / Her / Them His / Her Their / Our My / His / Her
TENSES DIRECT Simple Present Present Continuous Present Perfect Present Perfect Continuous Simple Future Future Continuous Future Perfect Future Perfect Continuous Past Simple Past Continuous Past Perfect MODAL AUXILIARIES DIRECT Can May Must / have/ has to Shall Will INDIRECT Could Might Had to Should Would INDIRECT Simple Past Past Continuous Past Perfect Past Perfect Continuous Past Future Past Future Continuous Past Future Perfect Past Future Perfect Continuous Past Perfect Past Perfect Continuous Past Perfect
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Could Might Must Should + V1 Would Ought to
Could Might Must Should Would Ought to
+ HAVE + V3
TIME AND PLACE MARKER DIRECT now today tonight tomorrow next . . . last . . . . . . ago yesterday the day before yesterday here this these INDIRECT then that day that night the next day / the day after the following day / a day later the . . . after / the following . . . the . . . before / the previous . . . the preceding . . . . . . before / . . . earlier the day before / the previous day the preceding day two days before there that those
EXAMPLES 1. DECLARATIVE DIRECT Ana : I will go now. Rina : We went to the zoo with our teachers yesterday. Mommy : I am cooking these carrots. John : I will do anything for my lover. John : Rina should finish her homework two hours ago. INDIRECT Ana said that she would go then. Rina said that they had gone to the zoo with their teachers the day before. Mommy said that she was cooking those carrots. John said that he would do anything for his lover. John said that she (Rina) should have finished her (Rina) homework two hours before.
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2. IMPERATIVE 1. POSITIVE DIRECT He said, Go away! Come here! she said. She said, Be happy! 2. NEGATIVE DIRECT He said, Dont go away! Dont come here! she said. She said, Dont be noisy!
INDIRECT He told me to go away. She asked him to come here. She told me to be happy.
INDIRECT He told me not to go away. She asked him not to come here. She told me not to be noisy.
3. INTERROGATIVE 1. Starts with auxiliaries a. Change the question into a statement b. Use if or whether as the connector c. Apply the rules of grammatical changes DIRECT Doctor : Do you usually take a nap? Rina : Are you a student? John : May I borrow your car? INDIRECT Doctor asked if/whether I usually took a nap. Rina asked if I was a student. John asked if he might borrow my car.
2. Uses Question Words a. Change the question into a statement b. Use the question word as the connector c. Apply the rules of grammatical changes DIRECT John : How do you spell your name? Rina : Where can I keep your money? Anna : Why dont you love me? INDIRECT John asked how I spelt my name. Rina asked where she could keep her money. Anna asked why I did not love her.
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UNIT 9 SENTENCE CONSTRUCTIONS

SIMPLE SENTENCE contains one full subject and predicate e.g. 1. I enjoy having dinner with my lover every weekend (statement) 2. Why do you love me so much? (question) 3. Please, close the door! (request) [the subject is you] 4. What a sweet smile she has! (exclamation) 5. She goes to the library and studies every day. (compound verb) 6. My lovers and I play tennis and go swimming every weekend (compound subject and verb)
COMPOUND SENTENCE
contains two or more main clauses joined together by either:
1. Coordinator (coordinate conjunction) Fomula main clause, + coordinator + main clause e.g. The weather was very bad, so we canceled our picnic.
FAN BOYS
for and nor but or yet so The second clause gives the reason for the first clause e.g. I do not know what she looks like, for I have never seen her The two clauses express equal, similar ideas e.g. I love my lover, and she loves me too Joining two negative main clauses e.g. I dont smoke, nor do I consume alcohol The two clauses express equal, contrasting ideas e.g. It is an old car, but it is very reliable The two clauses express alternative possibilities e.g. You should avoid smoking, or you will get lung cancer The second clause is a surprising or unexpected contrast to the first clause e.g. John was a convicted criminal, yet many people admired him The second clause is the result of the first clause e.g. My lover felt hungry, so I made her a sandwich 2. Conjunctive adverb Formula main clause; + conjunctive adverb, + main clause e.g. The weather was very bad; therefore, we canceled our picnic. besides furthermore and in addition moreover also The concert was fantastic; besides, we could join the lucky draw. He is very kind and generous; furthermore, he often offers his help to many people. The company offers high rate discount; in addition, it also guarantees all their products. The rent is reasonable; moreover, the location is perfect. She can dance Samba; also, her movement is quite graceful.
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but yet or
however nevertheless nonetheless still otherwise accordingly consequently
This is a simple process; however, it is dangerous. What you said was very rude; nevertheless, that was the truth. The panorama is fantastic; nonetheless, she cannot enjoy it.
The boy did everything to attract the girl; still, the girl did not get attracted at all.
You will have to go now; otherwise, you will miss your bus. Some of their opinions were contradictory; accordingly, measures were taken to clarify them. The manager announced the wrong schedule; consequently, nobody appeared in the meeting. The cost of transport is a major expense; hence, factory location is an important consideration. Progress so far has been very good; therefore, we are very confident that the work will be completed on time. Most of the evidence was destroyed in the fire; thus, it would be difficult to prove him guilty.
so
hence therefore thus
3. Semicolon Formula main clause; main clause e.g. The weather was very bad; we canceled our picnic.
COMPLEX SENTENCE contains one main clause and one (or more) subordinate clause(s). The subordinate clause may be either : 1. Adverbial clause (unit 7 SA 3) e.g. We canceled our picnic because the weather was bad. 2. Noun clause (unit 3 SA 3) e.g. I cannot understand why I fall in love with you. 3. Adjective (relative) clause e.g. My uncle who owns this big house is a businessman.
COMPOUND-COMPLEX SENTENCE clause(s) e.g.
combination of two or more main clauses and one (or more) subordinate
1. I wanted to travel after I graduated from college; however, I had to go to work immediately. 2. He could not decide where he should work or what he should do, so he did nothing.
Main clause Subordinate clause
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ADJECTIVE (RELATIVE) CLAUSE

RELATIVE PRONOUN
USE people [subj] (followed by VERB) people [obj] (not followed by VERB) possession animals & non-living things neutral [who, whom, which]
EXAMPLES The man who lives next door is very friendly. I told him about the man who lives next door. The man whom I saw yesterday is a doctor. I like the man whom I saw yesterday. The boy whose mother is a nurse lives next door. I know the boy whose mother is a nurse. The cat which likes to sleep here is my pet. I told him about the cat which likes to sleep here. I dont like the table that stands in the kitchen.
who whom whose which that
RELATIVE ADVERB where when why
USE place time reason
EXAMPLES This is the office where my father works. Tell me the exact time when the next train will arrive. The reason why my lover falls in love with me is that I am handsome.
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UNIT 10 PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES
Prepositional Phrase a preposition followed by an object. [The object could be a noun, a pronoun, a noun phrase or a gerund]. Prepositional phrase can function adjectivally (modifying noun) or adverbially (modifying verb, adjective or adverb). Function gives more details to / used to modify :
1. A noun or noun phrase noun) a. I saw Rina in her new dress. (adj b. The child got a balloon with red color. (adj noun) c. The five-watt light bulb at the front door suddenly went out. (adj 2. A verb or verb phrase a. I lay on the couch. (adv verb) b. Rina was playing with her new puppy. (adv verb) 3. An adjective a. I was happy with my marks last term. (adv adj) b. Rina was very skillful at painting. (adv adj) 4. A clause a. To my surprise, there was no one there. b. In my opinion, this red skirt is the most attractive.
noun)
COMPOUND PREPOSITIONS ahead of in addition to in lieu of [instead of] in spite of on account of because of in back of in light of instead of out of by means of in case of in place of in view of prior to contrary to in front of in regard to next to
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UNIT 11 CONNECTORS OF REASON, CONDITION AND CHOICE

CONNECTORS OF REASON as = karena because = karena for = karena in order to since = karena so that (e.g. (e.g. (e.g. (e.g. (e.g. (e.g. As I was very tired, I went to bed early) Because she is always friendly, I like her very much) I left in haste, for I was already late for the appointment) Plants need water in order to live) Since it was still light, children were allowed to play in the park) We study diligently so that we can pass the exam)
CONNECTORS OF CONDITION as long as except if only if provided (that) (e.g. You can go as long as you are back by four oclock) (e.g. I would go except it is too far) (e.g. If it rains, we wont have a picnic) (e.g. The missiles can be fired only if the operator types in a six-digit code) (e.g. I will go provided (that) the others go too.
on the condition that (e.g. She accepted the position on the condition that there would be opportunity for advancement)
CONNECTORS OF CHOICE or or else nor alternatively instead of either . . . or . . . neither . . . nor . . . whether . . . or not (e.g. (e.g. (e.g. (e.g. (e.g. (e.g. (e.g. (e.g. You can accept, refuse or ignore the offer) You had better leave now, or else I will scream for help) She did not reply, nor did she look at him) You can relax on the beach. Alternatively, you can go shopping) You should do something instead of just sitting around all day) Either she leaves or I do) Neither his father nor his mother speaks English) We should try to meet them whether it is raining or not).
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UNIT 12 ELLIPTICAL CLAUSES Elliptical Clauses clauses that have missing words but the meaning is understood from the rest of the clause or other clauses. 1. Relative pronoun a. That is the man (whom) I met at Rinas party. b. The girl (who is) talking to John is my lover. c. The man (who was) injured in the accident was taken to the hospital. 2. that introducing the noun clause. a. I know (that) coffee grows in Brazil. b. I believe (that) you are my true love. 3. Comparative structures using as and than a. The weather is not as good as (it was) last year. b. She works just as hard as her sister (does/works). c. I found more apples than you (did/found). 4. The repeated portion of subjects or verbs in compound sentences a. John (washed the dishes) and Rina washed the dishes. b. The food (is ready) and the drinks are ready. c. Rina has cleaned the room, (Rina has) washed the dishes and (Rina has) swept the floor. d. She was intelligent but (she was) lazy. 5. The subject of sentences in the imperative mood (command or request) a. Close the door! b. Dont touch me! 6. Prepositions (in a few time expressions) [informal] a. See you (on) Monday night. b. We are staying here (for) another three months. c. (At) what time should I arrive here?
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Present
awake be bear beat become begin bend beset bet bid bind bite bleed blow break breed bring broadcast build burn burst buy cast catch choose cling come cost creep cut deal dig dive do draw dream drive drink eat fall feed feel fight find fit
Past
awoke was, were bore beat became began bent beset bet bid/bade bound bit bled blew broke bred brought broadcast(ed) built burned/burnt burst bought cast caught chose clung came cost crept cut dealt dug dived/dove did drew dreamed/dreamt drove drank ate fell fed felt fought found fit
Past Participle
awoken been born beat become begun bent beset bet bid/bidden bound bitten bled blown broken bred brought broadcast(ed) built burned/burnt burst bought cast caught chosen clung come cost crept cut dealt dug dived done drawn dreamed/dreamt driven drunk eaten fallen fed felt fought found fit
Present
fit flee fling fly forbid forget forego (forgo) forgive forsake freeze get give go grind grow hang hear hide hit hold hurt keep kneel knit know lay lead leap learn leave lend let lie light lose make mean meet misspell mistake mow overcome overdo overtake overthrow
Past
fit fled flung flew forbade forgot forewent forgave forsook froze got gave went ground grew hung heard hid hit held hurt kept knelt knit knew laid led leaped/lept learned/learnt left lent let lay lighted/lit lost made meant met misspelt mistook mowed overcame overdid overtook overthrew
Past Participle
fit fled flung flown forbidden forgotten foregone forgiven forsaken frozen gotten given gone ground grown hung heard hidden hit held hurt kept knelt knit know laid led leaped/lept learned/learnt left lent let lain lighted lost made meant met misspelt mistaken mowed/mown overcome overdone overtaken overthrown
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Present
pay plead prove put quit read rid ride ring rise run saw say see seek sell send set sew shake shave shear shed shine shoe shoot show shrink shut sing sink sit sleep slay slide sling slit smite sow speak speed spend spill spin spit split spread spring
Past
paid pled proved put quit read rid rode rang rose ran sawed said saw sought sold sent set sewed shook shaved shore shed shone shoed shot showed shrank shut sang sank sat slept slew slid slung slit smote sowed spoke sped spent spilled/spilt spun spit/spat split spread sprang/sprung
Past Participle
paid pled proved/proven put quit read rid ridden rung risen run sawed/sawn said seen sought sold sent set sewed/sewn shaken shaved/shaven shorn shed shone shoed/shod shot showed/shown shrunk shut sung sunk sat slept slain slid slung slit smitten sowed/sown spoken sped spent spilled/spilt spun spit split spread sprung
Present
stand steal stick sting stink stride strike string strive swear sweep swell swim swing take teach tear tell think thrive throw thrust tread understand uphold upset wake wear weave wed weep wind win withdraw withhold withstand wring write
Past
stood stole stuck stung stank strod struck strung strove swore swept swelled swam swung took taught tore told thought thrived/throve threw thrust trod understood upheld upset woke wore weaved/wove wed wept wound won withdrew withheld withstood wrung wrote
Past Participle
stood stolen stuck stung stunk stridden struck strung striven sworn swept swelled/swollen swum swung taken taught torn told thought thrived thrown thrust trodden understood upheld upset woken worn weaved/woven wed wept wound won withdrawn withheld withstood wrung written
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FORMULA OF TENSES
NO 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 TENSES Simple Present Tense Simple Past Tense Present Continuous Tense Past Continuous Tense Present Perfect Tense Past Perfect Tense Present Perfect Continuous Tense Past Perfect Continuous Tense Simple Future Tense Simple Past Future Tense Present Future Continuous Tense Past Future Continuous Tense Present Future Perfect Tense Past Future Perfect Tense Present Future Perfect Continuous Tense Past Future Perfect Continuous Tense ACTIVE Subj + V1 + (s/es) Subj + V2 Subj + is/am/are + V1 + ing Subj + was/were + V1 + ing Subj + has/have + V3 Subj + had + V3 Subj + has/have + BEEN + V1+ ing Subj + had + BEEN + V1+ ing Subj + WILL + V1 Subj + WOULD + V1 Subj + WILL BE + V1 + ing Subj + WOULD BE + V1 + ing Subj + WILL HAVE + V3 Subj + WOULD HAVE + V3 Subj + WILL HAVE BEEN + V1 + ing Subj + WOULD HAVE BEEN + V1 + ing PASSIVE Subj + is/am/are + V3 Subj + was/were + V3 Subj + is/am/are + BEING + V3 Subj + was/were + BEING + V3 Subj + has/have + BEEN + V3 Subj + had + BEEN + V3 Subj + has/have + BEEN BEING + V3 Subj + had + BEEN BEING + V3 Subj + WILL + BE + V3 Subj + WOULD + BE + V3 Subj + WILL BE BEING + V3 Subj + WOULD BE BEING + V3 Subj + WILL HAVE BEEN + V3 Subj + WOULD HAVE BEEN + V3 Subj + WILL HAVE BEEN BEING + V3 Subj + WOULD HAVE BEEN BEING + V3 EXAMPLE (ACTIVE) I EAT rice I ATE rice I AM EATING rice I WAS EATING rice I HAVE EATEN rice I HAD EATEN rice I HAVE BEEN EATING rice I HAD BEEN EATING rice I WILL EAT rice I WOULD EAT rice I WILL BE EATING rice I WOULD BE EATING rice I WILL HAVE EATEN rice I WOULD HAVE EATEN rice I WILL HAVE BEEN EATING rice I WOULD HAVE BEEN EATING rice EXAMPLE (PASSIVE) Rice IS EATEN (by me) Rice WAS EATEN (by me) Rice IS BEING EATEN (by me) Rice WAS BEING EATEN (by me) Rice HAS BEEN EATEN (by me) Rice HAD BEEN EATEN (by me) Rice HAS BEEN BEING EATEN Rice HAD BEEN BEING EATEN Rice WILL BE EATEN (by me) Rice WOULD BE EATEN (by me) Rice WILL BE BEING EATEN (by me) Rice WOULD BE BEING EATEN Rice WILL HAVE BEEN EATEN Rice WOULD HAVE BEEN EATEN Rice WILL HAVE BEEN BEING EATEN Rice WOULD HAVE BEEN BEING EATEN
31

Grammar Handout (Consolidated) 2nd Edition

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GRADE : X, SMA SUT-1; STEP AHEAD 3

UNIT 1 GERUNDS, INFINITIVES & PARTICIPLES

(to) + verb (e.g., to go, to eat, to kiss)

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GRADE : X, SMA SUT-1; STEP AHEAD 3

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UNIT 2 CONNECTORS OF TIME, SEQUENCE AND CAUSE-AND-EFFECT

CONNECTORS OF TIME AND SEQUENCE

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GRADE : X, SMA SUT-1; STEP AHEAD 3

UNIT 3 NOUN PHRASES AND CLAUSES

Premodifier Postmodifier Head

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Introductory Conjunction Subject Verb

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DETERMINER 1. Pre-Determiner a. Quantifier b. Multiplier

all, both, half double, triple, twice one-third, one-fifth, two-third

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UNIT 4 SUBJECT VERB AGREEMENT

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Linking / Copular Verb

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GRADE : X, SMA SUT-1; STEP AHEAD 3

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GRADE : X, SMA SUT-1; STEP AHEAD 3

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UNIT 7 POETRY and LYRICS [ supplementary ] DEFINITION 1. Poetry 2. Lyrics

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UNIT 7 ADVERBIAL PHRASES AND CLAUSES

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ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. ix. x. xi.

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GRADE : X, SMA SUT-1; STEP AHEAD 3

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Could Might Must Should + V1 Would Ought to

Could Might Must Should Would Ought to

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