TWO-PHASE FLOW AND HEAT TRANSFER

During heat transfer from or to a fluid a change in its phase can occur: Vaporization: the change from liquid to vapour Condensation: the change from vapour to liquid. Within the heat transfer equipment there will be two-phase flow (gas-liquid). In general, gas-liquid flow can appear in many industrial processes with and without simultaneous heat transfer, i.e. petroleum industry, nuclear reactors, steam generators. In many of these application the flow is within pipes.

1. Flow regimes in gas-liquid flow

During the simultaneous flow of a gas and a liquid different shapes and spatial distributions of their deformable interface can appear which are called flow regimes or flow patterns. In vertical flow Bubble flow: the gas is dispersed as discrete bubbles. As the gas flowrate increases the bubbles will increase in number, and, due to coalescence may also increase in size. Slug or plug flow: bullet shaped gas bubbles alternate with liquid slugs. The gas bubbles are surrounded by a thin liquid film, while the liquid slugs contain small gas bubbles. Churn flow: at high gas velocities the very long gas bubbles can become unstable and collapse. At his point the gas bubbles and liquid slugs become highly distorted. This pattern is very turbulent, and the coarse agitation of the liquid phase is one of its main characteristics (froth flow). Annular flow: at even higher gas velocities a thin liquid annulus forms around a continuous gas phase in the centre. When also liquid drops exists in the gas core then the flow is called annularmist. Mist flow: liquid drops within a continuous gas phase. It appears at even higher gas flowrates than the annular flow.

In horizontal flow Similar flow patterns appear as in vertical flow but with the asymmetry induced due to gravity. Stratified flow: the two phases flow in separate layers with the gas occupying the upper portion of the tube. At low gas velocities the gas-liquid interface is smooth (smooth stratified). As the gas velocity increases, ripples and waves appear on the interface.

For example 1) In horizontal tube condensation high liquid loading

low liquid loading

2) In a vertical tube evaporator the following flow patterns can appear:

Methods of analysis for two-phase flows 1) Experimental correlations They are easy to use. As long as they are applied to situations similar to those used to obtain the original data, they can be satisfactory. However, they can be misleading if used indiscriminately in a variety of applications. Also, they offer little insight into the basic phenomena and cannot therefore indicate how the performance can be improved or the accuracy of the prediction increased. 2) Simple analytical models These use the basic principles of fluid flow but do not take into account the details of the flow pattern. Homogeneous model: in this model the two phases are treated as one pseudofluid with average properties. Separated flow model: in this model the phases are assumed to flow side by side. Equations are written for both phases, while the interaction between the phases is also taken into account. 3) Phenomenological models: in these models each flow regime is modelled separately.

2. Analytical models
2.1 Homogeneous model The mixture of the two fluids is treated as one fluid (pseudofluid) which obeys the usual equations of single-phase flow. The two fluids are assumed to have the same velocities (the slip ratio is equal to 1). The density of the homogeneous mixture !H will be: !H = "G!G + (1-"G) !L where !G and !L are the gas and the liquid densities respectively and "G is the volumetric fraction of the gas phase. The viscosity of the mixture is also needed. Some common correlations are: McAdams: Dukler: x is the quality of the mixture, rate respectively, , where Qg, Ql are the gas and the liquid volume flowrates respectively and A is the total area of flow. are also called superficial velocities of the gas and the liquid respectively. where are the gas mass rate and the total mass

2.1 Separated model The main assumptions of the separated flow model are: There are two flow regions. The two fluids do not necessarily have the same average velocity. Continuity equation Liquid Rate of mass in Rate of mass out + Rate of mass in: Rate of mass out: Rate of mass generation = 0 For steady state, rate of mass accumulation = 0 Similarly for gas phase. Momentum equation Liquid Rate of mom in Rate of mom. out Rate of momentum in: Rate of momentum out: Rate of momentum generation = #F, and includes: pressure forces: gravitational forces: shear forces: where: P is the channel perimeter Pi is the perimeter of the interface

Rate of generation =

mass Rate of accumulation

mass

Rate of generation =

mom. Rate of accumulation

mom.

,
Similarly for gas phase. Energy equation

f is the friction factor which can be found from standard f=g(Re,

roughness) curves.

Liquid Rate of energy in Rate of energy in: Rate of energy out:

Rate of energy out +

Rate of energy generation =

Rate of energy accumulation

Rate of energy generation: Q-W where eL is the internal energy of the liquid. Similarly for gas phase. In comparison to the homogeneous model extra parameters have been introduced, among them the volume fraction "G and the interfacial shear stress $i. The above equations cannot easily be solved. Attempts have been made to model pressure drop with semiempirical models. Lockhart-Martinelli and related correlations Lockhart and Martinelli (1949) were the first to present a general pressure drop correlation for twophase flow in horizontal pipes. The following parameters were defined:

where: flow. and

(dp/dz) is the two-phase pressure gradient (dp/dz)G and (dp/dz)L are the pressure gradients for the gas or liquid respectively if they are flowing alone in the same tube at the same flowrate as in the two phase

Lockhart and Martinelli postulated that the parameters %G and %L are functions of X, and found this relation experimentally, defining four cases dependent on whether the phases were in laminar or turbulent region. A number of investigators attempted to develop the above idea analytically. In an initial attempt it was assumed that the phases during the two-phase flow can be treated as flowing into two separate cylinders. The assumptions used were: The pressure drop in the liquid phase during the two-phase flow is equal to that of the gas phase (this is the two-phase pressure gradient). There is no interaction between the two phases, which implies that the pressure gradient in each phase, during the two-phase flow is equal to the pressure gradient when the individual phases are flowing alone in channels with the same cross sectional area as they occupy in the two-phase flow. Following these assumptions Turner and Wallis (1965) found that :

Adil Khan! 18/10/12 09:18 Deleted:

where n is a parameter used for the calculation of the friction factor:

, C is constant.

Chisholm (1967) generalised the above analysis and took into account the interfacial shear stress. For design purposes he recommended the following correlation:

where:

C=20 for turbulent-turbulent flow C=12 for laminar (liquid) - turbulent flow C=10 for turbulent (liquid) - laminar flow C=5 for laminar-laminar flow

Example Using the Turner and Wallis approach show that:

3. Phenomenological Models
3.1 Stratified flow Slip velocity or ratio When the two-phases differ in density and/or viscosity then one of them will tend to flow at higher in-situ average velocity than the other phase; there is a slip of one phase relative to the other. The average slip velocity S at a pipe cross section is defined as: S=uG-uL where uG and uL are the average in-situ velocities of the gas and the liquid phase respectively. Another measure of the slip phenomenon is the ratio H of the average in-situ velocities of the twophases:

Adil Khan! 18/10/12 09:21 Comment: Imagine annular flow. There will be different velocities with liquid and gas.

or

Adil Khan! 18/10/12 09:27 Comment: Imagine dispersed flow. No slip boundary condition so at interface between to layers no difference in velocity. Howver there is a difference between average velocities over wide layers.

The factors that can in general cause the slip phenomenon are: existence of velocity profiles across the cross section existence of concentration profiles across the cross section gravitational effects which cause local relative velocities between the two phases. Taitel and Dukler model (1976) Consider a steady-state stratified gas-liquid flow, where there are no hydraulic gradients (constant height of interface) and no significant acceleration.

A momentum balance (per unit length) in each phase yields: Liquid: -AL(dp/dx) - $wLPL + $iPi + !LALgsin& = 0 Gas: -AG(dp/dx) - $wGPG - $iPi + !GAGgsin& = 0 where: (1) (2)

Adil Khan! 18/10/12 09:44 Comment: (PA-PA)/L Adil Khan! 18/10/12 09:48 Comment: perimeter of liquid with pipe circumference Adil Khan! 18/10/12 09:47 Comment: perimeter of interface Adil Khan! 18/10/12 09:50 Comment: sign reversed

$wL and $wG are the wall shear stresses for the liquid and the gas phases respectively

$i is the interfacial shear stress Eliminating the pressure gradient term between the two equations we get: (3) The stress terms can be calculated as follows:
Adil Khan! 18/10/12 09:54 Comment: assume pressure drop is the same for both liquid and gas phase

where the friction factors are:

where:

This implies that the wall resistance of the liquid is similar to that for open-channel flow and that of the gas to closed duct flow, and fi ' fG Also, uG>>uL, which means that the interfacial shear stress is equal to the gas wall shear stress. The above parameters can be made non-dimensional by using the diameter D for lengths, D2 for areas and the superficial velocities UL and UG for the liquid and gas phase velocities respectively. Substituting the non-dimensional quantities into equation (3) we get ( symbolises the nondimensional parameters): (4)

where

, is an inclination parameter. For horizontal flows Y=0.

Also,

(5)

In the above equations:

All these parameters are functions of hL, the interface height. Each X-Y pair is thus uniquely related to an interface height. For any given values of X and Y, hL and the local volume fraction can be found from equation (4) while the frictional pressure gradient can be found from equation (5).

Problems with this analysis The Taitel and Dukler model assumes flat and smooth interface. In reality: a)The interface, due to surface tension effects, can have this shape: gas liquid b) The interface, especially as the velocities increase, can be wavy: Question gas liquid

A saturated-steam water mixture at 570K flows through a pipeline with 5 cm internal diameter. The mixture has a quality of 0.3 and is flowing at a mass flux of 1000 kg/m2s. Calculate the frictional pressure drop in the pipe using the homogeneous model and the Chisholm correlation.

! ! ! !
!

Homogeneous # "=x H #G 1 x 1# x = + " H "G "L 1 x 1" x = + H G L f H = 0.316Re "0.25 dP u2" H = fH dz A 2D Chrisholm Q 1" x uL = L = m A #L

3.2 Bubbly flow Some applications of this regime include bubble columns to promote mass transfer, foam stripping of impurities, pumping of beer. The volume fraction of the gas phase can range from the very few bubbles present, to foams, which contain as low as 1% of liquid. Some definitions

Superficial velocities gas: liquid: mixture: Velocities gas:

liquid:

In general the liquid and gas velocities are not equal and they are also different to the total superficial velocity. Equality between all three of them would only occur in the case of homogeneous flow. Drift velocities We can consider the motion of the two phases relative to a plane normal to the direction of flow and moving along the channel at a velocity Us. With respect to this plane, the total volumetric flux must be 0. The drift velocities for the gas and the liquid phase are then defined as follows: gas: liquid: The volumetric flux of the gas phase through this moving plane, jGd, will then be:

while the volumetric flux of the liquid phase through the moving plane, jLd, will be :

Also, jGd = - jLd Bubble formation 1) During heat transfer, bubbles can form from evaporation of the surrounding liquid. When there are changes in pressure then bubbles can form by the release of gases dissolved in the liquid (e.g. beer, champagne). In these cases bubbles will form around nucleation centres, which will be either impurities suspended in the fluid, or scratches or any imperfections of the containing vessel. 2) At high flow velocities bubbles will form due to action of shear stresses. These stresses will also determine a maximum bubble size which can be stable in a particular flow. This maximum size, dmax, has been given by Hinze (1955) as follows:

where:

( is the surface tension !L is the liquid density P/M is the mechanical power input per unit mass

The above equation assumes that the maximum bubble size is governed by a balance between surface tension forces and fluid stresses. 3.2.1 Bubbly flow without wall friction The following equation (Wallis, 1969) can be used:

where:

u is the bubble rise velocity in an infinite volume of a n is a parameter with values between 0-2
)

static fluid

Rise velocity of single bubbles For small bubbles, Stokes law can be used. In this case surface tension dominates and bubbles can be assumed to have spherical shape and almost rigid surface. As the bubble size increases then, apart from surface tension, other effects also start becoming important such as viscosity, liquid inertia, cleanliness of the surface (a non-clean surface is more rigid than a clean one). At very large bubble size, viscosity and surface tension are negligible.

Influence of void fraction To account for the influence of the bubble volume fraction, suitable values should be given to the parameter n. These are shown in Table 1 for the different cases defined.

where:

rb is the (equivalent) bubble radius

Influence of containing walls When a bubble rises in a finite vessel then its velocity is generally lower than that predicted by the equations given in the above table. In this case: when d/D < 0.6 then

when d/D > 0.6 then

where:

D is the vessel diameter ub is the real bubble rising velocity

3.2.2 Bubbly flow with wall friction When we need to calculate friction factors then the homogeneous model is a good approximation in bubbly flow. The definition of viscosity in this case will depend on the flow regime. In laminar flows and at low volume fractions the mixture behaves like a Newtonian fluid. The following equation can then be used for the mixture viscosity:

For volume fractions above 0.05, the mixture becomes non-Newtonian. In turbulent flows it is usually adequate to use the liquid viscosity for the Reynolds number and single phase flow equations.

Problems with this flow regime Bubble size Although equations for calculating the bubble size in simple cases exist, they are not adequate for bubbles formed in a variety of complex equipment. Change of bubble size during the process During the two phase process bubbles can break up due to the external shear stresses, or coalesce when they come in contact with each other. In a heat transfer problem (boiling or condensation), the bubble size depends on time; it will grow in boiling or reduce in condensation.

3.3 Slug flow This regime is characterised by a series of individual large bubbles which almost fill the available tube cross section. Some examples are: flow in drinking straw when the glass is almost empty flow in neck of a bottle which is emptied rapidly

Again an expression for the rise velocity of the bubble in a static liquid, u , is needed. For liquids with low viscosity and when the surface tension effects can be ignored, the following equation can be used:
)

where D is the tube diameter. Different equations apply when surface tension is significant and the viscosity of the liquid high (Butterworth and Hewitt, 1977). The actual rise velocity of the bubble, ub, will be:

where Us is the superficial mixture velocity.

3.4 Annular flow In this flow pattern a continuous liquid film flows along the wall of a pipe while the gas flows in a central core. If the gas core contains a significant number of entrained droplets, then the flow is described as annular mist; this flow patterns can be considered as a transition between ideal annular flow and a fully dispersed flow pattern. Annular flow can appear in evaporators and natural gas pipelines. In annular flow, as in stratified flow, the two phases flow separately without mixing. Despite this similarity, analogies between the two regimes are not easy due to the lack of symmetry in stratified flow. The knowledge of the flowrates of the two phases and their properties is not enough to completely define the system. The history of the flow should also be accounted for.

Interfacial shear stress The pressure drop in annular flow is higher than the pressure drop for the same gas flowrate but in a dry channel (if the liquid film occupies 10% by volume of the channel then the pressure drop in the two-phase system will be 10 times higher than in single gas phase flow). This is mainly due to the influence of interfacial waves in annular flow, which act as roughness elements. Two types of waves have been observed: Ripples Disturbance waves: these are several times the mean film thickness and they give rise to drop entrainment. It has been found that the disturbance waves depend only on the film thickness and not the flowrates of the two phases.

Flooding

Lets consider a countercurrent annular flow, with a falling liquid film. As the gas flowrate increases then at critical gas velocity flooding occurs, at which point the liquid begins to be carried upwards. If the gas flow is reduced then flow reversal occurs, when the liquid just begins to fall.

For the prediction of flooding and flow reversal the following dimensionless groups are used.

The flow reversal transition occurs at a value of around 1. The flooding transition can be found from:

4. Measuring techniques
Local probes These are mainly used for local volume fraction measurements. Resistivity probes have been widely used and a common configuration is shown below:

When a phase with a high conductivity passes from the probe tip then the electrical circuit is closed and a current runs through it, which can be registered at an external resistance. The volume fraction of phase k (i.e. water) at the point of the probe tip is equal to the time the probe indicates this phase divided by the total time of the experiment.

From the local volume fraction, the average cross sectional volume fraction can be found. Isokinetic probes These are sampling probes which are used for mass flowrate measurements. In isokinetic probes there is a pressure tapping at the sampling point of the probe, and the gas-liquid flow within the probe is regulated until the pressure in this tapping is equal to the static pressure in the tube. Under these conditions the gas and liquid flows through the probe are equal to what they would have been in the absence of the probe.

Tomographic systems An array of probes around the pipe or vessel that contains the multiphase mixture. Tomography gives a picture of the distribution of the phases. When pairs of sensors are used then velocity of the phases can also be measured.