New Technologies of Steel Bridges in Japan

Journal of Constructional Steel Research 58 (2002) 2170 www.elsevier.
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New technologies of steel bridges in Japan

T. Kitada
a
a,*
, T. Yamaguchi a, M. Matsumura a, J. Okada b, K. Ono c, N. Ochi d
Osaka City University, Bridge Engineering Laboratory, Department of Civil Engineering, 3-3-138 Sugimoto, Sumiyoshi-ku, Osaka 558-8585, Japan b Department of Civil Engineering, Osaka City University, Osaka, Japan c Department of Civil Engineering, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan d Department of Civil Engineering, Akashi National College of Technology, Hyogo, Japan
Abstract Introduced in this paper are (1) some computer programs for static/dynamic elastoplastic nite displacement analyses used in designing steel bridge structures, (2) the ultimate strength and design methods of steel plates, stiffened plates and columns made of high strength steel subjected to compression, (3) seismic design and retrotting methods of new and existing steel bridge piers after the Hyogo-ken Nambu Earthquake, and (4) friction type joints and tension type joints with high strength bolts and development of high performance high strength bolts in Japan. These are some topics which the authors are concerned with among new technologies of steel bridges under development in Japan, such as development of high performance steel, new ber materials, new types of bridges, performance based design methods, seismic design method against earthquakes of level 2 like the Hyogo-ken Nambu Earthquake, and bridge management system. 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Steel bridge; Elastoplastic nite displacement analysis; Dynamic analysis; High strength steel; Ultimate strength; Design method; Bridge pier; Seismic design; Retrotting method; High strength bolt; Friction bolt joint; Tension bolt joint
1. Introduction Various kinds of new technologies are developed and investigated in the eld of steel bridges in Japan for reduction of construction cost and development of bridge
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +81-6-6605-2734; fax: +81-6-6605-2765. E-mail address: kitada@civil.eng.Osaka-cu.ac.jp (T. Kitada).
0143-974X/02/$ - see front matter 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. PII: S 0 1 4 3 - 9 7 4 X ( 0 1 ) 0 0 0 2 9 - 3
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T. Kitada et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 58 (2002) 2170
engineering technologies. These are (1) development of high performance steel, such as high strength steel, low yield ratio steel, extremely low yield stress steel, high elastic modulus steel, extremely thick steel plates, tapered steel plates longitudinally proled, weathering steel, high ductility steel, etc., (2) utilization of new ber materials, like glass ber, carbon ber and aramid ber, (3) development of new types of bridges, such as low cost bridges, new types of composite bridges, steel concrete mixed bridges, extremely long span bridges, etc., (4) investigation of performance based and limit state design methods, (5) development of rational and economical seismic design method of steel bridge structures against earthquakes of level 2 like the Hyogo-ken Nambu Earthquake, (6) introduction of fatigue design methods into the design of steel bridges, and (7) development of rational bridge management system. Among these new technologies, rst of all, introduced in this paper are computer programs, EPASS, USSP, EPASS Plus and USSPD for advanced static/dynamic elastoplastic nite displacement analyses used in designing steel bridge structures idealized as rigid amed structures, plated structures and hybrid structures consisting of them. Then, we describe the ultimate strength and design method of steel plates with all the edges simply supported, and steel plates with three edges simply supported and the other unloaded edge free, steel plates with one longitudinal stiffener, and columns with box cross sections made of high strength steel subjected to compression. The method for deciding the correct safety factors of these members is also discussed. The next topics are the seismic design and retrotting methods of new and existing steel bridge piers after the Hyogo-ken Nambu Earthquake. They are key points obtained on the seismic design of steel bridge piers from the various kinds of damage due to the Earthquake, the ductility design method after the Earthquake, and seismic retrotting methods to increase the ductility of existing steel bridge piers, keeping their ultimate strength almost constant. The nal topics are the state-of-the-art friction type joints and tension type joints with high strength bolts and development of high performance high strength bolts with high ductility in Japan. In Japan, Japanese Specications for Highway Bridges (JSHB) are still described by the format of allowable stress design method, although many long span bridges, for example, Akashi Kaikyou Bridge, the longest suspension bridge, Tatara Bridge, the longest cable-stayed bridge were constructed by using new and high technologies of bridge engineering in Japan. However, general principals for the limit state design methods of steel and concrete structures [1] have been already established, and the design codes for steel structures [2], composite structures [3] and the design standards for steel structures and steelconcrete structures in railways have been published according to the design codes in the eld of civil engineering in Japan. For this situation, this paper refers to not only the ultimate strength but also the allowable strength and the safety factor to derive the allowable strength. The discussion on the safety factor can be useful also for readers throughout the world.
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2. Advanced analytical methods for designing steel bridge structures 2.1. Elastoplastic and nite displacement analysis for steel framed bridge structures EPASS is a program for the static, elastoplastic and nite displacement analysis of spatial steel framed bridge structures consisting of steel members with compact cross sections without local buckling and cable members. The details of the program are described in Refs. [4][10]. EPASS has stiffened thin-walled box beamcolumn elements, cable elements and rod elements. These features are as follows: 1. Spread of plastic zone in the stiffened box cross section subjected to compression, bending and torsion can be accurately considered. 2. The behavior in the region of negative stiffness after the ultimate state of analytical models can be simulated. 3. Practical residual stress distribution can be input into analytical models automatically. The following researches and practical investigations were carried out by using EPASS: 1. Proposition of the effective buckling length of the arch ribs of NielsenLohse bridges on the basis of numerical results by using an analytical model shown in Fig. 1[11]. 2. Check of load carrying capacities of large and long span steel bridges as listed in Table 1[12, 13]. 3. Development of checking methods of load carrying capacities of large and long span steel bridges by using EPASS [14, 15]. 4. Investigation on causes of damages to two large arch bridges due to the Hyogoken Nambu Earthquake, one is the buckling of 6 upper lateral members of a steel Lohse Bridge [16] and the other is the loosening of hanger cable in a Nielsen Lohse bridge [17].
Fig. 1.
Analytical model of a Nielsen system bridge.
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Table 1 Steel bridges of which load carrying capacity was checked by EPASS Type of bridges Framed bridge piers Bridges 1. Piers connected to spiral box girder bridge, approach bridge for Kizu River Br. (2 and 3 stories) 2. Bridge pier in Hanshin Expressway (2 stories) 3. Sugahara-Shirokita Br. (multicable type) 4. Yamato River Br. (harp type cables) 5. Shin-Hamadera Br. (long span) 6. Nakajima River Br. (wide clear width) 7. Kizu River Br. (central part of Nilesen-Lohse type) 8. Kishiwada Br. (vertical cables as hangers) 9. Konohana Br. (self-anchored mono-code cable) 10. Tower of Kurushima Br. in Honshu-Shikoku Bridges 11. Approach spiral bridge for Kizu-River Br. (17 spans continuous box girder) 12. Ikitsuki Br. (long span) Span length (m) 18.25 (height: 29.836.1)
18.0 (height: 36.2) 119+238+119 149+355+149 254 156.8 (clear width: 27.26) 305 255 120+300+120 height: 178 42.0+53.7+1452.4+53.3 200+400+200
Cable-stayed bridges
NielsonLohse bridges
Balanced arch bridges
Suspension bridges
Curved box girder bridge
Continuous truss bridge
5. Development of a seismic design method of steel bridges against strong earthquakes like the Hyogo-ken Nambu Earthquake on the basis of the analysis by EPASS [18]. 2.2. Elastoplastic and nite displacement analysis for plated structures 2.2.1. USSP USSP is a program for the static, elastoplastic and nite displacement analysis of thin-walled structural members idealized as plated structures with stiffeners. USSP is formulated on the basis of nite element methods. In USSP, plated structures are idealized as assembled models consisting to triangular elements and at beamcolumn elements (stiffener elements). USSP is used for investigating the ultimate strength of thin-walled structural members under various combinations of loads and enforced displacements for design or for research purpose. The details of the program are described in Refs. [19][21]. USSP has the following main features:
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1. Practical residual stress distribution can be input automatically into analytical models. 2. The behavior in the region of negative stiffness after the ultimate state of analytical models can be simulated. 3. The verication of the program is sufciently checked through the comparison with experimental results, elastic theoretical solutions and other numerical results. The following researches and practical investigations were carried out by using USSP: 1. Development of the design method [22] for stiffened plates subjected to bi-axial in-plane forces on the basis of numerical results by using an analytical model shown in Fig. 2. 2. Investigation of the cause of buckling damage to stiffened plates with opening in steel bridge piers due to the Hyogo-ken Nambu Earthquake and repair methods for them [23]. 3. Investigation of the ultimate strength of stiffened box girders under bending and torsion [24], and stiffened box short columns subjected to compression [25], biaxial bendings and torsion of which analytical model is illustrated in Fig. 3.
Fig. 2.
Analytical model for stiffened plates subjected to bi-axial in-plane forces.
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Fig. 3.
Analytical model for stiffened box short column.
4. Lateral torsion buckling and ultimate strength of horizontally curved I-girders [26]. 5. Ultimate strength and design method of compression plates made of high strength steel [27]. 2.2.2. EPASS Plus EPASS Plus [28][30] is a program for analyzing the static interactive behavior of the overall buckling of bridge structures, the beamcolumn buckling of structural members and the local buckling of component stiffened plates through combining USSP with EPASS based on substructure method as shown in Fig. 4. The following researches and practical investigations were carried out by using EPASS Plus:
Fig. 4.
Example of analytical model for EPASS Plus.
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Fig. 5.
Rigid framed bridge pier damaged due to the Hyogo-ken Nambu Earthquake [31].
1. Analysis of the interactive behavior of the column buckling and the local buckling of component plate panels of thin-walled box columns (see Figs. 5 and 6). 2. Analysis of the interactive behavior of the overall buckling and the local buckling of component plate panels of the thin-walled box columns or the lower horizontal box beam in a rigid framed bridge pier with two stories of which three web panels in the central part of the lower horizontal box beam of this pier buckled in shear due to Hyogo-ken Nambu Earthquake, as shown in Fig. 5. Two models for analyzing the elastoplastic and nite displacement behavior of a long column with thin-walled box cross section by USSP and EPASS Plus are illustrated in Fig. 6. The numerical results by USSP and EPASS Plus are compared
Fig. 6. Numerical results by EPASS, EPASS Plus and USSP. (a) Model for EPASS Plus; (b) Model for USSP; (c) Numerical result.
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with each other, together with the result without considering the local buckling of the plate panels by EPASS. It can be seen from the gure that the numerical results by EPASS Plus and USSP coincide almost with each other. The analytical models for the rigid framed bridge pier of which three web panels around the central part of the lower horizontal beam was damaged in shear buckling due to the Hyogo-ken Nambu Earthquake are shown in Fig. 5. One is the EPASS Plus model of which the central part of the lower horizontal beam is idealized with plate elements, and the other one is the EPASS Plus model of which the upper left corner part is idealized with plate elements. The numerical results by EPASS Plus are shown in Fig. 7(a) compared with each other, together with the result without considering the local buckling of the plate panels by EPASS. In this gure, a is the load parameter, multiplier to the design seismic load. It can be seen from Fig. 7(a) that the numerical results by EPASS Plus and EPASS are almost the same. The deformation of the USSP block of the model (beam) at the ultimate state is illustrated in Fig. 7(b). This deformation is similar to the actual failure mode. 2.3. Elastoplastic, nite displacement and dynamic analysis A computer program USSPD [32], has been already developed for simulating the elastoplastic, nite displacement and dynamic response of steel bridge piers idealized into a vibration system with single mass by considering the local buckling of the component stiffened plate panels through combining a computer program USSP [33] for analyzing the elastoplastic and nite displacement behavior of stiffened plates with a computer program FDDA1 (FDM) [34] for analyzing the dynamic response of vibration systems with single mass. The brief owchart of the program USSPD is shown in Fig. 8. As a numerical example, a cantilever steel column with box cross section is adopted in this section. For the purpose of the verication of USSPD the numerical
Fig. 7. Numerical results of rigid framed bridge pier by EPASS and EPASS Plus. (a) Numerical results; (b) Deformation of central part in lower horizontal box beam.
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Fig. 8.
Flowchart of USSPD.
results through USSPD are compared with the experimental results by the pseudodynamic tests [35]. The applied seismic acceleration for the analytical model is 1.5 times the acceleration measured at the Higashi Kobe Ohashi Bridge (the type III ground, wear ground, maximum acceleration: 488.8gal) in the Hyogo-ken Nambu Earthquake. It can be seen from Fig. 9 that the dynamic behavior obtained by USSPD is similar to the experimental results by the pseudo dynamic tests [35]. The deformations of the analytical model at representative times are illustrated in Fig. 10. It can be observed from this gure that the parts of the columns in the vicinity of the bases of the models are remarkably buckled.
3. Design method of bridge members made of high strength steel Mild steel has clear yield plateau, while high strength steel does not, and the stressstrain curves for these materials are very different from each other. And the shape of residual stress distribution in component plate panels of built-up members made of high strength steel is also different from that of mild steel as shown in Fig.
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Fig. 9. Time history of horizontal displacement. (a) Numerical result; (b) experimental result.
Fig. 10. Deformations at representative times (Displacement: 10). (a) t=5 sec; (b) t=6 sec; (c) t=7 sec; (d) t=8 sec; (e) t=9 sec; (f) t=29 sec.
11. In the Japanese current design method, however, the ultimate strength, su, of compression members made of high strength steel and mild steel is evaluated from same ultimate strength curves derived as completely elastoplastic material of which yield stress is, sY. For high strength steel, 0.2% strength, s0.2Y, is used as the yield stress. And the allowable compressive stress in the Japanese Specications for High-
Fig. 11. Residual stress distribution in plate panels. (a) High strength steel; (b) mild steel.
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way Bridges [36] (JSHB) is dened on the basis of the ultimate strength curves as follows: sca min{sB/2.2, su/1.7} (for high strength steel) sca su/1.7 (for mild steel) (1) (2)
where sca is the allowable compressive stress; sB is the tensile stress; su is the ultimate strength; and, min{A ;B} means the smaller value of A and B. In this chapter, the ultimate strength of outstanding plates, simply supported plates and columns made of high strength steel (HT785 and HT685) is investigated through a parametric study based on elastoplastic and nite displacement analyses considering initial deection and residual stress. And similar analyses are also carried out for mild steel (SM400) for the comparison of the characteristics of the ultimate strength of simply supported plates, outstanding plates and columns made of high strength steel with those of mild steel. Finally, the ultimate strength and allowable stress curves as well as proper safety factor for compression members made of high strength steel is also investigated using the numerical results. 3.1. Plate panels 3.1.1. Analytical models A simply supported plate subjected to uniform compressive displacement shown in Fig. 12 is the analytical model under consideration, and a quarter of the simply supported plate shown in Fig. 13 can be extracted and used in the analysis considering the symmetry. The boundary conditions are imposed as shown in Fig. 13. The following parametric analysis considering the residual stress and initial deformation is performed. The plate slenderness parameter R given by eq. (3) is changed from 0.2 to 2.0, the aspect ratio a(=a/h) is varied from 0.5 to 1.5. The thickness of the analytical models is calculated from R.
Fig. 12.
Analytical model (simply supported plates).
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Fig. 13.
Division of nite elements and boundary conditions (simply supported plates).
b t
sY12(1m2) E p2k
(3)
where b is the width, t is the thickness, sY is the yield stress, E is Youngs modulus, m is Poissons ratio and k is the buckling coefcient (k=4) of the plates. The initial deection mode of the simply supported plates is given by w0 w 0cos(px/b)cos(px/a) (4) where w 0 = b/150 according to JSHB [36]. In the analysis, by referring to Ref.[37], the residual stress distributions shown in Figs. 14 and 15 are considered for high strength steel and mild steel, respectively. An outstanding (projecting) plate with three edges simply supported and one free edge subjected to uniform compressive displacement is the analytical model and is shown in Fig. 16. The boundary conditions are imposed as shown in Fig. 17. And half of the plate is extracted and used in the analysis for the symmetry of the plate shown in Fig. 17. In this study, the following parametric analysis is executed. The plate slenderness parameter R given by eq. (5) is changed in the region from 0.3 to 2.0, (=a/h) from 1 to 4. R h t
sY12(1m2) E p2k
(5)
where h is the width and k is the buckling coefcient (k=0.425). The initial deection mode adopted in the analysis is given by the following equation. w0 w 0/h y cos(px/a) (6) where w 0/h = 1/100 according to JSHB [36]. In the analysis, by referring to Refs.
33
Fig. 14.
Residual stress distribution (simply supported plates of high strength steel (HT785 and HT685)).
Fig. 15.
Residual stress distribution (simply supported plates of mild steel (SM400)).
[37] and [38], the residual stress distributions shown in Figs. 18 and 19 are considered for high strength steel and mild steel, respectively. A continuous stiffened plate with one longitudinal stiffener subjected to uniform compressive displacement is used in the analysis, as shown in Fig. 20. And a part divided by nite elements can be extracted and used in the analysis for the symmetry. The state of mesh division of nite elements is shown in Fig. 21 and Table 2. The following parametric analysis is carried out considering the residual stress and initial deformation. The plate slenderness parameter R given by eq. (7) is varied from 0.25 to 1.5, (=a/h) from 1 to 4. R bl t
sY12(1m2) p 2k
(7)
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Fig. 16.
Analytical model (outstanding plates).
Fig. 17.
Division of nite elements and boundary conditions (outstanding plates).
where bl is the spacing of longitudinal stiffener and k is the buckling coefcient (k=4). And in the stiffened plate, the exural rigidity ratio of longitudinal stiffener to plate panel, gl, equals the required minimum value, glreq, dened by JSHB [36]. The width thickness ratio of the longitudinal stiffener, hr/tr, is 7 for preventing the longitudinal stiffener from buckling locally. Besides, the transverse stiffeners are very rigid in the analytical models and the effect of the transverse stiffeners is considered by regarding the location of the transverse stiffeners as simple supports. The initial deection modes used in the analysis are shown in Table 2. In the analysis, according to Ref. [37], the residual stress distribution shown in Fig. 22 is assumed. And the values of the residual stress listed in Table 3 are used.
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Fig. 18.
Residual stress distribution (outstanding plates of high strength steel (HT785 and HT685)).
Fig. 19.
Residual stress distribution (outstanding plates of mild steel (SM400)).
Fig. 20. Analytical model (stiffened plates).
3.1.2. Stressstrain curves used in analysis The stressstrain curve of high strength steel (HT785 and HT685) used in the analysis is shown in Fig. 23. And the stressstrain curve of mild steel (SM400) is also shown in Fig. 23.
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Fig. 21.
Division of nite elements and boundary conditions (stiffened plates).
Table 2 Mesh division of nite elements and initial deection modes used in the analysisa Aspect ratio Mesh division of nite elements 1812 3012 4212 5412 Initial deection modes
1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0

a
w0=d0cos(px/a)sin(py/b)+w10cos(3px/a)sin(py/bl) w0=d0cos(px/a)sin(py/b)+w10cos(5px/a)sin(py/bl) w0=d0cos(px/a)sin(py/b)+w10cos(7px/a)sin(py/bl) w0=d0cos(px/a)sin(py/b)+w10cos(9px/a)sin(py/bl)
d0=a/1000; w10=bl/150 according to JSHB.
Fig. 22.
Residual stress distribution (stiffened plates). (a) Plate panel; (b) stiffener.
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Table 3 The values of residual stressa Variation of srt steel/residual stress HT785 HT685 SM400
a
src
src,r
sr,r
0.80 0.80 1.00
0.15 0.15 0.30
0.12 0.12 0.20
0.60 0.60 0.60
The values non-dimensionalized by the yield stress, sg.
Fig. 23.
Stressstrain curves used.
3.1.3. Analytical results It can be seen from Fig. 24 that the ultimate strength of simply supported plates made of high strength steel is higher than that of mild steel by the maximum value
Fig. 24. Comparison of ultimate strength curve of high strength steel with that of mild steel (simply supported plates).
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Fig. 25. plates).
Comparison of ultimate strength curve of high strength steel with that of mild steel (outstanding
of about 10% at R nearly equal to 0.8, because the compressive residual stress nondimensionalized by the yield stress of simply supported plates made of mild steel is larger than that of high strength steel. In the case where R is smaller than 0.4, the ultimate strength of simply supported plates made of high strength steel is higher than the yield stress sY , because of strain hardening of high strength steel as shown in Fig. 23. The strength curve of JSHB seems to be very different from the ultimate strength curve through the numerical results. According to Figs. 25 and 26, similar things to the analytical results of simply supported plates can be seen in the outstanding plates and stiffened plates.
Fig. 26. plates).
Comparison of ultimate strength curve of high strength steel with that of mild steel (stiffened
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3.1.4. Design method of simply supported, outstanding and stiffened plates made of high strength steel As shown in eq. (1), it is dened in JSHB [36] that the smaller value of sB/2.2 and su/1.7 is the allowable compressive stress of the plates made of high strength steel, while the allowable compressive stress of the plates made of mild steel is su/1.7. Firstly, for investigating the validity of the design method mentioned above, the ultimate strength curve of outstanding plates made of high strength steel through the analysis, an allowable stress curve which is the ultimate strength curve divided by the safety factor 1.7, and the tensile strength sB of high strength steel non-dimensionalized by the yield stress sY and then divided by the safety factor 2.2 are shown and compared in Fig. 27. In the calculations for depicting this gure, the values of 785 N/mm2 and 685 N/mm2 dened in the design specications for bridge superstructures of Honshu-Shikoku Bridge Authority [39] are used as the values of sB and sY of high strength steel HT785, respectively. It can be seen from this gure that the allowable stress is almost decided by sB/2.2 in the region of R1.0 according to the design concept of JSHB and by the ultimate strength curve generated through the analysis divided by 1.7 in the region of R1.0. and the Furthermore, the relationships between the average compressive stress s deection of the central point on the free edges of two outstanding plates made of high strength steel HT785 are compared in cases of R=0.7 and 1.0 in Fig. 28. No evident difference can be observed in the behavior of these two compression plates. However, according to the design method of JSHB, as shown in Fig. 27, the safety factors for the compression plates with R=0.7 and 1.0 are 1.9 and 1.7, respectively, and these values are different. No reason can be found out from this gure in changing the safety factors of these two outstanding plates. For the reason mentioned above, it is seemed to be rational that the safety factor of compressive plates made of high strength steel is 1.7 in all the regions of the plate slenderness parameter R. The allowable compressive stress of plates made of high strength steel can be, therefore, proposed by the following equation. sca su/1.7 (for high strength steel and mild steel) (8)
Fig. 27. Ultimate strength and allowable compressive stress curves (outstanding plates made of high strength steel HT785).
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Fig. 28. Relationship between average stress and deection of outstanding plates made of high strength steel HT785 under compression (a=1).
The following design strength curves are derived as the regression curves of the ultimate strength curves of simply supported plates through the analysis. Design strength curve proposed in this study (high strength steel): 1.0 0.7/R0.75 (R0.5 (9ac) (1.0R2.0 su/sy 0.58R 1.29 (0.5R1.0
Design strength curve proposed in this study (mild steel): 1.0 0.662/R0.65 (R0.35) (10ac) (1.0R2.0) su/sy 0.520R 1.182 (0.35R1.0)
These design strength curves are compared in Fig. 29.
Fig. 29. Strength curves of simply supported plates made of high strength steel.
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The following design strength curves are derived as the regression curves of the ultimate strength curves of outstanding plates through the analysis. Design strength curve proposed in this study (high strength steel): 1.0 0.807/R
0.4
(R0.7) (11ac) (1.2R2.0)
su/sy 0.5R 1.35 (0.7R1.2)
Design strength curve proposed in this study (mild steel): 1.0 0.78/R
0.45
(R0.55) (12ac) (1.0R2.0)
su/sy 0.480R 1.264 (0.55R1.0)
These design strength curves are compared in Fig. 30. The following design strength curves are derived as the regression curves of the ultimate strength curves of stiffened plates through the analysis. Design strength curve proposed in this study (high strength steel): 1.0 0.65/R
0.9
(R0.45) (13ac) (1.0R1.5)
su/sy 0.640R 1.288 (0.45R1.0)
Design strength curve proposed in this study (mild steel): 1.0 su/sy 0.40R 1.12 0.59/R0.75 (R0.3) (0.3R0.5) (1.0R1.5) (14ad)
0.66/R 1.25 (0.5R1.0)
Fig. 30. Strength curves of outstanding plates made of high strength steel.
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Fig. 31.
Strength curves of stiffened plates made of high strength steel under compression.
Fig. 32. Analytical model for columns with unstiffened box cross section.
These design strength curves are compared in Fig. 31. 3.2. Column members 3.2.1. Analytical models The column with unstiffened box cross section subjected to compressive force is the analytical model as shown in Fig. 32. The column has both the ends simply supported, and half of the column is analyzed for the symmetry. The plate slenderness parameter R given by eq. (3) of the column is 0.5, so that the local buckling of the component plate panels does not occur. The thickness of the plate panels is calculated from R=0.5 and listed in Table 4. The following parametric analysis conTable 4 Dimensions of cross section Types of steel/Dimensions of cross section HT785 HT685 SM400 Width b (cm) Thickness t (cm)
28.0 28.0 28.0
1.81 1.69 1.00
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Fig. 33.
Analytical model for columns with stiffened box cross section.
sidering the residual stress and initial deformation is carried out. The slenderness parameter l given by the following eq. (15) is changed in the region from 0.05 to 2.0. l 1 p
E r
sY le
(15a,b)
where le is the effective buckling length and r is the radius of gyration. The initial deection mode of the column model is given by 0cos(pZ/l) W0 W (16) 0 = l/1000 according to JSHB. By referring to Ref. [37], the residual stress where W distributions shown in Fig. 22 and the values of residual stress listed in Table 3 are considered. A column with stiffened box cross section and with both the ends simply supported is the analytical model as shown in Fig. 33. Half of the column model can be used in the analysis for the symmetry. The plate slenderness parameter R given by eq. (7) of the column model with stiffened box section is 0.5 for the same reason as the analysis of the column model with unstiffened box section. The thickness of the plate panels is calculated from R=0.5 and is shown in Table 5. The exural rigidity ratio of the longitudinal stiffeners to the plate panels, gl, equals the minimum required value, glreq, dined by JSHB [36]. The width thickness ratio of the stiffeners, hr/tr,
Table 5 Dimensions of cross section Dimensions of cross section Plate panel Type of steel HT785 HT685 SM400 Width b (cm) 28.0 28.0 28.0 Thickness t (cm) 0.91 0.84 0.50 Stiffener Width h (cm) 7.20 6.74 4.24 Thickness t (cm) 1.03 0.96 0.61
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is 7 for preventing them from local buckling. The following parametric analysis considering the residual stress and initial deformation is executed. The slenderness parameter l is changed in the region from 0.05 to 2.0. The initial deection mode is given by eq. (16). The residual stress distributions shown in Fig. 22 and the values of residual stress in Table 3 are considered. In the analysis of the column models, the stress-strain curves shown in Fig. 23 are used. 3.2.2. Analytical results It can be seen from Fig. 34 that the ultimate strength curves of columns with unstiffened box section made of high strength steel (HT785 and HT685) are higher than those of mild steel (SM400) at R nearly equal to 1.0, because the compressive residual stress non-dimensionalized by the yield stress sY of columns made of mild steel is larger than that of high strength steel as shown in Table 3. In the region where l is smaller than 0.1, the ultimate strength of the columns with unstiffened box section made of high strength steel is higher than the yield stress sY due to the strain hardening of high strength steel as shown in Fig. 23. The strength curve of JSHB is similar to the ultimate strength curve of columns with unstiffened box section made of mild steel through the analytical results. According to the analytical results shown in Fig. 35, similar things to the analytical results of columns with unstiffened box section can be also seen. And it can be observed from Fig. 36 that the ultimate strength curves of the columns with stiffened box section made of high strength steel and mild steel are similar to those of columns with unstiffened box section made of high strength steel and mild steel, respectively. 3.2.3. Design method of columns with unstiffened and stiffened box section made of high strength steel The safety factor and allowable stress of columns made of high strength steel are dened as eq. (1). Fig. 37 is depicted through a similar method shown in Fig. 27.
Fig. 34. Ultimate strength curves of high strength steel and mild steel (columns with unstiffened box section).
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Fig. 35. Ultimate strength curves of high strength steel and mild steel (columns with stiffened box section).
Fig. 36.
Ultimate strength curves of columns with unstiffened box section and stiffened box section.
It can be recognized from Fig. 37 that the safety factor in the region of l0.5 is different from that of l0.5. However, it is considered to be rational that the safety factor of columns made of high strength steel is 1.7 in all the region of the slenderness parameter l for the same reason mentioned in 3.1(4). The allowable compressive stress of columns made of high strength steel can be therefore proposed by eq. (8). The following design strength curves of columns with box cross section are derived by the least squares method to t the ultimate strength curves through the analysis. Design strength curve proposed in this study (high strength steel): su/sy 1.0
2
(l0.25)
0.006l 0.718l 1.118 (0.25l)
(17a,b)
46
Fig. 37. Ultimate strength and allowable compressive stress curves (columns with stiffened box section made of high strength steel).
Design strength curve proposed in this study (mild steel): su/sy 1.0 (l0.25) 0.118l20.718l 1.172 (0.25l) (18a,b)
These design strength curves are compared in Fig. 38.
4. Seismic design and retrotting of steel bridge piers 4.1. Seismic design of steel bridge piers Steel structures, compared with concrete ones, are light and strong. Moreover, steel structures can be built even under severe constructional conditions, for instance,
Fig. 38.
Strength curves of columns with box cross section made of high strength steel.
47
in narrow and limited spaces at urban areas like Tokyo, Osaka, Nagoya, Fukuoka etc in Japan. As various erection methods can be considered and adopted in constructing steel structures, steel bridge piers are, therefore, mainly constructed at severe constructional locations where many spatial limitations including building regulations and the effective use of the limited spaces are desired strictly. Steel bridge piers are also applied to locations where heavy supper structures are not unfavorable, for example, on soft ground, reclaimed land and bay areas. 4.1.1. Necessity for retrotting Steel as one of structural materials is so ductile in comparison with concrete that had been considered that the steel structures designed against earthquakes (level 1) with the maximum acceleration of 150200 gals at the surface level of the ground, never collapse against even strong earthquakes (level 2) which rarely occur during their design life, although they may lose some of their functions. However, the 1995 Hyogo-ken Nambu Earthquake (one of the level 2 earthquakes) caused destructive damage to highway bridges. Steel bridge piers suffered heavy damage for the rst time in Japan. The damage includes the collapse of two steel bridge piers with rectangular cross section. The earthquake provided a large impact on the earthquake disaster preventions in various elds in Japan and revealed that there were a lot of critical issues to be revised in the seismic design methods of bridge structures. After the earthquake, many energetic investigations for making steel bridge piers so ductile have been carried out that they can support superstructures without increasing their elastic strength against such a strong earthquake although their functions may be lost [40]. On the basis of these research results, the Part V. Seismic Design, the Japanese Specications for Highway Bridges (JSHB) was totally revised in 1996 [41], and the design procedure moved from the traditional seismic coefcient method to the ductility design method. The following paragraphs show the outline of the basic concept of the seismic design method of steel bridge piers provided in the 1996 Seismic Design, Japanese Specications for Highway Bridges [42]. On the basis of the detail survey of damage to steel bridge piers [43] and the ndings obtained from analyses and experiments on seismic design of steel bridge piers [44], the following key points are regarded as the basic concepts of the seismic design of steel bridge piers. 4.1.2. Avoidance of specic brittle failure mode On the basis of the failure modes and deformation of steel bridge piers damaged due to the Hyogo-ken Nambu Earthquake, the failure modes illustrated in Fig. 39 should be avoided. The illustration shown in Fig. 39(a) expresses one of brittle failure modes of steel bridge pier with rectangular section. Such a failure mode was observed in two steel bridge piers which completely collapsed in the Hyogo-ken Nambu Earthquake. In this failure mode, vertical cracks along the welded corners of stiffened steel plate panels occurred after the occurrence of serious local buckling of stiffened steel plate panels. This would mean loss of the vertical strength against the dead weight of the
48
Fig. 39. Typical brittle failure modes of steel bridge piers. (a) Steel bridge pier with rectangular section; (b) Steel bridge pier with circular section.
superstructure. If this failure mode happens, it can cause the sudden decrease in the bearing capacity against the dead weight of superstructures. Fig. 39(b) shows a brittle failure mode of steel bridge piers with circular section. In this failure mode, concentrated and large deformation appears after the local buckling at a limited location, resulting in cracking around the columns circumference due to the increased deformation. 4.1.3. Improvement of ductility In the 1990 seismic design specications, the ductility design method to check that bridge piers do not collapse against the earthquake of Level 2 was applied to only reinforced concrete bridge piers. However, it was decided to apply the ductility design method also to steel bridge piers since damage caused by the Hyogo-ken Nambu Earthquake suggested the importance of ensuring sufcient ductility of the structural systems. 4.1.4. Restriction of residual displacement If the seismic design allows the excessive ductility in plastic region of steel bridge piers, large displacement will occur accompanied with large residual displacement in bridge piers. Large residual displacement generated in the bridge piers will make the restoration work difcult to perform. For this reason, the seismic design based on the ductility design method demands to restrict the residual displacement to repairable limit. 4.1.5. Seismic design of anchors The anchor part of a bridge pier is an important structure that transfers the axial force, bending moment and shear force from the steel bridge pier to the foundation, and has signicant inuence on the seismic performance of the steel bridge pier. In the view of the difculty of identifying the damage to the anchor part and carrying out the large repair, the seismic design of anchors have been established in such a way that the risk of the plastic deformation in the anchor part is minimized.
49
4.2. Seismic retrotting of existing steel bridge piers The 1996 seismic design method recommends that steel bridge piers should be encased with concrete as one of the most effective and economical means to prevent their outer steel plates from local buckling. No recommendable structures seem to be specied except for a rectangular cross section with the corners stiffened by rib plates with regard to ductile steel cross sections. On the other hand, it is requested that almost all the existing steel bridge pier column should be retrotted to achieve the required new design criteria. Specications concerning a seismic retrotting design for the existing steel bridge piers were drafted by Japan Road Association, Hanshin Expressway Public Corporation [45] and the other organizations after the Hyogo-ken Nambu Earthquake. In these specications, two basic seismic retrotting methods are prepared to enhance the ductility of existing steel bridge pier columns in case their basement structures are not damaged: 1. Filling concrete into the column member of a bridge pier. 2. Retrotting the component stiffened plate panels of the pier column by using additional steel members, such as transverse stiffeners, longitudinal stiffeners, ange plates etc. It is important to avoid the substantial increment of the ultimate strength of an existing steel bridge pier column in retrotting the pier column. The former method (1) is not adaptable if the ultimate strength of the pier column lled concrete exceeds more than that of its basement structure. In that case, the other method (2) is adopted although this method is expensive and inconvenient in repair work. 4.2.1. Filling concrete into the column member of a bridge pier As conned concrete in a hollow steel column can prevent the stiffened plate panels from buckling inside the cross section, it is easily expected that the ductility of the column is enhanced. Then this seismic retrotting method has a great advantage for practical and economical reasons. Its adoption to existing steel bridge pier columns, therefore, is examined prior to the other retrotting methods. However, the substantial increase of the ultimate strength of the bridge pier column due to the effect of the concrete lled inside of the cross section is apt to cause serious damage to the basement structure. As the replacement or retrotting of the basement structure requires signicant cost and time for repair works, and the nding of the damage there is very difcult, so this method cannot be a good retrotting method. Accordingly more large-scaled basement structures are required not only for newly constructed bridge piers but for retrotting existing bridge piers. 4.2.2. Retrotting component stiffened plate panels by steel members To obtain expected ductility for an existing pier column without lling concrete into it, the restrictive conditions concerning the plate slenderness parameters on the local buckling of its cross-section are regulated, for example in Ref. [46] as follows:
50
Fig. 40.
Example of seismic retrotting method in Ref. [45] (actual case).
The slenderness parameter of plate panels between longitudinal stiffeners, RR( = sy/scr, scr: elastic buckling stress of plate panels) is less than 0.4. The slenderness parameter of overall stiffened plate panels, RF( = sy/scrg, scrg: elastic buckling stress of overall stiffened plate panels) is less than 0.4. The slenderness parameter on the local buckling of longitudinal stiffeners, RS is less than 0.5. The following stiffening methods are concretely adopted for the stiffened plate panels and the existing longitudinal stiffeners (see Figs. 40 and 41) to satisfy the restrictive conditions mentioned above: The plate panel between the existing longitudinal stiffeners is stiffened with the additional and small longitudinal stiffeners to ensure the required slenderness parameter for the plate panels. The existing longitudinal stiffeners are still more stiffened with the additional ange plates to reduce the slenderness parameter of the stiffened plate panels and longitudinal stiffeners themselves.
Fig. 41.
Example of seismic retrotting method for stiffened plate panels.
51
Moreover, the narrow gaps are introduced between both the ends of retrotting members, the additional longitudinal stiffeners and the additional ange plates, and the transverse stiffeners or diaphragms [47] to mitigate the strength increment of the pier column itself due to retrotting. It is reported that this retrotting method can bring sufcient ductility to the existing pier columns with 20% increase of the ultimate strength of the original pier columns in Ref. [8]. That is because the existing longitudinal stiffeners and plate panels at the narrow gaps deform plastically prior to the other cross sections. However, the method has problems to be solved from a practical and economic a point of view, i.e., a lot of fabricating work inside of the box cross section, like welding, connecting, painting and so on, are needed in practices. 4.2.3. Concept for improved retrotting method for existing steel bridge piers In this paragraph a new retrotting strategy for existing steel bridge piers is developed to satisfy the seismic design criteria and to improve the current retrotting methods mentioned above is described. The following issues should be considered for the improved retrotting method of existing steel bridge piers: 1. The method is to be easy, practical and economical. 2. Detection of damage is easy. 3. Damage can be easily repaired. Fig. 42 shows the outline of the improved retrotting method. The method requires that a short segment with the steel cross section in the column (hereafter called ductile segment) deform plastically prior to the other part of the column in order to enhance the ductility and to mitigate the increment of the ultimate strength due to the retrotting. That is, the length of the ductile segment is shortened in order to prevent the pier column from the local buckling up to largely deformed region, to
Fig. 42.
Outline of concrete-lled steel bridge pier column with short ductile segment.
52
have enough ultimate strength but less than that of anchor bolts, and to increase the plastic deformation capacity only in the ductile segment. By setting the ductile segment and designing it to have enough strength and ductility practically, the steel bridge pier itself can be considered to be able to support its superstructure without any damage against earthquakes of Level 1, and not collapse due to earthquakes of Level 2 although the superstructure supported even though it cannot be used for trafc. The ultimate strength and ductility of the ductile segment can be exactly estimated in the design, because the mechanical properties of steel materials, such as yielding stress, tensile strength and Yongs modulus are stable compared with those of concrete. That means the design methods, design tools and experiences used before the Hyogo-ken Nambu Earthquake can be utilized in the design of the other part of the column except for the ductile segment. Moreover, reconstruction of large-scaled basement structures or reinforcement of them is not needed. The ductile segment should never be placed in the lower part of the pier column located underneath the ground but in the middle part of the pier column over the ground. This makes it possible to nd damage easily and to estimate the extent of the damage to the pier column easily through rough inspections of change of painting state, local buckling and so on, of the damaged ductile segment. Moreover the damaged steel plates at the ductile segment is repairable into the original shape by pressing or replacing it to the new ones by a similar method used for restoring steel pier columns damaged due to the Hyogo-ken Nambu Earthquake. It should be noted that composite cross section consisting of stiffened plates and encased concrete inside of the steel cross section has difculties in repairing or replacing of the damaged part, because of inconvenient gas cutting caused by the existence of the encased concrete. Fig. 43 illustrates various types of structural details for the ductile segment, which are contrived by considering their practicality and workability. These can easily generate the steel ductile segment, which deforms plastically prior to the other cross sections in the column. Only the proper length of the ductile segment should be decided in such a way that the local buckling occurs at the ductile segment at extremely lower load level. Note that too short a length of the ductile segment results in the ultimate strength of the pier column becoming larger than that of the anchor bolts because of strain hardening phenomenon of the ductile segment. Furthermore, the ductile segment with adequate length must be placed in such a way that the ratio, Ma/Msu of the applied bending moment of, Ma to the ultimate bending moment, Msu of the ductile segment is less than the ratio, Ma*/Manku of the applied bending moment of the cross section of the anchor bolts, Ma* divided by the ultimate bending moment Manku, of the section (see Fig. 44).
5. Joints with high strength bolts in Japan Two types of eld joints for structural members of steel bridges are used in Japan; one is welding type and the other is bolted type. In recent years, the welding type
53
Fig. 43.
Various types of structural details for ductile segment.
Fig. 44. Design concept of bridge pier columns with ductile segment.
joint is often used because of keeping the surface of connected members at from an aesthetic viewpoint. However, considering the easiness of construction in general, the bolted type seems to be superior to the welding type. The bolted type connection is generally used for bridge structures as a typical method of connecting structural members on site. Japanese Specications for Highway Bridges (JSHB) [36] classify bolted connections into three types, such as friction, bearing and tensile types. In JSHB, the friction type is mainly specied in detail as well as in other specications for steel structures in the world. Although these design concepts are almost the same all over the world, Japanese specications may be a little more conservative than other specications in the world.
54
5.1. Friction type joints 5.1.1. Reconsideration of JSHB specications on friction type joints The JSHB specications on friction type joints are based on traditional specications of riveted joints. The JSHB specications on friction type joints are conservative, because the actual mechanical behavior on friction type joints is different from that of riveted joints. In order to make the JSHB specications more rational, the inherent mechanical behavior of the friction type joints must be considered in their design like other specications in the world, such as AASHTO, Eurocode and so on. For example, following issues should be solved: 1. Reconsidering the slip coefcient and effective tensile cross sectional area of bolts. 2. Establishment of a rational method for evaluating the resistance bending moment of connected girders subjected to bending through considering the interaction between the ange and web sections. Nishimura and Akiyama propose a more rational design method paying attention to the mechanical behavior of the friction type joints through the experimental and analytical researches [48,49]. The slip coefcient, m proposed by them is shown in Fig. 45 and eq. (19). The vertical axis shows the slip coefcient, and the horizontal axis shows the ratio, b of the nominal slip strength, N*SL to the nominal yield strength, N*Yn of the connected members. It can be found that the slip coefcient decreases as the index value b is larger than 0.7, and the index value b in case that b keeps constant value, 0.5 is smaller than 0.7. The reason why the slip coefcient changes with the index value b is that the decrease of the bolt axial force due to yielding of the connected members is considered.
Fig. 45.
Slip coefcient by Nishimura and Akiyama.
55
m 0.5
(b0.7)
m 0.5(1.280.4b) (0.7b1.0)
(19a,b)
In addition, they also propose an evaluation method of the ultimate strength of the friction type joints of plate girders. In JSHB specications, the safety of the friction type joints of plate girders subjected to bending is checked by the verication of each part, such as the ange section and the web section. That is, the overall ultimate strength of the joint section including the ange sections and the web section is not evaluated in the JSHB specications. However, in fact, slip phenomena of a joint of a plate girder occurs as soon as both the web and the ange sections reach their slip state, and it does not occur when either the web section or the ange section reaches the slip state. They also report that joints designed by the proposed procedure could be more rational and economical than the JSHB design [50]. 5.1.2. Recent research activities on friction joints in Japan In Japan, some recent steel bridges seem to consist of thick plates without stiffeners due to reduction of fabrication cost. For example, thickness or width of ange plates of these plate girder bridges does not change throughout one member. As a result, a connected section is not always rational from a viewpoint of economical aspect, because the cross sectional forces are not high compared with the ultimate strength of the section. Longitudinal proled plates, namely longitudinally tapered plates, may be used for the lower and upper ange plates in order to improve this situation. And the mechanical behavior and rational design method for such friction type joints as illustrated in Fig. 46 are investigated experimentally and analytically by Nishimura and Kamei for practical use of such joints. They conclude that such joints can be applicable without pre-bending of the connection plates as shown in Fig. 46 and that the design slip coefcients need not to be changed for such joints [51]. Furthermore, in the case of joints for plate girders with much thicker ange plates, it is difcult to join the members only by high strength bolts. Because there are no such longer high strength bolts in ordinal. In such case, the ange and web sections might be connected by welding and high strength bolts respectively. In these type of joints, the fabrication procedure is very and shrinkage of welding must be considered [52].
Fig. 46.
Typical examples of friction type joints of longitudinal proled plates.
56
5.2. Tension type joints 5.2.1. Classication of high strength bolted tensile joints High strength bolted tensile joints carry cross sectional forces occurring at the interface between connected members by reduction of contact stress due to the prestressed tensile force in the bolts. This type of tensile joints can transfer larger loads per bolt than the friction type. This means that the number of the bolts required at a connection can be reduced, and consequently ease of fabrication and construction can be expected. In addition, because of introducing high tensile force into the bolts, this type has some other advantages, such as high rigidity and high fatigue strength. In case of a tensile joint subjected to shearing force, the joint can act as the friction type joint if no gap occurs between the connected sections. Generally speaking, tensile joints are classied into two types according to the length of bolts. One type is called the short connection type with short bolts as shown in Fig. 47(a). The short connection type is mainly used for connecting beams and columns in steel building structures. The other type is called the long connection type consisting of long bolts and additional stiffeners. A typical example of this type of joints is illustrated in Fig. 47(b). In the long connection type of joints, additional bolt axial force due to prying action can be mitigated by using long bolts. Features of each type of joints are summarized in Table 6. The evident difference between them is the existence of the prying action. If the additional bolt axial force due to the prying action can be estimated precisely, the short connection type is superior to the long connection type for ease of fabrication and construction, although the short connection type of joints may not be superior to the long one in ductility. 5.2.2. Examples of tensile joints in Japan In Japan, tensile joints had not been used for not only primary members but also secondary members until the JSSC recommendation was prepared by JSSC [53]. These days, however, some practical examples can be seen in some connections of steel bridge members. Above all, the long connection type of joints is often used. However, the short connection type is only used for connections of such temporary structures as erection facilities and so on. The reason why is that enough information about the short connection type to apply them to primary members of actual steel bridges is lacking even in the recommendation. Some examples of long connection type joints in Japan are shown in Fig. 48. Fig. 48(a) shows a connection of a tower of three suspension bridges, Kurushima Bridges [54]. These are continuous suspension bridges constructed in 1999. The height of one tower of the longest bridge is about 180 m. This is the rst example of the long connection type joint in Japan. In this case, predominant cross sectional force at the joint of the tower is axially compression, and tensile force induced in some bolts due to bending moment is not predominant. By using this type of joints, no erection facilities outside the towers are needed. As a result, easiness and safety of the erection can be substantially improved. Fig. 48(b) shows bridge restrainers using wire cables for preventing elevated girders from falling against strong earthquake. Long connection type joints are also adopted for anchoring the cables. Fig. 48(c) shows the anchor
Fig. 47.
Two types of tensile joints. (a) Short connection type; (b) Long connection type.
57
58
Table 6 Features of tensile joints Short connection type Construction Connecting tools Prying force Ductility Very easy High strength bolts for friction type joints Not negligible Smaller Long connection type Fairly easy PC tendons Negligible Larger
bolts supporting a reaction force wall of a big oating bridge in Osaka. These examples have been designed according to the JSSC recommendation. A typical example of the short connection type joint is shown in Fig. 49. The short connection type joint connecting a main girder and a crossbeam using T shape gussets can be seen in this photo. These joints are sometimes used in recent bridges in Japan, which have two or three main plate girders and thick PC slabs of high durability. The thickness of the ange plates and web plates of the main girders is 34 mm and about 1419mm, respectively. The design of the joints is also based on the JSSC recommendation. In addition, other potential examples in which tensile joints can be properly applicable are also illustrated in Fig. 50. Ease and safety of construction can be expected in these examples. These examples will be realized in the future by overcoming technical issues as mentioned later. 5.2.3. Concept of design procedure The JSSC recommendation denes that the ultimate limit state of the tensile joint is decided by fracture of high strength bolts. The reason why the ultimate limit state of the joint is dened by the fracture of the bolt in the JSSC recommendation is to use the high strength of bolts effectively, and to simplify its design method. Basic design concepts of the short/long connection types are summarized in Table 7, respectively. Connecting tools for the short connection type joint are same high strength bolts as for the friction type joint, and for the long connection type used are PC tendons. In particular, by taking constructability into consideration, the same high strength bolts as for the friction type joints are also used for the short connection type joint, and the axial force introduced into the bolts is almost the same as that of the friction type joint. The evaluation of the prying force is the most important factor in the design of the short connection type joints. A lot of evaluation formulas have been proposed until now; some of them are used in design specications for tensile joints in the world. Evaluation formulas used in them are summarized in the JSSC recommendation. The JSSC recommendation uses the KatoTanaka formula [55]. On the other hand, the recommendation for building structures in Japan [56] adopts the Tanaka Tanaka formula [57]. These formulas are classied into two categories according to the applied position of the prying force; one assumes that the prying force is applied
59
Fig. 48. Example of long connection type joints. (a) Horizontal joint of a suspension bridge tower, Kurushima Bridges; (b) restrainers of connecting girders against earthquake; (c) anchor bolts for a reaction wall of a oating bridge under erection in Osaka.
60
Fig. 49.
Example of short connection type joints.
Fig. 50. Expected examples of tensile joints in box girder bridges. (a) Joints of box cross sectional members; (b) Examples of connected section.
to an edge of the ange plate, and the other one assumes that the applied position is actually decided by the ultimate deformation mode of the ange plate. These formulas are derived through using cantilever beam models as shown in Fig. 51. Each formula is mainly based on the experimental results on beam to column connec-
61
Table 7 Design concepts of tensile joints (a) Short connection type Assumed ultimate limit state Connecting tools Introduced axial force Bolt arrangements Minimum thickness of ange plate Limitation of connected members Calculation of prying force (b) Long connection type Assumed ultimate limit state Connecting tools Introduced axial force Minimum thickness of anchor plate Width of rib plates used in stiffened sections
Breaking of a bolt High strength bolts for friction type (F10T and S10T are standard) Same as that of friction type Same as those of friction type (only 1 row) More than nominal diameter of high strength bolt used Sufcient stiffening is required, and the minimum thickness is more than 1/2 KatoTanaka formula Breaking of a bolt PC tendons (material is equivalent to F10T) Same as that of friction type 22 mm (bearing plate type); 30 mm (except bearing plate type) About 5 times of bolt diameter used
Fig. 51.
Prying force evaluation model in JSSC recommendation.
62
tions in the past. In the JSSC recommendation, therefore, applicability of the Kato Tanaka formula has been investigated considering the dimensions of bridge structures through a nite element 2D-analysis. The design ow diagram for the short connection type joints according to the JSSC recommendation are drawn in Fig. 52. The difference between these ow diagrams is whether the additional bolt axial force due to the prying action is considered. 5.2.4. Issues to be improved in Japanese recommendations for tensile joints In Japan recently, some steel bridges are made of comparatively thick steel plates with less numbers of stiffeners in order to reduce fabrication cost. Since it is specied in JSHB [36] that the allowable strength of the connections should be higher than both maximum stress due to applied loads and 75% of the full allowable strength of the stronger one of the connected sections, some connections designed by the JSHB tends to be conservative. This requires a lot of bolts consequently. In the JSSC recommendation, however, there is no information on multiple arrangements of bolts
Fig. 52.
Design ow diagram of tensile joints, short connection type (JSSC recommendation).
63
like the friction type joint as illustrated in Fig. 53. In addition, dimensions of joint details, such as bolt arrangement are still based on that of the friction type joint because of lack of enough information on the mechanical behavior and avoidance of confusion between the tensile type joint and the friction type one. The rational bolt arrangement of tensile joints for the use of much higher performance is, therefore, going to be specied considering the difference of load transferring mechanism between the tensile and friction type joints. The material of the connecting tools, such as high strength bolts and PC tendons, must be also improved in order to realize high performance tensile joints, namely, high strength and high ductility ones. And the design specications for them are also needed. Moreover, in the case where these tensile joints are applied to primary members of bridges, the rigidity of the connections is very important. However, there is not enough information on them in the JSSC recommendation. Accordingly, rst of all, the denition of the rigidity of the tensile joints should be made clear and then the effect of the rigidity on the mechanical behavior of the stiffness and strength of the connected members should be investigated in the future. 5.3. Recent research activities on tensile joints in Japan Various studies on high strength bolted tensile joints are carried out in Japan, in order to provide and accumulate basic information needed for applying this type of joints to connections of primary members in bridges and then for revising the JSSC recommendations of tensile joints. Studies on tensile joints by authors and the latest topics in this eld in Japan are briey introduced as follows: 5.3.1. High ductility bolts The effect of the arrangement of the bolts in multiple bolt lines for increasing the tensile strength of the joints is not so high compared with the multiple bolt arrangements of friction type joints. This may be caused by less ductility of ordinary high
Fig. 53. Schematic view of multiple bolt arrangements of tensile joints. (a) One row bolt arrangement; (b) 2 rows bolt arrangement.
64
Fig. 54.
High ductility bolt.
strength bolts. It is, therefore, considered that the ultimate strength of the tensile joint with multiple bolt lines can be improved by using a waisted shank bolt as shown in Fig. 54. Similar bolts to this type of bolts are specied in BS [58]. The enough diameter of the waisted shank to increase the strength of the joints is almost a little smaller one than the effective diameter of ordinary bolts [59]. Fig. 55 shows the effectiveness of the waisted shank bolt for tensile joints. It can be seen that the yield strength of the joint substantially increases in particular, while the ultimate strength increases a little. It can be recognized that the outer bolts are able to transfer about 30% of the applied load by using waisted shank bolts at the inner side. 5.3.2. High strength bolted tensile joints for box cross sections Experimentally investigated in Ref. [60] is the applicability of tensile joints to connections of main bridge members with box cross-section. The tested specimens as shown in Fig. 56 are to investigate the behavior of box members connected by the tensile joints. The nominal diameter of the bolts (M12) is 12 mm. In the experiments, bending moment and tensile force are applied simultaneously to the specimens. Attention is paid to the effect of the bolt arrangements, rigidity of the joints,
Fig. 55.
Effectiveness of high ductility bolts.
65
Fig. 56.
Box cross sections of seven specimens with variation of bolt arrangements.
and increase of the bolt axial force. Bending moment vs. curvature curves are depicted in Fig. 57. The horizontal axis of the gure denotes the average curvature of the jointed section, and the vertical axis is the applied bending moment. The yield point is dened as yielding of the severest one of the bolts. And the yield points of the box cross-sections without any joints are also drawn in this gure. It can be understood that the thicker the end plate is, the higher the ultimate strength becomes. However, the ultimate strength of the specimen with the waisted shank bolt does not increase, but the ductility of this tensile joint is improved. The failure modes deciding the ultimate limit state of the tensile joints can change from the brittle one to the ductile one by using waisted shank bolts. Comparing A34 with D34, it can be also recognized that the arrangement of the outer row bolts is very effective in the aspects of high strength, high rigidity and high ductility. It can be seen from the relationships between the yield strength and the ultimate strength points of all the specimens that the ultimate strength are almost at least 1.5 times the yield strength. The tensile joint becomes, therefore, very ductile up to the ultimate limit state, if the joint is designed based on the yield strength. According to these results mentioned above, it can be recognized that the high strength bolted tensile joint for box-cross sections are applicable to real bridge structures. 5.3.3. Super high strength bolts A high strength bolt, of which tensile strength is 1400 MPa, has been newly developed [61, 62]. In Japan, high strength bolts with tensile strength higher than 1000 MPa have not been made and used because of delayed failure since about 30 years ago. Usage of bolts with much higher strength is most effective for strengthening the joints, especially tensile joints, although further investigation is necessary as far as fatigue strength and delayed failure is concerned. The shape of the bolt should
66
Fig. 57.
Bending moment vs. Curvature curves.
be, therefore, determined so as to be able to avoid high stress concentration near the threaded portion. An example of the bolt is shown in Fig. 58. However, there is no practical joint using those bolts for bridge structures for lack of experimental results on the fatigue strength and delayed failure. In Japan, usage of high strength bolted joints for bridge structures has been limited.
Fig. 58.
Example of super high strength bolt (unit : mm).
67
Much more usage of such joints can be expected by overcoming issues, such as proper bolt arrangements for the joints, adoption of new material, rational evaluation of ultimate strength, namely slip strength for friction type joints and ultimate strength for tensile type joints considering prying action force and joint rigidity in the future. And, in order to make bridge structures more rational both in economical aspect and structural performance, the high strength bolted joints, especially tensile joints, will be one of promising methods for led connections.
6. Conclusions This paper has introduced computer programs developed mainly by authors for advanced static/dynamic elastoplastic nite displacement analyses of steel bridge structures, the ultimate strength and design methods of steel plates and columns made of high strength steel subjected to compression, seismic design and retrotting methods of new and existing steel bridge piers, and friction type joints and tension type joints with high strength bolts and high performance high strength bolts in Japan, among new technologies of steel bridges under development in Japan. In the paper, the part on the computer programs for advanced static/dynamic elastoplastic nite displacement analyses were described by Kitada and Okada. The ultimate strength and design methods of steel plates and columns made of high strength steel were mainly written by Ochi. The part of the seismic design and retrotting methods of steel bridge piers were by Ono and Matsumura, respectively. Joints with high strength bolts were described by Yamaguchi.
Acknowledgements The authors wish to thank Vice-Chancellor P.J. Dowling of Surry University and Professor S. Nakamura of Tokai University for giving us a good chance to introduce our researches in Japan to the world through this journal.
References
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New Technologies of Steel Bridges in Japan

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Journal of Constructional Steel Research 58 (2002) 2170 www.elsevier.

New technologies of steel bridges in Japan

, T. Yamaguchi a, M. Matsumura a, J. Okada b, K. Ono c, N. Ochi d

T. Kitada et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 58 (2002) 2170

T. Kitada et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 58 (2002) 2170

Analytical model of a Nielsen system bridge.

T. Kitada et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 58 (2002) 2170

Balanced arch bridges

Curved box girder bridge

Continuous truss bridge

T. Kitada et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 58 (2002) 2170

Analytical model for stiffened plates subjected to bi-axial in-plane forces.

T. Kitada et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 58 (2002) 2170

Analytical model for stiffened box short column.

Example of analytical model for EPASS Plus.

T. Kitada et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 58 (2002) 2170

T. Kitada et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 58 (2002) 2170

T. Kitada et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 58 (2002) 2170

T. Kitada et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 58 (2002) 2170

T. Kitada et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 58 (2002) 2170

Analytical model (simply supported plates).

T. Kitada et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 58 (2002) 2170

Division of nite elements and boundary conditions (simply supported plates).

T. Kitada et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 58 (2002) 2170

Residual stress distribution (simply supported plates of mild steel (SM400)).

T. Kitada et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 58 (2002) 2170

Analytical model (outstanding plates).

Division of nite elements and boundary conditions (outstanding plates).

T. Kitada et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 58 (2002) 2170

Residual stress distribution (outstanding plates of mild steel (SM400)).

Fig. 20. Analytical model (stiffened plates).

T. Kitada et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 58 (2002) 2170

Division of nite elements and boundary conditions (stiffened plates).

1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0

w0=d0cos(px/a)sin(py/b)+w10cos(3px/a)sin(py/bl) w0=d0cos(px/a)sin(py/b)+w10cos(5px/a)sin(py/bl) w0=d0cos(px/a)sin(py/b)+w10cos(7px/a)sin(py/bl) w0=d0cos(px/a)sin(py/b)+w10cos(9px/a)sin(py/bl)

d0=a/1000; w10=bl/150 according to JSHB.

T. Kitada et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 58 (2002) 2170

0.80 0.80 1.00

0.15 0.15 0.30

0.12 0.12 0.20

0.60 0.60 0.60

The values non-dimensionalized by the yield stress, sg.

Stressstrain curves used.

T. Kitada et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 58 (2002) 2170

Fig. 25. plates).

Fig. 26. plates).

T. Kitada et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 58 (2002) 2170

T. Kitada et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 58 (2002) 2170

These design strength curves are compared in Fig. 29.

T. Kitada et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 58 (2002) 2170

(R0.7) (11ac) (1.2R2.0)

su/sy 0.5R 1.35 (0.7R1.2)

(R0.55) (12ac) (1.0R2.0)

su/sy 0.480R 1.264 (0.55R1.0)

(R0.45) (13ac) (1.0R1.5)

su/sy 0.640R 1.288 (0.45R1.0)

0.66/R 1.25 (0.5R1.0)

T. Kitada et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 58 (2002) 2170

28.0 28.0 28.0

1.81 1.69 1.00

T. Kitada et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 58 (2002) 2170

Analytical model for columns with stiffened box cross section.

T. Kitada et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 58 (2002) 2170