ENGINEERING MECHANICS

MECHANICS Science of bodies that considers the motion of bodies under the action of forces. STATICS Study of motionless systems or systems that move with a constant velocity. DYNAMICS Deals with systems that change with time. It is divided into 2, kinematics and kinetics. Kinematics defines the relationships among displacement, velocity and acceleration of a moving body. Kinetics defines the relationship between the forces that act on a body and the motion of a body. E.g., The relationship among position, velocity and acceleration of a moving body such as a thrown ball, are defined by kinematics. The relationship between the forces that act on the ball (like wind and gravity) and the motion of the ball involves kinetics. PARTICLE Is a body whose size does not affect its response to the forces that act on it. RIGID BODY Is a body that doesnt deform under the action of forces. Generally, the size of a rigid body influences its response to forces. CLASSICAL MECHANICS Treats the motion of bodies of ordinary sizes that move at speeds that are small compared to speed of light. NEWTONIAN/ENGINEERING MECHANICS Study the conditions of rest or motion of rigid bodies of ordinary size that move at ordinary speeds.

NEWTONS LAWS OF MOTION First law: In the absence of applied forces, a particle originally at rest or moving with a constant speed in a straight line will remain at rest or continue to move with constant speed in a straight line. Second law: If a particle is subjected to a force, the particle will be accelerated (i.e., its velocity will change). The acceleration of the particle will be in the direction of the force, and the magnitude of the acceleration will be proportional to the magnitude of the force and inversely proportional to the mass of the particle. It assumes that a single (resultant) forces acts on a single particle. Third law: For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. Or, the mutual forces exerted by particles on each other are always equal and oppositely directed. This law notes that a single force or action doesnt exist alone; rather, it is always opposed by a reaction. Note: The significance of 3rd law is that it allows the 2nd law, which applies to a single particle, to be extended to a system of 2 or more particles acted on by a system of forces. NEWTONS LAW OF GRAVITATION It states that 2 particles of mass M and m are mutually attracted with equal and opposite forces F and F of magnitude given by SCALAR QUANTITY Physical quantities which have magnitude but not direction. (e.g.) volume, mass, energy, etc. VECTOR QUANTITY Mathematical expressions possessing both magnitude and direction, which add according to parallelogram law. They are represented by P. (e.g.) force, velocity, etc. MASS & WEIGHT Mass is used to characterize and compare bodies on the basis of certain fundamental mechanical experiments. 2 bodies of same mass, for example, will be attracted by the earth in the same manner; they will also offer the same resistance to a change in translational motion. It is a scalar quantity. Mass is same regardless of its location. Unit of mass is kilogram. Weight is the gravitational force applied to a body. Weight of a body would change depending on the gravitational acceleration. It is not mass. Unit of force is newton. .

BALANCE-TYPE SCALE Used to measure mass of a body by balancing the gravitational force of the earth acting on a body by the gravitational force of the earth acting on known masses. SPRING SCALE Used to measure force. On a spring scale, an object of fixed mass will have a variable weight depending on the gravitational field it is in. FORCE A force is a physical vector quantity created by the interaction between 2 bodies. Forces occur in pairs action and reaction. Types: Concentrated force: Forces are at specific points of the bodies. In the real world, there are no concentrated forces. Distributed force: If the force acting is distributed over a small contact area on the surface, it is considered a distributed force. (e.g.) the force the wheel of a train transmits to the rail. Contact force: Forces that result from direct physical contact between bodies. (e.g.) 2 gears in contact. Body force: Force distributed throughout the volume of the body. (e.g.) gravitational force the sun exerts on the earth. CONCURRENT & COLLINEAR FORCES 2 or more forces that act at the same point are called concurrent forces. Concurrent forces need not have the same direction. They simply act at the same point. If they dont have the same direction, they are collinear forces. However, 2 collinear forces need not be

concurrent; they may have different points of application along the same line. COPLANAR FORCES 2 or more forces whose directed arrows lie in the same plane are called coplanar forces. Since 2 concurrent forces always lie in a common plane, they are always coplanar. 3 or more concurrent forces are not necessarily coplanar, the converse also being true. RESULTANT The effects of several forces that act at a common point P of a body invariably may be produced by a single force that acts at point P. This single force that is equivalent to the several forces is called the resultant force. EQUILIBRANT If several unbalanced forces act on a particle, the force that is required to establish equilibrium of the particle is called the equilibrant. Note: Equilibrant is a force equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the resultant of the other forces. COMPOSITION & RESOLUTION OF FORCES The process of combining 2 or more concurrent forces into a single resultant force is called composition of forces. Resolution of a force is the process of breaking it down into component parts. PARALLELOGRAM LAW OF FORCES 2 forces F and G that act at a point P of a body are represented by 2 arrows drawn outward from point P. These arrows form 2 sides of sides of a parallelogram. The diagonal R of the parallelogram, drawn from point P, represents the resultant of the forces F and G. in all respects, the single force R is equivalent to the resultant of the 2 forces F and G. POLYGON LAW OF FORCES

To obtain the resultant of 3 or more concurrent forces, polygon law is used. For example, if we want to find the resultant (say R) of 3 collinear forces F, G and H acting at a common point P, the directed arrows representing the forces F, G and H are arranged in a chain maintaining their proper directions. Then the arrow from the initial point P to the terminal point of the chain represents the resultant force, R. This procedure can be applied to any number of concurrent forces. The polygon construction is not limited to only coplanar forces. However, as a practical graphical technique, it has obvious shortcomings if the forces act in 3-dimensions. EQUILIBRIUM A particle is said to be in equilibrium if no forces acts on it, or if the forces acting on it have a zero resultant. FREE-BODY DIAGRAM A free-body diagram is a sketch of the particle that shows the particle (by itself, free of the other parts of the systems) and all the forces applied on it that is, all the forces exerted on it by other parts of the system. Note: One must be careful to show all the forces acting on the particle, and not to show any of the forces that the particle exerts on other parts of the system. Specifically, 2 forces in an action-reaction relationship must never be shown in the same freebody diagram. STATICALLY DETERMINATE System that can be analyzed using only the equations of equilibrium. That is, the no. of independent equations obtained from the equilibrium conditions equals no. of unknowns. STATICALLY INDETERMINATE System that has more unknowns than independent equilibrium equations. Analysis of such systems requires application of additional principles from mechanics.

PRINCIPLE OF TRANSMISSIBILITY The equilibrium (or the motion) of a rigid body is not altered if the point of application of any force that acts on the body is displaced along the line of action of the force. LAMIS THEOREM If 3 forces acting on a body are in equilibrium, then each force is proportional to the sine of the angle included between the other 2 forces.

In fig. (b),

=180- ;

=180- ;

=180-

MOMENT OF A FORCE The action of a force that tends to rotate a body about an axis is called a moment. A force F that lies in a plane Q causes a moment M with respect to an axis that is perpendicular to plane Q. The magnitude of the moment M is F.r, where F is the magnitude of the force and r is the perpendicular distance from the axis to the line of action of F. In the figure, r is the moment arm of force F with respect to the z axis. Note: The moment of a force about a point O is not altered by a displacement of the force along its line of action. DYNAMICALLY EQUIVALENT FORCES 2 different sets of forces that act on a rigid body are dynamically equivalent if they produce identical effects on the motion or the equilibrium of the body.

VARIGNONS THEOREM The moment of several concurrent coplanar forces about any point O in their plane equals the moment of their resultant about point O. This theorem serves to locate the line of action of the resultant force that is the resultant axis. RESULTANT-AXIS THEOREM If coplanar forces F1, F2, F3, .., act on a rigid body, their resultant F is the vector sum of all the forces. If the force F is not zero, its line of action is chosen so that F produces the same moment about any point in the plane of the forces as the original forces F1, F2, F3, .. Then the resultant force F is dynamically equivalent to its components F1, F2, F3, .. If the resultant force is zero, a resultant axis doesnt exist. COUPLE A couple consists of 2 noncollinear parallel forces of equal magnitudes and opposite senses. The couple tends to rotate the rigid body on which it acts. Note: For a couple, the resultant force has zero magnitude, but a couple produces a constant nonzero moment about any fixed point in the plane. In the figure, PQ is called the arm of the couple. The center of rotation is called the center of mass. The theory of transmissibility applies for couples also. MOMENT OF A COUPLE The magnitude of moment of a couple is the product F.a, where F the magnitude of either force of the couple and a is the length of the arm of the couple. Note: The effect (the moment) of a couple on a rigid body is not altered if the magnitude of the forces of the couple is changed and the length of the arm of the couple is changed accordingly. The sense of a couple may be clockwise (-ve moment) or counterclockwise (+ve moment). The forces of a couple exert the same moment about all points in their plane. is

EQUILIBRIUM OF A RIGID BODY A rigid body subjected to coplanar forces is said to be in equilibrium if the net force on the body is zero and the net moment about any point in the plane of the forces is zero. TRUSSES It is an assembly of slender, straight members that carries loads primarily through axial forces (tension or compression) in the members. They are called plane trusses because all members and loads lie in the same plane.

A stable truss is a one that doesnt change its shape under the action of forces (rigid body). A simple truss satisfies the equation m + r = 2j where m is the no. of members, r is the total no. of support reactions (2 at a pin and 1 at roller support) and j is the total no. of joints. m + r = 2j statically determinate. m + r > 2j statically indeterminate. m + r < 2j truss doesnt have enough members or support reactions to prevent motion of the joints, unstable truss.

ZERO-FORCE MEMBERS Under the action of a system of applied loads, axial forces are produced in the members of a truss. For a given set of loads, some members may carry no internal force; that is they are called zeroforce members. For example, for the loads shown in figure 6.14a, members BC and EF are zero-force members. ANALYSIS OF TRUSSES Method of joints & Method of sections LEVER It is a mechanical device that changes the effect of force. In the levers given in the figure below, the fulcrum is located between the forces that act on the lever: E (the effort, or input) and L (the load, or output). The perpendicular distances a and b from the fulcrum to the lines of action of the forces are called the lever arms. The purpose of the lever is to transmit effort E to output L (L > E). The ratio L/E is called mechanical advantage of the lever. m = L/E = a/b. Types: A lever whose fulcrum lies between the applied forces is called a first-class lever. A second-class lever is one in which the output (load) lies between the fulcrum and the input (effort). A third-class lever is one in which the input lies between the fulcrum and output.

FRAMES A frame is defined as a structure built of bars. A pinconnected truss is a frame. A frame maintains its shape when supported from its supports, whereas a structural mechanism is free to change shape if it is removed from its supports.

CABLES The curve formed by an inextensible sagging rope or flexible cable that is loaded only by its own weight is called catenary. (e.g.) a flexible cable. TORQUE

FRICTION Friction may be defined broadly as the resistance that occurs between 2 bodies in contact when they to slide or roll relative to one another. Friction can be simultaneously beneficial and harmful. A frictional force is a shear force that acts tangent to the surface of contact between 2 bodies. This force opposes sliding motion between 2 bodies. STATIC & KINETIC FRICTION The frictional force between 2 bodies in contact that do not slide relative to one another is called static friction. The frictional force between 2 bodies in contact that slide relative to one another is sliding or kinetic friction. ANGLES OF FRICTION

= angle of static friction;

= angle of kinetic friction. tan

s;

tan

IMPENDING SLIDING The maximum value of frictional force between two contacting bodies in static equilibrium is reached when sliding between the 2 bodies is about to occur. At this instant, sliding is impending. LAWS OF FRICTION The direction of static friction force always opposes the direction in which 2 bodies in contact tend to slide relative to one other. If the bodies do not slide relative to one another, the magnitude of the static frictional force F is such that 0 F Fs =
s,

where

is the coefficient of static friction and N is the F Fs, and at impending sliding, F =

normal force between the bodies. That is, until sliding impends, 0 Fs.

When sliding occurs, the kinetic frictional force is F = Fk = friction. Ordinarily, Fk < Fs and
k

kN,

where

is the coefficient of kinetic

<

s.

Although, for many materials, kinetic friction is approximately independent of the speed of sliding, it tends to decrease slightly as sliding speed increases and as temperature increases. The coefficients of static and kinetic friction, contact between bodies. WEDGE A wedge is used to raise or lower a load or to separate two parts of a system. It is aessentially a solid inclined plane.
s and k,

are approximately independent of the area of

GRAVITY AXIS The gravity axis of a body is the line of action of the gravitational force that acts on the body. The resultant axis of the weight of the body is called the gravity axis of the body. A body has a gravity axis for each orientation relative to the earth. CENTRE OF GRAVITY The point of intersection of all the gravity axes of the body is called center of gravity. The weight of a rigid body is taken to be concenterated at the center of gravity. The gravity axis is a vertical line passing through the center of garvity. , ,

where , , are the coordinates of center of gravity, Myz, Mxz, Mxy, are moments of weight with respect to the coordinate planes. SPECIFIC WEIGHT ( ) It is the weight per unit volume of a body. In general, it is not a constant. It may vary from point to point ina body.

HOMOGENEOUS BODY It is a body whose specific weight is constant throughout the body. The location of center of gravity of a homogeneous body is a geometric property of the volume occupied of the body. CENTROID/CENTROID OF VOLUME The centre of gravity of a homogeneous body is called the centroid of the body. For a homogeneous body, there is a point ( , , ) that coincides with the center of gravity of the body. This point ( , , ) is called the centroid of the body. NORMAL & SHEAR STRESS The material on the positive side of Q exerts a force on the material on the negative side. The part of this force that is transmitted through an increment of area A of the cross-sectional area A of the body is denoted by F. since F is inside the body, it is called internal force in the body. F can be resolved into 2 compenents FV and FN. FV is called the shear force on A and FN is called the normal force on A. The forces FV and FN depend on the size of the area A. The magnitudes of the average forces per unit area on A are FN/ A and FV/ A. These ratios are called the average normal stress and average shear stress, respectively, on the area A. , and are the normal and shear stress respectively. FLUID It is a material that deforms or flows continuously in the presence of shear stress, no matter how matter how small that shear stress. Shear stress cant exist in a fluid that is at rest. Liquids and gases are often referred to as fluids. An important difference between them is that a liquid is nearly incompressible, while a gas is easily compressed. Note: Solids usually can sustain large internal normal stresses that are either tensile or compressive, whereas fluids generally cant sustain large tensile stresses.

HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE The compressive stress in a stationary fluid is called hydrostatic pressure. PRESSURE AT A POINT The value of the normal compressive stress is defined to be the pressure at a point. PASCALS LAW The pressure at a given point in a stationary fluid is same in all directions. The fact that the normal stress, in the absence of shear stress, doesnt depend on the orientation of the plane element on which the stress acts is called Pascals principle. PRINCIPLE OF BUOYANCY/ARCHIMEDES PRINCIPLE The pressure on a solid body that is immersed in a stationary fluid exerts a resultant force directed vertically upward through the center of gravity of the displaced fluid (that is, through the center of buoyancy). The magnitude of the resultant force (buoyant force) is equal to the weight of the displaced fluid, and the resultant line of action of the buoyant force passes through the center of gravity of the volume of the displaced fluid. METACENTER When a ship rolls through an angle , a fixed vertical line LL through the centre of gravity also rotates through . In the rolled position, the line L-L intersects a vertical line through the center of buoyancy. The point of intersection is the metacenter of the ship. WORK Work is the product of a force and a distance; it is a scalar quantity. Generally, if a constant force F translates a body in a straight line through a distance d along the forces line of action, the fuel that is required is proportional to the product U = F.d. The product U is called the work that the force performs on the body.

= Ft U= where Ft = F F and = is the angle between F and tangent to C. Both

is the magnitude of the force and

are functions of s. C denotes the path of integration.

If the force F maintains a constant direction, the above equation may be expressed in the following form, since U= Here, we regard F as a function of x. the limits x1 and x2 denote the initial and final values of x on the curve C. VIRTUAL WORK A motionless mechanical system will not move by itself if there is no small displacement. We imagine that we give the system an arbitrary small displacement, and we determine the sign of the resulting work of the forces that act on the system, excluding the imaginary forces that we exert. Since this displacement is imagined and does not necessarily occur as an actual movement of the system, it is called a virtual displacement, and the work of the real forces that act during a virtual displacement is called virtual work. STATES OF EQUILIBRIUM Virtual work negative - stable equilibrium Virtual work negative - unstable equilibrium Virtual work zero - neutral equilibrium = .

MOMENTUM It is a vector quantity defined as the product of mass and the velocity of a particle. The force that acts on a particle is equal to the time rate of change of the momentum of the particle. p = m.v; F =

LAW OF MOMENTUM The vector sum of all the external forces that act on a system of particles equals the time rate of change of momentum of the system. CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM If only internal forces act on 2 bodies, the total momentum of the bodies is conserved. That is, the momentum of an isolated system of 2 particles at any time equals its initial momentum. IMPULSE The impulse of a force that acts on a particle in the time interval tf ti is equal to the change of momentum of the particle in the same time interval. It is a vector quantity. I= INERTIAL FORCE Newtons 2nd law says that F ma = 0. If we set I = -ma, it becomes F + I = 0. The quantity I = -ma is called the inertial force. ma is the acceleration effect produced by force F. DALEMBERTS PRINCIPLE According to DAlembert, I represents a force and can be interpreted as an expression of the condition of equilibrium of forces. Thus, by introduction of inertial force I, problems of dynamics are reduced formally to problems of statics. That is, if a no. of forces acts at a point, we may consider I as the equilibrant of the forces. Therefore, if I is considered, equilibrium condition always exists. CENTRIFUGAL FORCE The word centrifugal means directed away from the centre of curvature. Centrifugal force is the inertial force on a body that is due to eccentric rotation of the body about a fixed axis. Centrifugal force is directed radially outward from the axis of rotation. = pf - pi

E.g.: Consider a race car that travels at a high speed on a straight stretch of track. Assume that the driver does not have his safety belt fastened and that friction of the seat is negligible. Then, as the car enters a sharp curve to the left, the driver slides to the right relative to the car seat. Here, the centrifugal force causes the driver to slide to the right. CENTRIPETAL FORCE: The word centripetal means directed toward the centre of curvature. E.g.: The car enters the curve, centrifugal force (outward force) is acting and thus the driver maintains a grip on the steering wheel, the resultant forces (centripetal force) prevent the driver from sliding to the right and cause him to move on the curved path with the car. PULLEYS A Pulley is a device for changing the direction of a force or magnifying the effect of a force. Note: Pulley is a wheel that is supported an axle or shaft. The outer surface of the wheels rim may be flat orgrooved, depending on its use. If the rim is grooved, the wheel is called a sheave. BLOCK AND TACKLE A block and tackle is a combination of two or more pulleys with a mechanical advantage greater than 1. Note: The mechanical advantage of the simple pulley can be increased by altering the pulleys arrangement or by combining the effects of several pulleys. When several pulleys are combined, the assembly is called a block and tackle. ` by

INERTIA The tendency of a body to resist acceleration is called inertia. Inertia of a body varies directly with mass. That is, greater the mass, greater its resistance to acceleration, greater the inertia of the body. Physically momentum is similar to inertia. MASS MOMENT OF INERTIA The mass moment of inertia of a body about an axis through its center of mass G is IG = ( ) . For any parallel axis Z, IZ = IG + mh2, where h is the distance from the axis Z to G and m is the total mass of the body. To determine the moment of momentum and the angular acceleration of a rigid body with respect to an axis, we require the concept of mass moment of inertia. AREA MOMENT OF INERTIA Relationships between the internal forces in a member, such as a beam or shaft, and the corresponding stress distribution over the members cross section depend, in part, on certain geometric properties of the members cross section. These geometric properties include moments of inertia of the cross-sectional area, defined as: Ix = , Iy = , Jo = , Ixy =

Ix, Iy, Ixy, Jo are called second moments of area. The name arises from the fact that the integrals involves second order terms. Jo is called the polar moment of inertia, since it is defined in terms of r, a polar coordinate.