6.

7 SEISMIC LOADS
Earthquakes are among the most awesome of natural forces; the Xian quake of 1556 in China killed 830,000 people, by far the most destructive quake ever. Earthquakes occur suddenly, without warning, and within 10-20 seconds can turn cities into wastelands, make islands , disappear, alter the flow of rivers, and give birth to new land and lakes. According to the theory of plate tectonics, the earth's crust consists of separate plates that float upon the earth's molten interior. Each of the plates moves (creeps) a few inches every year. At points of convergence, the plates want to slide past each other. If the plates are prevented from doing so at certain locations, by friction or by being locked into each other, elastic strain is stored and accumulates until the forces can no longer be resisted by the - .-------mate-r-ial . --Wh@fl--the capacity is ~~~-e-and-slippage occyr, which may cause the upper crust -of the earth to fracture and form a fault. This abrupt release of strain energy results in complex vibrations propagating in high speeds from the source (focus or hypocenter) in all directions through the earth and along its surface, reaching a given building at different time periods with different velocities, from different directions (Fig. 6.24). The mure significant seismic wave types are the faster longitudinal P-\Vaves (primary ~ waves, compressional waves, push-pull waves) which compress the earth in front and move building foundations back and forth in the direction of travel. The later and slower transversal S-waves (shear or secondary waves) oscillate in a plane perpendicular to the direction of propagation and tend to move the building foundations up and down and side to side at right angles to the P-waves. The P- and S-waves are body waves, travelling through the interior of the earth. In contrast, the Q-waves (Love waves), with no vertical movement, we th~R-.~ayes (~aylei~h waves), wit;, both vertical and horizontal mov-ement; are relatively slow-moving surface waves that propagate along the earth's crust. Since the high-frequency components of the seismic waves, tend to weaken rapidly as they propagate away from the source, short-period low-rise and massive buildings tend to be excited more near the epicenter. Longer period tall buildings are activated more by the lowfrequency waves that are transmitted over larger distances. Naturally, the nature of the regional geology influences the behavior of the seismic waves. Usually, the most destructive part of an eqrthquake is over in 10 to 20 seconds. A major percentage of earthquakes are of tectonic origin, but a second cause may be due to volcanic eruptions or subterrancean movements of magma. Besides the natural tectonic and volcanic earthquakes, there may be artificially induced ones, such as due to underground nuclear explosions and large water reserviors. The primary effects of earthquakes causing possible building damage are:

* *

Ground rupture in the fault zone. Ground failure due to landslides, where ground displaces horizontally and/or vertically without ground rupture; mud slides, avalanches, ground settlement; shaking of ground resulting in loss of bearing capacity due to liquefaction, where saturated granular soil is transformed from a solid state into a liquefied state due to porcwater pressure, causing the soil to behave like quicksand.

b-5b

Among the secondary and often more critical effects of earthquakes are fire, disease, looting, explosion, flooding, and disruption of economic and social life; Earthquakes are classified either according to the magnitude of the energy they release or according to their intensity, that is, destructiveness. The Richter scale, invented by Charles F. Richter' of the California Institute of Technology in 1935, is a measure of the energy released at the focus. It ranges from 3 to 9, based on a logarithmic scale, where each unit increase reflects an increase of about 32 times more energy. Comparing the energy release of the Hiroshima atom bomb (about 6.4 on the Richter scale) with that of the 1964 Alaska earthquake of 8.4, shows that about 1000 (i.e., 32 x 32) times more energy was freed by the earthquake. The largest known earthquake is 8.9 (Colombia, 1906); the 1906 San Francisco earthquake measured 8.25, and the 1812 New Madrid one was 8.2. Earthquaked above 6 on the Richter Scale are considered severe, while the ones between 4 and 5 are considered mMerate; a' magnitude of 8 or higher is classified as a gleat earthquake. In one of the most devastating quakes in recent history, nearly a quarter of a million people died in the 1976 Tangshan quake, of Richter magnitude 7.8, ..in China. The Richter scale does not concern itself with the effect of the earthquake. An earthquake of Richter magnitude 6 may be far more destructive when it hits a densely populated region directly, than one of magnitude 8, with its focus far away from inhabited areas. Nearly five times more people were killed in the Armenian earthquake of 1988, which registered 6.9 on the Richter scale, as compared with Mexico City's 8.1 quake of 1985, where. 10,000 people died. Buildings should be able to resist minor earthquakes without damage, moderate earthquakes without structural damage, but with some nonstructural damage, and major earthquakes without collapse, but with some structural, as well as nonstructural, damage .
.
"';

...

For the sake of simplicity, the complex, random ground vibrations can be visualized as known horizontal movements travelling back and forth. Vertical vibrational displacements are ignored since the building is already designed for gravity in this direction. As the earth abruptly accelerates horizontally in one direction, taking the building foundation along, but leaving the portion of the building above the ground behind, -it causes lateral inert-ia forces to act (See Fig. 6.24). This phenomenon is similar to that experienced by a person travelling in a car that suddenly increases in speed, or the vertical inertia force experienced when a lift abruptly rises. Assuming initially that the building and its foundation were rigid, then the acceleration of the building would be equal to the ground acceleration. The lateral inertial forces would then, according to Newton's-second taw .be theproduct of the building mass,~ M and the ground acceleration, a, where the mass, in turn, is equal to the building weight,"" W, divided by the acceleration of gravity, g = 32 ft/Sl or 9.81 m s2
I

Ma

W(a/g)

(6.29)

The ground acceleration; can be expressed as a percentage of g:. For example, a ground acceleration of 0.2g is equal to 0.2(32) = 6.4 ftlsec2, or the lateral inertial force is equal to 20 percent of the weight-of the rigid building. Ground shaking accelerations vary from 0.2g to 0.3g for a moderate earthquake, and greater than O.4g for a severe earthquake.

b- 5-:+

6.7.1 Determination

of forces and moment due to earthquakes

To obtain the magnitude of the inertial forces, the building has been assumed to be rigid and to rock and heave similar to a ship at sea, which is obviously not true. The inertial of .the building mass resists ground movement and causes the building to deform, and hence activates the building stiffness; the random shaking of the base results in a series of complex oscillations of the building. However, it has been found that the elastic response of multistory buildings is largely determined by the first or fundamental mode of vibration, so that the building can be treated, for preliminary design purposes, as a single-degree-offreedom (SDF) system or cantilever pendulum (6.25). To evaluate the effect of the building stiffness upon the magnitude of the lateral inertia force, or building acceleration, several simple regular buildings of decreasing stiffness are considered as inverted pendulums (See --e;pi'"'g. -u:'26}-vtsualizing-an-effective-mass-.fur-eaeh--c-aS6.--+Ae-im:rease of tbe pend HJ urnsin height indicates the increase of flexibility, and also the increase in the natural period, T, of the building, where the natural period represents the time it takes for the structure to swing back and forth and to go through one full cycle of free motion.
The static

),

base shear of a building following formula: V= where: ZIKCSW

due to seismic

loading

can he determined

using

tile

(6.30)

=
=

=
=

=
=

the total lateral force or shear at the base seismic probability zone factor in zone 0 (no damage) 3/16 in zone I (minor damage) 3/8 in zone 2 (moderate damage) 3/4 in zone 3 (major damage I in zone 4 ( major damage, close tornajor

fault systems)

= =
)
K
C

= =

=
= =

=
W

occupancy importance factor 1.5 for essential facilities, such as hospitals and fire and police stations 1.25 for any building where the primary occupancy is for assembly use for more than 300 persons' in one room 1.00 for all other cases building type factor (Table 6.6) seismic coefficient (Equation given below) soil-structure interaction factor as determined in accordance with the following values: 1.0 for rocklike formations, or stiff soil conditions overlaying rock at a depth of less than 200 ft 1.2 for deep cohesion less or stiff clay soil conditions overlaying rock at a depth greater than 200 ft 1.S for soft to medium-stiff clays and sands 10 ft or more deep, or if the soil profile is not known the total dead load and appropriate portions of the live load

6-59

Table 6.6 Type of Building Structure All systems not otherwise classified Building with a box system: lateral forces resisted by shear walls or braced frames . Buildings with a dual bracing system of ductile moment-resisting space frame plus shear walls or braced frames meeting these criteria:

K-Value

1.00 1.33

0.80

*
*

The frame and shear walls shall resist lateral forces in accordance WIth their relative ngioines. Shear walls acting alone shall be able to resist total lateral force. The frame acting alone shall be able to resist 25 % of tv~t.L1 lateral force. 0.67

Ductile moment-resisting space-frame, capable of resisting total lateral force. The seismic coefficient is taken as:

c-

_1_S;O.12,

T~O.3s

(6.31)

lsfi
CSs;O.14 (6.32)

In Equation the fundamental natural period of vibration, T, of the building is in seconds in the direction under consideration. The value of T can be computed or measured by sophisticated methods; at the stage of preliminary design, however, T cannot be known. On the basis of measurements made on many existing structures, an approximation of T has been formulated: T _ O.05hll

,)

(6.33)

fl5
where:

=
I

building height (ft) above base dimension of the building (ft) applied force

10

a direction parallel to the

In the case of a moment-resisting space frame that resists 100 percent of lateral forces, and is not connected to more rigid elements, the code permits O.ls per floor.

&,-59

".

T = O.ION
where:

(6.34 )

the total number of stories above grade in the main portion of the structure

The influence of the building structure, with respect 10 lateral force action, is taken into account by the framing factor (ductility factor, horizontal force factor, huilding type factor). K. It ranges from 0.67 to 1.33 for buildings, based on the past performance of the structure type, evaluated empirically, and reflecting the di fferences in the ductility or energydissipation capacity, as well as the degree of structural redundancy. A low factor is assigned to the ductile, continuous rigid frame, where members and their .. -~JOfnetleS'l13;ve-tlrelequtre&-strellgtli -and-"rleformatioo--eatJsei-t,),-;--DI:ICliiily is the abilily of members within the structure to go through a number of inelastic cycles of deformation without a significant loss of strength, thus clearly establishing the high redundancy 0; the structure and its capacity for carrying overloads. A factor nearly twice as high is given to bearing-wall and all concentrically braced-frame structures, which can he visualized as stirf boxes responding in shorter periods and thus causing larger lateral forces. They also lack ductile behavior because of their inability to deform much. Brittle materials, such as masonry and concrete, will form cracks and lose their load-carrying capacity rather than redistribute stresses, should they not he properly reinforced; they arc incapable of deforming much beyond the elastic range and lack reserve strength. Therefore, structures that lack ductility must have more strength, and they must remain within the clastic range of the materials, allowing no inelastic deformations.

In buildings where the lateral-force resistance is provided by shear walls or braced frames. together with rigid ductile frames capable of resisting at least 25 percent of the lateral force.
a frame factor of K = 0.8 is assigned (Table 6.4). However, one should not overlook the fact that rigid steel frames can also fail ina brittle fashion if the connections are not properly designed. The trade-off between ductility and stiffness for tall buildings is critical. Seismic design calls for a ductile structure with much redundancy, while wind design requires stiffness for occupant comfort and to control damage to non structural components. The sailor site factor, S, takes into account the site-structure quasi-resonance effects, which includes the effect of the travel path of the earth vibrations from the source to the site. The dynamic characteristics of a site are determined by the depth and type or the various layers of soil or rock over the underlying bedrock. Sites with shallow. dense. stiff deposits tend to have short fundamental periods, but which arc larger than the ones of the underlying bedrock, particularly when the incoming motions arc of low intensity. However. sites with deep flexible soil layers tend In have long fundamcniat periods. where the bedrock accelerations are amplified for low uucnxity motions but reduced for high-intensity motions, since the deep soft soil cannot vibrate rapidly. The typical fUl1cl;lI1!CI1t;\l periods l1f villratl',iil of a site vary from about O. I seconds for stiff sties to ) seconds for" flexible soft ground. with thc range of 0.25 to 1.0 second lwing more common.

b - bD

6.7.2 Lateral Distribution

of Base Shea!'

The formula V = ZIKCSW does not indicate how the shear force is distributed throughout the height of the structure. The shear force, at any level, depends on how the structure deforms, that is, on the mass at that level and the amplitude of oscillation, which may be assumed to vary linearly with the height of the building. Earthquake forces deflect a structure into certain shapes, known as the natural modes of vibration. Only the most important first three modes are shown in Figure 6.27, but it must be realized that a high-rise building actually is a multiple-degree-of-freedom system with many possible patterns of deformation. In any case, the first or fundamental mode, as exemplified by the pendulum, has still been found to contribute the largest influence, especially for stiff or short-period buildings responding more abruptly. Flexible long-period buildings respond in slower, longer, and more complex movements; in this case, the higher modes of vibration becomes ---1H-sigt+i-fica.Jl-t, .. causing.a.greater.prnportion of the total horizontal inertia forces to act near the top. This is taken into account by the concentrated load FI at the top of the building (Fig. 6.28). Reccgnizing above effect (whiplash) of tlexible buildings, the code places part of the total lateral base shear, V, as a concentrated load, FI, at the top of the structurc.. while the balance (V-FI) is to be distributed in a triangular fashion over the entire building height. The top load FI is present only if the fundamental period of vibration T > 0.7 seconds. Ft = O.07TV :::; O.25V (6.35)

According to UBC, the' balance of (V - FI) is distributed over the entire building height, generally as concentrated loads at the floor levels, in a triangular fashion. If the weight, w, is taken to be constant for every floor level, then the force, F, proportional to the height, h (See Fig. 6.28).
IS

Horizontal equilibrium yields ,

b- b I

Solving for F x yields

Lh
i-I

Taking into account that the weight at the floor levels magnitude of the distributed forces, Fx is given by
(V - F,)Wjl;>.:

I1lClY

not be constant,

then the

F J: ___. . where: . "_. __.. _. ",, .,,,, __ .

.L:J

"wh L II

"". _ ",, ,,

."'.__ ._,,

that portion of W which is located at or is assigned to leve! i or x, respectively the height (in feet) above the base to level i,ll, or x , respectively. The level n is the uppermost level in the main portion of the structure.

Structures

with irregular

shapes

The equivalent static lateral force method in only applicable to regular building shapes with no vertical and horizontal irregularities in geometry, striffncss, strength and mass. For irregular shapes, the distribution of lateral forces should be determined considering th,~ dynamic characteristics.

Overturning
At any floor level, a building shall be designed to resist overturning earthquake. whichever governs. Overturning moment at the base of the building in caused by wind or

II

M - F~"

E Fjh
/-\

6.7.3

Conclusions

on seismic behaviour

of buildings

The following conclusions can be drawn from the base shear formula: Heavy buildings attract more force than light ones. An increase of stiffness, for the sake of reduction of deflections and vibrations. also results in larger inertia forces for sites with shallow dense deposits that

b-b2

efficiently transmit short periods of vibration. On the other hand, a tall flexible building on a deep layer of flexible soft soil may experience higher lateral forces than a stiff building;' since the soil cannot vibrate rapidly and transfer high frequency waves from the bedrock beneath to the building. A rigid ductile frame may be preferable to a braced-frame or shearwall structure, but it is quite flexible and must endure large deflections in severe earthquakes, which may cause extensive non-structural damage of partitions, curtain panels, ceilings, etc. Stiff buildings, in contrast, resist deflection (and thus nonstructuraJ damage), , particularly in moderate earthquakes, but do require more structural material because of a lack of ductility. The medium-stiff building may be the best solution, providing the safety of the ductile frame and the rigidity of the shear walls. The mass and stiffness of a building should be selected to yield a period different from the one of the ground motion, in order to prevent the building response from being amplified. _______ IhemassamLstiffness~L~b.ujldingsbou1d-be uniformly distributed, and any discontinuities of structural parts should be avoided; structural continuity is essential in case individual members fail. To prevent torsion, the centroid of the mass should not deviate from the centroid of rigidity when an unsymmetrical building bends, it will twist. Ideally, a building should have two axes of symmetry, so that only accidental torsion may be present. It is apparent that irregular and odd building shapes, or the lack of symmetry of the structure, will cause major torsional eccentricities and will amplify deflections at building ends furthest away from the center of rigidity. Abrupt changes of structure, with a sudden changes of stiffness, causes stress concentrations, resulting in potential failure. For example, these stress concentrations occur at the intersection of different building parts; it may be better to separate buildings at junction points, so they can behave as individual building blocks. Further, a building with several supports has a higher redundancy than one that is supported only by a single core, which is more vulnerable to failure. Since earthquake motion causes rapid stress reversals in structural members, the structure must be able to withstand the effects of fatigue. Seismic design is still based largely on trial and error. Researchers are constantly trying to find more accurate ways of predicting, and new ways of responding to, earthquakes. The equivalent static lateral force approach used by the codes can .obviously only he considered as a rough first approximation and may give reasonable results for simple regular buildings. The coefficients Z, I, Sand K are not based on a quantitative evaluation but on a qualitative judgement, and only the coefficient C vaguely include dynamic considerations which, however, are based on records or earthquake measurements taken far away from the location of high-intensity waves; data for actual ground motions for building sites are not known. The framing factor for box structures does not take into account all of the variations of shear walls and their combinations, and neither does it take' into account different construction materials. The frequency of building vibration is affected by non structural elements, such as nonbearing partitions that increase a building's stiffness. The response spectrum neglects the duration of the force action, and the seismic coefficient has largely underestimated the spectrum values of several earthquakes. The structure is assumed to behave elastically under dynamic loading; under strong earthquakes, however, a building will deform partially inelastically, dissipating part of the seismic force action. In consequence, buildings' are often observed to resist forces far greater than their rated capacity on the basis of elastic analysis. The following, earthquake example problems explain the quasi-static approach of the codes.

h-b3

Example

6. 7. 1

The seven-story building in Figure 6.2.8 is located in seismic zone 2. The lateral forces are resisted by rigid frames along the perimeter of the building; the interior columns carry only gravity loads. . The following loading conditions are used for this preliminary investigation: Floor weight, including girders, columns, and spray-on fire proofing: Curtain wall, including column and spandrel covers: 15 psf Uniform wind load for a wind velocity of 70 mph: 21 psf The total building weight is

85 psf

---

- ----------

--.. ------------------------------

W == 7[0.085(90 x 75) + 0.015(90

----------

----

----------

+ 75)2( 11.5)]

-------- -----

44 J 4 _ nk

The fundamental period for a rigid frame is T

O.IN

.--~O. J(7) = O.7s

The soil factor is obtained from the table as 1.5.

The seismic coefficient

is I

c-

15fT

15[0.7
<
0.14

- 0.0797<0.12

CS = 0.0797( 1.5) = 0.12

Therefore,

the base shear is = ZIKCSW = (;\/8)( I )0.67(0. 12)W = O.OJW 0.03(4414.73) == 133.10 k

There is no whiplash effect, since T ~ 0.7s

The base shear is to act with a minimum eccentricity dimension.

of 5 percent of the maximum building

(, - b 4

= O.OSD

lllax

0.05(90)

4.5 fl

Each of the facade frames carries the following portion for the total shear along the cross direction: First, taking moments about V2 in Figure 3.12, yields ' VI(90) - 133.10(45 Horizontal equilibrium

4.5)

0,

VI

73.21 k

yields

V2 = 133.10 - 73.21
The distribution

59.89 k height (Equation 3.2Sa) is

of the base shear along the building

-----.----------------.--.---. ----------1~Fx - V__

f/

- 73.2117)322

- 0.22717x

Lh;
I-I

where:

Ell;
i-I

= =

11.5(1 h[n(1

+ +

+ ... +

7)

== 322 ft

or,

n)/2]

11.5[7(\

7)/2] = 322 ft

The lateral F7 The seismic

forces at the seventh and fourth floor levels are

0.227(7

x 11.5)

18.27 k,

F4

0.227(4

x 11.5) = 10.44 k

shear at the fourth floor level is

v. _
The total wind pressure

[18.27; 10.44]4 _ 57.42k

is == 76.07 k

that each frame carries x 80.5)/2

Vw = 0.021(90

> .. n.21

The wind shear is slightly larger than the seismic shear. The wind moment about the base is

Mw = 76.07(80.5/2)
The seismic moment about

3061.82

ft-k

the same level is

Ms

73.21(80.5)2/3

3928.94

ft-k

> Mw

b-

b5

Hence the seismic moment controls. The weight of the lateral-force resisting

facade frame is

Wf

7[0.085(75 xiS)

0.015(75
is

2(1511.5]

796.16 k

The safety factor against overturning

S.F - Mrt'./Mac{

796.16(75/2) 3928.94

- 7.60

> 1.5 OK

Example 6. 7.2

--_

... -.. ..._---------_.-._ .._------_ ..-.--_._._----_ _ __ __ ._ .._ .... __ _._. Check the stability of a typical pair of 25 ft interior cross walls for a ten-story reinforced masonry building using a wind velocity of 80 mph and seismic zone 2; for the building layout refer to Figure 6.29. All walls are assumed to be 8 in. lightweight concrete block, plus finish weighing 80 psf. Assume 100 psf floor dead load and 80 psf roof dead load. The typical story height is 10 ft. For this preliminary check, ignore wall openings and accidental torsion (emin)'
... ... . ....

__

)
First the building The total wall weight is The roof dead load is: The floor dead load is: The total building weight is: weight is found.

10[(25

10)4

25(6)

30]0.080(10)

= =

2560 k 432 k 4860 k 7852 k

(90 x 60) 0.080 9(90 x 60) 0.100

The fundamental

period is

0.05hn T -

0.056(100)

!D
1 l5sqrtT

(60
1
15VO.646

- 0.646s ~ 0.7s

The seismic coefficient

is

C -

- 0.083 < 0.12

CS = O.08:1(1.~) = O.12~ The framing factor for shear wall structures Hence, the total base shear is

< 0.14
is K .- I. :n.

= ZIKCSW

'''' O..\7)( I) I. :",(0. 12:'i)W

O.062W

= 0.062(7852)

= 486.82 k

The total wind shear is based on a conservative uniform wind pressure of 28 psf, as obtained from Figure 3.8:

vw =

0.028(90 x 100)

252 k < 486.82 k

There is no whiplash force, since T Ft

0.7s

For this preliminary investigation, all cross walls have been assumed to be of the same shape and thickness (i.e., the same21~ffn_ess).and the belleficial effeets of the wall flanges and wall --------n-Uer.aCtlon---acrosslhecorridor have been neglected. Also, the minimum eccentricity requirement has been ignored. Therefore, each of the eight cross walls resists an equal shear of

v =

486.82/8 = 6O.85k

The weight of one interior wall is

ww

= 30 x 30(0.080

0.100(9

25 x 100(0.080)

882

200

1082 k

The safety factor against overturning is

S.F -

:
Macr

1082(2512) - 3.33 < J .50 60. 85( 100)2/3

OK

b- b1
....,,,...~---:.z:....,.-,
'~.'. _/.;.,;i;:.'1: .
P."

>~~ .r, .

~IO
M

Damper

~V~/~

_~o~

hJ5:

~("'jk O\YY\

hi-of(~'Dr) ~~
~W\

t...rt.~J
trD(

(o.... \;\~VE'.., Ve",Jv,''''Vv\.

YI
\
)
111

A
fi

t
i

I
I

H:hn \

-\i

-w

h.

rUAL LINEAR APPROXIMATION-

.;
THREE MODES OF

V ..

~
STATIC

:7

I L-

.JI

.---jL

LUMPED MASS MODEL

FIRST

STORY

LATERAL LOADS

VIBRATION

SHEARS

rJ

b 2-

7:
eJ/-

1)

Il~ ~
v"J, Y'e>. h

(YlcuJiS

FIg

b;J.~
~t'.

(Oo-...cJs

'-.,.,

-yep

lA *' V>..J

~..y'-fL

1."'0.. teL

,,-

~
,
\

'
I

~f
'\

4 K'

I l
.. 57.42 II.

..

10._'4 -~

' .,
""
"

'

r--%"'l

-<)

... -"
tK
.. ._. ... _~- .. ~~!G
N

....
--.-~-

-...,
_.,

U.50J :,: - /'

-t" il3.10K

FACADE

FRAME

..

_. ,-1 . ... .
"'"

I~
,~

~
..40.8 II,

2K

4082

62'1a..

()

25'

30'

w-.

'"
0

"in
N

30'

~l(tL

M
1'V"l

rig

/'.:lCj b,

SfK4cJ",~

6x~V'vtp LL b7.

:1

'.

I..I.II\II!)

UN RAILINGS,

SIDEWALKS,

ANI>

mph (
force

IJ() km Zh ) at ~O ,rt ,I) m)

J>R1Vf.WA YS
T"p. illll'fllll'liialt' and bottom handrailings should carry a IU'li","t:11 load Ill' 200 lh (O.!! kN) anti a vertical load of 200 III (XOO N). In addition, handruilings should carry a horiv.ontul lo:! of 40 plf (0.5 kN/m) and a vertical load of 50 pi!" ({}.6 kN/m) atting simultaneously. In theaters. the IlIlrilont;1l load should be 50 plf and the vertical loud 100 I'll' (1.2 k N /111 \. In single family and two-family dWllltl'(:" Jllr I'L'qUII\'d hills arc 20 plf (250 N/nl) fur L'adl S"li,1 palld railill!!" should he designed for a uniform lall':I':.! load ,If 21) psI' ( I k l'a ). f{;lilings used in parking arcus should resist 300 plf (4.4 kN/II1) applied at least 21 inches (0,50 m) above the roadway anti a minimum of 2500 Ib (10 kN) per vehicle. The live load on sidewalks and driveways should be at least 100 psI' (5 kP;]). If subje~t"Js:u~b~LloadSrlhc"\.i'J~iU " should be ;it-ic"asi"c,OOI)sf (39 kPa) or the maximum vehicular wheel load. Live loads on sidewalks and driveways should conform to the specifications of the relevant Stale's Dcparuncnt of Hi~hways,

011

the

windward

wull ,

above ground. The hI' ';:I\r,I.ll calculated at each pressure icvcl , is

equal to
l: I>, 1/
'0,

/I

. I

C~. x

1', x

11

F ;:: I x O. XO x 150 x (40

x 13

60 X 17

+ 100 x :!l + 100 x 26

'" ')1{')

60 x 30)

kip'

(,I .. I()()

kN) wall , cnlculatcrl

:II

;111(\

Ihc'

1.1I;d

r"rc, nn Ih,' leeward

1<1

thc'

:II,';O:T

h.:i!~hl I' Ihe r,,1' i, <''10;,(

F"

I x

o.)()

x ISO ')( .160

30 = 810 kips (.1,(,0:< \..:\ I

The base shear force is ---_._ ... _--The

bending

= 91{9 +
....

810 = _. __ ..-.---

1,799 kips (S.OO3 kN)

moment

(overturning

moment) at grade is

M "~ I x

cum

x I SO x

I'
.

4~- x 13 + 60 x

(60' +
40

2 )

9,l~. HORIZONTAL
'jlJIL.OINr;

FORCES ON THE

x 17 + 100 x (100

I~)x

23 + 100

x (:~OO +

I~)() x 26 + 60

~,

The Plliidilll,! as a 1I.l)itshould be designed to withstand the horizontal forces and Ihe resulting overturning moments from wind anti earthquakes. The horizontal forces arc distributed along the height of the building and arc supported by a structural frame, a bracing core. such as an elevator well or a stairwell, or n series of shear walls or braced [r: 11111:S ,
\\,illt! Furns

X (.1()()

T) x .10l +
(no MNm)

I x 0.50 x ISO x 3~~<

.10

= 346,300

kips-It

TIll' distriburion of horizontal forces and the shearing rOrl'\', hendill!,: moments diag.rall1s along the height of the huildin!! shown in Fil,!, 1).1\.1.

'Ind

urc

In lieu of a dynamic analy:-.is. wind forces along the height of a building arc considered to be static and arc determined according to the applicable codes, Wind pressures arc assumed to act simultaneously. perpendicular 10 all exterior , surfaces of the building, The forces on the roof and the exterior walls, as specified by the codes and presented in - 'jtions 1).10. and I), II . should produce the horizoruul .. t::CS ;ll'ting as cuch 1\001' level. The huih.ling lilmulll be dcxigncd to withstand these forces and the resultant overturning moment. Calculation of Wincl Forces on a Buil!lIng. A~ un example, the horizontal wind Iorees on Q 30-5(01)' building will be determined b.iscd '''' t hc code requirements. The building is 3(1() fI (110 III) high with a sqaare base 15() ft X ISO ft (45 m )( 45 m), and it IS IIK';llcd ill an arc;1 wilh wind exposure: n :lnu wind vcloclty SO

wind rnrrc\

,hcarinK forces

Plf: pounds per linear fOUl.

Figure 9.14.1. Wind forces. shearing and bending moment diagrnms along the building height,

. .. " Earthquake Forces

'

t. .:

- .. --_.- .._ ..
f
I.'

_--_._--_._--_

.._.-.

_._ .. --.-

.. _ ..

_ ..

_.

In lieu of adynamic analysis, the earthquake forces along the height of the building are considered to be static and arc determined according to the BOCA National Building Code (Ref. 9.1) and the Uniform Building Code (Ref. 9.2) as it is presented in the following paragraphs.

'The natural frequency of the building can be derived either by a computer-based dynamic analysis, or it can be approx;imated by the following equations. For frame buildings. where the lateral stiffness is provided by the frame only. the natural period is approximated as:
T = 0.1 X N

Tile Total Shear Force at Base. The total horizontal force at the basc of a building ( V ) depends on the seismic zone
(coefficient Z). (fuctor I); the building (factor ( factor C), the (factor S), and
.~t;11

the importance of the building occupancy stiffness of the structural system of the K), the natural period of thc building soil profile on which the building resides the weight of the building (W). Thus the __orJ!.l.~~l:!iJ~_i~lL(Y)

where N is the number of floors of thc building. For braced frames. or for shear walls not interconnected with the frames, (he natural period is represented by the equation: T == 0.05 11 (Ii, L, in fcct )

.JL.

h()rizontaUo~lh.~_l>asc represented by the equation:

V=,Zx/xKxCxSXiV

is 0.09 H ','.', ,'.. , '11, I,Ieter.') -. ----------'jT"-=~:.::~t.~-1\Lf/-,~f::.-:-m~:ete1'l,HIf---------

"L.,
The cocllicicnt Z depends on the seismic zone and is shown ill Table 9.16. factor I depends on the building occupancy and is shown in Table 9.17. Factor K depends on the lateral stiffness of the building and is shown in Table 9.18. Factor C depends on the natural frequency or the building occupancy and is represented by the equation , where Ii is the height of the building and L, is the Inllgest dimension of a shear wall or a braced frame in the direction of the appl ied forces. For shear walls or exterior reinforced concrete tr.uncs with deep beams or piers, the natural period is approximated as: T == 0.05 Ii

.>

}C ..

= ---r;:,
15 "T

JL

(H, L in feet)

but not more than O. 12. T

0.09/1

.Ji

(II. L in meters)

Table 9.16.
St';lmic"Zone' 4 3

Coefficient Z for
Loads
7.
1 ( I.(XKl) ~ (0.750) ~(0.:l75) I~.l.11I75) ~(0 125)

Earthquake

2
I

where L is the dimension of the building in the direction of the applied forces. Factor S depends on the soil profile and is shown in Table 9.19. If the soil profile is not known, a .soil profile of type S) should be used. * Distribution oj the Horizontal Forces. .The base shear force is distributed along the height of the building to a single force F, at thc top of the building and a series of forces at each floor level. For structures with regular shapes or framing systems. the force P, at the top of the huildinp uepcnds Oil the n.uural frequency-of the building (T) and is represented hy the equation
F, = 0.07
X T

o
Tallie

9.17.

Fnctor

I for Earthquake

Lo;lds.
loll 1.25

Nature

0/ ocI"Il{lflncy

All huildinp except those listed below iluiluinp lor .~s(mbty use (mon: than 30(J I",,,uns in one Nom) ts!.Cnci;o1 f.(ililit:s: lIospilals for emcrJellt), treetrnent . Fin:. rescee, police stalions Comll1unkltions and power ltations ~ali"nal defense Itructures .

x V, but no more than 0.25 x

Or 51. whichever gives the larger value of C x S. if the natural period of the buildinJ:: is calculated usin~ the soil propcnics.

__
_

'I' ahleI 9.18.

Factor K for Ea .thquak~

tlt'IIIt'1I11

Loads. Table 9.19.

1.00

ArrUllxtmtnl o/Ialual/orrt-ruisling

Factor S fur Eurthquuke

fI Ill)

Louds.

All buiklin~~ except chose listed below R cooforcctl concrete or reinforced mason/)' bearing wall
'V~ICI1l ... -.

Soil Profile Type ----~----------------Rock. stilr soilless than 200 (60 deep
SI:

s
1.0 1.2 U

ll'lu: ~g,

. 'lh

dual bracing 'Yltem

\.33 O.HO

51: SlitT soil more than 200 ft (60 m) deep SJ: Soft 10 medium-stiff soil

b-71

~'~,t!i'?*~'~'

"~I ':~""'?:-(".k~f~r;.t~;i...~--:~-

---_#._. -- ... ~.-. - ~...-.

obtained from the calculated building. assuming th t each other during :1Il earthquake,

, ',: ..-,a;l'.m!;4Ij~L!4i8J!.. U 3,!.I

ij

tpliII ...... ~~

~
I

..... - .. -.-, !for very slilf building (T < 0.7 second). the force at is equal tu zero. Similarly. for structures with r~'~ular shapes or framing systems, the force :II floor .r, displacements aloll~ "':,ll.'h building moves 10\\ .ml th\! :. .:

'Ihl! top

r,

is given as il is proport

fraction

ional

of the remaining horizontal force and In the weight of the floor (w,) and its

"i~lallI:C from

the h:ISC

t h, ),

according

10 the equal ion:

i- I

Calculation i~r Earthquake Foree's on' a Buildinj:!. ,\, <In example, the earthquake forces on a 30-story huiluin~ will hi: determined based on the code requirements. The builui\lg i-, .IN) fl (110m) hi&h with a square base 150 Itx 150 fl (45 III ',' .15 m).* Assuming an average unit wcighrcqual 10 12 pl.'r (1.IJ kN/m3), soil profile of type S and a seismic zone 3, (he ,hl.OIr force at the base of the building is: V=Zx/x

TIl\' ahuv.: magniludes for the top horizontal force and the huri/,,,"t;" force at each 110m apply even if a regularly ~h;alll'd building has scthacks along each dimension lip tll

CxSx

W C = 15 ~

T -: (), I x N ~ J s':l'IIllds.
W = 12 x 360 x

Jj ,: (),(),~X5
~:-.;I

75

percent

between

a tower

and thc lower shapes

plan.
systems, 150 x 150 = 97,200 kips {02,427 (1.0:lX5 kN)

For structures

with irregular

or framing

the distribution of horizontal forces along the height of the building depends on its stiffness between adjacent storeys and the dynamic characteristics of the structure, A detailed structural analysis should determine the distribui i(~n of the horizontal forces along the height of an irregularly shaped building. The calculated forces acting on each level of the building rc distributed among all the clements that provide the .atcral stiffness of the lloor, including columns, crossbrucing , shear walls, and elevator and stair wells. In addition, lloor. tricity the applicable distributed horizontal horizontal force should rcflcr

= ~

97,200

= I.JO) kips (6.242

The horizontal F, F,

force acting on the top of the building is:

= =

0,07 x T x V, 0.07 x 3 x 14m

hUI

no more than 0,25 x V 295 kips (1,312 kN),

which is less rh.m 0,25 x 1403

350 kips ( I ,)57 k'\ I

any
of the Asxuming thai each l100r has the same height and till: same wciclu, each floor's heighl is 12 ft and weighs on average 97,~()() .;. J(l

eccentrical{y of the

mass

that will cause on each

torsion

E\,\:11 for symmctricnl

buildings. force

a :; percent floor

ccccnbe

should

employed to produce codes. The torsional provided floor.

the minimum torsion specified by the resistance of the floor should be Ihat provide lateral stiffness to the

3,240 kips (14,414 k N) each. The horizontal force distribution

along

the height

of the

building is:

by all clements

Fz

(V - F,) -,,-j ...

w.h,
h',II;
,~I

The building should also be designed for the overturning moment at each floor. as derived by the distribution of the horizont;" forces. The overturning moments arc rcxixrcd as ;I~ial forces by columns, shear walls and elevator and stair

L;1
.r

v -

F, = I I OX

~'

<-J
.,

., h, J_IO
1/

,11,5

well.
The deflection of the building due to earthquake loads should also be considered, Regardless of the structural soundness of the building. the maximum permissible placement between two adjacent floors should not exceed 0,005 of the height between the two floors. For buildings with unrcinfurccd masonry, the max imurn displacement shuukl be less than 0,0025. Under design constraints. the designer can accept a higher tolerance of horizontal forces, as long as it can be proved that such a displacement can be tolerated hy the structural and nonstructural clements of the building The restriction of allowable displacements ensures the intactness of nonstructural clements such <IS gypsum boards, plasters, fixtures. and so forth, and is also bused 011 the psychological di~plal'ement would produce. distress that an extensive Independent structures should they do can be
'S:lme

F,

3;!.t() x 12 x 1/ 1 108 3240 x 12 X 465

1108 465 the force ;It

where II is the nth floor. According the I st and the 30lh noms arc: F,

to the equations.

I lOX _t_ = 2.4 kip~ (10,7 kN)

465

F.1o

IIOR :6~

71.5 kips (318 kN)

moment) at gr.ldc is

The bending moment

(overturning

M =

L: F,II;
i-I

380,000 kips-f) (515 ~INlIl)

have a minimum distance .bctwcen them, so that not collide during an earthquake, This distance

geometry

with the building

subject to wind forces in a rn:\'iou~

i'

example.

'

" "

b-72

The distribution of horizbntal' forces 'and the shearing forces and lx:nding moments diagram~ along the height of the building arc shown in Fig. 9.14:2.' , ' '.

For simplification. assume that T = 0.01 J{ (i.e . Ihe hcillltl.ll( " each l100r is 10 It). Then the ratio of the wind to thc earthquukc force becomes:
VI\'

COlllparison bet ween Wind and Earthquake Forces Buildi"~s. Bolh wind and earthquake loads produce horizontal forces on buildings, according to the applicable codes. Wind and earthquake load~, however, should 1I0t be: combined for design purroses. The wind pressures on the building, the seismic.zone, and the shape and type of the building determine the relative magnitude (If both wind and earthquake loads. I~ the previous cxumplcx, tl~e comparison between the wind and the earthquake lort'es on the 30-story building showed that the base shear from the wind load is 1.799 kips (8.003 kN) versus 1.403 kips (6,242 KN) or the base shear due to the earthquake. If the seismic zone were zone 4. however, the base shear due to the earthquake for tilt' S;Jllle building would be 3.741 kips (16.643 kN). The earthquake forces. according. to the code. arc significantly larger at the 1I1'P.:r floors. in contrast to the wind forces. which arc I11me 1I11i1"11I"~ d~~tributed along the height of the building. AS:l result. the uvcrturning moment from the wind (346,300 kips-It or 470 :\-1 ;-,;,11) i~ lower than the overturning moment from the canhquukc IIJIL<.:S (.\1<11.000 kips-It or 515 MNIIl) for the specific bllilLfing that was subject to both wind and earthquake forces. A more general comparison between wind and earthquake '''rt'L~. h;"~'d 011the code requirements, '" follows. If the average pressure alongthe building is p, the base shear from the wind I"ad is' ' ..
VII' =

on

1.5 x

.JH

x P
: IV
'""

VE

Z x K x L x

where H is the height of the building. L is ihc length the building purallcl to wind direction. and i:; the average unit Weight of the building. Substituting the values for u frame building in Boston. M;l~sachusctts: Z = 3/K. K = 1. I\' = 12 pcf (1.9 kN/m~) and L = 100 ft (30 m l. the Wind load becomes greater for a building height higher than 225 ft (70 01). based on an average wind pressure I' = 20 psf (I kPal. A similar building in seismic zone 4 (2 I) and under the same wind velocity needs to be more than 1600 ft (485 rn ) tall Ior the wind forces to exceed the earthquake forces. haxcd on all average wind pressure II = 30 psf ( 1.5 k Pu ). As shown in Ihis example. the taller the building the murr llcxiblc it is and the earthquake forcl.:s become slIblkr ~'oIlIJl;lrc:d to the wind forces. Furthermore, the relative importance or the wind ilIad is greater when the wind direction is alonu the short diurcus iou "I' the building. because tll,' I'l'lIjL,tnl i;r";1 .,t' thr building is larger. The earthquake load. according 10 the ilJlpli cable codes. is indifferent to the orientation of ihe building.
I\'

or

9.15. LOAD COMlHNATIONS LIVE LOADS

f't!(' 10

AND PARTIAL
~)

/I

!:",

nature

of different

loads.

it is quite

unlikely

to

/\\'lllilillt:
p,'

S = I and I = I, the base shear from the earthquake

have a load combinution that includes

the maximum loads

of each type.
Dead loads are always present in the building

and provide
According
to

I't;

2 X K

x C x

IV

the basis

for all required the following

loud combinations. combinations

.
'1\, ~ result.

,
.'.

most codes. . examined:

of loads should

be

t"hiIJl~' Ilf'

the obtained results cannot bc generalized beyond the apl'li 'he quasi-static methods provided by the codes.

1. dead 2. dead
thermal)

+
+

live live

+
+

snow snow

(wind

or earthquake

or

The allowable stresses for clastic design and the stlil bearing stresses will be increased by ::13percent. when considcrine either wind or earthquake forces. ' Different load cases may predict reverse strcssc-. in xtructurul clements, especially in columns. piers. walls and footings. The structural clement must be designed so that it can withstand a reversal in the state of stress. If the cllc . t of any load counteracts the dead load, then the dead IO;ld should be decreased by 33 percent. This is done to study the stability of a particular structural clctucnt or till' SlnIL:'

turc.
., '.1

.r .:

'shearing forces

h<.'nclinJ.: moments

Figu,'~ 'J . 142 .:.:': . . ,. E' 'art h'qua k C iorccs, s h caring and bending moment d,agr;lIlh ;dong the building height.

The combination of vertical and horizontal IO;IJs ~hllllid be properly examined. Under horizon: u l loads, the buildinu will experience horizontal displaccrnc nts , which w ill eccentricity of the vertical loads. Such an ccccmri.irv ,";,:: result in significantly higher stresses on the structural. elements or the building (P-b. ctlcct ).

<.. .