ENGLISH ESSENTIALS

NOTE DE CURS
ANUL I

CORINA PACURAR

CONTENTS
Chapter one4 I1 helping verbs7 I2 action verbs..20 Test paper 1..26 Test paper 2..29 Chapter two33 II1 number33 II2 gender..36 II3 possessive case.37 Test paper..39 Chapter three The Adjective.42 III1 adjective before noun...42 III2 adjective after certain verbs44 III3 comparative adjectives.45 III4 superlative adjectives46 Test paper..51 Bibliography ..56

ENGLISH ESSENTIALS is a concise guide to the basic rules of English grammar. It is designed to serve as a handy reference to first year students. It covers the fundamental rules and exceptions for parts of speech. ENGLISH ESSENTIALS emphasizes the building blocks of language and their grammatical functions. Examples show proper usage of each part of speech as well as common grammatical errors to avoid. ENGLISH ESSENTIALS is arranged into three main parts, chapters. The first chapter, THE VERB gives special attention to verb forms and tenses a subject that is often confusing. It has two subchapters, HELPING VERBS and ACTION VERBS, accompanied by lots of examples and conjugations. The second chapter, THE NOUN, deals with rules that generally apply to English nouns. English has adopted words from many languages, and those languages have different ways of changing word forms. That means, unfortunately, that every rule will have an exception (or more!). But they provide you with some useful guidelines. Here are three subchapters, NUMBER, GENDER, and POSSESIVE CASE. The third chapter, THE ADJECTIVE, deals with the words that add precision, color, and a dash of originality to writing; the words that are used to show comparison between or among persons.

To make things brighter, we use some pictures in this course, they can be helpful to you:

when we give examples. This way, you find them very easy!!

when we want to emphasize something important.

this announces a test paper!

announces the objectives of the chapter

ENJOY!

CHAPTER I. THE VERB

The first chapter, THE VERB gives special attention to verb forms and tenses a subject that is often confusing. It has two subchapters, HELPING VERBS and ACTION VERBS, accompanied by lots of examples and conjugations

A verb is a word that expresses action or otherwise helps to make a statement. Verbs are divided into two main categories: verbs of being or condition (helping verbs) (I1.) and action verbs (I2.) Action verbs are the more common verbs, and they are easy to spot. Words such as come, go and write are action verbs. Sometimes action verbs express an action that cannot be seen: believe, remember, know, think and understand.

The four basic forms of a verb are called the principal parts of a verb. The four principal parts of a verb are: The infinitive The present participle The past The past participle

Examples: I do my homework after supper. (short infinitive) I am doing my homework now. (present participle) I did my homework yesterday. (past) I have done my homework. (past participle)

The way a verb forms its past tense determines its classification as regular or irregular.

A verb that forms its past and past participle forms by adding d and ed to the first principal part (infinitive) is a regular verb.

Examples: INFINITIVE Use Ask Suppose PRESENT PARTICIPLE Using Asking Supposing PAST Used Asked Supposed PAST PARTICIPLE Used Asked Supposed

You will observe that the present participle of many regular verbs ending in e drops the e before adding ing.

A verb that forms its past and past participle in some other way than a regular verb is an irregular verb. Irregular verbs form their past in past participle in various ways: by changing the vowel, by changing consonants, by adding en, or by making no change at all. For irregular verbs, the past tense ending and the past participle ending is variable, so it is necessary to learn them by heart.

Examples: INFINITIVE Begin Bring Sit PAST Began Brought Sit PAST PARTICIPLE Begun Brought Sit

I1. Helping Verbs (auxiliaries)

Helping verbs have no meaning on their own. They are necessary for the grammatical structure of a sentence, but they do not tell us very much alone. We usually use helping verbs with action verbs. They help the action verb (which has the real meaning). There are only about 15 helping verbs in English, and we divide them into two basic groups:

I1.1. Primary helping verbs (3 verbs)

These are the verbs be, do, and have. Note that we can use these three verbs as helping verbs or as action verbs. be do have

I1.2. Modal helping verbs (10 verbs)

We use modal helping verbs to modify the meaning of the main verb in some way. A modal helping verb expresses necessity or possibility, and changes the action verb in that sense. These are the modal verbs: can, could may, might will, would, shall, should must ought to
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I1.1.
THE VERB BE
to make continuous tenses (He is watching TV.) to make the passive (Small fish are eaten by big fish.) Present affirmative: I am You are He, she, it is We are You are They are Im Youre Hes, Shes, Its Were Youre Theyre

Present negative: I am not You are not He, she, it is not We are not You are not They are not Im not Youre not Hes, Shes, Its not Were not Youre not Theyre not I ain`t You arent He isnt We arent You arent They arent

Present interrogative (Aff/Neg): Am I (not)? Are you (not)? / Arent you? Is he (not)? / Isnt he? Are we (not)? / Arent we? Are you (not)? / Arent you? Are they (not)? / Arent they?

Past affirmative: I was You were He, she, it was We were You were They were

Past negative: I was not You were not He, she, it was not We were not You were not They were not Past interrogative: Was I (not)? / Wasnt I? Were you (not)? / Werent you? Was he (not)? / Wasnt he? Were we/ you/ they (not)? / Werent we/ you/ they? Present participle: being Past participle: been I wasnt You werent He, she , it wasnt We werent You werent They werent

It can also be used to denote existence (there is, there are)

Example: There is a book on the table.

As a full verb followed by an adjective:

Examples: I am happy. Peter is hungry.

THE VERB DO to make negatives (I do not like you.) to ask questions (Do you want some coffee?) to show emphasis (I do want you to pass your exam.) to stand for a main verb in some constructions (He speaks faster than she does.)

Present affirmative: I/you/we/they do He, she, it does

Present negative: I/you/we/they do not/ dont He, she, it does not/ doesnt

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Present interrogative: Do/ Dont I/ you/ we/ they? Does/ Doesnt he, she, it?

Past affirmative: I/ you/ he/ we/ you/ they did

Past negative: I/ you/ he/ we/ you/ they did not/ didnt

Past interrogative (Aff/Neg): Did/ Didnt I/ you/ he/ we/ you/ they?

Present participle: doing Past participle: done The verb DO is used as an auxiliary to form questions and negative statements in the present simple and past simple. It is never used in wh- questions, or yes- no questions.

Examples: Does he drink coffee? He didnt drink any coffee. What happened? He wrote that? (Yes/No)
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THE VERB HAVE to make perfect tenses (I have finished my homework.)

Present affirmative: I/ you/ we/ they have He, she, it has

Present negative: I/ you/ we/ they have not/ havent He, she, it has not/ hasnt

Present interrogative: Have/ Havent I/ you/ we/ they? Has/ Hasnt he, she, it?

Past affirmative: I/ you/ he, she, it/ we/ you/ they had

Past negative: I/ you/ he, she, it/ we/ you/ they had not/ hadnt

Past interrogative: Had/ Hadnt I/ you/ he, she, it/ we/ they?

Present participle: having

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Past participle: had

As a full verb with the meaning to posses (have got).

Example: You have a new car. Note: Have a look = look Have a swim = swim Have dreams = dream I must have my hair cut. (Trebuie sa merg la tuns.) He had his car repaired. (El si-a dat masina la reparat.)

I1.2.
What are Modal Verbs?
Modal verbs are special verbs which behave very differently from normal verbs. Here are some important differences:

Modal verbs do not have to in the infinitive: can, may, should, etc. When we need to use this, the modal substitutes are used instead of the modals. Do not have all tense forms. For the missing tense forms, substitutes are used:
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To be able to (for can) To be allowed to, be permitted to (for may) To have to (for must) To want to (for will), etc Modals are followed by a short infinitive: Mary can swim. They form the negative by simply adding the negation not: You cannot accept such an offer. Modals form the interrogative by inversion: May I come in? Do not get -s in the third person singular indicative present: Tom must be back before five o'clock.

Can
Can is one of the most commonly used modal verbs in English. It can be used to express ability or opportunity, to request or offer permission, and to show possibility or impossibility.

Examples: I can ride a horse. ABILITY We can stay with my brother when we are in Bucharest. OPPORTUNITY She cannot stay out after 11. PM. PERMISSION Can you hand me the salt? REQUEST Any child can grow up to be president. POSSIBILITY

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Could
Could is used to express possibility or past ability as well as to make suggestions and requests. Could is also commonly used in conditional sentences as the conditional form of can.

Examples: Extreme rain could cause the river to flood the city. POSSIBILITY She could swim like a pro by the age of 11. PAST ABILITY Tom could see a movie or go out to dinner. SUGGESTION Could I use your computer to email my boy friend? REQUEST We could go on the trip if I didn't have to work this weekend. CONDITIONAL

May
May is most commonly used to express possibility. It can also be used to give or request permission, although this usage is becoming less common.

Examples: Clare may be at home, or perhaps at work. POSSIBILITY Johnny, you may leave the table when you have finished your dinner. GIVE
PERMISSION

May I use your bathroom? REQUEST PERMISSION

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Might
Might is most commonly used to express possibility. It is also often used in conditional sentences. English speakers can also use might to make suggestions or requests, although this is less common in American English.

Examples: Your purse might be in the car. POSSIBILITY If I didn't have to study, I might go with you. CONDITIONAL You might visit the botanical gardens during your visit. SUGGESTION Might I borrow your pen? REQUEST

Must
Must is most commonly used to express certainty. It can also be used to express necessity or strong recommendation, although native speakers prefer the more flexible form have to. Must not can be used to prohibit actions, but this sounds very severe; speakers prefer to use softer modal verbs such as should not or ought not to dissuade rather than prohibit.

Examples: This must be the right address! CERTAINTY Students must pass an entrance examination to study at this school.
NECESSITY

You must take some medicine for that cough. STRONG RECOMMENDATION Children, you must not play in the street! PROHIBITION

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Have To
Have to is used to express certainty, necessity, and obligation.

Examples: This answer has to be correct. CERTAINTY The soup has to be stirred continuously to prevent burning. NECESSITY They have to leave early. OBLIGATION

Ought To
Ought to is used to advise or make recommendations. Ought to also expresses assumption or expectation as well as strong probability, often with the idea that something is deserved. Ought not (without to) is used to advise against doing something, although Americans prefer the less formal forms should not or had better not.

Examples: You ought to stop smoking. RECOMMENDATION Jim ought to get the promotion. IT IS EXPECTED BECAUSE HE DESERVES IT. This stock ought to increase in value. PROBABILITY Mark ought not drink so much. ADVICE AGAINST SOMETHING (NOTICE THERE IS NO "TO")

Note: Ought not Remember that ought to loses the to in the negative. Instead of ought not to, we say ought not.

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Examples: You ought not smoke so much. She ought not take such risks while skating. They ought not carry so much cash while traveling.

Shall
Shall is used to indicate future action. It is most commonly used in sentences with I or we, and is often found in suggestions, such as Shall we go? Shall is also frequently used in promises or voluntary actions. In formal English, the use of shall to describe future events often expresses inevitability or predestination. Shall is much more commonly heard in British English than in American English; Americans prefer to use other forms, although they do sometimes use shall in suggestions or formalized language.

Examples: Shall I help you? SUGGESTION I shall never forget where I came from. PROMISE He shall become our next king. PREDESTINATION I'm afraid Mr. Smith shall become our new director. INEVITABILITY

Should
Should is most commonly used to make recommendations or give advice. It can also be used to express obligation as well as expectation.

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Examples: When you go to Rome, you should visit the Vatican. RECOMMENDATION You should focus more on school and less on your friends. ADVICE I really should be in the office by 7:00 AM. OBLIGATION Tom should be here by now. EXPECTATION

Will
Will is used with promises or voluntary actions that take place in the future. Will can also be used to make predictions about the future.

Examples: I promise that I will write you every single day. PROMISE I will make dinner tonight. VOLUNTARY ACTION He thinks it will rain tomorrow. PREDICTION

Would
Would is most commonly used to create conditional verb forms. It also serves as the past form of the modal verb will. Additionally, would can indicate repetition in the past.

Examples: If he were an actor, he would be in adventure movies. CONDITIONAL I knew that she would be a very successful model. PAST OF WILL When they had a dog, they would always take him for long walks.
REPETITION

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I2. Action Verbs

Action verbs are the more common verbs, and they are easy to spot. Words such as come, go and write are action verbs. Sometimes action verbs express an action that cannot be seen: believe, remember, know, think and understand.

VERB TENSES- allow us to talk about time, to place an action or state of being in the past, present or future. They also allow us to talk about intention, what would, could or should be done.

Simple Present
FORM AFFIRMATIVE Short infinitive + s/ es in third person Verbs ending in -o add es: to go => goes to do => does Verbs ending in -y (if preceded by a consonant) change the y into i before adding the ending es : to try => tries Verbs ending in -y (if preceded by a vowel) simply add the ending s: to stay=> stays Verbs ending in x, s, ss, z, zz, sh, ch add 'es' to the infinitive in the third person singular: to wash => washes

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NEGATIVE: The negative form of the present simple is formed with the help of the verb to do which is found in the short infinitive in all persons except the third person singular, and the negation not: do (does III) + not + short infinitiv INTERROGATIVE: The interrogative form of the present simple is formed according to the following pattern: do (does III) + subject + short infinitive:

Examples: You speak English. Do you speak English? You do not speak English.

Present Continuous
FORM AFFIRMATIVE (am / is / are + present participle) the present of the verb to be + verb + -ing Verbs ending in a consonant preceded by short stressed vowel double the consonant before adding the ending. One-syllable verbs always double the end consonant: to sit => sitting

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Two (or more)-syllable verbs double the end consonant only if the final syllable is stressed: to begin => beginning but to differ => differing, to refer => referring Verbs ending in silent '-e' drop the '-e' before adding the ending '-ing': to make => making Verbs ending in -y keep the 'y' when -ing is added: to try => trying Verbs ending in -ie change the ending into -y when -ing is added: to lie => lying Verbs ending in -ic change ic into -ick before adding the ending -ing: to picnic => picnicking NEGATIVE: the present of the verb to be + NOT + short infinitive + -ing INTERROGATIVE: the present of the verb to b'+ SUBJECT + short infinitive + -ing:

Examples: You are watching TV. Are you watching TV? You are not watching TV.

Simple Past
FORM AFFIRMATIVE: Short infinitive + ed or irregular verbs
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The regular verbs form the past by adding the ending -ed to the short infinitive: to happen => happened Verbs ending in a consonant preceded by a short vowel double the consonant: to stop => stopped Verbs ending in '-y' preceded by a consonant change the y into i: to try => tried Verbs ending in silent -e drop the e before the ending -ed is added: to live = lived The negative and interrogative are formed with the help of the past tense form of to do (did) both for regular and irregular verbs.

! ! BE CAREFUL, DO NOT PLACE AFTER DID THE AFFIRMATIVE PAST FORM INSTEAD OF THE SHORT INFINITIVE. NEGATIVE: did + not + short infinitive of verb
.

INTERROGATIVE: did + subject + short infinitive of verb

Examples: You called Susan. Did you call Susan? ( Did you called Susan?-not correct) You did not call Susan. (You did not called Susan.-not correct)

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Past Continuous
FORM AFFIRMATIVE was/were + present participle (past of the verb to be + the short infinitive + -ing)

NEGATIVE: past of the verb to be+ NOT+ the short infinitive +-ing INTERROGATIVE: past of the verb to be+ SUBJECT+ the short infinitive + ing

Examples: You were writing when I called. Were you writing when I called? You were not writing when I called.

Simple Future
Simple Future has two different forms in English: will and be going to. Although the two forms can sometimes be used interchangeably, they often express two very different meanings. Both will and be going to refer to a specific time in the future.

FORM : Will/Shall Although shall and particularly will are the closest approximation to a colorless, neutral future, they do not form a future tense comparable to the present or past tenses. They do simply refer to future time.

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AFFIRMATIVE shall/will + short infinitive Shall/will may be abbreviated in the affirmative: ll: NEGATIVE shall/will + NOT + short infinitive Shall/will may be abbreviated in the negative: will not => wont, shall not => shant INTERROGATIVE shall/will + SUBJECT + short infinitive

Examples: You will come later. Will you come later? You will not come later.

FORM: Be Going To AFFIRMATIVE: the present simple of the verb to be + going+ to +verb NEGATIVE: the present simple of the verb to be +NOT+ going+ to +verb INTERROGATIVE: the present simple of the verb to be +SUBJECT+ going+ to + verb

Examples: You are going to meet Susan tonight. Are you going to meet Susan tonight? You are not going to meet Susan tonight.
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show TestResults

Bibliography 1. Zdrenghea, M. Mihai; Greere, L. Anca; A Practical English Grammar with Exercises, Ed. Cusium, Cluj-Napoca 1999 2. Baugh, L. Sue, Essentials of English Grammar, McGraw-Hill Inc, NY, 2005

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TEST PAPER 1 1. We from them for three months a. heard b. havent heard c. didnt hear d. can hear 2. I think he work harder a. would b. would have c. should d. may have 3. He for the bus since 9 oclock a. waited b. has been waiting c. waits d. can wait 4. There an accident at the crossroads last week a. was b. will be c. has been d. would be 5. The thief climb the wall and he ran away a. was able to b. can c. could have d. might 6. What on Sundays? a. are you doing b. do you do c. do you d. you are doing 7. By this time tomorrow I finished my work a. will b. have c. will have been
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d. will have 8. How long ago your house? a. have you been buying b. did you buy c. have you had d. have you bought 9. I wish they me a. knew b. will know c. would know d. had known 10.Shed never have done that if a. shes known b. shed known c. she knew d. shell know 11.I didnt know when my parents back a. get b. will get c. would get d. are getting 12.When Mr. Smith retired, he for IBM for 15 years a. worked b. was working c. had been working d. has been working 13.He come with us if he doesnt want to a. neednt b. needs not c. doesnt need to d. needs not to 14.We here since January a. lived b. have been living c. will live d. are living 15.What when I arrived ? a. were you doing b. have you done
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c. did you do d. have you been doing 16.Why did you walk there? I you in my car a. will have taken b. could have taken c. may take d. will take 17.He looked at me and said: Let him a. goes b. to go c. go d. gone 18.Your friend Allan upon us three days ago a. had called b. has called c. was calling d. called 19.When I got there, the play already . a. has begun b. was beginning c. had begun d. should begin 20. Tom told me she for hours. Would she ever stop?. a. was talking b. would talk c. had been talking d. is talking

TEST PAPER 2 1.You (nu e nevoie sa iei) those tablets so often. SECTIA. a. shouldnt take b. mustnt take c. neednt take d. arent allowed to take
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2.Frank (se poate sa nu fi vazut) Sherlock Holmes while he was in London. a. might not see b. may not have seen c. couldnt see d. couldnt have seen 3.She said she (trebuia sa trimita) a telegram to her husband. a. must have send b. must send c. had to send d. had had to send 4.He told us that he (trebuie sa fi vazut) that film before. a. had to see b. had had to see c. must see d. must have seen 5.You (nu era nevoie sa irosesti ) so much time. a. didnt have to waste b. neednt have wasted c. neednt waste d. shouldnt have wasted 6.Im sure we ( urmeaza sa asteptam) for them at the hotel. a. have to wait b. are to wait c. will have to wait d. are have to wait 7.Kate (ar fi trebuit sa fie dusa) to hospital a long time ago. a. ought to be taken b. should have taken c. should take d. should have been taken 8.Tom (se poate sa nu fie nevoit sa schimbe) his job. a. may not change b. might not change c. may not have to change d. may not have had to change 9.Im very sorry but (nu voi putea sa particip) the conference in Brussels. a. am not able to attend b. cant attend c. couldnt attend d. wont be able to attend
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10.Somebody (trebuie sa fi luat ) the keys , they arent here! a. had to take b. had to have taken c. must have taken d. may have taken 11.They ( se poate sa fi iesit) for a walk. a. may go out b. might go out c. may have gone out d. may have to go out 12.He (ar fi trebuit sa stea) in bed yesterday, but he went for a party instead. Now he isnt feeling well! a. would have stayed b. could have stayed c. should have stayed d. shouldnt have stayed 13.They (ar fi putut sa obtina ) such information from the Embassy. a. were able to get b. could get c. could have got d. have been able to get 14.Professor Smith (nu se poate sa fi intarziat) for the lecture. a. wasnt able to come late b. might not come late c. couldnt have come late d. might not have come late 15.Whats the matter with John? Is he still at work? No, he (nu se poate sa lucreze ) at this time! a. cant work b. cant be working c. isnt able to work d. isnt able to be working 16.Im afraid I (va trebui sa fiu de serviciu) next Sunday. a. must be on duty b. will be on duty c. will have to be on duty d. have to be on duty 17.She ( ar fi facut ) that favor for you! a. may do b. could have done
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c. would do d. would have done 18.Somebody ( trebuie ca a fost ) here, since all the food has been eaten. a. must be b. would have to be c. must been d. must have been

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CHAPTER II. THE NOUN

The second chapter, THE NOUN, deals with rules that generally apply to English nouns. English has adopted words from many languages, and those languages have different ways of changing word forms. That means, unfortunately, that every rule will have an exception (or more!). But they provide you with some useful guidelines. Here are three subchapters, NUMBER, GENDER, and POSSESIVE CASE.

A noun is the name of anything that may be the subject of discourse. Its not easy to describe a noun. In simple terms, nouns are things (and verbs are actions). Like food. Food (noun) is something you eat (verb). Or happiness. Happiness (noun) is something you want (verb). Or human being. A human being (noun) is something you are (verb).

What are Nouns? The simple definition is: a person, place or thing. Here are some examples: person: man, woman, teacher, John, Mary place: home, office, town, countryside, America thing: table, car, banana, money, music, love, dog, monkey

II1. Number
When a Noun denotes a single object, it is said to be Singular or of the Singular Number: man, rose. When a Noun denotes more than one object of the kind, it is said to be Plural or of the Plural Number: men, roses. The Plural of Nouns is formed from the Singular. In the oldest form of the English language, several plural endings existed. Of these one only remains in active force in modern English, namely the ending -s or -es. Hence when a new word arises, we at once, and as a matter of course, form its plural in this way: telegram, telegrams.
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Regular Plurals ending in -es, -s. When the s sound can be conveniently attached without making an additional syllable, s only is used: boy, boy-s; girl, girl-s ; lion, lion-s; elephant, elephant-s; Caesar, the Caesars; Pitt, the Pitt-s. But when the s sound cannot be conveniently attached without making an additional syllable, es is used: fox, fox-es; church, church-es. This is the case when the noun already ends in a sound of s; viz. s, sh, ch, x, z : gas, gas-es; summons, summons-es; lass, lass-es; fish, fish-es; birch, birches; box, box-es; topaz, topaz-es; .Fitz, the Fitz-es. When ch is sounded as k, s only is added: monarch, monarch-s. To the above add many nouns in o: potato, potato-es tomato, tomato-es But all nouns ending in -o preceded by a vowel form the plural in -s and not in -es: bamboo/bamboos, embryo/embryos, folio/folios Abbreviations ending in -o add also -s: kilo, kilo-s < kilogram; photo, photo-s < photograph; pro, pro-s < professional Nouns ending in -y. Final y not immediately preceded by a vowel is changed into ies: lady, ladies. . But when a vowel immediately precedes, the y remains unchanged: boy, boys; day, days; chimney, chimneys; attorney, attorneys. Nouns ending in -quy take -ies: soliloquy, soliloquies. Proper names in y do not usually change the y: the three Marys (but also Maries).

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Irregular Plural For most irregular nouns, the spelling changes to form the plural. Because these changes do not follow a general rule, the forms must be memorized. a. Nouns ending in -f, -fe, and if: These, as a general rule, change the f into v before the plural ending: leaf, leaves; wife, wives; wolf, wolves; life, lives; half, halves; calf, calves; knife, knives; elf, elves; shelf, shelves; thief, thieves; loaf, loaves; leaf, leaves; self, selves But nouns in -ief, -oof, -ff, -rf, usually take simple -s: brief, briefs; chief, chiefs; grief, griefs; (but not thief, thieves) hoof, hoofs; roof, roofs; proof, proofs; cliff, cliffs; skiff, skiffs; whiff, whiffs; dwarf, dwarfs; scarf, scarfs; turf, turfs. Staff however makes staves ; and wharf, scarf, turf, sometimes take a plural in -ves (wharves, scarves, turves). b. Inflexion by change in the body of the word: man, men; woman, women; foot, feet; goose, geese; tooth, teeth; louse, lice; mouse, mice. c. Plurals in -n or -en: ox, oxen; brother, brethern (where there is internal changes besides) child, children (Old English, childer) To these may be added: cow, kine (=cows); hose, hosen. d. The plural the same as the singular; in some cases owing to the loss of final vowel or other sign of the plural distinction: sheep, sheep; deer, deer; swine, swine. e. Some difficulty is presented by a few compound words, the elements of which have not perfectly coalesced. When two titles are united, the last now usually takes the plural, as: major-generals; A few old expressions sometimes occur in which both words, following the French idiom, take the plural, as: knights-templars, lords-lieutenants, lords-justices.
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A compound noun forms the plural by adding -s to the principal word: step-son, step-sons; father-in-law, fathers-in-law. When the compounds are made of words none of which may be regarded as the principal element, the -s is added to the last word (to the end of the compound): forget-me-not, forget-me-nots ; gin-and-tonic, gin-and-tonics; grown-upgrown-ups; close-up-close-ups;, take-of, take-offs. Compounds with man- and woman- when they indicate gender and have an attributive position, pluralize both elements: man-servant, men-servants; woman doctor, women doctors.

f. Some foreign words form the plural as they would in the original: language: basis, bases; crisis, crises; datum, data; Other foreign words form the plural either as they do in the original language, or by adding -s or -es as in English. When in doubt about the preferred form, consult a dictionary: appendix, appendices (f. pl.), appendixes (E. pl.); formula, formulae (f. pl.), formulas (E. pl.); index, indices (f. pl.), indexes (E. pl.)

II2. Gender
There are two genders properly so called: Masculine and Feminine. The distinction of male and female in nature is called sex. The distinction between Masculine and Feminine in words is called Gender. The English language, unlike most others, applies the distinction of Masculine and Feminine only to the names of persons and animals: man, woman; boy, girl; lion, lioness. Nouns which denote things without animal life are said to be Neuter or of Neuter Gender (i.e, neither masculine nor feminine): iron, stone, river. The only exception to this rule is when inanimate things are represented as persons.

Note. Collective Nouns are Neuter though denoting collections of male or female objects: army, committee, sisterhood.
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When the same name is used for male and female, it is said to be Common or of Common Gender: bird, fish, parent, sovereign, friend. There are three ways of indicating difference of Gender in Nouns:A. By inflexion. B. By using a word indicative of sex. C. By distinct words.

II3. The Possessive Case

When we want to show that something belongs to somebody or something, we usually add s to a singular noun and an apostrophe to a plural noun:

the boys ball (one boy) the boys ball (two or more boys) Notice that the number of balls does not matter. The structure is influenced by the possessor and not the possessed. The structure can be used for a whole phrase:

the man next doors mother (the mother of the man next door) the Queen of Englands dogs (the dogs of the Queen of England) If joint possession is intended, the apostrophe is placed on the last element of the series:

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 Lin and Chans bicycle (the bicycle is owned by both) IBM and Xeroxs new venture (the two companies are working together on one venture)

Individual possession requires an apostrophe with each element of the series:

Lins and Chans new bicycles (notice the plural after the names-a clue that each person owns a bicycle) Texacos and BPs annual reports

The Possessive of Proper Nouns (Names) We very often use possessives with names:

This is Marys car. Where is Johns telephone? Who took Anthony's pen? I like Lexis new dress.

When a name ends in s, we usually treat it like any other singular noun, and add s: This is Charless car. Some nouns have irregular plural forms without s (man > men). To show possession, we usually add s to the plural form of these nouns:
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singular noun my childs dog the mans work

plural noun my childrens dog the mens work

the mouses cage the mices cage a persons clothes peoples clothes

The possessive can also denote: Institutions of various kinds (restaurants, churches, theatres, sports grounds, hospitals, etc)

St. Pauls was damaged during the war. We usually have dinner at Ginas. A home: I will go to my mothers. A shop: You shall find fresh meat at the butchers.

Bibliography 1. Marius, Richard; Wiener, S. Harvey; The McGraw-Hill College Handbook, 4th edition, McGraw-Hill Inc, NY, 1994 2. Thurman, Susan; Grammar and Style Book, Adamsmedia, Avon, Massachusetts, 2008 3. Zdrenghea, M. Mihai; Greere, L. Anca; A Practical English Grammar with Exercises, Ed. Cusium, Cluj-Napoca 1999 4. http:// esl.about.com.
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TEST PAPER 1. Did you hear noise? 2. Rice good for you. 3. John has too much to do. 4. Can I get advice here? 5. The spaghetti you cooked delicious.

A.-

B. a

A. is B. are A. works B. work A. an B. A. tastes B. taste A. travel B. a B. doesnt B. noise

6. He uses the London tube every day so he spends a lot on . B. travels 7. Weve got good news for you. 8. Money buy you love. 9. Please be quite! Youre making too much . 10.Patricks got blond hair and blue eyes. a. Three coffee , please! b. Three coffees, please! c. Where can I get information about the city? d. Where can I get informations about the city? e. This job advert says you need experience. f. This job advert says you need an experience. g. Oil float in water. h. Oil floats in water. i. Do you enjoy listening to music?
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A. -

A. dont A. noises A. a B.

j. Do you enjoy listening to a music? k. Jims got some photos to show me. l. Jims got some photoes to show me. m. George doesnt like mouses. n. George doesnt like mice. o. The childs are happy. p. The children are happy. q. There are many woman doctors in this hospital r. There are many women doctors in this hospital. s. Ladys clothes are on the second floor. t. Ladies clothes are on the second floor. u. Buster is Steves and Lizs dog. v. Buster is Steve and Lizs dog. w. Johns leg is b

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CHAPTER III. THE ADJECTIVE

The third chapter, THE ADJECTIVE, deals with the words that add precision, color, and a dash of originality to writing; the words that are used to show comparison between or among persons. An adjective is a word that tells us more about a noun. (By noun we include pronouns and noun phrases.) An adjective qualifies or modifies a noun (a big dog). But, it does not its form according to number or gender.

I have a white cat. (cat- singular, feminine) John has two white dogs. (dogs- masculine, plural) It is sometimes said that the adjective is the enemy of the noun. This is because, very often, if we use the precise noun we dont need an adjective. For example, instead of saying a large, impressive house (2 adjectives + 1 noun) we could simply say a mansion (1 noun). Adjectives can be used before a noun (I like Chinese food) or after certain verbs (It is hard).

III1. Adjective before Noun

We sometimes use more than one adjective before the noun:

a. I like big black dogs. b. She was wearing a beautiful long red dress.
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What is the correct order for two or more adjectives? 1.1. The general order is: opinion, fact:

a nice French car (not a French nice car) (Opinion is what you think about something. Fact is what is definitely true about something.) 1.2. The normal order for fact adjectives is size, age, shape, color, material, origin:

a big, old, square, black, wooden Chinese table 1.3. Determiners usually come first, even though they are fact adjectives:

articles (a, the) possessives (my, your...) demonstratives (this, that...) quantifiers (some, any, few, many...) numbers (one, two, three)

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When we want to use two color adjectives, we join them with and:

Many newspapers are black and white. She was wearing a long, blue and yellow dress. The rules on this page are for the normal, natural order of adjectives. But these rules are not rigid, and you may sometimes wish to change the order for emphasis.

III2. Adjective after Certain Verbs

An adjective can come after some verbs, such as: be, become, feel, get, look, seem, smell, sound Even when an adjective comes after the verb and not before a noun, it always refers to and qualifies the subject of the sentence, not the verb. Look at the examples below: subject verb adjective

Ram is English. Because he had to wait, he became impatient. Is it getting dark? The examination did not seem difficult. Your brother looks nice. This towel feels damp. That new song doesn't sound very interesting. Dinner smells good tonight. This milk tastes sour. It smells bad.

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III3. Comparative Adjectives

When we talk about two things, we can compare them. We can see if they are the same or different. Perhaps they are the same in some ways and different in other ways. We can use comparative adjectives to describe the differences.

3.1 Formation of Comparative Adjectives a. Comparative of Superiority There are two ways to make or form a comparative adjective: short adjectives: add -er long adjectives: use more Short adjectives 1-syllable adjectives 2-syllable adjectives ending in -y Normal rule: add -er if the adjective ends in -e, just add -r if the adjective ends in consonant, vowel, consonant, double the last consonant if the adjective ends in -y, change the y to i Long adjectives 2-syllable adjectives not ending in -y all adjectives of 3 or more syllables Normal rule: use more modern, pleasant expensive, intellectual modern more modern expensive more expensive
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old, fast happy, easy old older late later big bigger happy happier

b. Comparative of Inferiority We form the comparative of inferiority as follows: short adjectives (monosyllabic): add not as..; long adjectives; use less..than

good, not so good expensive, less expensive

3.2 Use of Comparative Adjectives We use comparative adjectives when talking about 2 things (not 3 or 10 or 1,000,000 things, only 2 things). Often, the comparative adjective is followed by than.

Examples: John is 1m80. He is tall. But Chris is 1m85. He is taller than John. America is big. But Russia is bigger. This car is very expensive. I shall buy one that is less expensive. Is French less difficult than English?

III4. Superlative Adjectives

A superlative adjective expresses the extreme or highest degree of a quality. We use a superlative adjective to describe the extreme quality of one thing in a group of things.

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4.1 Formation of Superlative Adjectives a. Superlative As with comparative adjectives, there are two ways to form a superlative adjective: short adjectives: add -est long adjectives: use most

We also usually add the at the beginning. Short adjectives 1-syllable adjectives 2-syllable adjectives ending in -y Normal rule: add -est if the adjective ends in -e, just add -st if the adjective ends in consonant, vowel, consonant, double the last consonant if the adjective ends in -y, change the y to i Long adjectives 2-syllable adjectives not ending in -y all adjectives of 3 or more syllables Normal rule: use most modern, pleasant expensive, intellectual modern the most modern expensive the most expensive old, fast happy, easy old the oldest late the latest big the biggest happy the happiest

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b. Negative Superlative The negative superlative is expressed by using the least in front of the adjective. modern, the least modern; expensive, the least expensive

4.2 Use of Superlative Adjectives

We use a superlative adjective to describe one thing in a group of three or more things.

Look at these examples: John is 1m75. David is 1m80. Chris is 1m85. Chris is the tallest. Canada, China and Russia are big countries. But Russia is the biggest. The car I bought was the least expensive of all cars. No language you want to study is the least difficult.

! Do not use double comparative or superlative! Incorrect: Our swimming hole is much more shallower than Lake Murray. (double comparative: -er and more) That was the most funniest situation. (double superlative: -est and most) Correct: Our swimming hole is much shallower than Lake Murray. That was the funniest situation.

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Bibliography 1. Hodges, C. John; Horner, B. Winifred; Miller, Robert; Webb, S. Suzanne; Whitten, E. Mary; Harbrace College Handbook, 11th edition, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Publishers, Orlando Flo, 1990 2. Zdrenghea, M. Mihai; Greere, L. Anca; A Practical English Grammar with Exercises, Ed. Cusium, Cluj-Napoca 1999 3. http://www.4hb.com

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TEST PAPER

Adjective alive ancient attractive backward bad beautiful big blunt boring bright broad calm (person) calm (weather) clean clever closed
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Opposite ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ???

clumsy cold cool cruel dangerous dark dead deep difficult dirty dry dull early easy fake fancy fast fat (people) fierce forward

??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ???

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frantic fresh gentle good graceful guilty happy hard heavy high hot ill innocent kind late left light long loose loud

??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ???

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low mad modern narrow new noisy normal old (people) old (things) open outgoing plain poor quiet real repulsive rich right (answer) right (directions) rough

??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ???

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safe sane shallow sharp shiny short (things) short (people) shy slow small smooth soft (touch) soft (sound) sour spotless stained stale stormy strange strong

??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ???

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stupid sweet tall tame terrible thick thin (people) thin (things) tight ugly warm weak well wet wide wild wonderful wrong young

??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ???

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Bibliography
4. Baugh, L. Sue, Essentials of English Grammar, McGraw-Hill Inc, NY, 2005 5. Clarke, Simon; In Company, MacMillan Publishers, Oxford, 2003 6. Hodges, C. John; Horner, B. Winifred; Miller, Robert; Webb, S. Suzanne; Whitten, E. Mary; Harbrace College Handbook, 11th edition, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Publishers, Orlando Flo, 1990 7. Marius, Richard; Wiener, S. Harvey; The McGraw-Hill College Handbook, 4th edition, McGraw-Hill Inc, NY, 1994 8. Thurman, Susan; Grammar and Style Book, Adamsmedia, Avon, Massachusetts, 2008 9. Zdrenghea, M. Mihai; Greere, L. Anca; A Practical English Grammar with Exercises, Ed. Cusium, Cluj-Napoca 1999 10.http:// esl.about.com. 11.http://www.4hb.com

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