INTRODUCTION Honey is a sweet food made by bees using nectar from flowers.

The variety produced by honey bees (the genus Apis) is the one most commonly referred to, as it is the type of honey collected by beekeepers and consumed by humans. Honey produced by other bees and insects has distinctly different properties. Honey bees transform nectar into honey by a process of regurgitation and evaporation. They store it as a primary food source in wax honeycombs inside the beehive. Honey gets its sweetness from the monosaccharides fructose and glucose, and has approximately the same relative sweetness as that of granulated sugar. It has attractive chemical properties for baking and a distinctive flavor that leads some people to prefer it over sugar and other sweeteners. !" #ost microorganisms do not grow in honey because of its low water activity of $.%. However, honey sometimes contains dormant endospores of the bacterium Clostridium botulinum, which can be dangerous to infants, as the endospores can transform into toxin&producing bacteria in infants' immature intestinal tracts, leading to illness and even death. Honey has a long history of human consumption, and is used in various foods and beverages as a sweetener and flavoring. It also has a role in religion and symbolism. (lavors of honey vary based on the nectar source, and various types and grades of honey are available. It is also used in various medicinal traditions to treat ailments. The study of pollens and spores in raw honey (melissopalynology) can determine floral sources of honey. )" *ees carry an electrostatic charge whereby they attract other particles in addition to pollen, which become incorporated into their honey+ the honey can be analysed by the techni,ues of melissopalynology in area environmental studies of radioactive particles, dust and particulate pollution. Formation Honey's natural sugars are dehydrated, which prevents fermentation, with added en-ymes to modify and transform their chemical composition and pH. Invertases and digestive acids hydroly-e sucrose to give the monosaccharides glucose and fructose. The invertase is one of these en-ymes synthesi-ed by the body of the insect.

Honey bees transform saccharides into honey by a process of regurgitation, a number of times, until it is partially digested. The bees do the regurgitation and digestion as a group. .fter the last regurgitation, the a,ueous solution is still high in water, so the process continues by evaporation of much of the water and en-ymatic transformation. Honey is produced by bees as a food source. In cold weather or when fresh food sources are scarce, bees use their stored honey as their source of energy. *y contriving for bee swarms to nest in artificial hives, people have been able to semidomesticate the insects, and harvest excess honey. In the hive (or in a wild nest), there are three types of bees/

a single female ,ueen bee a seasonally variable number of male drone bees to fertili-e new ,ueens some 0$,$$$ to 1$,$$$ female worker bees. 2"

The worker bees raise larvae and collect the nectar that will become honey in the hive. 3eaving the hive, they collect sugar&rich flower nectar and return. In the hive, the bees use their 4honey stomachs4 to ingest and regurgitate the nectar a number of times until it is partially digested. Invertase synthesi-ed by the bees and digestive acids hydroly-e sucrose to give the same mixture of glucose and fructose. The bees work together as a group with the regurgitation and digestion until the product reaches a desired ,uality. It is then stored in honeycomb cells. .fter the final regurgitation, the honeycomb is left unsealed. However, the nectar is still high in both water content and natural yeasts, which, unchecked, would cause the sugars in the nectar to ferment. The process continues as bees inside the hive fan their wings, creating a strong draft across the honeycomb, which enhances evaporation of much of the water from the nectar. This reduction in water content raises the sugar concentration and prevents fermentation. 5ipe honey, as removed from the hive by a beekeeper, has a long shelf life, and will not ferment if properly sealed. Physical and chemical properties 6rystalli-ed honey. The inset shows a close&up of the honey, showing the individual glucose grains in the fructose mixture.

The physical properties of honey vary, depending on water content, the type of flora used to produce it (pasturage), temperature, and the proportion of the specific sugars it contains. (resh honey is a supersaturated li,uid, containing more sugar than the water can typically dissolve at ambient temperatures. .t room temperature, honey is a supercooled li,uid, in which the glucose will precipitate into solid granules. This forms a semisolid solution of precipitated glucose crystals in a solution of fructose and other ingredients. Phase transitions The melting point of crystalli-ed honey is between 1$ and )$ 76 (!$1 and !00 7(), depending on its composition. *elow this temperature, honey can be either in a metastable state, meaning that it will not crystalli-e until a seed crystal is added, or, more often, it is in a 4labile4 state, being saturated with enough sugars to crystalli-e spontaneously. The rate of crystalli-ation is affected by many factors, but the primary factor is the ratio of the main sugars/ fructose to glucose. Honeys that are supersaturated with a very high percentage of glucose, such as brassica honey, will crystalli-e almost immediately after harvesting, while honeys with a low percentage of glucose, such as chestnut or tupelo honey, do not crystalli-e. 8ome types of honey may produce very large but few crystals, while others will produce many small crystals. 6rystalli-ation is also affected by water content, because a high percentage of water will inhibit crystalli-ation, as will a high dextrin content. Temperature also affects the rate of crystalli-ation, with the fastest growth occurring between !9 and !: 76 ()) and %9 7(). 6rystal nuclei (seeds) tend to form more readily if the honey is disturbed, by stirring, shaking or agitating, rather than if left at rest. However, the nucleation of microscopic seed&crystals is greatest between ) and ; 76 (1! and 1% 7(). Therefore, larger but fewer crystals tend to form at higher temperatures, while smaller but more&numerous crystals usually form at lower temperatures. *elow ) 76, the honey will not crystalli-e and, thus, the original texture and flavor can be preserved indefinitely. 8ince honey normally exists below its melting point, it is a supercooled li,uid. .t very low temperatures, honey will not free-e solid. Instead, as the temperatures become colder, the viscosity of honey increases. 3ike most viscous li,uids, the honey will become thick and sluggish with decreasing temperature. .t <0$ 76 (<1 7(), honey may appear or even feel solid, but it

will continue to flow at very slow rates. Honey has a glass transition between &10 and &)! 76 (&11 and &%$ 7(). *elow this temperature, honey enters a glassy state and will become an amorphous solid (noncrystalline). Viscosity The viscosity of honey is affected greatly by both temperature and water content. The higher the humidity, the easier honey will flow. .bove its melting point, however, water has little effect on viscosity. .side from water content, the composition of honey also has little effect on viscosity, with the exception of a few types. .t 0) 76 (:: 7(), honey with !1= humidity will generally have a viscosity of around 1$$ poise, while a honey containing 0$= humidity will have a viscosity of around 0$ poise. >iscosity increase due to temperature occurs very slowly at first. . honey containing !%= humidity, at :$ 76 (!); 7(), will have a viscosity of around 0 poise, while at 9$ 76 (;% 7(), the viscosity will be around :$ poise. .s cooling progresses, honey will become more viscous at an increasingly rapid rate, reaching %$$ poise around !1 76 (): 7(). However, while honey is very viscous, it has rather low surface tension. !)" !%" . few types of honey have unusual viscous properties. Honey from heather or manuka display thixotropic properties. These types of honey enter a gel& like state when motionless, but then li,uify when stirred. Electrical and optical properties 8ince honey contains electrolytes, in the form of acids and minerals, it exhibits varying degrees of electrical conductivity. #easurements of the electrical conductivity are used to determine the ,uality of honey in terms of ash content. The effect honey has on light is useful for determining the type and ,uality. >ariations in the water content alter the refractive index of honey. ?ater content can easily be measured with a refractometer. Typically, the refractive index for honey will range from !.)$1 at !9= humidity, to !.1:1 at 0)=. Honey also has an effect on polari-ed light, in that it will rotate the polari-ation plane. The fructose will give a negative rotation, while the glucose will give a positive one. The overall rotation can be used to measure the ratio of the mixture.

Hygroscopy and fermentation Honey has the ability to absorb moisture directly from the air, a phenomenon called hygroscopy. The amount of water the honey will absorb is dependent on the relative humidity of the air. *ecause honey contains yeast, this hygroscopic nature re,uires that honey be stored in sealed containers to prevent fermentation, which usually begins if the honey's humidity rises much above 0)=. Honey will tend to absorb more water in this manner than the individual sugars would allow on their own, which may be due to other ingredients it contains. (ermentation of honey will usually occur after crystalli-ation because, without the glucose, the li,uid portion of the honey primarily consists of a concentrated mixture of the fructose, acids, and water, providing the yeast with enough of an increase in the water percentage for growth. Honey that is to be stored at room temperature for long periods of time is often pasteuri-ed, to kill any yeast, by heating it above :$ 76 (!); 7(). Thermal characteristics 3ike all sugar compounds, honey will carameli-e if heated sufficiently, becoming darker in color and eventually burning. However, honey contains fructose, which carameli-es at lower temperatures than the glucose.The temperature at which carameli-ation begins varies, depending on the composition, but is typically between :$ 76 (!); 7() and !!$ 76 (09$ 7(). Honey also contains acids, which act as catalysts, decreasing the carameli-ation temperature even more. @f these acids, the amino acids, which occur in very small amounts, play an important role in the darkening of honey. The amino acids form darkened compounds called melanoidins, during a #aillard reaction. The #aillard reaction will occur slowly at room temperature, taking from a few to several months to show visible darkening, but will speed&up dramatically with increasing temperatures. However, the reaction can also be slowed by storing the honey at colder temperatures. 0!" Anlike many other li,uids, honey has very poor thermal conductivity, taking a long time to reach thermal e,uilibrium. #elting crystalli-ed honey can easily result in locali-ed carameli-ation if the heat source is too hot, or if it is not evenly distributed. However, honey will take substantially longer to li,uify when Bust above the melting point than it will at elevated temperatures. #elting 0$ kilograms of crystalli-ed honey, at 1$ 76 (!$1 7(),

can take up to 01 hours, while )$ kilograms may take twice as long. These times can be cut nearly in half by heating at )$ 76 (!00 7(). However, many of the minor substances in honey can be affected greatly by heating, changing the flavor, aroma, or other properties, so heating is usually done at the lowest temperature possible for the shortest amount of time.

cid content The average pH of honey is 9.2, but can range from 9.1 to %.!. Honey contains many kinds of acids, both organic and amino. However, the different types and their amounts vary considerably, depending on the type of honey. These acids may be aromatic or aliphatic (non&aromatic). The aliphatic acids contribute greatly to the flavor of honey by interacting with the flavors of other ingredients. Cluconic acid, for instance, is a flavor enhancer. Honey can contain up to !; of the 0$ amino acids. However, amino acid content is almost negligible in honey, accounting for only $.$)D$.!= of the composition. The main amino acid is proline. .mino acids are derived almost solely from the bodies of the bees. @rganic acids comprise most of the acids in honey, accounting for $.!:D !.!:= of the mixture. Cluconic acid is the most prevalent. Cluconic acid is formed by the actions of an en-yme called glucose oxidase. @ther organic acids are minor, consisting of formic, acetic, butyric, citric, lactic, malic, pyroglutamic, propionic, valeric, capronic, palmitic, and succinic, among many others. !enefits The benefits of honey have been extolled since ancient times by many religious faiths and recorded in ancient scriptures. They can be categorised as nutritional or medicinal. N"tritional Honey contains invert sugar that has the ,uality of providing instant energy when consumed. It is also a heart stimulant and a useful food supplement. .s a food beverage, it was widely used from the times of 4the *ible (both

the @ld Testament" and Eew Testament(s)), the Talmud, the Furan, the sacred books of India, 6hina, Gersia and Hgypt.4 #edicinal #edicinal benefits are broadly categorised under the following headings. $o"nds Topical honey has been used successfully in a treatment of diabetic ulcers when the patient cannot use topical antibiotics. . review in the 6ochrane 3ibrary suggests that honey could reduce the time it takes for a burn to heal D up to four days sooner in some cases. The review included !2 studies with 0,))1 participants. .lthough the honey treatment healed moderate burns faster than traditional dressings did, the author recommends viewing the findings with caution, since a single researcher performed all of the burn studies. @ne Eew Iealand researcher says that #anuka honey may be useful in treating #58. infections. .ntibacterial properties of honey are the result of the low water activity causing osmosis, hydrogen peroxide effect, 0$" high acidity, and the antibacterial activity of methylglyoxal. 8ome studies suggest that the topical use of honey may reduce odours, swelling, and scarring when used to treat wounds+ it may also prevent the dressing from sticking to the healing wound. ?ound gels that contain antibacterial raw honey and have regulatory approval for wound care are now available to help medicine in the battle against drug resistant strains of bacteria #58.. .s an antimicrobial agent honey may have the potential for treating a variety of ailments. llergies It is also stated to cure some allergies, particularly locali-ed honey to an area could help minimi-e seasonal allergies as bees feed on pollen from local plants which eventually finds its way to form honey. Its use for centuries is as a treatment for sore throats and coughs, and according to recent research, may in fact be as effective as many common cough medicines. 0!" Anfiltered, pasteurised honey is widely believed to alleviate allergies, though neither commercially filtered nor raw honey was shown to be more effective than placebo in a controlled study of 9% participants with ocular allergies. 00" Eearly ! in 9 of the volunteers dropped out of the study because they could not tolerate eating one tablespoon of honey every day due to the overly sweet taste. The official conclusion/ 4This study does not confirm the widely

held belief that honey relieves the symptoms of allergic rhinoconBunctivitis.4 . more recent study has shown pollen collected by bees to exert an anti allergenic effect, mediated by an inhibition of IgH immunoglobulin binding to mast cells. This inhibited mast cell degranulation and thus reduced allergic reaction. The risk of experiencing anaphylaxis as an immune system reaction may outweigh any potential allergy relief. Other ailments .ntioxidants in honey have even been implicated in reducing damage to the colon in colitis in a study involving administering honey enemas to rats. Honey appears to be effective in killing drug&resistant biofilms which are implicated in chronic rhinosinusitis. In 0$$), researchers at Gurdue Aniversity revealed that honey was a catalyst to calcium absorption in animals. Conditioning Honey is used for skin conditioning using a moisturi-ing mask and can reduce facial redness and acne. It is also used for conditioning of hair. It is often mixed with olive oil or castor oil for both purposes.