Loads in an elastic bolted assembly

The safety of a threaded fastener depends upon the actual load on it and the maximum load it can withstand. The latter has been considered above. Since the fastener is part of an indeterminate assembly it is now necessary to analyse such an assembly to find out just what is the actual load on the fastener itself. The analysis is very similar to that carried out in an earlier chapter in the context of indeterminate assemblies.

The nut and bolt b ( i) are used to connect together three joint-members j1, j2 and j3 ( ii). fter tightening the nut by a !nown amount ", the external load # is applied axially to j1 and j2, and tends to separate the joint members. $oint separation must usually be avoided, so examination of the assembly has two major goals % to determine the assembly&s tendency towards separation, and to ascertain the safety of all components of the assembly.

The load on each component is a function of the initial tightening and the external load, but the component loads cannot be found immediately because the assembly is statically indeterminate - this indeterminacy must first be resolved before separation or safety can be addressed. 'esolution re(uires consideration of compatibility, equilibrium and the constitutive laws of all deformable components, whose behaviour here is assumed to be elastic, frictionless and isothermal. Compatibility Shown in section ( iii) is the unloaded free assembly with the nut &snubbed& ( finger tight ) - that is the nut has been tightened to close up all gaps in the assembly without inducing appreciable loads. n imaginary mar! is situated on the thread a distance " from the nut underside. fter tightening, this

mar! will coincide with the nut face, so " represents the distance moved by the nut along the bolt thread during the tightening operation. fter tightening and loading by the external force, the disposition of the assembly elements is shown much exaggerated in ( iv). The extension of the bolt is )b while the compression of the joint )j is the sum of its elements& contractions, ie. )j * )j+ , )j- , )j.. /rom the geometry of ( iii) and ( iv), compatibility necessitates % " * )b , )j Equilibrium The free body of the bolt and nut ( v) illustrates the un!nown forces at the bolt&s two contacts. The upper /b is the axial resultant of the uniformly distributed pressure exerted by the top surface of j1 over the annular area under the bolt head. The other contact - the upper surface of the nut bearing on the underside of j2 - yields a similar pressure resultant whose magnitude must also be /b for e(uilibrium of the bolt. The free body of the joint element j3 in ( vi) shows the un!nown pressure resultant /j due to annular contact with its neighbours. The reactions to the aforementioned /b and /j appear on the remaining free bodies j1 and j2 in ( vi) from either of which results % # * / b - /j 0vidently the bolt is under tension /b. #arts of the joint components j1 and j2 in contact with the nut and bolt are also subjected to the bolt load /b, however for the case considered, the majority of these components, and all intermediate components such as j3, are subjected to the compressive load /j only. 1e shall here assume that all joint components are wholly compressed by /j - this approximation should be reviewed for other arrangements. Constitutive laws Bolt - Since in the previous steps the bolt is loaded by the tensile force /b and undergoes the tensile deformation )b, then, if !b is the axial stiffness of the bolt % /b * !b )b Joint - Since in the previous steps the joint is loaded by the compressive force /j and undergoes the compressive deformation )j, then, if !j is the stiffness of the joint - that is of the three joint- elements in series +2!j * +2!j+ , +2!j- , +2!j. % /j * !j )j

Solving these four e(uations resolves the indeterminacy, giving the component loads % ( 3a) /b * /i , # !e 2!j where /j * /i - # !e 2!b +2!e * +2!b , +2!j 3 /i * !e "

!e is the equivalent stiffness of the assembly ( !e 4 !b 5 !j ). 0vidently the bolt is in series with the joint, ie. all four components are in series. /i is the initial load ( or preload ) in the assembly due to tightening the nut by an amount ". The bolt load /b and the joint load /j from ( 3a) are plotted in ( vii) versus the external load #, with !e 4 !b 4 !j. 1hen the external load is 6ero then /b * /j * /i and the load path is a closed loop through all elements in series. s the external load increases then the joint- elements become less tightly compressed - /j decreases - while the bolt load increases. /or the case considered, the rate of bolt load increase !e 2!j is less than the rate of joint load decrease !e 2!b, because !b 4 !j. The graph indicates that the joint force becomes 6ero when the external load reaches some critical value #7. Since /j cannot be tensile ( negative by the present convention ) it follows that j3 must lose contact with the other two joint components. Thus joint separation occurs and the bolt ta!es all the external load, as may be confirmed by free bodies. So, after separation, /j * 8 and /b * #. 9n the arrangement of ( viii) the assembly is re(uired to sustain the external load #o without separation, but the preload and stiffnesses are such that #o exceeds the separation load #7 so the re(uirements cannot be met - a larger separation load is necessary. :ne way of increasing the separation load is to increase the preload /i as in ( ix). The slopes of the bolt and joint load characteristics are not altered by this extra tightening. nother approach ( x) uses the same preload as ( viii) but with an increased stiffness ratio !b 2 !j. ;learly it is easier to alter the preload ( within the strength capabilities of the bolt and joint components ) than it is to alter stiffnesses.

9n a fatigue situation with given alternating load on the assembly, #, the amplitude of the damaging fatigue load on the bolt /b is reduced as the slope of the /b -# characteristic is decreased ( xi). ;omparing the arrangement ( ix) with ( x) it is apparent that when designing for bolt fatigue, the low-slope arrangement ( ix) is preferable - that is a relatively low bolt stiffness !b and high preload /i are desirable. The stiffness of an elastic component which is subjected uniformly to tension or compression is ! * /2) * 02< bolt may be rec!oned as two elements in series, each with a constant cross-sectional area - the shan!, and the exposed thread whose area is the stress area s. The lengths of these should include half the head and nut thic!nesses respectively, to allow for local deformation. The stiffness of short bolts is less predictable than that of long bolts. gas!et is a thin compliant sheet rather similar to j3 above, which is sandwiched between other joint components to fill up microscopic irregularities thus preventing fluid lea!age. 9f the fastened components include a gas!et, then determination of their stiffness can pose problems - we shall consider gas!eted joints separately below. 9n a metal-to-metal ( non-gas!eted ) joint, calculation of a fastened component&s stiffness is straightforward if it is a thin tube and the external load is applied uniformly over the annular end area as at ( xii) - but this is unusual. =ore commonly the component is similar to ( xiii). >nown are its thic!ness < and the fact that there is extended reactive contact over the face which is not in contact with the bolt head or nut face. The component may be modelled as a conical frustum ( xiv) of diameter ?o at the small end and cone angle @, bored cylindrically with diameter ?i to clear the bolt. The deformation d) of a small element, thic!ness dx, will be % d) * /j 2!x * /j ( <20 )x * /j dx 2 0 A2B C ( ?o,-x.tan@)- - ?i- D 9ntegrating, the total compressive deformation ) over length < is found to be % ) * ( /j 2A 0 ?i tan@ ) lnC ( ?o - ?i , -< tan@ )( ?o , ?i ) 2 ( ?o , ?i , -< tan@ )( ?o - ?i )D 9t is usual to particularise this for some assumed cone angle such as .8o, but a general result has been obtained by Wileman op cit using finite elements on the basis of ?i E d ( small clearances ) and ?o E +.Fd - ie. the outer diameter of the annular bearing area

under the hexagon e(uals the standard width across flats, Table +. 1ileman&s results may be correlated for steel by % ( 4) ! * /j 2) E 0d ( 8.G8- ,8.HFB d2< ) 2 ( + - 8.+- d2< ) 3 d2< I -

Jse of ( 4) presumes that there is sufficient material present to allow the lines of force to develop unfettered by finite boundaries.

Bolt preloading notes.... Stiffness..... Calculating Thermal loading... Calculating initial bolt tension..... Shear load developed in tightening bolts.... Methods of setting bolt preload.... Table showing Accuracy of Bolt tensioning methods Introduction Calculating bolt loads is complicated if done correctly. The notes below are very limited and are reasonable for none critical applications. There are lots of specialists in this field as identified in the links on this page and on the screw index page. These notes do not include for fatigue loading determination of stiffness of !oint !oint settlement load application factors.etc etc. "t should also be noted that the bolt tor#ue re#uired to achieve the same bolt stress levels increases greatly as the bolt si$e increases %tor#ue & c. d '(. Therefore for larger bolts very high tor#ues are re#uired and used of specialist bolt tensioning systems such as the )Superbolt multi*!ackbolt) option should be considered.

Nomenclature

A $ & Area of plate * taking load % m+( A b & Bolt Cross Section & Bolt thread root Area %m +( , b & Bolt thread root diameter %m( d & Bolt nominal diameter %m( - e & .xternal /oad %0( - t & Thermal /oad %0( p

& 1reload /oad %0(

- & Total /oad 2n Bolt %0( . $ & 3oungs Modulus of item $ % 0 4 m+( / & /ength of Bolt !oint %m( / b & /ength of Bolt %m( / ! & /ength of !oint %m( k $ & Stiffness of component $ %04m( k b & Stiffness of bolt %04m( k ! & Stiffness of !oint %04m( t $ & Thickness of plate $ %m( T & Bolt Tightening Tor#ue %0.m( x $ & deflection of item $ 4unit load %m40( x b & deflection of bolt 4unit load %m40(

5 $& Coefficient of thermal expansion of component $ %m4m4,eg.C( 6 & deflection %m(

Bolt Loading Notes "t is accepted that a bolt preloaded to a fixed value is safer than a bolt simply tightened to an arbitrary value. A preload of about 789 of the proof strength of the bolt material is normally used. Assume a bolt is used to clamp a !oint to a set preload value and the bolt has a low stiffness and the !oint has a very high stiffness. An external load is applied to tend separate the !oint. 1art of this load will cause the further extension of the bolt %increase in bolt load(. 1art of the load will result in an increase of the !oint thickness reducing of the compressive load on the !oint. e.g. "f the preload has

resulted from a stretching of the bolt of :mm and a compression of the !oint by only 8.8:mm then an external load sufficient to achieve !oint separation will only increase on loading of the bolt by about 8 8:mm4:mm %:9( x preload . "t is clear;; from this example that using longer small diameter bolts to clamp surfaces results in relatively uniform bolt loading under varying external forces with reduced risk of fatigue loading.

Assuming the assembly is bolted with a bolt preload of -p and an external load - eis applied.. <oint separation will occur when -e & - %total load on the bolt( .. i.e when no load is being taken by the !oint -or an infinitely stiff bolt separation will never occur as all of the external load will be applied directly to the bolt with no resulting extension.. -or a infinitely stiff !oint separation will take place when the external load exceeds the preload. 2n application of an external force -e. Some of the force will used to increase the preload on the bolt and some will be used to reduce the loading on the !oint . The bolt loading diagram below shows the loading regime on the bolt and !oint

Bolted Joint diagram

The determination of the proportion of the load taken by the bolt and by the !oint is calculated using the component stiffness values. The stiffness is effectively the same as the Spring =ate ..

Stiffness = k = F /

Stiffness Considerations

Bolt stiffness The relationship . & stress 4strain & 4e is used to determine the stiffness of a bolt. Stress & -orce %-( 4Area %A( and strain & ,eflection %( 4 /ength %/( . & %-4A( 4%4/( Therefore & -/4.A .

"f the bolt length clamping the !oint includes a number of different sections then the resulting stiffness is determined using the relationship .

To allow for a certain degree of elasticity of the bolt head and nut a correction factor is often used modify the length used in the stiffness calculations as shown below..

The stiffness of the bolt results from the stiffness of the bolt shank %dia ds ( and the stiffness of the bolt thread %root dia dr (. The length used to calculate the shank stiffness & / se & / s > 8 ?d s The length used for the threaded length section & & / te & / t > 8 ?d r <oint Stiffness 0ote@ "t is very difficult to calculated the stiffness of a !oint e.g one based on holes drilled in a plate. A rough approximation can be made by assuming !oint is an annulus with and 2, of + A times the bolt dia and an ", & bolt diameter. Additional notes on evaluating the !oint stiffness are provided on page <oint Stiffness The mitcalc software %links below( is useful for obtaining a stiffness value of a !oint. The relationship . & stress 4strain &

4e is used to determine the stiffness of a section .

Calculation of /oad ,istribution using Bolt4<oint Stiffness A !oint preloaded with a force -p is then sub!ect to an additional load -e which tends to separate the !oint. The resulting deflection of the !oint and bolt are the same providing that -e is less than the separation force.

"t follows that

-ollowing application of the external force the resulting total force on the bolt &

and the total force on the !oint &

Thermal Loading "f all of the materials of the !oint and the bolt are the same then any changes in temperature will have negligible effect of the !oint loadings. Bowever if the !oint materials have coefficients of thermal expansion different to the bolt material changes in the !oint loading result from changes in

temperature... /et .. Coefficient of thermal expansion of !oint material & Coefficient of thermal expansion of bolt & b Change of temperature & T /ength of !oint & /ength of Bolt % / ! & / b & / ( The expansion of the !oint & / !& ! T./ The expansion of the bolt & / b& b T./ The overall stiffness of the !oint is calculated as follows.
!

The resulting change in the !oint load is calculated as follows..

The total bolt load following temperature change is thus..

Initial Tension in Bolt The initial tension in a bolt is crudely estimated for a bolt tightened by hand by an experienced mechanic as follows. The tension resulting from this e#uation would be reasonable safe for M7* 7 7 grade bolts and above.

Fp = K*d
d & nominal diameter of bolt %m( -p & 1reload %0( C & Coefficient vary from. :.DA x :8
E

04m to +.7 x :8

0 4m

-or a bolt tightened with a tor#ue wrench the tor#ue re#uired to provide an initial bolt tension may be approximated by the formula..

T = Fp * K * d
Typical C factors Steel Thread Condition K

as received, stainless on mild or 0,30 alloy

as received, mild or alloy on same cadmium plated

0,20

0,16

molybdenumdisulphide grease "T#$ lubrication

0 1!
0 12

A more accurate value can be determined using the formula

0ote@ =elevant formulea for calculating 1ower thread tor#ues and efficiencies are derived on webpage 1ower Screw .#uations

& ,esired bolt 1reload %0( & Mean diameter of thread %m(

p & Thread pitch %m(

m

F & Coefficient of Thread friction F c & Coefficient of collar friction 5 is the thread angle 4 + %5 & '8 o for standard metric threads G 5 & +H o4+ for
acme threads(. r c & Collar friction radius %m(

0ote@ -riction values are found on this site on the coefficient of friction page..Coefficient of -riction "t can be proved that the ma!ority of the tor#ue is re#uired to overcome the thread and collar friction forces %approx H89(. Therefore any error in the value of the friction coefficient will have a large variation on the bolt tensile load. The above formula is in essence not a lot more accurate than the approximate formulae above. 0ote@ A very simplified version of this formula can be derive by assuming & 8.E+A d. "f the denominator is simplified to .dm The e#uation reduces to

c &

& 8.H+ d

& '8o. rc

T = Fp (0,159.p + 1,156. .d ) This provides a very cr de relationship !et"een the tor# e and the res lting !olt tension $or a standard he% scre" "ith no "asher&&

-or important bolting applications it is recommended that the bolt preload is is determined using direct bolt tension measuring techni#ues * see notes below.

Shear Stress In Bolts "n tightening a bolt stress is induced as a result of the bolt tension and bolt tor#ue.. The combined resulting shear stress is calculated as follows

- Bolt Tension %0( Tf & Thread tor#ue%0.m( A r & Thread =oot Area %m +( d r & Thread =oot diameter

This formula is relatively conservative. -or less conservative designs A r can be replaced by A t as defined on page Thread calcs and d r can be replaced by d t & S#rt% ?.A t4 ( "n general for static loading the maximum shear stress in a bolt should not exceed about DA9 of the shear yield stress of the material. -or variable loading the bolt should be designed for endurance stress levels. Bolts sub!ect to dynamic loading often lose their initial torsion stress because the nut4bolt head tends to slip back if the collar friction is not sufficient.

Methods of setting bolt preload /tension Bigh strength friction grip bolts and nuts re#uire to be tensioned in accordance with BS ?E8? which specifies min. loads to be achieved %see Table :(. "t also specifies three methods of determining bolt tension i.e.@ i( Tor#ue Control ii( 1art Turn of 0ut iii( ,irect Tension Measurement Torque Wrench This method is sometimes known erroneously as )tor#ue control). The bolts are tensioned in a tension calibrator on the site. The wrench is then set to cut out at that tor#ue %the wrench becomes )calibrated)( and then all similar bolts that day are installed to that tor#ue after the !oint is snugged first. =otation during the tightening process must be limited to a specific value. Actual results of tension in bolts produced by this method are acknowledged to be highly variable even when this method is followed exactly. Turn Of Nut After snugging the !oint the bolt shank and nut is marked and then a specific amount of rotation is induced between the nut and the bolt. The amount of rotation differs for different bolt lengths and diameters and therefore must be known and understood by the bolt installers in advance. The success of the method is dependent on a correct snugging of the !oint and is dependent on the bolt head being held from turning so the bolt does not spin in the hole. 0ote@ Turn*of*nut does not work correctly when the steel surfaces are coated with a compressible coating such as high paint thickness or hot dipped galvani$ed $inc. irect Tension Indicator Washers A number of direct tension indicator systems are available %see links below( the most popular being the ,T" washers. ..The notes below relate to ,T" washers.. ,T" washers measure the bolt tension developed during tightening regardless of the tor#ue resistance of the bolt. By far the simplest method a ,T" washer is put on the head or nut end of the

bolt. The bolts are then slightly tensioned snugging the !oint by partially %but not fully( compressing the ,T" %tightening the nut(. Then all the bolts are tightened such that the ,T"Is are )crushed) to the point where a feeler gage cannot be inserted half way around %tightening the nut(. ,T"Is are completely independent of the tor#ue resistance of the bolt assembly. "f the ,T" is put on the nut end of the bolt tightening can be done by one person because it is not necessary access the bolt head side. Other methods of setting Bolt tension There are a number of more exotic methods of pre*setting the bolt tension including

Jsing Strain gauges..Accurate 4complicated 4expensive. Some skill re#uired Jsing ultrasonics instruments..Accurate and not expensive over the long term. Some skill re#uired Jsing special bolts with built*in %mechanical or electronic( extension measurement e.g =otobolt. Kood but relatively expensive Jsing hydraulics %or heat( to pretension bolts See note below

Jsing multi*!ackbolt system %Superbolt( a variation of tor#ue control.

0ote@ Jsing heat is based on heating the bolt%and nut( to a set temperature. The bolt is inserted #uickly and the nut tightened snugly. The bolt is then allowed to cool and the contraction results in the re#uired tension. "f a tension -p is re#uired for a bolt with a CSA of Ab then the re#uired bolt stress is calculated & - p 4 Ab The bolt is heated to a temperature of

T = ' ()*&e+, - T o
.& 3oungs Modulus %04m+ (....e & Coefficient of thermal expansion %m4m(4deg.C....To & ambient temperature %deg. C( This method is very difficult to implement the bolt has to be heated while the bolted !oint has to be kept at ambient temperature. The accuracy of the heating method is very much limited by #uality of the procedure followed. Bydraulic bolt tensioners use an annular hydraulic !ack placed around the screw stretching it axially. Lhen the re#uired stress level is reached the nut is tightened snugly and then the pressure released resulting in a preloaded bolt without any frictional or torsional stresses. The hydraulic method can provide very accurate preload %>4* :9( on long bolts but it is less accurate on short bolts.

!reload Setting "rror %perator &#eel& Tor+ue ,rench -ngle Tor+uing .Turn o/ nut0 1oad 2ndicating ,asher 3easuring 4olt elongation 5ydraulic 4olt pretension '(- 3)* '(- 2)* '(- 1)* '(- 10* '(- )* '(- .1* to 10*0

Strain 6auges ( 7ltrasonics Superbolt multi-8ac9bolt tensioners

'(- 1* '(- )*