LTE Planning Telecom Academy

OFDM/OFDMA and LTE Concepts
OFDM/OFDMA aNd LTE CoNcePtS
Informa Telecoms & Media
THe LTE RadIo INterface

INtRODUCtiON tO OFDM/OFDMA
Requirements of Modern Communication Systems Channel Bandwidth and Fading Flat Fading and Frequency Selective Fading Dening Narrowband and Wideband Channels Coherence Bandwidth Multi-Carrier Solution OFDM Basic Principles Sub Carrier Orthogonality Doppler Shift in Radio Channels Coherence Time Cyclic Prex/Guard Time Peak-to-Average Power Ratio (PAPR) Single Carrier Frequency Division Multiple Access (SC-FDMA) LTE PHY Layer Parameters LTE Sub-Carrier Spacing LTE Timing and Framing Frame Type 2, TDD The Resource Block Comparison of Resource Blocks, Channel Size and Sampling Rate LTE Channels and Channel Mapping LTE Logical Channels LTE Transport Channels LTE Physical Channels 4 4 6 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 18 20 22 24 28 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44
Channel Mapping Mapping Channels to the Resource Block Channel Mapping on a 10MHz Channel Uplink Mapping of Physical Channels Uplink Mapping of the Control Channel Overall Picture of UL Mapping Physical Channels and Modulation Schemes Synchronisation and Reference Signals Primary and Secondary Synch Sequences PSS and SS in the Frame Structure Reference Signals LTE Reference Signals DL Cell Specic RS DL UE Specic RS UL UE Specic RS Demodulation Reference Signals (DM RS) Sounding Reference Signals (SRS) Modulation, Channel Coding and Link Adaptation Channel Coding HARQ (Hybrid Automatic Request) Reporting of UE Feedback Power Control in LTE The User Plane and Control Plane Protocols
46 48 50 52 54 56 58 60 62 64 68 70 72 74 76 76 78 80 84 86 88 90 92
INtrodUctIoN to OFDM/OFDMA
Requirements of Modern Communication Systems
Recent xed and mobile broadband statistics suggest that the demand for data is increasing at an ever accelerating rate. Services such as Facebook, Youtube and other Web 2.0 type applications have traditionally been accessed from xed broadband connections, however with the rising popularity of the smart phone, these applications are moving swiftly in to the mobile domain. This puts pressure on the operators of mobile networks to ensure there is sufcient capacity forthe existing voice trafc as well as all the new multimedia and social networking applications. The demand for high capacity makes the radio engineer look to the radio channel to nd additional capacity. In recent years the bandwidth of the channel has grown signicantly from 200KHz GSM to 5MHz UMTS/HSPA and the modulation and coding schemes have grown steadily more complex and efcient. Given the current bandwidth and complexity of systems like HSPA it would be difcult to gain more capacity by simply increasing the channel bandwidth without making the technology prohibitively complex.
Fig. 1 Web 2.0 A Driver for Higher Communication Speeds?

Channel Bandwidth and Fading

The gure opposite illustrates a typical urban environment through which radio signals propagate. The transmission of the signal from the source to the destination is carried over multiple paths. The main reason for this is the existence of the buildings, vehicles, and other obstacles which can reect and scatter the transmitted signal. The received signal is a summation of all these signals from different paths. It is apparent that any receiver will be subject to multiple, time shifted copies of the same signal.
Flat Fading and Frequency Selective Fading

Each of these paths experiences a different Doppler shift and degree of attenuation. The frequency response is the representation in the frequency domain of the superposition of all these paths. With the multipath scenario, where the transmitted signals take place over different paths, the signals received from each path will add up at the receiver input The power of the received signal will vary as it is dependent upon the relationship between the phases of each received component; whether the result is constructive or destructive addition of the phase values. This is generally known as fading If the transmitted channel is sufciently narrow then all the frequency components transmitted inthe channel will be attenuated by the same amount, this is known as at fading The principle problem with increasing the bandwidth of the channel to accommodate higher capacity is that the channel becomes increasingly likely to suffer from frequency selective fading. This is where only a part of the overall transmitted spectrum suffers from the attenuation due to multipath fading.
a) Typical Multipath Environment

Transmitter
Receiver
b) Flat Fading
Power Expected signal Actual signal
Frequency
c) Frequency Selective Fading

Power Expected signal Actual signal
Frequency
Fig. 2
Dening Narrowband and Wideband Channels

Whether a channel is determined to be wide or narrow band depends on the relative magnitude of the symbol time and the delay spread characteristic of the channel environment. Temporal distortion of the signal is an effect of the multipath environment causing the same symbol to be received multiple times over a period of time. The time differences are due to the differing propagation delays experienced on different paths. Typical delay spreads for indoor and outdoor environments are shown below. Indoor 40nS 20nS; 12m 60m Outdoor 1uS 20uS; 300m 6Km A channel can be said to be narrow band when the symbol time (Ts) is signicantly larger than any delay spread present (Td) Narrow band Ts > Td However if the delay spread is signicantly larger than the symbol time then the channel may beconsidered wideband. Wideband Td > Ts Following on from the discussion above, regarding at and frequency selective fading, it can besaid that a channel that is dened as wideband, it is more likely to suffer from frequency selective fading. Consider now, that the symbol time is a function of the channel bandwidth. Ts = 1/Bw Therefore as the channel bandwidth increases the symbol time will decrease. e.g. Bw = 1MHz; Ts = 1uS Bw = 10MHz; Ts = 0.1uS It is more probable therefore that high capacity, high bandwidth radio channels will experience frequency selective fading.
Indoor Delay Spread

Transmitter
Receiver
RMS Delay Spread

t0 t1
Power
t2 t3
t4 t5
RMS delay spread
Time
Narrowband or WideBand?
Ts
Td
Narrow band ~ Ts > Td Wideband ~ Td > Ts
Fig. 3
Coherence Bandwidth
Coherence bandwidth is a statistical measure of the range of frequencies over which the channel can be considered at (i.e., a channel which passes all spectral components with approximately equal gain and linear phase). In other words, coherence bandwidth is the range of frequencies over which two frequency components have a strong potential for amplitude correlation. Coherence bandwidth is a function of the delay spread environment and can be calculated using the following expression; Bc = 1 2rms
Where; rms is the rms delay spread of the channel. The table below shows typical delay spreads for various environments and their coherence bandwidth. Knowing the coherence bandwidth for typical deployment environments allows an estimation of the probability that frequency selective fading will occur if the channel bandwidth of the system is know.
Environment
Hilly area Urban Suburban Open area Indoors
Typical rms Delay

3-10 sec 1-3 sec < 1 sec < 200 nsec 10-50 nsec
Coherence Bandwidth
53KHz-16KHz 160KHz-53KHz > 160KHz > 795KHz 16MHz-3.2MHz
10
Coherence bandwidth is a statistical measure of the range of frequencies over which the channel can be considered at (i.e., a channel which passes all spectral components with approximately equal gain and linear phase) Bc = 1 2rms
Coherence Bandwidth
53KHz-16KHz 160KHz-53KHz > 160KHz > 795KHz 16MHz-3.2MHz
Environment
Hilly area Urban Suburban Open area Indoors
Typical rms Delay

3-10 sec 1-3 sec < 1 sec < 200 nsec 10-50 nsec
Fig. 4 Coherence Bandwidth

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Multi-Carrier Solution
Given the problems outlined above the solution for todays broadband wireless systems is to utilise multi-carrier systems known as OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing) or OFDMA (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access). FDM (Frequency Division Multiple Access) Multi-carrier systems split the high speed stream of serial baseband data in to lower speed parallel streams. The lower bit rate on each sub-carrier results in a narrower radio channel thatis resistant to the frequency selective fade. OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing) However, these multi-carrier systems need to exhibit good spectral efciency, each sub carriermust be placed close to its adjacent carrier with out causing interference. The channel spacing is 1/Ts where Ts is the symbol time of information modulated onto the carrier. Spacingthe channels in this manner ensures that the centre of each carrier corresponds withazero crossing point for each of the neighbouring sub-carriers. This means that the centreof the sub-carriers can be sampled, free from interference of the adjacent sub-carriers.
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Traditionally Spaced FDM Channels

t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6
Orthogonally Spaced FDM Channels (subcarriers)
1/Ts
Fig. 5
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OFDM Basic Principles

The block diagram opposite shows the basic principle of an OFDM transmitter/receiver. The incoming data stream is rst converted from serial data to parallel data, the number of parallel data stream will depend on the bandwidth of the overall channel and the number of sub-carriers available to carry the data. Each of the parallel streams of data is then modulated on to each sub carrier which then undergoes an IFFT (Inverse Fast Fourier Transform) which transforms thefrequency domain signal into a tome domain signal. The complex time domain signal is thenadded to produce a composite and complex waveform. In receiver the signal must be sampled with sufcient frequency to ensure all the composite frequency components are captured. Where there are more sub-carriers the received signal must be sampled more frequently. The term FFT (Fast Fourier Transform) points or samples, refers to the number of samples that must take place during a singe FFT symbol, hence the larger number of FFT points for higher bandwidth channels. The FFT symbol has a time equivalent to the baseband symbol time but is the composite of all the modulated sub-carriers. The captured and sampled signal is transformed to the frequency domain by applying an FFT. This effectively separates the sub-carriers so they may be demodulated independently.
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Fig. 6 Simple OFDM Block Diagram

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Sub Carrier Orthogonality

Given the very tight spacing of the sub-carriers of the OFDM channel it is very important that the sub-carriers remain orthogonal from each other. Disturbances in the time and frequency domain can reduced the orthogonality of the carriers resulting in an increase in BER and generally poorer performance. Distortion in the frequency domain can come from Doppler shift due to UE movement or from poor synchronisation of the UE sub systems to the system clock. The latter problem can be resolved by having the eNB broadcast synchronisation signals on a regular basis, allowing the UE to adjust and maintain its synchronisation with the eNB. This can also reduce the effect ofDoppler shift, however the coherence time of the channel will provide an indication of how likely the received signals will be affected by Doppler shift.
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Demodulated signal without frequency offset (zero ICI)
Demodulated signal with frequency offset causing ICI
Fig. 7 Sub Carrier Orthogonality

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Doppler Shift in Radio Channels

Frequency offset is an important consideration, particularly in OFDM systems. In mobile radio systems the velocity of the UE will cause an apparent offset from the centre carrier of the radio channel, yielding poorer performance and higher BER. In OFDM systems it will also cause inter sub-carrier interference. The following expression may be used to determine the frequency offset due to Doppler shift. f. fd = cos. c Where; f is the frequency of operation v is the velocity of the receiver c is the speed of light
Coherence Time
An important performance attribute when considering the systems sensitivity to effects of frequency offset is the coherence time. The coherence time is a function of the amount of frequency offset present in the channel and is dened as; The time over which a channel can be assumed to be constant. 9 2 T c = 16.fd2 Therefore a system that uses a symbol time which is less than the coherence time will not bedistorted by the effects of Doppler shift.
e.g. Find the coherence time for a radio channel operating at 2.6GHz and a mobile travelling at140kph. The angle of arrival is 0o 140kph = 38 m/s 2.6 x 109 . 3.8 fd = cos. 3 x 108 fd = 329.33 Hz 9 2 T c = 16.329.332
fc = 1.28 x 10-3 seconds
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Coherence Time
The time over which a channel can be assumed to be constant
Doppler Shift in Radio Channels
Fig. 8
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Cyclic Prex/Guard Time

The multi-path environment through which the radio signals are transmitted create temporal distortions in the data carried by the radio channel. The differing propagation duration for each of the multi-path components create inter-symbol interference (ISI). Inter-symbol interference in OFDM systems cannot be tolerated since it reduces the orthogonality between the sub-carriers and increases the BER and reduces performance of the channel. All of the information important to the FFT (Fast Fourier Transform) is contained within the symbol time therefore itiscritical that there is no distortion during this period. Since the ISI cannot be eliminated from the channel, the information must be protected from itseffect. The solution in OFDM systems is to extend the length of each symbol by a factor equivalent to the likely delay spread in the channel. This extension to the symbol is known asthe cyclic prex (CP) or guard time. The CP, which appears at the beginning of each symbol and is actually a copy of the last partofthat symbol. The inclusion of the guard period eliminates the effects of multi-path ISI atthe expense of through put, since the CP carries no actual information and is discarded atthe receiver once the RF signal has been successfully digitised.
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Creation of the Cyclic Prex
T cp= 4.7 S
Symbo l = 66.7S T otal T ransmi tted Symbo l = 71.3S
Cyclic Prex Operation

CPA CPA
Td
CPB A CPB
CPC B CPC
Compete Sy mbol FF T Sampli ng T i me
Fig. 9
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Peak-to-Average Power Ratio (PAPR)

OFDM does present some technical challenges. The resulting composite waveform displays large variations in amplitude caused by the combination of a number of individual signals. Thisisillustrated in Figure 11. The effect is similar to that caused by the multipath environment a resultant signal uctuating in amplitude as a result of the combining of so many signals with discrete phase and amplitude differences. This resultant composite signal has implications for A to D convertor and RF amplier design. The dynamic range of the amplier must be able to cope with the smallest and largest signal amplitudes particularly the largest amplitude as it this that could cause over-driving of the amplier. Over driving an amplier causes non-linear behaviour resulting in the generation ofharmonics and Intermodulation Products (IPs) which will reside within the wanted spectrum, butwill cause unwanted effects. The FFT process will be degraded as it attempts to deal withfrequency components that should not be there, resulting in lost packets.
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Symbol time 2
Symbol time 3
Symbol time 4
Carrier 1
Carrier 2
Carrier 3
Carrier 4
Composite signal
Fig. 10 Peak to Average Power (PAPR)

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Single Carrier Frequency Division Multiple Access (SC-FDMA)

3GPP has chosen SC-FDMA for the uplink. Not surprisingly, power consumption is a key consideration for UE terminals. The high PAPR and related loss of efciency associated withOFDMA are major concerns. As a result, an alternative to OFDM was sought for use intheLTE uplink. SC-FDMA is well suited to the LTE uplink requirements. The basic transmitter and receiver architecture is very similar (nearly identical) to OFDMA, and it offers the same degree of multipath protection. Most important though is that the underlying waveform is essentially single-carrier, and therefore the PAPR is lower. The gure opposite compares the OFDMA and SC-FDMA structures. For clarity this example uses only four (M) subcarriers over two symbol periods with the payload data represented by quadrature phase shift keying (QPSK) modulation. Data symbols in the time domain are converted to the frequency domain using a discrete Fourier transform (DFT); then in the frequency domain they are mapped to the desired location in the overall channel bandwidth before being converted back to the time domain using an inverse FFT (IFFT). Finally, the CP is inserted. Because SC-FDMA uses this technique, it is sometimes called discrete Fourier transform spread OFDM or (DFT-SOFDM). The most obvious difference between the two schemes is that OFDMA transmits the four QPSK data symbols in parallel, one per subcarrier, while SC-FDMA transmits the four QPSK data symbols in series at four times the rate, with each data symbol occupying M x 15 kHz bandwidth.
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Q -1,1 1,1 I -1,-1 1,-1 1,1 -1,-1 -1,1 1,-1 -1,-1 1,1 1,-1 -1,1
Sequence of QPSK data symbols to be transmitted
QPSK modulating data symbols

Constant subcarrier power during each SC-FDMA symbol period V
O sy FD m MA bo l
V
SC sy -FD m M bo A l
25
CP
e m O sy FD m MA bo l Ti
CP
e SC sy -FD m M bo A l Ti m
fc
15kHz
Frequency
fc
60kHz
Frequency
Data symbols occupy 15kHz for one OFDMA symbol period
OFDMA
Data symbols occupy M*15kHz for 1/M SC-FDMA symbol periods
SC-FDMA
Fig. 11 Single Carrier FDMA

SC-FDMA signal generation begins with a special pre-coding process. The diagram opposite shows the rst steps, which create a time-domain waveform of the QPSK data sub-symbols. Using the four colour-coded QPSK data symbols from the previous diagram, the process creates one SC-FDMA symbol in the time domain by computing the trajectory traced by moving from one QPSK data symbol to the next. This is done at M times the rate of the SC-FDMA symbol such that one SC-FDMA symbol contains M consecutive QPSK data symbols. Once an IQ representation of one SC-FDMA symbol has been created in the time domain, the next step is to represent that symbol in the frequency domain using a DFT. To complete SC-FDMA signal generation, the process follows the same steps as for OFDMA. Performing an IDFT converts the frequency-shifted signal to the time domain and inserting the CP provides the fundamental robustness of OFDMA against multipath. The diagram opposite shows the stages in common with OFDM.
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Generating the SC-FDMA Signal

Q -1,1 1,1 I -1,-1 1,-1 V(I)
+1
V(I)
+1
One SC-FDMA symbol period
One SC-FDMA symbol period
The SC-FDMA Block Diagram

Unique to SC-FDMA Common with OFDMA
M data bits in
Map data to constellation
Generate time domain waveform
Perform M-point DFT (time to freq)
Map symbols to subcarriers
Perform N-point IFFT N>M
Upconvert and transmit
Time domain
Frequency domain
Time domain
M data bits out
De-map constellation to data
Generate constellation
Perform M-point IDFT (time to freq)
De-map subcarriers to symbols
Perform N-point DFT N>M
Receive and downconvert
Fig. 12
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LTE PHY Layer Parameters

LTE is designed to meet many differing requirements including urban, suburban, indoor and outdoor environments as well as coping with many different mobility conditions from stationary to high speed mobility up to 500Kph. Cell sizes may also very from femto to large rural macro. The range of spectrum that LTE may be potentially deploy across is also very wide, 400MHz 4GHz, the deployed system bandwidths that may be support also ranges from 1.4MHz to 20MHz. Given the deployment exibility of LTE the range of channel conditions that it is expected to perform under is extremely wide and varied. The critical parameters required to support this diversity are the sub-carrier spacing and the cyclic prex.
LTE Sub-Carrier Spacing

The sub-carrier spacing is 15KHz. Consider the previous discussions on coherence bandwidth and resilience to Doppler effects, selection of sub carrier spacing of 15KHz for LTE radio interface is a compromise based on the expected operational environment and expected levels of performance.
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Channel spacing = 1/Ts Ts = 66.7S Fs = 1/66.7S = 15KHz
Fig. 13 LTE Sub-Carrier Spacing

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LTE Timing and Framing

The basic unit of time in LTE is Ts, this is dened as 1/(15000*2408) = 32.56nS, where 15000 isthe bandwidth of the sub-carrier and 2048 is the maximum number of FFTs supported. Everyelement of time is some multiple of this value. The gure opposite shows the type 1 frame, or Frame Structure 1 (FS1), this is the timing structure used on the uplink and downlink of the FDD (Frequency Division Duplex) channels. One slot is a 0.5mS period of time which contains 7 symbols of 66.67 S. 2 slots make up one1mS Sub-Frame, the sub-frame is sometimes referred to as the transmission time interval (TTI) particularly by the higher layers. There a 10 sub-frames or 20 slots in one 10mS frame. This structure is used in the time domain to map the physical channels. Note that the physical channels also require a frequency domain component for complete mapping.
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One radio frame, Tf = 307200, Ts = 10 ms One slot, Tslot = 15360, Ts = 0.5 ms #0 #1 #2 #3 #18 #19
One subframe
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 66.67S Symbols
Fig. 14 Frame Type 1 FDD

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Frame Type 2, TDD

The gure opposite shows the frame structure used on a TDD (Time Division Duplex) channel. Ithas similar overall timing i.e. the overall frame length is 10mS and 10 sub-frames of 1mS each. However the structure of the sub-frames is different. In the FS2 the sub-frame allows both an uplink and downlink transmission/reception opportunity. These are referred to as the DwPTS (Downlink Pilot Time Slot) and UpPTS (Uplink Pilot Time Slot), these are separated in the sub-frame by a guard period (GP). The frame has two different switch points i.e. the point at which a dened slot conguration begins to repeat, these are at 5mS and 10mS. In addition there are 7 different frame congurations. In any of these congurations sub-frame 0 and 6 carry downlink information only, and sub-frame carries uplink only. The table opposite shows the frame congurations.
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Conguration Switch-point periodicity

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 5 ms 5 ms 5 ms 10 ms 10 ms 10 ms 10 ms
Sub-frame number 0
D D D D D D D
1
S S S S S S S
2
U U U U U U U
3
U U D U U D U
4
U D D U D D U
5
D D D D D D D
6
S S S D D D S
7
U U U D D D U
8
U U D D D D U
9
U D D D D D D
Fig. 15 Frame Type 2 TDD

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The Resource Block

Mapping of channels takes place in the time and frequency domains in LTE. The primary element that support the mapping process is the Resource Block (RB). The RB has a xed size and is common to all channel bandwidths/FFT sizes. In the time domain the RB is one slot ( 7 x 66.67S symbols). In the frequency domain there are12 x 15KHz sub-carriers. 1 symbol and 1 sub-carrier is known as a resource element. From the gure opposite it can bee seen that the RB occupies 12 x 15KHz = 180KHz of band width. In a 5MHz radio channel there will be 300 RB occupying 4.5MHz of spectrum. The number of FFTs required to process this is 512, assuming sub-carrier size of 15KHz, 512 x 15KHz = 7.68MHz. 7.68MHz if the space occupied by 512 FFT points and is not the transmitted bandwidth, 7.68MHz is also the sampling frequency required to recover information from the carrier to drive the FFT (time domain to frequency domain) in the receiver.
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1 slot Zeros NRB x Nsc = 300 (4.5 MHz) Zeros Time

*5 MHz system with frame structure type 1
DL or UL symbol
Resource block
RB Nsc = 12 (180 kHz)
Fig. 16 Dening a Resource Block

M = 512 (7.68 MHz)

35
Frequency
RB
Comparison of Resource Blocks, Channel Size and Sampling Rate

The table opposite shows the number of RB required for channel bandwidths supported by LTE, it should be noted that the denition of channel bandwidth in this table refers to the nominal channel size dened by the spectrum regulating body, it is not necessarily the transmission bandwidth. Since each RB contains 12 sub-carriers the number of occupied sub-carriers can be determined, multiplying the number of occupied sub-carriers by 15KHz will more accurately describe the transmission bandwidth of the various options. The IDFT/DFT (Inverse Discreet Fourier Transform) describes the number of FFT points required to successfully recover information from the carrier, it is always a value of 2n and determines the number of steps of processes required to construct/de-construct the composite OFDMA signal. The sampling rate and samples per slot are determined from the FFT number and the sub-carrier bandwidth. E.g. in the 5MHz channel the sampling rate of 7.68MHz would result in 3840 samples every 1mS.
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Channel bandwidth (MHz) Number of resource blocks (NRB) Number of occupied subcarriers IDFT(Tx)/DFT(Rx) size Sample rate (MHz) Samples per shot
1.4 6 72 128 1.92 960
3 15 180 256 3.84 1920
5 25 300 512 7.68 3840
10 50 600 1024 15.36 7680
15 75 900 1536 23.04 11520
20 100 1200 2048 30.72 15360
Fig. 17 Table of Resource Block Sizes and Channel Bandwidth

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LTE Channels and Channel Mapping

Information, both signalling and user, is transmitted through the protocol stack and over air using channels. There are 3 basic types of channel dened, Logical, Transport and Physical channels. Each channel is dened by a set of functions or attributes which determines the handling of the data over the radio interface. Logical Channels Logical Channels exist between the PDCP layer and MAC, they are principally dened by thetype of information that they carry. There are logical channels that carry control data, and logical channels that carry user trafc. Transport Channels Transport Channels exist between the MAC layer and the Physical Layer and are dene the manner in which the data will be transferred, i.e. the type of channel coding, whether the data isprotected from errors, size of data packets, etc. The attributes of data transfer applied to thedata in the transport channel is otherwise known as the transport format. Physical Channels Physical Channels are the actual implementation of the transport channels in the physical layer. The only exist in the physical layer and depend on the physical layer characteristics, i.e. channel bandwidth, FFT size, etc.
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Trafc channel
Control channel
MAC
Logical channels Dened by Type of information i.e. trafc, control, e.g. BCCH, PCCH, CCCH, MCCH, DCCH
PHY
Transport channels Dened by Transport attribute i.e. channel coding, CRC, interleaving, size of radio data packets, e.g. BCH, PCH, DL-SCH, MCH
Physical channels Dened by actual physical layer characteristics, bandwidth, FFT size, e.g. PDSCH, PDCCH, PMCH, PBCH
Fig. 18 LTE Channels

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LTE Logical Channels

There are two types of logical channel, control channels and trafc channels, they are describedbelow. Control Channels Control channels are used for transfer of control plane information only. The control channels offered by MAC are: Broadcast Control Channel (BCCH) A downlink channel for broadcasting system control information. Information broadcast onthischannel is shared by all the users in the cell, the information broadcast relates to theOperator identity, cell conguration, access information etc Paging Control Channel (PCCH) A downlink channel that transfers paging information. This channel is used when the network does not know the location cell of the UE. Common Control Channel (CCCH) Channel for transmitting control information between UEs and network. This channel is used forUEs having no RRC connection with the network. It would be used during the earliest phases of communication establishment. Multicast Control Channel (MCCH) A point-to-multipoint downlink channel used for transmitting MBMS control information fromthenetwork to the UE, for one or several MTCHs. This channel is only used by UEs thatreceive MBMS. Dedicated Control Channel (DCCH) A point-to-point bi-directional channel that transmits dedicated control information between aUE and the network. UEs having an RRC connection will exchange RRC and NAS signalling, itshould be noted that application level signalling (SIP messages from the IMS) is not handled by the DCCH. Trafc Channels Trafc channels are used for the transfer of user plane information only. The trafc channels offered by MAC are: Dedicated Trafc Channel (DTCH) A Dedicated Trafc Channel (DTCH) is a point-to-point channel, dedicated to one UE, for thetransfer of user information. The DTCH will also carry signalling from the application layers, this may be SIP and RTSP signalling if the EPC supports IMS (IP Multimedia Subsystem) Multicast Trafc Channel (MTCH) A point-to-multipoint downlink channel for transmitting trafc data from the network to the UE. This channel is only used by UEs that receive MBMS.
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LTE Logical Channels
Logical Control Channels
Logical Traffic Channels
Broadcast Control Channel (BCCH) System Information Messages Paging Control Channel (PCCH) Paging Messages, UE Location not known Common Control Channel (CCCH) Early communication, no RRC connection Multicast Control Channel (MCCH) Multicast control signalling Dedicated Control Channel (DCCH) Bi-Directional signalling, RRC connection, RRC and NAS Signalling
Dedicated Trafc Channel (DTCH) Point-Point bi-directional channel, User data and application level signalling (SIP) Multicast Trafc Channel (MTCH) Point-Multi-point channel supporting data transfer for the MMBS service
Fig. 19 LTE Logical Channels

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LTE Transport Channels

Transport channels are classied in to uplink and downlink channels and are described below. Broadcast Channel (BCH) The BCH has a xed and pre-dened transport format largely dened by the requirement to bebroadcast in the entire coverage area of the cell since the information carried by this channel contains system information. Downlink Shared Channel (DL-SCH) This channel will carry downlink signalling and trafc and may have to be broadcast in the entirecell, given the nature of the data in this channel it will also support for both dynamic andsemi-static resource allocation with the option to support for UE discontinuous reception (DRX) to enable UE power saving, Error control is supported in this channel by means of HARQand dynamic link adaptation by varying the modulation, coding and transmit power. Spectral efciency can also be increased due to the possibility of using beamforming antenna techniques. The channel also supports MBMS transmissions. Paging Channel (PCH) This channel is associated with the PCCH and will carry paging message to UEs not currently connected to the network. The PCH supports discontinuous reception (DRX) to enable UE power saving where the sleep cycle is indicated by the network to the UE. The PCH may also have to be broadcast in the entire coverage area of the cell. The PCH is also mapped to physical resources which can be used dynamically also for trafc/other control channels. Multicast Channel (MCH) The channel is associated with the multicast services from the upper layers and as such there isa requirement to broadcast both control and user data over the entire coverage area of the cell. It also support the Single Frequency Network as semi-static resource allocation Uplink Shared Channel (UL-SCH) The UL_SCH carries common and dedicated signalling as well as dedicated trafc information. It supports the same features as the DL-SCH. Random Access Channel (RACH) The RACH is a very specic transport channel, it carries limited control information during the very earliest stages of connection establishment. This a common uplink channel therefore there is the risk of collisions during UE transmission.
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LTE Transport Channels
Downlink Transport Channels
Uplink Transport Channels
Broadcast Channel (BCH) fixed, pre-defined transport format; broadcast in the entire coverage area of the cell. Downlink Shared Channel (DL-SCH) HARQ; dynamic link adaptation by varying the modulation, coding and transmit power; broadcast in the entire cell; beamforming; dynamic and semi-static resource allocation; UE discontinuous reception (DRX) to enable UE power saving; MBMS transmission. Paging Channel (PCH) UE discontinuous reception (DRX) to enable UE power saving broadcast in the entire coverage area of the cell; mapped to physical resources which can be used dynamically also for traffic/other control channels. Multicast Channel (MCH) broadcast in the entire coverage area of the cell; MBSFN combining of MBMS transmission on multiple cells; support for semi-static resource allocation e.g. with a time frame of a long cyclic
Uplink Shared Channel (UL-SCH) beamforming dynamic link adaptation by varying the transmit power and potentially modulation and coding; HARQ; dynamic and semi-static resource allocation. Random Access Channel (RACH) limited control information; collision risk;
Fig. 20 LTE Transport Channels

43
LTE Physical Channels

The physical channels are the actual implementations of the transport channels on the radio interface. They only exist within the physical layer and are highly dependant on the actual capabilities of the physical layer itself. The physical channels are: Physical broadcast channel (PBCH) The system information is transmitted cyclically within BCH transport block and mapped to foursubframes over a 40 ms interval, there is minimal synchronisation from the UE perspective since the 40 ms timing is blindly detected, i.e. there is no explicit signalling indicating 40 ms timing. Each subframe is assumed to be self-decodable, i.e. the BCH can be decoded from asingle reception, assuming sufciently good channel conditions. Physical control format indicator channel (PCFICH) This channel informs the UE about the number of OFDM symbols used for the PDCCHs and istransmitted in every subframe. Physical downlink control channel (PDCCH) This channel informs the UE about the resource allocation of PCH and DL-SCH, and Hybrid ARQ information related to DL-SCH and also carries the uplink scheduling grant. Physical Hybrid ARQ Indicator Channel (PHICH) Carries Hybrid ARQ ACK/NAKs in response to uplink transmissions. Physical downlink shared channel (PDSCH) Carries the DL-SCH and PCH. Physical multicast channel (PMCH) Carries the MCH, Mulitcast/Broadcast information Physical uplink control channel (PUCCH) This channel carries uplink control information such as Hybrid ARQ ACK/NAKs in response todownlink transmission, carries Scheduling Request (SR) and, CQI reports. Physical uplink shared channel (PUSCH) Carries the UL-SCH, user data and application level signalling Physical random access channel (PRACH) Carries the random access preamble sent by the UE to initiate and RRC connection. There are also physical signals which are sent on the downlink but are not given any channel designation, they include; Reference signals one signal transmitted per downlink antenna port Synchronisation signals primary and secondary synchronisation signals.
44
LTE Physical Channels
Downlink Physical Channels
Uplink Physical Channels
Physical broadcast channel (PBCH) BCH transport block is mapped to four subframes within a 40 ms blindly detected, there is no explicit signalling indicating 40 ms timing; the BCH can be decoded from a single reception. Physical control format indicator channel (PCFICH) Informs the UE about the number of OFDM symbols used for the PDCCHs; Transmitted in every subframe. Physical downlink control channel (PDCCH) resource allocation of PCH and DL-SCH, and Hybrid ARQ information related to DL-SCH; Carries the uplink scheduling grant. Physical Hybrid ARQ Indicator Channel (PHICH) Carries Hybrid ARQ ACK/NAKs Physical downlink shared channel (PDSCH) Carries the DL-SCH and PCH. Physical multicast channel (PMCH) Carries the MCH. also for traffic/other control channels. Multicast Channel (MCH) - broadcast in the entire coverage area of the cell; - MBSFN combining of MBMS transmission on multiple cells; - support for semi-static resource allocation e.g. with a time frame of a long cyclic
Physical uplink control channel (PUCCH) Carries Hybrid ARQ ACK/NAKs ; Carries Scheduling Request (SR); Carries CQI reports. Physical uplink shared channel (PUSCH) Carries the UL-SCH. Physical random access channel (PRACH) Carries the random access preamble.
Fig. 21 LTE Physical Channels

45
Channel Mapping
The diagram opposite shows the possible mapping of channels between logical, transport andphysical channels. It can be noted that, whilst the logical channels carry specic types of information, they can bemapped to common transport channels and in the case of the multicast control and trafc channels different transport channels can be used to carry the data. In the case of the BCCH logical channel, it will be noted that both the BCH and DL-SCH maybeused to carry the system information. This depends on the type of system information being transmitted. Critical system information messages such as those that carry scheduling information and need to be transmitted on a regular basis are transmitted as a xed format message via the BCH and PBCH. Mapping system information to the DL_SCH allows some exibility and additional capacity for less time dependant information. The RACH channel carries only the access preamble and has no instance above the MAC layer, therefore the channel is not mapped to a logical channel. Once an RRC connection has been granted the RACH is no longer used. Some physical channels do not carry information above the physical layer therefore have no transport channel equivalents. Examples include PUCCH, PDCCH, PCFICH, PHICH, these carry information related to the coding of the physical blocks and HARQ mechanism.
46
Logical
PCCH BCCH CCCH DCCH DTCH MCCH MTCH
Transport
PCH BCH UL-SCH DL-SCH MCH RACH
PUCCH PCFICH PDCCH PHICH PBCH PUSCH PDSCH PMCH
Physical
PRACH
Fig. 22 Logical to Transport Channel Mapping

47
Mapping Channels to the Resource Block

The gure opposite shows the process of mapping the downlink control and shared channels toa resource block. The synchronisation and reference signals are also included. Note the PDCCH occurs in the rst few symbols of each sub-frame, the number of symbols is signalled by the PHFICH. Also note the arrangement of the primary and secondary synchronisation signals and the PBCH. When this information is mapped to the 10mS frame it can be seen that the P-SCH, S-SCH and PBCH are transmitted in sub-frame 1 and the P-SCH, S-SCH is transmitted again in sub-frame 5. This means that primary and secondary synchronisation signals are retransmitted every 5mS. The PBCH is transmitted with 40mS periodicity.
48
Fig. 23 Mapping of Downlink Control and SCH Physical Channels to a Resource Block
49
Channel Mapping on a 10MHz Channel

The gure opposite shows the downlink mapping on a 10MHz channel. The synch and broadcast data is located in the centre of the band to aid the UE cell search process.
50
One radio frame = 10 ms One subframe = 1 ms Slot 0 Slot 1 Slot 2 Slot 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Slot 19 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 RB Ant 0/Ant 1 reference channel estimation channel quality measurement 258 259 260 261 262 263 264 265 266 267 268 269 270 271 272 273 274 275 276 277 278 279 280 281 282 283 284 285 286 287 288 289 290 291 292 293 294 295 296 297 298 299 300 301 302 303 304 305 306
PDCCH DL scheduling decision UL scheduling grants ACK/NACK information
P-/S-SCH cell search frequency and timing acquisition
PBCH broadcasting channel cell specic information
595 596 597 598 599 600
Fig. 24 Detailed Physical Channel Mapping for 5MHz Channel

51
Uplink Mapping of Physical Channels

The uplink channels are mapped in a similar fashion to the downlink, the biggest difference here being the absence of sub-carriers since SC-FDMA is used the resource block contains 7 time domain symbols (1 slot) and a single SC-FDMA channel. The mapping of the uplink shared channel is shown in the gure opposite. Note the presence ofthe uplink reference signal in symbol 3 of every slot.
52
Fig. 25 Mapping of UL Shared Channel to Resource Block and Frame

53
Uplink Mapping of the Control Channel

The gure opposite shows the mapping arrangement for the PUCCH and its reference signals. The PRACH channel is also mapped into this sub-frame format although its presence and location must be signalled by the network.
54
Fig. 26 Mapping of UL Control Channel to Resource Block

55
Overall Picture of UL Mapping

The gure opposite shows the general arrangement for mapping uplink control and shared channels over time and frequency domains.
56
Time
Frequency n PUSCH n PUCCH n Demodulation reference signal (for PUSCH) n Demodulation reference signal for PUCCH format 0 & 1
Fig. 27 Detailed Mapping of UL Data and Control Channels

57
Physical Channels and Modulation Schemes

There are generally 3 different types of information transmitted over the radio link, signalling, data and special reference signals. Physical layer signalling has the primary requirement of reliability therefore the modulation schemes supported by the signalling channels are low level robust schemes. QPSK is the modulation scheme used in most cases although the PUCCH has the option of using BPSK incircumstance where interference is very high. Datas main requirement is one of speed and spectral efciency. Most applications benet from high data transfer rates and the network benets from high spectral efciency, therefore the highest order modulation scheme would generally be selected, 64QAM, however there are times when interference is high and the high order schemes cannot be maintained, therefore the shared channels also support 16QAM and QPSK. The special signals dont transmit explicit information, instead, complex signals which imply achannel condition or position in complex sequence generation are transmitted. The signals are used by the UE and the eNB to determine channel conditions for MIMO processing and network synchronisation. The RS, P-SCH and S-SCH all transmit complex data sequences.
58
The Physical Layer Channels of LTE

DL channels
PBCH PMCH PDCCH PDSCH PCFICH PHICH
Full name
Physical broadcast channel Physical multicast channel Physical downlink control channel Physical downlink shared channel Physical control format indicator channel Physical hybrid ARQ indicator channel
Purpose
Carries cell-specic information Carries the MCH transport channel Scheduling, ACK/NACK Payload Denes number of PDCCH OFDMA symbols per sub-frame (up to 4) Carries HARQ ACK/NACK
UL channels
PRACH PUCCH PUSCH
Full name
Physical random access channel Physical uplink control channel Physical uplink shared channel
Purpose
Call setup Scheduling, ACK/NACK Payload
The Physical Layer Signals of LTE

DL signals
P-SCH*
Full name
Primary synchronisation signal
Purpose
Used for cell search and identication by the UE. Carries part of the cell ID (one of three orthogonal sequences) Used for cell search and identication by the UE. Carries the remainder of the cell ID (one of 168 binary sequences) Used for DL channel estimation. Exact sequence derived from cell ID (one of 3 x 168 = 504) pseudo random sequences)
S-SCH*
Secondary synchronisation signal
RS
Reference signal (pilot)
UL signals
RS
Full name
Reference signal (demodulation and sounding)
Purpose
Used for synchronisation to the UE and UL channel estimation
Fig. 28
59
Synchronisation and Reference Signals

Synch Sequence and Cell Search A UE entering a cell for the st time must discover the time and frequency parameters that are required to successfully communicate with the eNB. In other words the UE must synchronise with the eNB. Synchronisation signals are broadcast from the eNB on a frequent basis that enable the time domain and frequency domain parameters to be read by the UE, in addition thisinformation can impart cell identication. The requirements for synchronisation can be decomposed into three main functions. 1. Symbol timing acquisition, where the correct symbol start position is identied, to set the correct FFT window position. 2. Carrier frequency synchronisation, which is needed to reduce or eliminate the effect of frequency errors arising from the mismatch of local oscillator to the transmitter and receiver, also other frequency distortions arising from temperature drift, ageing and Doppler effects. 3. It is also necessary to have the sampling clock synchronised. The UE is required to perform cell search either initially when entering the system after switch onand identifying a new cell (i.e. neighbour cell) once connected to the system.
60
1. Symbol 2. Carrier
timing acquisition sampling clock
frequency synchronisation
3. Synchronised
Fig. 29 Synchronisation Requirements

61
Primary and Secondary Synch Sequences

There are 2 synch signals transmitted from the eNB, the Primary Synch Signal (PSS) and the Secondary Synch Signal (SSS) The PSS enables the UE to detect the slot timing and also provides a physical layer identity for the cell. The SSS provides the radio frame timing, the cell ID, Cyclic Prex (CP) detection and an ndication of TDD or FDD. If the cell search is for initial entry in to the system the UE will detect PSS followed by SSS then go on to nd and decode the Broadcast information in the cell, information broadcast will deliver other important cell parameters allowing the UE to modify its behaviour according to the selected cell. If the UE has already entered the network the detection of adjacent cell PSS and SSS will be followed by the detection and measurement of the neighbour cell signal strength and quality.
62
PSS Detection Slot Timing PHY Layer ID
Initial synchronisation
SSS Detection Radio Frame Timing Cell ID CP Length Detection TDD/FDD Detection
New cell identication

RS Detection Measure and Report Signal Quality Signal Strength
PBCH Decode PBCH Timing Detection System Information Access
RS Detection Measure and Report Signal Quality Signal Strength
Fig. 30 Synch Sequences and Synch Activity

63
PSS and SS in the Frame Structure

The structure of the PSS and SSS is shown in the gure opposite. In both the TDD and FDD frame structure the PSS and SSS are transmitted periodically, twice in every 10mS frame. However the actual structure of the PSS and SSS as applied to the frame is slightly different depending on whether the frame is TDD of FDD and whether the long or short CP is used. The FDD frame locates the PSS and SSS in the last 2 symbols of the 1st and 11th slots of theradio frame. Allowing the UE to obtain slot boundary timing independently of CP length. In the TDD frame the PSS is located in the third symbol of the 3rd and 13th slots of the radio frame, the SSS is transmitted 3 symbols earlier.
64
PSS and SSS Frame and Slot Structure inTime Domain in the FDD Case
10 ms radio frame 2 3 4 5 7 8 SSS 9 10 PSS
1 ms subframe 0.5 ms 1 slot 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 6 5 7 6
Normal CP Extended CP
PSS and SSS Frame and Slot Structure inTime Domain in the TDD Case
10 ms radio frame 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 SSS 9 10 PSS
1 ms subframe 0.5 ms 1 slot 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6
Normal CP Extended CP
Fig. 31
65
66
PSS and SSS Frame Structure in Frequency and Time Domain for an FDD Cell
10 ms radio frame 6 RB
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
SSS PSS RS Unused RE
1 ms subframe
Fig. 31
67
Reference Signals
Any information transmitted in to a radio channel will experience attenuation and distortion of the information as well as the additive accumulation of noise and ISI caused by the multipath radio environment. Therefore any information transmitted from A B will require some decoding or equalisation to be applied to it. The detection processes can either be coherent or non-coherent. Coherent processes use explicit knowledge of the channel measured from known information passed through the channel. This advantage of this detection process is the simplicity of implementation at the expense of overhead data, which reduces the spectral efciency of the channel. Non-coherent detection relies on some prior knowledge of a parametric model of the channel, exploiting the correlation properties of the channel or using blind estimation. Whilst these techniques may be more spectral efcient they are generally complex to implement. LTE uses a coherent detection method by passing, so called, Reference Signals (RS) through the channel at specic time and frequency intervals.
68
Noise
Channel, H
Attenuation, distortion, ISI, fading
Fig. 32 Using Reference Signals in the Channel

69
LTE Reference Signals

There are a number of different reference signals used in LTE. Cell specic RS or common RS, these are available to al the UEs in a cell to perform basic channel estimation functions. UE specic RS, embedded in the data structure for UL and DL for specic UE. The UL and DL structures are different. In the UL there are 2 different types of UL RS, Demodulation RS (DM RS) which are used to take channel estimates for coherent demodulation and Sounding RS (SRS) which are not directly associated with UL data or control. The SRS is used primarily for channel quality determination to enable frequency-selective scheduling on the uplink. There are also RS that are specic signals transmitted which are only used for the Multimedia Broadcast Single Frequency Network.
70
R0
R0
Frequency
R0
R0
R0
R0
R0
R0
Time
Fig. 33 General Arrangement of RS in the LTE RB

71
DL Cell Specic RS
The gure opposite shows how the reference signals are arrange in the frequency and time domain. The actual separation of the RS in the time domain is determined from the maximum Doppler spread expected in the channel. LTE is designed to work up to 500Kph, assuming 2GHz spectrum the maximum Doppler shift would be ~950Hz, according to the Nyquist sampling theorem the signal should be sampled with an interval no less than twice the inverse of the frequency shift. Therefore there should be at least 2 RS per slot (where a slot in 0.5mS) in the time domain. The separation of the RS in the frequency domain is related to the amount of delay spread present in the channel. The RMS delay spread is assumed to be no worse that 991nS therefore the coherence bandwidth for 90% and 50% of the RMS spread expected is somewhere between 20KHz and 200KHz. The RS are distributed every 3rd sub-carrier (over 2 symbols), therefore the expected frequency variations may be resolved. The LTE DL has been designed to work with multiple antennas, therefore there are different RS patterns for each antenna ports that may be in use. The position of the RS in the time and frequency domains is carefully chosen to ensure there is no overlap between the antenna ports. This allows the receiver to take up to 4 separate DL channel estimates. The RS its self is a pseudo random sequence from a length 31 Gold sequence with different initialisation values depending on the type of RS. The RS can also carry one of 501 different cell identities and each RS has a cell specic frequency shift applied to it, to reduce the time-frequency collisions that may occur in a frequency re-used system.
72
R0
R0
R1
R1
Frequency
R0
R0
R1
R1
R0
R0
R1
R1
R0
R0
R1
R1
Antenna port (0)
(a) Time
Antenna port (1)
Pattern of RS Depends on the Antenna Port used Time and Freq separation determined from Doppler andDelay Spread RS is formed from a length-31 Gold sequence
Fig. 34 DL RS Freq-Time Locations for 2 Port Tx Antenna

73
DL UE Specic RS
RS which are specic to UE may also be used, they are embedded in the Resource Blocks (RB) which are transmitted to a specic UE. More accurately they occur in the RB to which the PDSCH is mapped for UE which are congured to operate in this mode. The mode is congured by higher layer RRC signalling. UE specic RS may be used to enable the application of beam-forming antennas, where a single beam is formed to transmit data to the UE. Where beam-forming antennas are used the channel response for different UEs will be different there for the use of EU specic RS is very useful. The position of the UE specic RS in the RB is shown in the diagram opposite, the location of the RS in the frequency and time domain is chosen so as not to collide with the cell specic RS.
74
R5 R5 R5 R5 R5 R5 R5 R5 R5
R5
Frequency
R5
R5
Time
Specific to a UE Used to assist DL Beam-forming UE RS position orthogonal to cell specific RS
Fig. 35 UE Specic DL RS Positions

75
UL UE Specic RS
As with the downlink (DL), the uplink (UL) species the use of reference signals to enable the coherent detection of the channel. The RS can be used to support channel estimation, channel quality estimation for UL scheduling, power control, timing estimation and direction-of-arrival estimation for downlink beam-forming. There are two types of RS: Demodulation RS (DM RS) associated with transmission of data on the PUSCH and control data on the PUCCH. Primarily used to derive the channel estimate for coherent demodulation Sounding RS (SRS) used to determine the UL channel quality and derive the frequency selective scheduling on the UL
Demodulation Reference Signals (DM RS)

The UL RS are once again based on the Zadoff-Chu sequences, similar to those used in the PSS and SSS. There are 30 base-sequences available whose length is determined by the number of RBs allocated to a UE. Within a base-sequence there are 12 possible orthogonal (good cross correlation) time shifted versions of the sequence. A cell will be allocated on of the 30 base sequences and the BS will allocate one of the 12 possible time shifts to the UEs. In a non-MIMO case the same time-shifted sequence could be used for all UEs since there transmissions are separated in the frequency and time domains. Where MIMO is used in the channel then further means are required to separate the UE transmissions. In this case the UEs sharing the MIMO channel will be allocated different time shifted sequences from the same base-sequence in the cell. The DM RS appear on the UL channel in the 4th symbol of each allocated slot and span the entire allocated bandwidth. This is true for allocations of PUSCH and PUCCH.
76
DM RS Sequence Generation and Allocation

Cell allocation
ZC Seq Group U29 ZC Seq Group U29 ZC Seq Group U29 ZC Seq U12
UE allocation
ZC Seq U0 ZC Seq U1 ZC Seq U2
ZC Seq Group U29
Mapping DM RS to the Physical Channels
PUSCH
PUSCH
PUSCH
Frequency
Resource block
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Symbol
Time
Fig. 36
PUSCH
DMRS
DMRS
77
Sounding Reference Signals (SRS)

The SRS have nothing to do with the specic transmission of data they allow the channel quality to be estimated and enables frequency selective scheduling. In addition the measured information may be used to enhance power control, or to support various start up functions for UE with new UL allocations. E.g. initial MCS, initial power control, timing advance and frequency selective allocations for the rst sub-frame slot. The SRS occupies the last symbol of the sub-frame, and may occupy a bandwidth greater than that used by the data transmission, depending on specic control data sent to the UE. The transmission of the SRS may be aperiodic where a specic request is made for SRS or periodic, where the period may be any value 2,5,10,20,40,80,160 or 320mS. The structure of the SRS signal is such that it can allow allocations of SRS sounding that overlap in the frequency domain. This is necessary to allow frequency selective scheduling between UEs.
78
PUSCH
PUSCH
4 5
DMRS
Frequency
Resource block
3 Symbol
2nd slot of a sub-frame Time
Fig. 37 Allocation of PUSCH Showing SRS Location

SRS
6
79
Modulation, Channel Coding and Link Adaptation

The LTE radio interface supports several modulation and coding schemes and allows the schemes to be adapted according to the quality of the radio link. The LTE radio link is developed primarily for the transmission of packet data therefore the link rate is allowed to rise and fall as the quality of the link rises and falls. For constant bit rate services such as voice, methods such as power control can be used to adapt the power output to keep link quality and therefore the link rate constant. LTE supports QPSK, 16QAM and 64QAM with various code rates depending on the quality ofthe channel.
80
Modulation Schemes Supported by LTE
QPSK 2 bits/Baud
16QAM 4 bits/Baud
64QAM 6 bits/Baud
Typical SNR Performance of LTE Modulation and Coding

Typical SNR Performance of LTE Modulation and Coding
BLER
10-1
10-2
10
SNR
15
20
25
QPSK, r = QPSK, r = 45 16QAM, r = 64QAM, r =
QPSK, r = 16QAM, r = 16QAM, r = 45 64QAM, r =
QPSK, r = 16QAM, r = 64QAM, r = 64QAM, r = 45
Fig. 38
81
82
Modulation and Coding Rate with SpectralEfciency

CQI index
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Modulation
No transmission QPSK QPSK QPSK QPSK QPSK QPSK 16QAM 16QAM 16QAM 64QAM 64QAM 64QAM 64QAM 64QAM 64QAM
Approximate code rate

0.076 0.12 0.19 0.3 0.44 0.59 0.37 0.48 0.6 0.45 0.55 0.65 0.75 0.85 0.93
Efciency (information bits per symbol)

0.1523 0.2344 0.3770 0.6016 0.8770 1.1758 1.4766 1.9141 2.4063 2.7305 3.3223 3.9023 4.5234 5.1152 5.5547
Fig. 38
83
Channel Coding
Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) A CRC coding process is applied to each Transport Block (TB) 24-bit CRC applied to DLSCH, PCH, and MCH transport blocks and 16-bit CRC applied to BCH and DCI code blocks. Segmentation Code block segmentation is applied to DL-SCH, PCH, and MCH transport blocks (i.e., data that are turbo encoded), with an additional 24-bit CRC computed on each code-block (in cases where segmentation produces more than one code-block). Encoding A Turbo code is applied to DL-SCH, PCH, and MCH data to be carried over a downlink physical channel is scrambled prior to modulation. Convolutional code is applied to BCH and DCI data (single code block). Channel coding used over the LTE air interface is based on the UTRAN Release 6 turbo-coding schemes. Other schemes are under consideration with the main drivers being Improvement in power efciency (low Eb/No) Lower complexity decoder in the UE Code rates lower than 1/3. Extension of maximum code block size Removal of tail
All the above objectives are in pursuit of a reduction in overhead, an improvement in RF performance, and reduction in equipment costs. Coding schemes being studied by 3GPP include: Duo-binary turbo codes Inter-block permutation turbo code (IBPTC) Rate-compatible/quasi cyclic LDPC code (RC/QCLDPC) Concatenated zigzag LDPC code Turbo single parity check (SPC) low-density parity check (LDPC) code Shortened turbo code by insertion of temporary bits
Rate Matching Rate matching is applied on a code-block basis to DL-SCH, PCH, MCH, BCH, and DCI data. This function performs appropriate puncturing according to the AMC parameters. Figure 39 is a schematic diagram of the above processes.
84
UE UE1 TB2 PDSCH Transport block (TB) processing TB CRC Codeblock (CB) Segmentation #CB #CB CB CRC Turbo encoder (internal interleaver) #CB Subblock interleaver Subblock interleaver Subblock interleaver #CB Rate matching HARQ functionality Layer Mapping Scrambling Modulation # layers Precoding
TB1
No. of antennas
RF Front-End
CP Insertion
IFFT
Resource Element Mapper (Subframe builder)
PBCH, Ref. Signals, P-SCH, S-SCH, PCFICH, PDCCH, PHICH, PMCH
Fig. 39 Channel Coding Process in LTE

85
HARQ (Hybrid Automatic Request)

HARQ is commonly used in emerging communication systems to provide a high reliability over wireless channels. HARQ is essentially a combination of Automatic Request (ARC) and Forward Error Correction (FEC) techniques. Among two different types of HARQ are Chase combining and incremental redundancy (IR), which are also known as HARQ Type-I and HARQ Type-II (orType-III), respectively. In the Chase combining scheme the receiver sends a retransmission tothe transmitter if the initial packet fails to be successfully decoded. Then the transmitter resends the same packet again so that the receiver combines the previously received packet with the new packet. In the IR scheme instead of resending the same packet, the transmitters ingeneral add more redundancy than the previous packet and recreate a different packet delivering the same information. The receiver needs to keep the previous erroneous packet (packet with bad CRC) in the memory and combine it with the newly received packet for achieving a higher coding gain.
86
Normal ARQ Operation

CRC Data #2 CRC Data #1 CRC Data #1
ARQ data #1
CRC Data #1
x Discard data
Hybrid-ARQ Operation
CRC Data #2 CRC Data #1 CRC Data #1
ARQ data #1
CRC Data #1
x Buffer data
CRC Data #1 buffered
CRC
Data #1 combined
UL-SCH, DL-SCH support HARQ 1 Bit HARQ Field Downlink Asynchronous ACK/NACK on PUCCH and PUSCH Uplink Synchronous ACK/NACK on PHICH
Fig. 40 LTE HARQ
87
Reporting of UE Feedback
The UE can be congured to report the quality of the channel to assist the eNB with selecting the most appropriate modulation and coding scheme. The reports are derived from the downlink signal quality based o the downlink reference signals. The report signal quality is not adirect indication of the SINR in the channel, instead the Chanel Quality Indicator (CQI) refers tothe highest level of modulation and coding it can decode with an error rate not exceeding 10%. This method of reporting allows any advanced signal processing and channel decoding techniques to be employed. The reporting may consist of the following elements: CQI(channel quality indicator) is an indication of the downlink mobile radio channel quality as experienced by this UE. Essentially, the UE is proposing to the eNB an optimum modulation scheme and coding rate to use for a given radio link quality, so that the resulting transport block error rate would not exceed 10%. 16 combinations of modulation scheme and coding rate are specied as possible CQI values. The UE may report different types of CQI. A so-called wideband CQI refers to the complete system bandwidth. Alternatively, the UE may evaluate a sub-band CQI value per sub-band of a certain number of resource blocks which is congured by higher layers. The full set of sub-bands would cover the entire system bandwidth. In case of spatial multiplexing, a CQI per code word needs to be reported. PMI(precoding matrix indicator) is an indication of the optimum precoding matrix to be used inthe base station for a given radio condition. The PMI value refers to the codebook table. Thenetwork congures the number of resource blocks that are represented by a PMI report. Thus to cover the full bandwidth, multiple PMI reports may be needed. PMI reports are needed for closed loop spatial multiplexing, multi-user MIMO and closed-loop rank 1 precoding MIMOmodes. RI(rank indication) is the number of useful transmission layers when spatial multiplexing is used. For transmit diversity the rank is equal to 1. The reporting may be periodic or aperiodic and is congured by the radio network. Aperiodic reporting is triggered by a CQI request contained in the uplink scheduling grant. The UE wouldsend the report on PUSCH. In the case of periodic reporting, PUCCH is used if no PUSCH is available.
88
CQI Channel Quality Indicator

DL channel quality as experienced by UE UE proposes optimum modulation and coding scheme Wideband CQI complete system bandwidth Sub-band CQI number or resource blocks
PMI Precoding Matrix Indicator

Indicates optimum precoding matrix Refers to codebook table Closed loop, MU-MIMO, Closed loop rank 1
RI Rank Indication
Number of useful transmission layers for spatial multiplexing TX diversity Rank is 1 Periodic or aperiodic CQI request on DL UE reports on PUSCH UE reports on PUCCH if no PUSCH available
Fig. 41 Channel Reporting

89
Power Control in LTE

Like many mobile radio systems LTE supports dynamic or adaptive power control. The reason for power control systems is to reduce the power emissions from devices and therefore reduce the overall interference across the network. The system for LTE power control is shown on the opposite page. The scheme basically involves parameters that are determined by the current occupied bandwidth, network determined components for the cell and UE, the radio link pathloss and a power control command from the network. The UE will read this information from the system information blocks or in dedicated messages during connection setup. Many of the parameters are determined by the upper layers and signalled during resource allocation. Some parameters such as the power control command aredynamic and can by modied on a regular basis.
90
PMAX is the maximum allowed power that depends on the UE power class MPUSCH(i) is the bandwidth of the PUSCH resource assignment expressed
in number of resource blocks valid for subframe i
PO_PUSCH(j) = PO_NOMINAL_PUSCH(j) + PO_UE_PUSCH(j)

where
PO_NOMINAL_PUSCH(j) is a 8-bit cell specic signalled from higher layers PO_UE_PUSCH(j) is a 4-bit UE specic component PPUSCH(i) = min {PMAX, 10log10 (MPUSCH(i)) + PO_PUSCH(j) + (j).PL + TF(i) +(i)}
(j) = 0, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 1

depending on certain congurations
PL is the downlink pathloss

estimate calculated in the UE
TF is related to the Transport Block Size (TBS)

and the number of resource elements
where PUSCH is a UE specic correction value, also referred to as a TPC command
(i) = (i1) + PUSCH(iKPUSCH)
Fig. 42 Power Control in LTE

91
The User Plane and Control Plane Protocols

The User Plane Figure 43 show the User Plane protocols, Packet Data Convergence Protocol (PDCP), Radio Link Control (RLC) and Medium Access Control (MAC). These protocols will originate and terminate in the eNB and UE PDCP Layer The PDCP will receive user data from the NAS and forward it to the RLC layer, and vice versa. Italso provides retransmission, sequencing, and duplicate packet detection for handover when RLC operates in acknowledged mode. Ciphering, header de/compression and timer based packet discard are some of the other functions that this layer provides. RLC Layer The principal function of RLC is to provide a layer 2 datalink-like function. The RLC layer will receive data user data from the PDCP and forward it for scheduled transmission to the MAC layer and vice versa. This layer can provide ARQ based error detection/correction, segmentation and reassembly ofpackets, sequenced delivery of upper layer information (not during handover) and duplicate detection. RLC supports 3 modes of data transfer acknowledged mode, un-acknowledged mode, andtransparent mode (AM, UM, TM). Each transfer mode will be selected depending on therequired QoS of the upper later services. MAC Layer The MAC layer is primarily responsible for ensuring user data is mapped to the correct channels for transmission on the physical layer, this process is known as logical to physical channel mapping. Other functions include multiplexing/de-multiplexing of information from multiple radio bearers, HARQ error correction, priority handling and scheduling, transport format selection and padding. The MAC layer can also report trafc volume measurements to upper layers.
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User plane APPs
Control plane NAS (ESM, EMM)
TCP/UDP IP
RRC
36.331 RRC Protocol Specification
PDCP-user
36.323 PDCP Protocol Specification
PDCP-control
Radio bearers RLC

36.322 RLC Protocol Specification
Logical channels MAC

36.321 MAC Protocol Specification
Transport channels
36.201 PHY General 36.211 PHY Channel and Modulation 36.212 Multiplexing and Channel Coding 36.213 PHY Procedures 36.214 Measurements
PHY
Physical channels
Fig. 43 LTE Protocol Stack
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OFDM/OFDMA and LTE Concepts

OFDM/OFDMA aNd LTE CoNcePtS

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OFDM/OFDMA and LTE Concepts

THe LTE RadIo INterface

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OFDM/OFDMA and LTE Concepts

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OFDM/OFDMA and LTE Concepts

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Fig. 1 Web 2.0 A Driver for Higher Communication Speeds?

OFDM/OFDMA and LTE Concepts

Channel Bandwidth and Fading

Flat Fading and Frequency Selective Fading

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a) Typical Multipath Environment

c) Frequency Selective Fading

OFDM/OFDMA and LTE Concepts

Dening Narrowband and Wideband Channels

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Indoor Delay Spread

RMS Delay Spread

RMS delay spread

Narrow band ~ Ts > Td Wideband ~ Td > Ts

OFDM/OFDMA and LTE Concepts

Typical rms Delay

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Typical rms Delay

Fig. 4 Coherence Bandwidth

OFDM/OFDMA and LTE Concepts

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Traditionally Spaced FDM Channels

Orthogonally Spaced FDM Channels (subcarriers)

OFDM/OFDMA and LTE Concepts

OFDM Basic Principles

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Fig. 6 Simple OFDM Block Diagram

OFDM/OFDMA and LTE Concepts

Sub Carrier Orthogonality

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Demodulated signal without frequency offset (zero ICI)

Demodulated signal with frequency offset causing ICI

Fig. 7 Sub Carrier Orthogonality

OFDM/OFDMA and LTE Concepts

Doppler Shift in Radio Channels

fc = 1.28 x 10-3 seconds

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Doppler Shift in Radio Channels

OFDM/OFDMA and LTE Concepts

Cyclic Prex/Guard Time

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Creation of the Cyclic Prex

Symbo l = 66.7S T otal T ransmi tted Symbo l = 71.3S

Cyclic Prex Operation

Compete Sy mbol FF T Sampli ng T i me

OFDM/OFDMA and LTE Concepts

Peak-to-Average Power Ratio (PAPR)

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Fig. 10 Peak to Average Power (PAPR)

OFDM/OFDMA and LTE Concepts

Single Carrier Frequency Division Multiple Access (SC-FDMA)

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