Experimental Investigations on Multi-end Fault Location System based on Current Traveling Waves

A. Elhaffar, student member IEEE, N. I. Elkalashy, student member IEEE and M. Lehtonen.
Abstract Traveling Waves Recorders (TWR) are used to accurately find the location of different faults in transmission networks. These recorders are installed at few substation buses where current traveling waves can be extracted. The recorded signals time delay of the initial wave is recoded at each TWR. In this paper, the minimum travel time of the traveling wave has been calculated considering Dijkstra algorithm to select the nearest TWR to the faulted line. The Wavelet Transform is used to find the highest spectral energy of the frequency band of the traveling wave signals. Thus, the Wavelet Transform enhances the traveling wave fault location. The current transformers (CT) are modeled and experimentally verified to represent the traveling wave interaction with the CT. The secondary wiring from the CT secondary winding to TWR has also some effect on the measured traveling wave signal which motivates practical issues associated with measuring the arrival times. Correction factors are derived to monitor high frequency current traveling wave signals. Validation of fault location is examined by ATP/EMTP simulations for typical 400 kV power system faults. Keywords: Traveling waves, fault location, multi end method, single phase to ground fault, modal analysis, wavelet transform.

the Global Positioning System (GPS). Fault distance calculation is, therefore, carried out using double end method and pre-selected two TWR signals. Conventional CTs are used to monitor the traveling wave transients. In this paper, effects of CT and split-core inductive couplers filtering current transformers on the recorded signals and therefore on the traveling wave fault locator performance are investigated. This investigation is carried out using the total transfer function of the whole fault locator measuring system. Then, a practical solution for fault location using few traveling wave current signals is studied taking into account CT and associated secondary system model. The signals are analyzed using wavelet transform. A method of selecting an optimum mother wavelet and an optimum level according to signals energy content is presented. The minimum travel time of the current traveling wave signal traveling to the nearest TWR has been calculated using Dijkstra algorithm [12]. Simulation results indicate good correlation between the estimated and actual fault locations for the studied network. II. CURRENT TRANSFORMER MODELING In this section, the CT modeling is presented. The modeling is carried out with the aid of experimental results measured at Helsinki University of Technology (TKK). The CT used in this measurement was a hair-pin type 110 kV, 200/5 CT with three secondary windings as shown in Fig. 1. The CT modeling is divided into two parts; the low and high frequency models. The low frequency model parameters of the CT are calculated from open and short circuit tests of the CT at power frequency. The inductance of secondary windings dominates the impedance at a low frequency and the stray capacitances have negligible effects. Open circuit tests were only measured from the secondary side while the short circuit tests were measured from both primary and secondary sides. Towards high frequency transfer function modeling of the CT, an impulse current signal was injected in the primary winding and the output secondary current was measured using a low inductance shunt resistor (0.4905 ). The signals are digitally recorded using a digitizer. The digital recorded signals are transformed using Fourier Transform to obtain the frequency spectra from which the desired transfer functions are calculated. The shunt capacitances representing the capacitances of the transformer windings can no longer be ignored. These parasitic secondary capacitances have a great influence on the output current. Open and short circuit impulse tests are also carried out for the abovementioned CT to find high frequency model parameters [13]. Fig. 2 shows secondary winding 1 spectrum during the open circuit test.

I. INTRODUCTION

ccuratly locating faults on high voltage transmission systems is very important for utilities to allow quick maintenance action of the repair crew. Fault location systems have been traditionally relied on the measurement of power frequency components. However, traveling wave fault location shows an increasing interest to researchers and utilities due to its accuracy [1]-[7]. As the number of traveling wave recorders (TWR) are usually less than the number of buses, efficient methods are needed to find the fault from only the existing recording units [8]. Recently, traveling waves and the wavelet transform of the current transient are used to extract initial arrival times of fault initiated waves reflected from the fault point [9]-[11]. In [8], a method was developed to estimate the fault area using several recorders scattered throughout the system by comparing a fault signature record with calculated fault signatures. This method is used in this presented paper considering few recording units installed at few monitored substations in the power system. The fault location is determined by accurately time-tagging the arrival of the traveling wave at these monitored substations and comparing the time difference to the total propagation time of the lines. The time reference signal can be attained using satellite from

A. Elhaffar, N. I. Elkalashy and M. Lehtonen are with Power System & High Voltage Engineering, Department of Electrical and Communication Engineering, Helsinki University of Technology (TKK), P.O.Box 3000, FIN-02015 HUT, Finland, Tel. +358 9 4515484, Fax +358 9 460224, Finland (email: abdelsalam.elhaffar@tkk.fi, nagy.elkalashy@tkk.fi, matti.lehtonen@tkk.fi).

simulated network and the transient analysis control system (TACS) function, the transfer function of the measuring system of the CT, secondary wiring and split-core inductive couplers are inserted in the ATP/EMTP transmission line 110 kV model in addition to the secondary wiring cable from the CT to the TWR as shown in Fig. 5 [15], [16].
-3 x 10 Coupler Measured and Simulated Models Output

Measured Output Current 1.5 Box-Jenkins Model Fit: 71.22% PEM Fit: 51.7% 1

Figure 1 CT High Frequency equivalent circuit.

y1
5

0.5

x 10 8 Zs1 [Ohms] 6 4 2 0 3 10

S1 Winding Impedance

-0.5

-1

10 Frequnecy [Hz] S1 Winding Impedance Angle

10

10

-1.5

-2

7 x 10

8
-6

100 Phi [deg] 0 -100

Fig. 3 Inductive coupler model comparison

-4

Overall Transfer function of CT and coupler

10
10
3

10

10 Frequnecy [Hz]

10

Fig. 2 Open circuit test from secondary winding 1.

Amplitude

10

-6

The frequency response measurements were carried out using standard 1.2/50 s low impulse voltage signals for open circuit tests and non-standard 2.2/6 s current signals for short circuit test. The first resonance frequency is found for each secondary winding from its corresponding spectrum. Then, the secondary winding shunt capacitances Cs1, Cs2 and Cs3 can be calculated. Consequently, from these tests, a frequency dependent correction factors can be obtained based on the calculated parameters of the CT as in:

10

-8

10

-5

10

10

Phase (degrees)

200 0 -200 -400

Zs Zs CFsn = 1 + n + n Zmn Zcn

10

-5

(1)

10 Frequency (rad/s)

10

Fig. 4 Overall transfer function of both CT and inductive coupler

Wave-imp 110kV Wave-imp 110kV

where Zcn is the capacitance of secondary winding and n is the secondary winding number 1, 2 and 3. Split-core current transformers are connected directly to the secondary of the relaying CTs for isolating high frequency signals. They are also tested and their transfer function calculated using the system identification tool box of MATLAB [14]. Obviously the Box-Jenkins model gives good results as shown in Fig. 3. From impulse current measurements, the overall transfer function was plotted against the frequency. Therefore, the resonance frequency values for the CT, wiring and coupler was located and recorded. The overall transfer function bode plot is shown in Fig. 4. Considering the interaction between the ATP/EMTP

B1

Fig. 5 Simulated 110 kV transmission Line with CT Transfer Function and secondary Wiring

G(s)

G(s)

G(s)

Transfer function: CT and Line Couplers

III.

SIGNAL PROCESSING

A. Wavelet Analysis The main problems that came across by using current traveling waves are that they have no direction and are noisy. Recently, it was shown that the wavelet transform of the modal components of the fault initiated traveling waves is used to estimate the location of the fault [10]. The wavelet transforms of the modal current components are obtained yielding the corresponding wavelet coefficients in selected levels. The potential benefits of applying digital wavelet transform (DWT) for analyzing traveling waves transients have been well-recognized because of its inherent time and frequency localization characteristics [17]. DWT offers an alternative to windowed (Short-Time) Fourier (STFT) analysis where a uniform window is used for all frequencies. This problem has been solved in DWT by employing short windows at high frequencies and long windows at low frequencies. The windowing is performed in practice by scaling and translating a Mother Wavelet (t). The continuous wavelet transform (CWT) is initially shown in equation (8).

where j represents the total number of resolution levels. For carrying out wavelet analysis, first, a suitable mother wavelet must be chosen, which plays a significant role in a fault-location scheme. In this work, an optimum mother wavelet is selected based on the highest energy content and based on its ability to reconstruct the original signal with minimum errors [19],[20]. B. Optimum Wavelet Function Different wavelets can be used to decompose the fault transient signal and extract the feature vector. A comparison between three different groups of orthogonal wavelets was carried out. These wavelets used in the comparison were: db2, db4, db6, db8, db10, db20, db30, db40, sym4, sym8, sym10, coi1..5, bior2.4, bior3.3, and bior3.7. The criterion for selecting the proper wavelet, to be used in feature extraction, is based on its ability to reconstruct the original signal with minimum errors. The norm of the error is used as a discriminator. For selecting the proper details level, the energy content at different resolution levels is calculated and the highest one is selected. Fig. 6 shows the details energy at six levels for a fault at 112.2 km from OL substation for a preselected mother wavelet. The problem now arises from which level of the sub-band components should be used in DWT analysis procedure. The main reason is at fault location, there is one level at which the calculation of the fault distance is more accurate than other levels. If the used scaling function and the wavelets form an orthonormal basis, the Parseval's theorem relates the energy of the fault traveling wave signal to the energy in each of the expansion components and their wavelet coefficients. Therefore, the energy of the fault traveling wave signal will be partitioned at different resolution levels according to the transmission line transients [21].

CWT (a, b) =

1 a

t b ).x(t )dt a

(2)

The mother wavelet (t ) is a band pass filter which should satisfy some conditions: It should be short and satisfies the relation:
+

(t )dt = 0

(3)

is a coefficient used in order to have the same "energy"

in each analyzing wavelet.

In practice discrete wavelet transform DWT is used instead of CWT. The two parameters a and b are discretized. For a signal x(t), its DWT with respect to a discrete mother wavelet (t) can be represented by

x (t ) dt =

k =

c(k ) +

d j (k )

(7)

j = 0 k =

DWT [x, m, n ] =

1 a

x[k ] (
k

nb ) a

(4)

The b gives the time position of the wavelet, while the parameter a controls its frequency. DWT of a sampled signal is calculated by choosing a= a0m, and b= nb0a0m. Toward better efficiency of computations, a0 and b0 are set to 2 and 1 respectively resulting in a binary dilation of 2m and dyadic translation of 2mn [18]. The dyadic DWT analysis is the most popular implementation of DWT, which is used in most applications. The discrete basis function of the dyadic DWT is given by: m m x a0 n (n, m ) = a0 2 (5) m a0 The wavelet coefficients that represent the fault traveling wave signal are: (6) CTW = [c0 d 0 d 1 d 2 ........ dj 1 ]

where, dj is the j level wavelet coefficient and cj is the j level scaling coefficient. With the energy in the expansion domain is partitioned in time by k and in scale by j. This means that the energy of the distorted signal can be partitioned in terms of the expansion coefficients [21]. The above method was implemented in a MATLAB program using the current details of the fault line signal as the absolute sum value of the current signal details squared computed in a discrete form, as in:
DE (k ) =

k =1

d j (k )

(8)

where DE(k) is the details energy detector in discrete samples. j is considered as the scale number, and k is the index of wavelet details coefficients. Fig. 6 indicates that highfrequency current was more powerful in the fault signal at the fist level, and the signal energy was distributed over the whole analyzed resolution levels with different magnitude [19].

x 10

4 Details Energy

Um and Im are modal voltage and current components respectively. for transposed lines to transform the transient current signals Ia, Ib and Ic into their modal components using Clarks transformation as follows [22],[23]: 1 1 1 Ia I1 I = 1 2 1 1 I (11) b 2 3 0 I I 3 3 c 3 where I1 is the ground mode current, I2 and I3 are known as aerial mode current components for transposed lines. In single-ended fault location method, the signals reflected from the fault points as well as from the remote end busbars imposes more difficulties in finding the arrival times of the recorded signals especially for faults at the second half of a transmission line. The time difference between the ground and Ariel mode wavelet coefficients (dt0) is compared with that of the time difference produced by a fault located at the middle of the line (dtm) [11]. If dt0 dtm, then the fault will be located in the first half of the line and the fault distance x will be:

3 Levels

Fig. 6. OL current traveling wave wavelets transform details energy

Percentage Error 1

0.5

0 Error %

x=

-0.5

v td 2

(12)

-1

-1.5

-2

20

40

60 80 100 Fault Distance [km]

120

140

160

Fig. 7 Error analysis of single end method

IV. FAULT LOCATION PROBLEM FORMULATION Traveling wave methods for transmission lines fault location have been reported since a long time. Subsequent developments had employed high-speed digital recording technology to capture the traveling wave transients created by faults. It is well known that when a fault occurs in overhead transmission lines systems, the abrupt changes in voltage and current at the point of the fault generate high frequency electromagnetic travelling waves which propagate along the transmission line in both directions away from the fault point. If the times of arrival of the travelling waves in the two ends of the transmission line can be measured precisely, the fault location then can be determined by comparing the difference between these two arrival times of the first initial traveling wave signal. By modal transform, a three-phase system can be represented by an earth mode and two aerial modes. Each mode has a particular velocity and characteristic impedance. In this paper, the aerial mode 1 signal is used in the fault distance estimation. The modal components are obtained by: (9) U ( x, t ) = TvU m ( x, t )

I ( x, t ) = Ti I m ( x, t )

(10)

where Tv and Ti are voltage and current transformation matrices, U and I are phase voltage and current components,

where x is the distance to the fault, td=(t2 t1) which is the time difference between two consecutive peaks of the optimum wavelet transform detail coefficients of the recorded currents at the terminal bus and v is the wave propagation velocity of the aerial mode. For a fault between the midpoint and remote end bus, some reflections from remote end will arrived at the sending station before the first reflection from the fault point. The time difference between the ground and arial mode wavelet coefficients is greater than that of the time difference produced by a fault located at the middle of the line (dt0> dtm). Then the fault will be located in the second half of the line and the fault distance x will be calculated using: v x = L - (t 2 -t1 ) (13) 2 where L is the line length and t2-t1 is the time difference between two consecutive peaks of wavelet coefficients of the aerial mode current signal. These signals are processed using MATLAB [18]. Current signal was acquired at a sampling rate of 1.25 MHz and so frequencies up to 625 kHz were considered and the faults are simulated on the OL-KA line using ATP/EMTP program. In single end method, usually it is difficult to find the exact fault location if the fault inception angle or the fault resistance changes. The auto-correlation of the details for each level gives good fault distance estimation [24]. The fault location percentage error using autocorrelation of the wavelet details has shown good results as shown in Fig 7. Due to the difficulties in finding the second peak signal, single end traveling wave fault location method has high errors when applied to meshed networks. The reason is the multipath reflections from different discontinuities. Utilities prefer multi-end fault location with few recording units.

V.

MULTI END MEHOD

TWR

UL

TWR

Fig. 8 illustrates the single line diagram of a 400 kV transmission network simulated using ATP/EMTP [15], in which the processing is created by preprocessor program ATPDraw [16]. A small part of 400kV FinGrid network has been simulated and a fault scenario similar to that disturbances occurs on 29.6.2002 13:12:54 (GMT) between OL-KA substations at a distance 112.2km from OL substation. The TWR recorders that recorded the fault signals are YL, AJ, ES, OL recorders. The minimum path for the traveling wave has been calculated from Bus OL though OL-KA line to BUS AJ. The fault is then calculated using two end method using the OL and AJ recordings. Traveling wave velocities can be determined based on the type and configuration of lines using line/cable constant (LCC) program of ATP/EMTP[15]. The power lines studied are part of the 400 kV Finnish EHV transmission system. The relevant lines and location of the current transducers are shown in Fig. 8. This system has been modeled using ATP/EMTP with measurements at three substations: OL, AJ and ES. If the times of arrival of the traveling waves in the chosen two TWR units can be measured precisely, the fault location then can be determined by comparing the difference between these two arrival times. However, two main aspects which affect the accuracy directly and significantly need to be considered. One is the data synchronized sampling and the other is arrival time detection. The former can be obtained easily by using the Global Positioning System (GPS) which can provide time synchronization up to maximum 1 s accuracy over a wide area; the latter can be fulfilled by using wavelet analysis which has already been successfully applied in various fields in electrical engineering [19]. A MatLab program has been developed to estimate the fault location from the first peak arrivals at three TWR units. The minimum path for the traveling wave between the closest two TWR units to the fault has been calculated using Dijkstra Algorithm [12]. The maximum value of the first recorded signals are selected as the two TWR candidates for fault location Then, the fault distance is calculated by the doubleend method using the chosen TWR signals. For example: If a single earth fault occurs at OL-KA line, and the best two TWR candidates are OL and AJ recorders, the fault location can be calculated as follows: (14) line lengths[OL-AJ] + (T1OL -T1AJ ).v

AJ

OL

KA

RA

HU
TWR

HY
TWR

YL

KR TM ES

Fig. 8. Test transmission system single line diagram.

300 Optimum Details Current Level [A] 200 100 0 -100 -200 -300 AJ Recoder Signal OL Recoder Signal

0.5

1 Time [%mu s]

1.5 x 10

2
-3

Fig. 9. The optimum details level of two TWR at AJ and OL buses. TABLE I SIMULATION RESULTS FOR A SINGLE-PHASE EARTH FAULTS Faulted Actual Location from OL Estimated Location Error % Line from OL % km OL-KA OL-KA OL-KA UL-ES UL-ES UL-ES 20 % 50 % 80 % 20 % 50 % 80 % 32.6 81.5 130.4 97.2 172.5 50.2 32.6540 81.6586 130.4298 96.9032 172.6376 49.5104 -0.1656 -0.1946 -0.0229 0.3053 -0.1096 -0.2783

FLOL =

2
VI. RESULTS

This method is sensitive to the travelling wave propagation velocity which can be calculated using the LCC program. Using a ground resistivity of 2300 .m and the data of table I for a horizontal transmission line configuration, the propagation speed was found to be 29177.4 km/s. At least, two recordings are needed for an accurate fault location in a meshed network. Simulation studies show that for earth faults, errors are symmetric along the transmission line except that when fault inception angle is too small or fault location is too close to the line terminals. VII. CONCLUSIONS The experimental results reveal that CTs can be used for monitoring high frequency current signals over a useful range suitable for traveling wave based fault locators. This paper presents a fault location procedure for multi end transmission line network using current transient signals from. For single end method, the wavelet transform of the current

The proposed approach has been tested under different system circuit configurations, under different system and fault conditions. The minimum path for the traveling wave has been calculated using Dijkstra Algorithm. The fault is then calculated using double end method using the best two fault traveling wave signals as shown in Fig 9.

transient is used to extract arrival times of fault traveling waves reflected from the fault point. Simulation results indicate good correlation between the estimated and actual fault locations for the studied transmission line. The maximum of the squared value of auto-correlation function of optimum level detail of the wavelet coefficients enhances the fault location accuracy. A detailed investigation of the capabilities of the DWT to identify, detect and localize signal disturbances expressing power system transients and fault conditions. A proposed DWT implementation algorithm using an optimum mother wavelet has been introduced, examined, and validated. The investigation results show that the DWT can detect the band of traveling wave signals and localize them in time. For multi end method, the minimum path for the traveling wave has been calculated; it will be automatically done by Dijkstra Algorithm. The fault is then calculated using two end method using the appropriate fault recordings from the nearest TWR recorders. VIII. REFERENCES
[1] T. W. Stringfeild, D.J. Mahart and R.F.Stevens, Fault Location Methods for Overhead Lines, AIEE Transactions, pp. 157-160, August 1957. F. S. Caralho and S. Carneiro,Detection of Fault Induced Transients in E.H.V. Transmission Lines for the Development of a Fault Locator, International Conference on Power Systems Transients- IPST 2003. Y. G. Paithankar and M. T. Sant, A new algorithm for relaying and fault location based on auto-correlation of travelling waves , Electric Power Systems Research, Volume 8, Issue 2, March 1985, Pages 179-185. Rajendra S, McLaren PG. Traveling-wave techniques applied to protection of teed circuits: Principle of traveling wave techniques , IEEE Trans PAS, 1985, 104, Page(s): 3544-3550. Rajendra S, McLaren PG. Traveling wave techniques applied to the protection of teed circuits: Multi phase/multi circuit system. IEEE Trans PAS 1985; 104, Page(s): 3551-3557. Christopoulos C, Thomas D, Wright A. Scheme, based on travellingwaves, for the protection of major transmission lines. IEEE Proc C 1988, pp. 63-73. Aurangzeb, M.; Crossley, P.A.; Gale, P.; Fault location using the high frequency travelling waves measured at a single location on a transmission line , Developments in Power System Protection, 2001, Seventh International Conference on (IEE), 9-12 April 2001 Page(s): 403 406. Z. Galijasevic and A. Abur,'Fault Area Estimation via Intelligent Processing of Fault-Induced Transients', IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER SYSTEMS, VOL. 18, NO. 4, NOVEMBER 2003, pp. 12411247. Robertson, D. C.; Camps, O. I.; Mayer, J. S. & Gish, W. B.: Wavelets and electromagnetic power system transients, IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, Volume: 11 Issue: 2 , April 1996, Page(s): 1050 -1058. A. Abur and F. H. Magnago, Fault location using wavelets , IEEE Trans Power Delivery 1998; 13, Page(s): 1475-1480. A. Abur and F. H. Magnago, Use of time delays between modal components in wavelet based fault location , International Journal of Electrical Power & Energy Systems, Volume 22, Issue 6, August 2000, Pages: 397-403. E. W.Dijkstra, A note on two problems in connection with graphs, Numer. Math., vol. 1, pp. 269-271, 1959 D. A. Douglass, Current transformer accuracy with asymmetric and high frequency fault current, IEEE Trans-PAS, Vol. 100, No. 3, March 1981. L.Ljung, System Identification Toolbox users Guide for use with Matlab.

[15] Alternative Transient Program, RuleBook, 1987. [16] Prikler, L. and Hoildalen, H. ATPDraw users' manual, SINTEF Energy Research AS, Norway, TR F5680, ISBN 82-594-2344-8, August 2002 [17] Daubechies I. Ten lectures on wavelets , SIAM; 1992. [18] M. Misiti, Y. Misiti, G. Oppenheim and J. Poggi, Wavelet toolbox user's guide. Version 2. , The math works. [19] A. M. Gaouda, M. M. A. Salama, M. R. Sultan, and A. Y. Chikhani, 'Application of Multiresolution Signal Decomposition for Monitoring Short-Duration Variations in Distribution Systems', IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, Vol. 15, No. 2, April 2000,pp. 478-485. [20] N. Elkalashy et al, 'Impact of High Resistance Arcing Fault Characteristics on Behavior of Dwt-Based Detection in MV Networks', Int'l conf. on Electrical and Control Technologies 3-4 May 2007, Kaunas, Lithuania. [21] C. Sidney Burrus, Ramesh A. Gopinath and Haitao Guo. Introduction to Wavelets and Wavelet Transform, Prentice Hall, New Jersey (1997). [22] L. M. Wedepohl, Application of matrix methods to the solution of travelling wave phenomena in polyphase systems, Proc. IEE, vol. 110, no. 12, pp. 2200-2212, Dec. 1963. [23] E. Clarke, Circuit Analysis of AC Power Systems, Symmetrical and Related Components, Wiley, NewYork, 1943. [24] Liang, J.; Elangovan, S; Devotta, J.B.X. "Application of Wavelet Transform in Travelling Wave Protection" International Journal of Electrical Power and Energy Systems, Vol. 22, 2000, 8, pp. 537-542.

IX. BIOGRAPHIES
Abdelsalam Elhaffar (S03) He received the B.Sc. (1989) and M.Sc. degrees in electrical engineering (1999) from Garyounis University, Libya. His worked as a protection engineer, General Electricity Company of Libya, and as a assistant lecturer at Engineering faculty, GarYounis university. Currently, he is working towards the Ph.D. degree at Power Systems and High Voltage Engineering, Helsinki University of Technology (TKK), Finland. His research interests are: transmission line fault location, power system protection studies. E-mail: elhaffar@ieee.org) Nagy I. Elkalashy (S06) was born in Quesna, Egypt on August 4, 1974. He received the B.Sc. (with first class honors) and M.Sc degrees from the Electrical Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Shebin El-Kom, Menoufiya University in 1997 and 2002, respectively. Currently, he is working towards the Ph.D. degree at Power Systems and High Voltage Engineering, Helsinki University of Technology (TKK), Finland under joint supervision with Menoufiya University. His research interests are high impedance fault detection, power system transient studies including AI, EMTP simulation, and switchgear. (E-mail: elkalashy@ieee.org). Matti Lehtonen (1959) was with VTT Energy, Espoo, Finland from 1987 to 2003, and since 1999 has been a professor at the Helsinki University of Technology, where he is now head of Power Systems and High Voltage Engineering. He received both his Masters and Licentiate degrees in Electrical Engineering from Helsinki University of Technology in 1984 and 1989 respectively and the Doctor of Technology degree from Tampere University of Technology in 1992. His main activities include power system planning, earth fault problems, harmonic related issues and applications of information technology in distribution systems and distribution energy management. (Helsinki University of Technology, Power Systems and High Voltage Engineering, e-mail: Matti.Lehtonen@hut.fi)

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

[10] [11]

[12] [13]

[14]