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2. VECTORS Vector algebra forms the mathematical foundation for kinematics and dynamics. Geometry of motion is at the heart of both the kinematics and dynamics of mechanical systems. Vector analysis is the time-honored tool for describing geometry. A Vector can be described either geometrically or algebraically. Vectors Geometric presentation Vectors are denoted by bold-face characters such as R R, V, etc. The magnitude of a vector, such as R, is V denoted as: | R | , R , or R The angle of a vector is denoted as which is measured positively counter-clockwise (CCW) with respect to a well-defined axis. It is common to consider the positive x-axis as the reference axis. In kinematics and dynamics a vector may represent F A position, velocity, acceleration, or force/moment. Note: Since we cannot write by hand in boldface, we denote a vector with an over-score arrow or an under-score line, for example R or R. Algebraic presentation A vector can be projected onto the x- and y-axes of a y Cartesian frame in order to form its analytical representation. Ry R cos Rx R cos R= = = R R R sin sin y This representation remains valid regardless of whether the angle is in the first, second, third, or fourth quadrant, as long as the angle is measured CCW with respect to the positive x-axis. Rotated Vector If a vector such as R is rotated 90 CCW, it will be denoted as R . The rotated vector will have the same magnitude as R but its x-y components will be different: R cos( + R sin sin Ry 2 ) R= = = R = cos Rx R sin( + 2 ) R cos

Rx

y
Ry
Ry
R

x
Rx

Rx

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Position vectors In general a position vector describes the position of one point with respect to another point. Either of these points could be moving or stationary. When a point moves, the orientation and/or the magnitude of its position vector change as well. Examples: R BA connects two points that are defined

RBA

B C

CO on two separate moving links; R CO connects point O on the O ground (stationary) to point C on a moving link. Note: A point depicted as a small black circle in a figure is assumed stationary (defined on the ground).

Index of A Vector In kinematic analysis of mechanisms, it is helpful to assign indices to position vectors. Most commonly, an index refers to the end points of the vector. The first letter in an index indicates the head of the vector (the arrow) and the second letter refers to the tail B of the vector. For example vectors R BC , which reads position of B RBA relative to C, and R CO that reads position of C relative to O. In some problems, for notational simplification, the index may carry a single number. For example vector R 3 in the diagram is the same as vector R BC . Linear Velocity and Acceleration The time derivative of a position vector represents the velocity of the point the position vector represents. For example: d V (velocity of B relative to A) R =R BA BA dt BA d V (velocity of C relative to O) R =R CO CO dt CO This velocity is also called linear velocity.

R3
O

R CO

Q B A

RBA

RCQ
C

R CO
O

Note: Linear velocity is defined for a point (not for a link or a vector). When the reference (the tail) point of a position vector is stationary, that points index could be dropped from the index of the velocity vector. For example: d (a) R = VCO = VC dt CO If we consider another stationary point such as Q, we get d (b) R = VCQ = VC dt CQ This means that the velocity of a point with respect to the ground is independent of the defined reference point on the ground. This vector represents the velocity of C relative to the ground or the absolute velocity of C. The second time derivative of a position vector, or the time derivative of a velocity vector, denotes the acceleration of the point the position vector represents. For example, acceleration of B relative to A is denoted as d2 d V = V A R BA = R BA BA BA 2 dt BA dt
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The absolute acceleration of C (acceleration of C with respect to the ground) is denoted as d2 d V = V A R CO = R CO C C 2 dt C dt Note: Linear acceleration is defined for a point (not for a link or a vector). Angular Velocity and Acceleration The time rate of change in the orientation of a vector, or a link, is defined as the angular velocity of that vector or link. In planar systems, the angular velocity is the time rate of rotation about the z-axis and it is denoted as d = dt We consider a counter-clockwise (CCW) rotation as positive and a clockwise (CW) rotation as negative. Note: Angular velocity is defined for a vector or a link, not for a point. Note: Vectors that are defined on the same body experience the same angular velocity. For example, R BA , R BC , and R CA have the A same angular velocity since they are defined between the points of the same body.

R BA

R BC
C

RCA

The time rate of change of the angular velocity of a vector, or a link, is defined as the angular acceleration of that vector or link. In planar systems, the angular acceleration is a vector along the z-axis and it is denoted as d2 d = = 2 dt dt We consider a counter-clockwise (CCW) rotation as positive and a clockwise (CW) rotation as negative. Position, Velocity, and Acceleration Vectors in Mechanisms Position vectors must be constructed between well-defined points of a mechanism. The magnitude and the angle of a position vector must reveal certain information about the position and orientation of a link with respect to another link or with respect to the ground. Depending on the type of a position vector, the corresponding velocity and acceleration vectors may be decomposed differently. The following examples show typical position vectors, and their corresponding velocity and acceleration vectors that appear in kinematic analysis of mechanisms. Constant Magnitude, Constant Angle The position vector is defined between two non-moving points. Q cos R QO = LQO R QO , VQO = 0 , A QO = 0 sin O where LQO is the constant magnitude and is the constant angle of the vector. Zero vectors for the velocity and acceleration should be obvious since both ends of the position vector are fixed to the ground. Variable Magnitude, Constant Angle Two links form a sliding joint. One of the links (the rod) is fixed to the ground and the other (the block) slides on the rod. The position vector is defined between a point on the ground and a point on the block parallel to the sliding axis. This vector does not rotate since neither link can rotate.
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cos R BO = RBO sin cos cos s s BO BO VBO = R VBO , A BO = R A BO sin sin
Vs As

As
B

R BO
O

Vs

(It is assumed that the slip components are positive.) The velocity and acceleration vectors are along the axis of R BO they are called slip velocity and slip acceleration. Constant Magnitude, Variable Angle The position vector is defined between two points on a B At link. The link is free rotate. An cos R BA R BA = LBA sin Vt A where LBA is the constant length of the vector.

sin t VBA = LBA VBA cos

Vt = R

(It is assumed that the angular velocity and acceleration are positive.)

This vector is perpendicular to R BA it is called tangential velocity.

cos sin n t A BA = 2 LBA + LBA A BA + A BA sin cos

An = 2R At = R

The acceleration vector contains two components: one in the opposite direction of R BA called normal, and one perpendicular to R BA called tangential acceleration. Variable Magnitude, Variable Angle Ac A block and a rod form a sliding joint. Both the rod and the block rotate together; i.e., the two links have the same As angular velocity and the same angular acceleration. An cos At R BA = RBA B sin Vt R BA sin cos t s VBA = RBA + RBA VBA + VBA A cos sin Vs
Vt = R Vs

The velocity vector can be decomposed into two components: a tangential velocity perpendicular to R BA , and a slip velocity along the axis of R BA .

(It is assumed that the slip components, and angular velocity and acceleration are positive.)

sin cos sin cos BA A BA = 2 RBA + RBA + RBA + 2 R cos sin cos sin
An = 2R
t BA

At = R

As

Ac =2 V s

A +A +A +A The acceleration vector is decomposed into four components: a normal component in the
n BA s BA c BA

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opposite direction of R BA , a tangential component perpendicular to R BA , a slip component along the axis of R BA , and a Coriolis component perpendicular to R BA . Coordinates, velocity, and acceleration of A Point Another type of position vector describes the B y coordinates of a point with respect to the origin of a Cartesian reference frame. For example, R CO describes the coordinates of point C with respect to the origin O. When the reference point is the origin, for notational C simplification, it may be dropped from the index; e.g., we RCO x may say R C instead of R CO . O One common step in kinematic analysis is to determine the velocity and acceleration of a point based on some other known velocities and accelerations. For this purpose we start with a position vector equation and then take its time derivatives. Here we consider two typical examples. In the first example, two points are defined on the same B y VC link. The velocity of point C is given and we want to AC R BC determine the velocity of point B. We start from the following position vector equation: C R BO (a) R BO = R CO + R BC RCO The time derivative of this equation yields x O VBO = VCO + VBC (b) t An VB = VC + VBC = VC + R BC BC t VBC Assuming a known CCW angular velocity, the vector AC VC summation in (b) can be constructed graphically as shown. AtBC Acceleration of B is obtained from the time derivative of VB (b): AB n t A B = A C + A BC = A C + A BC + A BC (c) = A C 2 R BC + R BC Assuming known acceleration of C and known CCW angular velocity and acceleration of the link, the acceleration expression in (c) can be constructed graphically as shown. Equations (a), (b) and (c) can also be evaluated algebraically as: x B xC cos R B = = + LBC (d) yB yC sin

C B x x sin VB = = + LBC (e) B y C y cos xC x B cos sin A B = = 2 LBC + LBC (f) yB yC sin cos In the second example, two points are defined on two links of a sliding joint. The velocity and acceleration of point C are given and we want to determine the velocity and acceleration of point B. We start with the position vector equation that is identical to (a). The corresponding velocity equation: t s s (g) VB = VC + VBC + VBC = VC + R BC + VBC If the angular velocity (both links have the same angular

VC R BC
C

R BO RCO
x O

AC

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velocity) and the slip velocity are given, then VB can be constructed graphically as shown. The acceleration expression is written as t s c A B = A C + A BC = A C + A n BC + A BC + A BC + A BC s (h) = A C 2 R BC + R BC + A s BC + 2 VBC Assuming that the acceleration of C, the angular velocity and acceleration of the link, and the slip velocity and accelerations are given, then the acceleration expression in (h) can be constructed graphically as shown. Equations (a), (g) and (h) can also be solved algebraically: x B xC cos R B = = + RBC (i) yB yC sin

s VBC

t VBC

VC
VB
AB

Ac BC As BC

AC
AtBC An BC

C B x x sin cos VB = = + RBC (j) + RBC B y C y cos sin xC x B sin cos sin cos BC A B = = 2 RBC + RBC + RBC + 2 R yB yC sin cos sin cos

(k)

Vector Loop The position vectors that are defined for kinematic analysis of a mechanism should form one or more kinematic loops (also called closed chains). As an example the vectors that are defined for the four-bar in (a) form a loop. These vectors may be directed differently to form a loop as shown in (b) If we navigate in a loop from vector to vector, the vector that is navigated from tail-to-head is considered positive and a vector that is navigated from head-to-tail is considered negative. For example, for the four-bar in (a), if we navigate through the loop in the following fashion O2 A B O4 O2 , vectors R AO2 and R BA are navigated positively and R BO4 and R O4O2 are navigated negatively.
RBA A RAO 2 O2 RO4 O2 RBO 4 RAO 2 O4 O2 RO4 O2 B A

R AB

RO4 B

O4

(a) (b) A kinematic loop can be expressed as a vector equation. For example, the vectors in the fourbar (a) form the vector-loop equation R AO2 + R BA R BO4 R O4O2 = 0 Similarly, the vectors in (b) form the vector-loop equation R AO2 R AB + R O4 B R O4O2 = 0 Obviously, there are many other possible scenarios. Any of these vector loop equations can be used for kinematic analysis of the mechanism. Examples Several examples of commonly used planar mechanisms are presented here. For each mechanism a set of vectors are defined to form a vector-loop equation(s).
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(a) Four-bar R AO2 + R BA R BO4 R O4O2 = 0

A RAO 2 O2

RBA

B RBO 4

RO4 O2

O4
(c) Slider-crank (inversion 2) R AO2 R O4O2 R AO4 = 0

(b) Slider-crank (inversion 1) R AO2 + R BA R BO2 = 0

A
A RAO 2

RBA
B

RAO 2
O2

RAO 4 RO4 O2
O4

O2

RBO 2

(d) Slider-crank (inversion 3) R AO2 + R O4 A R O4O2 = 0

(e) Slider-crank (inversion 4) R AO2 + R BA R BO2 = 0

R O4 A

RAO 2
O2

RAO 2

RBA B

RO4 O2

O4
O2

RBO 2

(f) Slider-crank (inversion 2 - variation) R AO2 R O4O2 R BO4 R AB = 0

(g) Slider-crank (inversion 3 - variation) R AO2 R O4O2 R BO4 R AB = 0

A
B

RBA
B

R AB
A RAO 2 O2

RBO 4

RAO 2
O2
O4

RO4 O2
O4
A

R BO4

RO4 O2

(h) Six-bar mechanism (a four-bar and a slider-crank) This mechanism contains two R AC C independent loops: O4 CAO2O4 and O2 ABO2 . Therefore two R CO4 RAO 2 independent vector loop equations can be constructed: R AO2 + R BA R BO2 = 0 (a) RO4 O2 O4 O2

RBA

RBO 2

R AO2 R AC R CO4 R O4O2 = 0

(b)

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A third loop may be visualized as O4 CABO2O4 . However, this is a redundant loopits vector loop equation can be obtained from subtracting the second equation from the first: R BA R BO2 + R AC + R CO4 + R O4O2 = 0 If we combine the two ground vectors, R BO2 and R O4O2 , into one vector we get:

R CO4 + R AC + R BA R BO4 = 0

(c)

We only need two of these three equations. (i) Six-bar mechanism (two slider-cranks) This mechanism contains two independent loops: R AO2 R AO4 R O4O2 = 0 (a)

R CO1 C

O1 R CB
R O1O2
RAO 2 B

R BO4 + R CB R CO1 R O1O2 + R O4O2 = 0

(b)

A third dependent loop can be constructed as R AO2 + R BA + R CB R CO1 R O1O2 = 0 (c) We only need two of these three equations.

R BO
A

O2
RO4 O2

R AO4

O4

Note: In examples containing a sliding joint, the vector that connects the two links must be defined parallel to the axis of the sliding joint. This is a rule that we must follow, otherwise we can make a simple problem too difficult to solve. For example, for this slider-crank, we should not define a vector directly from O4 to A. Instead, we should define two vectors, R BO4 which is parallel to the sliding axis and R AB perpendicular to the sliding axis. Note: If the ground vector is not parallel to the x-axis, we may decompose it into two vectorsone parallel and one perpendicular to the x-axis. For example, R O4O2 may be replaced by R QO2 + R O4Q .

R AB
A

RBO 4

R AO4

O4

RO4 O2

O4

R O4Q
Q

O2

R QO2

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